WEBVTT 00:01.280 --> 00:03.830 align:start position:0% A<00:00:01.439> 100,000<00:00:02.240> years<00:00:02.480> ago,<00:00:03.040> a<00:00:03.280> small<00:00:03.520> group<00:00:03.760> of 00:03.830 --> 00:03.840 align:start position:0% A 100,000 years ago, a small group of 00:03.840 --> 00:08.070 align:start position:0% A 100,000 years ago, a small group of Neanderals<00:00:04.880> died<00:00:05.520> in<00:00:05.759> a<00:00:06.000> cave<00:00:07.200> and<00:00:07.440> it<00:00:07.680> was<00:00:07.759> no 00:08.070 --> 00:08.080 align:start position:0% Neanderals died in a cave and it was no 00:08.080 --> 00:10.070 align:start position:0% Neanderals died in a cave and it was no accident. 00:10.070 --> 00:10.080 align:start position:0% accident. 00:10.080 --> 00:12.470 align:start position:0% accident. Mulagarci<00:00:11.040> lies<00:00:11.360> at<00:00:11.440> top<00:00:11.599> a<00:00:11.840> cliff<00:00:12.080> above<00:00:12.400> the 00:12.470 --> 00:12.480 align:start position:0% Mulagarci lies at top a cliff above the 00:12.480 --> 00:15.749 align:start position:0% Mulagarci lies at top a cliff above the Ran<00:00:12.880> River<00:00:13.200> in<00:00:13.440> the<00:00:13.599> south<00:00:13.840> of<00:00:14.080> France.<00:00:15.280> In<00:00:15.519> its 00:15.749 --> 00:15.759 align:start position:0% Ran River in the south of France. In its 00:15.759 --> 00:17.670 align:start position:0% Ran River in the south of France. In its dark<00:00:16.000> and<00:00:16.240> twisting<00:00:16.720> depths,<00:00:17.279> it<00:00:17.440> would<00:00:17.520> have 00:17.670 --> 00:17.680 align:start position:0% dark and twisting depths, it would have 00:17.680 --> 00:19.750 align:start position:0% dark and twisting depths, it would have been<00:00:17.840> easy<00:00:18.080> to<00:00:18.320> lose<00:00:18.560> your<00:00:18.800> way,<00:00:19.359> but<00:00:19.600> these 00:19.750 --> 00:19.760 align:start position:0% been easy to lose your way, but these 00:19.760 --> 00:21.750 align:start position:0% been easy to lose your way, but these Nihandals<00:00:20.640> do<00:00:20.800> not<00:00:20.960> seem<00:00:21.119> to<00:00:21.279> have<00:00:21.439> died 00:21.750 --> 00:21.760 align:start position:0% Nihandals do not seem to have died 00:21.760 --> 00:25.269 align:start position:0% Nihandals do not seem to have died accidental<00:00:22.480> deaths.<00:00:23.760> They<00:00:24.080> look<00:00:24.720> as<00:00:24.880> if<00:00:25.039> they 00:25.269 --> 00:25.279 align:start position:0% accidental deaths. They look as if they 00:25.279 --> 00:27.830 align:start position:0% accidental deaths. They look as if they were<00:00:25.439> murdered.<00:00:26.800> And<00:00:26.960> when<00:00:27.119> their<00:00:27.359> remains 00:27.830 --> 00:27.840 align:start position:0% were murdered. And when their remains 00:27.840 --> 00:29.589 align:start position:0% were murdered. And when their remains were<00:00:28.000> recovered<00:00:28.400> by<00:00:28.640> French<00:00:28.880> archaeologist 00:29.589 --> 00:29.599 align:start position:0% were recovered by French archaeologist 00:29.599 --> 00:32.870 align:start position:0% were recovered by French archaeologist Alburn<00:00:30.000> Deflur<00:00:30.560> in<00:00:30.720> the<00:00:30.880> 1990s,<00:00:31.920> he<00:00:32.160> noticed<00:00:32.640> a 00:32.870 --> 00:32.880 align:start position:0% Alburn Deflur in the 1990s, he noticed a 00:32.880 --> 00:35.030 align:start position:0% Alburn Deflur in the 1990s, he noticed a disturbing<00:00:33.360> pattern<00:00:33.680> of<00:00:33.840> marks<00:00:34.320> cut<00:00:34.559> into<00:00:34.800> the 00:35.030 --> 00:35.040 align:start position:0% disturbing pattern of marks cut into the 00:35.040 --> 00:37.510 align:start position:0% disturbing pattern of marks cut into the bones.<00:00:36.000> Cut<00:00:36.239> marks<00:00:36.719> that<00:00:37.040> could<00:00:37.200> only<00:00:37.360> have 00:37.510 --> 00:37.520 align:start position:0% bones. Cut marks that could only have 00:37.520 --> 00:41.030 align:start position:0% bones. Cut marks that could only have been<00:00:37.680> made<00:00:38.239> by<00:00:38.559> man-made<00:00:39.120> tools. 00:41.030 --> 00:41.040 align:start position:0% been made by man-made tools. 00:41.040 --> 00:43.350 align:start position:0% been made by man-made tools. It<00:00:41.280> appeared<00:00:41.760> that<00:00:42.000> the<00:00:42.160> Neanderls<00:00:42.960> had<00:00:43.200> been 00:43.350 --> 00:43.360 align:start position:0% It appeared that the Neanderls had been 00:43.360 --> 00:45.830 align:start position:0% It appeared that the Neanderls had been dismembered,<00:00:44.160> disarticulated,<00:00:45.520> and 00:45.830 --> 00:45.840 align:start position:0% dismembered, disarticulated, and 00:45.840 --> 00:48.470 align:start position:0% dismembered, disarticulated, and deflesed.<00:00:47.200> And<00:00:47.360> after<00:00:47.600> the<00:00:47.760> gruesome<00:00:48.160> deed 00:48.470 --> 00:48.480 align:start position:0% deflesed. And after the gruesome deed 00:48.480 --> 00:50.709 align:start position:0% deflesed. And after the gruesome deed was<00:00:48.800> done,<00:00:49.360> the<00:00:49.520> killer<00:00:49.920> had<00:00:50.079> simply<00:00:50.399> tossed 00:50.709 --> 00:50.719 align:start position:0% was done, the killer had simply tossed 00:50.719 --> 00:52.709 align:start position:0% was done, the killer had simply tossed the<00:00:50.879> remains<00:00:51.200> of<00:00:51.360> their<00:00:51.520> victims<00:00:52.000> into<00:00:52.239> a<00:00:52.399> pile 00:52.709 --> 00:52.719 align:start position:0% the remains of their victims into a pile 00:52.719 --> 00:55.270 align:start position:0% the remains of their victims into a pile of<00:00:52.960> discarded<00:00:53.520> animal<00:00:53.920> bones<00:00:54.480> in<00:00:54.879> almost 00:55.270 --> 00:55.280 align:start position:0% of discarded animal bones in almost 00:55.280 --> 00:57.830 align:start position:0% of discarded animal bones in almost identical<00:00:55.760> manner<00:00:56.079> to<00:00:56.320> red<00:00:56.640> deer<00:00:57.120> at<00:00:57.360> the<00:00:57.600> same 00:57.830 --> 00:57.840 align:start position:0% identical manner to red deer at the same 00:57.840 --> 01:02.950 align:start position:0% identical manner to red deer at the same site. 01:02.950 --> 01:02.960 align:start position:0% 01:02.960 --> 01:05.270 align:start position:0% And<00:01:03.120> so<00:01:03.280> in<00:01:03.520> this<00:01:03.680> 100,000-year-old<00:01:04.960> cold 01:05.270 --> 01:05.280 align:start position:0% And so in this 100,000-year-old cold 01:05.280 --> 01:07.270 align:start position:0% And so in this 100,000-year-old cold case,<00:01:05.840> the<00:01:06.080> most<00:01:06.240> important<00:01:06.720> question<00:01:07.040> was 01:07.270 --> 01:07.280 align:start position:0% case, the most important question was 01:07.280 --> 01:10.230 align:start position:0% case, the most important question was not<00:01:07.520> who<00:01:07.840> killed<00:01:08.080> the<00:01:08.240> Moolagi<00:01:08.960> Neanderals, 01:10.230 --> 01:10.240 align:start position:0% not who killed the Moolagi Neanderals, 01:10.240 --> 01:12.870 align:start position:0% not who killed the Moolagi Neanderals, it<00:01:10.400> was<00:01:10.640> why. 01:12.870 --> 01:12.880 align:start position:0% it was why. 01:12.880 --> 01:15.190 align:start position:0% it was why. And<00:01:13.040> for<00:01:13.119> the<00:01:13.280> archaeologists,<00:01:14.560> there<00:01:14.880> seemed 01:15.190 --> 01:15.200 align:start position:0% And for the archaeologists, there seemed 01:15.200 --> 01:18.550 align:start position:0% And for the archaeologists, there seemed to<00:01:15.360> be<00:01:15.600> only<00:01:15.920> one<00:01:16.240> logical<00:01:16.799> answer.<00:01:18.080> They<00:01:18.320> had 01:18.550 --> 01:18.560 align:start position:0% to be only one logical answer. They had 01:18.560 --> 01:23.910 align:start position:0% to be only one logical answer. They had been<00:01:18.720> slaughtered,<00:01:19.680> butchered,<00:01:20.880> and<00:01:21.200> eaten. 01:23.910 --> 01:23.920 align:start position:0% been slaughtered, butchered, and eaten. 01:23.920 --> 01:25.350 align:start position:0% been slaughtered, butchered, and eaten. For<00:01:24.159> many<00:01:24.320> in<00:01:24.479> the<00:01:24.560> archaeological 01:25.350 --> 01:25.360 align:start position:0% For many in the archaeological 01:25.360 --> 01:27.749 align:start position:0% For many in the archaeological community,<00:01:26.080> this<00:01:26.400> explanation<00:01:27.040> was<00:01:27.360> hard<00:01:27.520> to 01:27.749 --> 01:27.759 align:start position:0% community, this explanation was hard to 01:27.759 --> 01:30.310 align:start position:0% community, this explanation was hard to accept.<00:01:28.960> Over<00:01:29.200> the<00:01:29.360> years,<00:01:29.680> evidence<00:01:30.080> had 01:30.310 --> 01:30.320 align:start position:0% accept. Over the years, evidence had 01:30.320 --> 01:32.550 align:start position:0% accept. Over the years, evidence had shown<00:01:30.479> that<00:01:30.640> Neandertos<00:01:31.439> were<00:01:31.600> intelligent, 01:32.550 --> 01:32.560 align:start position:0% shown that Neandertos were intelligent, 01:32.560 --> 01:34.789 align:start position:0% shown that Neandertos were intelligent, sensitive<00:01:33.119> individuals<00:01:34.000> with<00:01:34.240> art, 01:34.789 --> 01:34.799 align:start position:0% sensitive individuals with art, 01:34.799 --> 01:37.830 align:start position:0% sensitive individuals with art, spirituality,<00:01:35.759> and<00:01:36.079> language.<00:01:37.439> In<00:01:37.600> other 01:37.830 --> 01:37.840 align:start position:0% spirituality, and language. In other 01:37.840 --> 01:40.950 align:start position:0% spirituality, and language. In other words,<00:01:38.640> they<00:01:38.880> were<00:01:39.040> just<00:01:39.280> like<00:01:39.520> us.<00:01:40.560> And<00:01:40.720> yet 01:40.950 --> 01:40.960 align:start position:0% words, they were just like us. And yet 01:40.960 --> 01:43.990 align:start position:0% words, they were just like us. And yet here<00:01:41.200> they<00:01:41.439> were<00:01:42.320> eating<00:01:42.799> each<00:01:43.040> other. 01:43.990 --> 01:44.000 align:start position:0% here they were eating each other. 01:44.000 --> 01:46.310 align:start position:0% here they were eating each other. However,<00:01:44.400> we<00:01:44.640> now<00:01:44.880> know<00:01:45.119> that<00:01:45.360> the<00:01:45.600> truth<00:01:46.000> is 01:46.310 --> 01:46.320 align:start position:0% However, we now know that the truth is 01:46.320 --> 01:49.190 align:start position:0% However, we now know that the truth is more<00:01:46.560> nuanced<00:01:47.040> than<00:01:47.200> that.<00:01:48.399> Cannibalism<00:01:49.040> was 01:49.190 --> 01:49.200 align:start position:0% more nuanced than that. Cannibalism was 01:49.200 --> 01:52.310 align:start position:0% more nuanced than that. Cannibalism was not<00:01:49.360> a<00:01:49.520> behavior<00:01:50.000> unique<00:01:50.399> to<00:01:50.560> the<00:01:50.720> Neanderls. 01:52.310 --> 01:52.320 align:start position:0% not a behavior unique to the Neanderls. 01:52.320 --> 01:56.550 align:start position:0% not a behavior unique to the Neanderls. We<00:01:52.720> did<00:01:52.880> it<00:01:53.119> too.<00:01:54.479> 7,000<00:01:55.119> years<00:01:55.280> ago<00:01:55.600> in<00:01:55.759> Forbua 01:56.550 --> 01:56.560 align:start position:0% We did it too. 7,000 years ago in Forbua 01:56.560 --> 01:58.870 align:start position:0% We did it too. 7,000 years ago in Forbua Cave,<00:01:57.040> also<00:01:57.360> in<00:01:57.520> the<00:01:57.680> south<00:01:57.840> of<00:01:58.079> France, 01:58.870 --> 01:58.880 align:start position:0% Cave, also in the south of France, 01:58.880 --> 02:00.950 align:start position:0% Cave, also in the south of France, evidence<00:01:59.280> suggests<00:01:59.759> that<00:01:59.920> our<00:02:00.159> Homo<00:02:00.479> sapiens 02:00.950 --> 02:00.960 align:start position:0% evidence suggests that our Homo sapiens 02:00.960 --> 02:04.389 align:start position:0% evidence suggests that our Homo sapiens ancestors<00:02:01.680> also<00:02:02.159> consumed<00:02:02.799> human<00:02:03.200> flesh. 02:04.389 --> 02:04.399 align:start position:0% ancestors also consumed human flesh. 02:04.399 --> 02:06.630 align:start position:0% ancestors also consumed human flesh. Just<00:02:04.560> like<00:02:04.719> at<00:02:04.880> Müeri,<00:02:05.840> researchers<00:02:06.399> found 02:06.630 --> 02:06.640 align:start position:0% Just like at Müeri, researchers found 02:06.640 --> 02:09.430 align:start position:0% Just like at Müeri, researchers found cut<00:02:06.960> marks<00:02:07.280> on<00:02:07.439> a<00:02:07.600> number<00:02:07.759> of<00:02:07.920> human<00:02:08.319> bones. 02:09.430 --> 02:09.440 align:start position:0% cut marks on a number of human bones. 02:09.440 --> 02:11.589 align:start position:0% cut marks on a number of human bones. The<00:02:09.599> archaeologists<00:02:10.479> noting<00:02:10.800> at<00:02:11.039> the<00:02:11.200> time 02:11.589 --> 02:11.599 align:start position:0% The archaeologists noting at the time 02:11.599 --> 02:13.670 align:start position:0% The archaeologists noting at the time that<00:02:11.840> the<00:02:12.080> victims<00:02:12.480> had<00:02:12.720> been<00:02:12.879> butchered, 02:13.670 --> 02:13.680 align:start position:0% that the victims had been butchered, 02:13.680 --> 02:16.070 align:start position:0% that the victims had been butchered, processed,<00:02:14.400> and<00:02:14.640> probably<00:02:15.120> eaten<00:02:15.760> in<00:02:15.920> a 02:16.070 --> 02:16.080 align:start position:0% processed, and probably eaten in a 02:16.080 --> 02:17.830 align:start position:0% processed, and probably eaten in a manner<00:02:16.319> that<00:02:16.560> closely<00:02:17.040> paralleled<00:02:17.599> the 02:17.830 --> 02:17.840 align:start position:0% manner that closely paralleled the 02:17.840 --> 02:20.949 align:start position:0% manner that closely paralleled the treatment<00:02:18.160> of<00:02:18.480> wild<00:02:18.800> and<00:02:19.120> domestic<00:02:19.599> animals. 02:20.949 --> 02:20.959 align:start position:0% treatment of wild and domestic animals. 02:20.959 --> 02:22.790 align:start position:0% treatment of wild and domestic animals. And<00:02:21.120> these<00:02:21.440> are<00:02:21.599> certainly<00:02:22.000> not<00:02:22.239> the<00:02:22.400> oldest 02:22.790 --> 02:22.800 align:start position:0% And these are certainly not the oldest 02:22.800 --> 02:25.110 align:start position:0% And these are certainly not the oldest examples<00:02:23.200> we<00:02:23.440> have<00:02:23.599> found. 02:25.110 --> 02:25.120 align:start position:0% examples we have found. 02:25.120 --> 02:27.750 align:start position:0% examples we have found. >> And<00:02:25.280> so<00:02:25.440> I<00:02:25.599> turned<00:02:26.000> over<00:02:26.319> this<00:02:26.560> tibia<00:02:27.360> and<00:02:27.599> I 02:27.750 --> 02:27.760 align:start position:0% >> And so I turned over this tibia and I 02:27.760 --> 02:32.070 align:start position:0% >> And so I turned over this tibia and I suddenly<00:02:28.239> saw<00:02:29.280> cut<00:02:29.599> marks.<00:02:30.800> And<00:02:30.959> I<00:02:31.360> honestly<00:02:31.840> I 02:32.070 --> 02:32.080 align:start position:0% suddenly saw cut marks. And I honestly I 02:32.080 --> 02:33.910 align:start position:0% suddenly saw cut marks. And I honestly I initially<00:02:32.480> thought<00:02:32.879> there's<00:02:33.200> no<00:02:33.360> way. 02:33.910 --> 02:33.920 align:start position:0% initially thought there's no way. 02:33.920 --> 02:35.350 align:start position:0% initially thought there's no way. There's<00:02:34.239> no<00:02:34.400> way<00:02:34.560> that<00:02:34.720> there's<00:02:34.959> butchery 02:35.350 --> 02:35.360 align:start position:0% There's no way that there's butchery 02:35.360 --> 02:37.589 align:start position:0% There's no way that there's butchery marks<00:02:35.599> on<00:02:35.760> this<00:02:35.920> tibia. 02:37.589 --> 02:37.599 align:start position:0% marks on this tibia. 02:37.599 --> 02:39.670 align:start position:0% marks on this tibia. Yet,<00:02:37.920> despite<00:02:38.239> this<00:02:38.480> growth<00:02:38.720> of<00:02:38.879> evidence, 02:39.670 --> 02:39.680 align:start position:0% Yet, despite this growth of evidence, 02:39.680 --> 02:41.509 align:start position:0% Yet, despite this growth of evidence, one<00:02:40.000> mystery<00:02:40.480> seems<00:02:40.720> to<00:02:40.879> have<00:02:41.040> just<00:02:41.200> become 02:41.509 --> 02:41.519 align:start position:0% one mystery seems to have just become 02:41.519 --> 02:45.430 align:start position:0% one mystery seems to have just become more<00:02:41.760> and<00:02:42.000> more<00:02:42.239> acute.<00:02:43.680> Why? 02:45.430 --> 02:45.440 align:start position:0% more and more acute. Why? 02:45.440 --> 02:47.670 align:start position:0% more and more acute. Why? What<00:02:45.680> could<00:02:45.840> have<00:02:46.000> driven<00:02:46.319> our<00:02:46.560> ancestors<00:02:47.440> to 02:47.670 --> 02:47.680 align:start position:0% What could have driven our ancestors to 02:47.680 --> 03:04.550 align:start position:0% What could have driven our ancestors to consume<00:02:48.400> human<00:02:48.879> flesh? 02:50.207 --> 02:58.516 align:start position:0% code history to get up to 55% off your subscription. 02:58.516 --> 02:58.526 align:start position:0% 02:58.526 --> 03:00.597 align:start position:0% Besides<00:04:25.680> some<00:04:26.000> small<00:04:26.320> islands<00:04:26.800> around<00:04:27.040> the 03:00.597 --> 03:00.607 align:start position:0% Besides some small islands around the 03:00.607 --> 03:02.917 align:start position:0% Besides some small islands around the Britannic<00:04:27.840> region,<00:04:28.400> there<00:04:28.560> is<00:04:28.800> also<00:04:29.040> a<00:04:29.280> large 03:02.917 --> 03:02.927 align:start position:0% Britannic region, there is also a large 03:02.927 --> 03:06.597 align:start position:0% Britannic region, there is also a large island,<00:04:30.720> Iron.<00:04:31.919> Concerning<00:04:32.400> this<00:04:32.639> island,<00:04:33.040> I 03:06.597 --> 03:06.607 align:start position:0% island, Iron. Concerning this island, I 03:06.607 --> 03:08.357 align:start position:0% island, Iron. Concerning this island, I have<00:04:33.360> nothing<00:04:33.600> certain<00:04:33.919> to<00:04:34.160> tell,<00:04:34.800> except 03:08.357 --> 03:08.367 align:start position:0% have nothing certain to tell, except 03:08.367 --> 03:10.357 align:start position:0% have nothing certain to tell, except that<00:04:35.280> its<00:04:35.520> inhabitants<00:04:36.160> are<00:04:36.320> more<00:04:36.560> savage 03:10.357 --> 03:10.367 align:start position:0% that its inhabitants are more savage 03:10.367 --> 03:12.197 align:start position:0% that its inhabitants are more savage than<00:04:37.280> the<00:04:37.440> Britons,<00:04:38.240> since<00:04:38.479> they<00:04:38.720> are 03:12.197 --> 03:12.207 align:start position:0% than the Britons, since they are 03:12.207 --> 03:14.837 align:start position:0% than the Britons, since they are man-eaters<00:04:39.520> as<00:04:39.680> well<00:04:39.840> as<00:04:40.000> heavy<00:04:40.320> eataters. 03:14.837 --> 03:14.847 align:start position:0% man-eaters as well as heavy eataters. 03:14.847 --> 03:17.076 align:start position:0% man-eaters as well as heavy eataters. Furthermore,<00:04:42.320> they<00:04:42.560> count<00:04:42.800> it<00:04:43.040> an<00:04:43.199> honorable 03:17.076 --> 03:17.086 align:start position:0% Furthermore, they count it an honorable 03:17.086 --> 03:19.637 align:start position:0% Furthermore, they count it an honorable thing<00:04:44.160> to<00:04:44.479> devour<00:04:44.960> their<00:04:45.199> own<00:04:45.440> fathers<00:04:46.080> when 03:19.637 --> 03:19.647 align:start position:0% thing to devour their own fathers when 03:19.647 --> 03:22.277 align:start position:0% thing to devour their own fathers when they<00:04:46.560> die. 03:22.277 --> 03:22.287 align:start position:0% they die. 03:22.287 --> 03:24.757 align:start position:0% they die. From<00:04:49.199> the<00:04:49.360> 1st<00:04:49.600> century<00:04:50.000> BC<00:04:50.560> onwards,<00:04:51.199> as 03:24.757 --> 03:24.767 align:start position:0% From the 1st century BC onwards, as 03:24.767 --> 03:26.437 align:start position:0% From the 1st century BC onwards, as Roman<00:04:51.680> armies<00:04:52.080> pushed<00:04:52.320> into<00:04:52.560> what<00:04:52.720> is<00:04:52.880> now 03:26.437 --> 03:26.447 align:start position:0% Roman armies pushed into what is now 03:26.447 --> 03:28.677 align:start position:0% Roman armies pushed into what is now France<00:04:53.440> and<00:04:53.680> the<00:04:53.840> islands<00:04:54.160> of<00:04:54.320> Britain,<00:04:55.120> they 03:28.677 --> 03:28.687 align:start position:0% France and the islands of Britain, they 03:28.687 --> 03:32.197 align:start position:0% France and the islands of Britain, they encountered<00:04:56.240> the<00:04:56.560> Kelts.<00:04:57.840> Strao,<00:04:58.400> a<00:04:58.560> Greek 03:32.197 --> 03:32.207 align:start position:0% encountered the Kelts. Strao, a Greek 03:32.207 --> 03:34.277 align:start position:0% encountered the Kelts. Strao, a Greek geographer<00:04:59.440> working<00:04:59.680> under<00:04:59.919> Roman<00:05:00.320> rule,<00:05:00.800> had 03:34.277 --> 03:34.287 align:start position:0% geographer working under Roman rule, had 03:34.287 --> 03:36.277 align:start position:0% geographer working under Roman rule, had heard<00:05:01.280> tales<00:05:01.600> of<00:05:01.759> their<00:05:02.000> brutality, 03:36.277 --> 03:36.287 align:start position:0% heard tales of their brutality, 03:36.287 --> 03:38.597 align:start position:0% heard tales of their brutality, describing<00:05:03.440> them<00:05:03.680> as<00:05:03.919> wildeyed<00:05:04.639> wararchiefs 03:38.597 --> 03:38.607 align:start position:0% describing them as wildeyed wararchiefs 03:38.607 --> 03:40.277 align:start position:0% describing them as wildeyed wararchiefs who<00:05:05.440> collected<00:05:05.840> the<00:05:06.000> severed<00:05:06.400> heads<00:05:06.639> of<00:05:06.720> their 03:40.277 --> 03:40.287 align:start position:0% who collected the severed heads of their 03:40.287 --> 03:42.677 align:start position:0% who collected the severed heads of their enemies,<00:05:07.600> practiced<00:05:08.080> blood<00:05:08.400> magic,<00:05:09.039> and 03:42.677 --> 03:42.687 align:start position:0% enemies, practiced blood magic, and 03:42.687 --> 03:45.317 align:start position:0% enemies, practiced blood magic, and sacrificed<00:05:10.000> men<00:05:10.400> in<00:05:10.720> giant<00:05:11.280> man-shaped 03:45.317 --> 03:45.327 align:start position:0% sacrificed men in giant man-shaped 03:45.327 --> 03:48.757 align:start position:0% sacrificed men in giant man-shaped pious.<00:05:13.360> Horror<00:05:13.840> stories<00:05:14.160> of<00:05:14.400> cannibalism<00:05:15.120> and 03:48.757 --> 03:48.767 align:start position:0% pious. Horror stories of cannibalism and 03:48.767 --> 03:51.557 align:start position:0% pious. Horror stories of cannibalism and ferocious<00:05:16.080> men<00:05:16.400> drinking<00:05:16.880> from<00:05:17.120> human<00:05:17.600> skulls 03:51.557 --> 03:51.567 align:start position:0% ferocious men drinking from human skulls 03:51.567 --> 03:54.117 align:start position:0% ferocious men drinking from human skulls drifted<00:05:18.720> back<00:05:18.880> to<00:05:19.120> Rome<00:05:19.440> from<00:05:19.600> the<00:05:19.840> frontier, 03:54.117 --> 03:54.127 align:start position:0% drifted back to Rome from the frontier, 03:54.127 --> 03:57.317 align:start position:0% drifted back to Rome from the frontier, provoking<00:05:21.360> fear<00:05:21.919> and<00:05:22.160> disgust.<00:05:23.600> To<00:05:23.840> the 03:57.317 --> 03:57.327 align:start position:0% provoking fear and disgust. To the 03:57.327 --> 04:00.037 align:start position:0% provoking fear and disgust. To the Romans,<00:05:24.479> the<00:05:24.720> Kelts<00:05:25.120> were<00:05:25.280> barbaric,<00:05:26.320> barely 04:00.037 --> 04:00.047 align:start position:0% Romans, the Kelts were barbaric, barely 04:00.047 --> 04:02.917 align:start position:0% Romans, the Kelts were barbaric, barely even<00:05:27.199> human.<00:05:28.240> Enslaving<00:05:28.800> and<00:05:29.039> subjugating 04:02.917 --> 04:02.927 align:start position:0% even human. Enslaving and subjugating 04:02.927 --> 04:05.717 align:start position:0% even human. Enslaving and subjugating them<00:05:29.759> was<00:05:30.000> not<00:05:30.240> conquest.<00:05:31.360> It<00:05:31.600> was<00:05:31.680> the<00:05:31.919> spread 04:05.717 --> 04:05.727 align:start position:0% them was not conquest. It was the spread 04:05.727 --> 04:13.157 align:start position:0% them was not conquest. It was the spread of<00:05:32.720> civilization. 04:13.157 --> 04:13.167 align:start position:0% 04:13.167 --> 04:14.917 align:start position:0% However,<00:05:40.240> modern<00:05:40.639> historians<00:05:41.199> think<00:05:41.360> that 04:14.917 --> 04:14.927 align:start position:0% However, modern historians think that 04:14.927 --> 04:16.757 align:start position:0% However, modern historians think that many<00:05:41.759> of<00:05:41.840> these<00:05:42.080> horror<00:05:42.479> stories<00:05:43.120> were 04:16.757 --> 04:16.767 align:start position:0% many of these horror stories were 04:16.767 --> 04:18.917 align:start position:0% many of these horror stories were actually<00:05:43.759> Roman<00:05:44.240> propaganda<00:05:45.280> since 04:18.917 --> 04:18.927 align:start position:0% actually Roman propaganda since 04:18.927 --> 04:20.516 align:start position:0% actually Roman propaganda since archaeological<00:05:46.320> evidence<00:05:46.639> for<00:05:46.880> human 04:20.516 --> 04:20.526 align:start position:0% archaeological evidence for human 04:20.526 --> 04:22.356 align:start position:0% archaeological evidence for human sacrifice<00:05:47.600> and<00:05:47.840> cannibalism<00:05:48.479> during<00:05:48.800> that 04:22.356 --> 04:22.366 align:start position:0% sacrifice and cannibalism during that 04:22.366 --> 04:26.597 align:start position:0% sacrifice and cannibalism during that period<00:05:49.600> is<00:05:49.919> rare.<00:05:51.360> But<00:05:51.759> it<00:05:52.000> is<00:05:52.240> not<00:05:52.639> completely 04:26.597 --> 04:26.607 align:start position:0% period is rare. But it is not completely 04:26.607 --> 04:28.117 align:start position:0% period is rare. But it is not completely absent. 04:28.117 --> 04:28.127 align:start position:0% absent. 04:28.127 --> 04:31.076 align:start position:0% absent. Back<00:05:55.039> in<00:05:55.280> 2001,<00:05:56.320> an<00:05:56.560> excavation<00:05:57.039> of<00:05:57.120> a<00:05:57.280> cave<00:05:57.520> in 04:31.076 --> 04:31.086 align:start position:0% Back in 2001, an excavation of a cave in 04:31.086 --> 04:33.477 align:start position:0% Back in 2001, an excavation of a cave in Olveston,<00:05:58.400> South<00:05:58.639> Glasters,<00:05:59.600> uncovered 04:33.477 --> 04:33.487 align:start position:0% Olveston, South Glasters, uncovered 04:33.487 --> 04:35.317 align:start position:0% Olveston, South Glasters, uncovered human<00:06:00.560> bones<00:06:00.960> dating<00:06:01.280> back<00:06:01.440> to<00:06:01.680> the<00:06:01.759> very 04:35.317 --> 04:35.327 align:start position:0% human bones dating back to the very 04:35.327 --> 04:37.317 align:start position:0% human bones dating back to the very early<00:06:02.240> years<00:06:02.479> of<00:06:02.720> Roman<00:06:03.039> occupation<00:06:03.680> in 04:37.317 --> 04:37.327 align:start position:0% early years of Roman occupation in 04:37.327 --> 04:39.796 align:start position:0% early years of Roman occupation in Britain.<00:06:05.280> Many<00:06:05.520> of<00:06:05.600> the<00:06:05.759> bones<00:06:06.080> bore<00:06:06.319> the 04:39.796 --> 04:39.806 align:start position:0% Britain. Many of the bones bore the 04:39.806 --> 04:41.796 align:start position:0% Britain. Many of the bones bore the marks<00:06:06.720> of<00:06:06.880> violent<00:06:07.280> deaths,<00:06:08.000> but<00:06:08.080> it<00:06:08.240> was<00:06:08.319> a 04:41.796 --> 04:41.806 align:start position:0% marks of violent deaths, but it was a 04:41.806 --> 04:44.117 align:start position:0% marks of violent deaths, but it was a solitary<00:06:08.960> leg<00:06:09.280> bone<00:06:09.680> that<00:06:10.000> disturbed<00:06:10.560> the 04:44.117 --> 04:44.127 align:start position:0% solitary leg bone that disturbed the 04:44.127 --> 04:46.917 align:start position:0% solitary leg bone that disturbed the excavators<00:06:11.520> most.<00:06:12.560> The<00:06:12.800> feur<00:06:13.280> had<00:06:13.440> been 04:46.917 --> 04:46.927 align:start position:0% excavators most. The feur had been 04:46.927 --> 04:48.917 align:start position:0% excavators most. The feur had been cracked<00:06:13.919> open<00:06:14.319> and<00:06:14.560> its<00:06:14.800> marrow<00:06:15.199> had<00:06:15.440> been 04:48.917 --> 04:48.927 align:start position:0% cracked open and its marrow had been 04:48.927 --> 04:51.397 align:start position:0% cracked open and its marrow had been scraped<00:06:16.080> out,<00:06:16.800> strongly<00:06:17.360> suggesting<00:06:17.840> that 04:51.397 --> 04:51.407 align:start position:0% scraped out, strongly suggesting that 04:51.407 --> 04:54.356 align:start position:0% scraped out, strongly suggesting that the<00:06:18.319> individual<00:06:18.960> had<00:06:19.280> been<00:06:19.440> cannibalized. 04:54.356 --> 04:54.366 align:start position:0% the individual had been cannibalized. 04:54.366 --> 04:57.157 align:start position:0% the individual had been cannibalized. And<00:06:21.199> this<00:06:21.440> was<00:06:21.600> by<00:06:21.759> no<00:06:22.080> means<00:06:22.319> a<00:06:22.639> one-off.<00:06:23.600> In 04:57.157 --> 04:57.167 align:start position:0% And this was by no means a one-off. In 04:57.167 --> 04:59.477 align:start position:0% And this was by no means a one-off. In 2024,<00:06:24.800> a<00:06:25.039> study<00:06:25.280> published<00:06:25.520> in<00:06:25.680> the<00:06:25.840> journal 04:59.477 --> 04:59.487 align:start position:0% 2024, a study published in the journal 04:59.487 --> 05:01.717 align:start position:0% 2024, a study published in the journal Antiquity<00:06:26.880> described<00:06:27.280> a<00:06:27.440> grizzly<00:06:27.840> scene<00:06:28.160> from 05:01.717 --> 05:01.727 align:start position:0% Antiquity described a grizzly scene from 05:01.727 --> 05:03.877 align:start position:0% Antiquity described a grizzly scene from a<00:06:28.560> dig<00:06:28.800> site<00:06:29.039> near<00:06:29.280> the<00:06:29.440> unassuming<00:06:30.000> hamlet<00:06:30.400> of 05:03.877 --> 05:03.887 align:start position:0% a dig site near the unassuming hamlet of 05:03.887 --> 05:06.356 align:start position:0% a dig site near the unassuming hamlet of Charter<00:06:30.880> House<00:06:31.280> in<00:06:31.520> Somerset. 05:06.356 --> 05:06.366 align:start position:0% Charter House in Somerset. 05:06.366 --> 05:08.597 align:start position:0% Charter House in Somerset. Dating<00:06:33.440> to<00:06:33.680> 2,000<00:06:34.160> years<00:06:34.400> before<00:06:34.720> the<00:06:34.960> Romans 05:08.597 --> 05:08.607 align:start position:0% Dating to 2,000 years before the Romans 05:08.607 --> 05:10.997 align:start position:0% Dating to 2,000 years before the Romans ever<00:06:35.600> set<00:06:35.759> foot<00:06:36.000> in<00:06:36.240> Britain,<00:06:36.960> excavators 05:10.997 --> 05:11.007 align:start position:0% ever set foot in Britain, excavators 05:11.007 --> 05:13.877 align:start position:0% ever set foot in Britain, excavators found<00:06:37.919> the<00:06:38.080> remains<00:06:38.400> of<00:06:38.720> 37<00:06:39.600> men,<00:06:40.000> women,<00:06:40.319> and 05:13.877 --> 05:13.887 align:start position:0% found the remains of 37 men, women, and 05:13.887 --> 05:16.837 align:start position:0% found the remains of 37 men, women, and children.<00:06:42.000> They<00:06:42.240> had<00:06:42.479> been<00:06:42.639> massacred, 05:16.837 --> 05:16.847 align:start position:0% children. They had been massacred, 05:16.847 --> 05:19.796 align:start position:0% children. They had been massacred, butchered,<00:06:44.319> and<00:06:44.639> probably<00:06:45.199> eaten.<00:06:46.160> And<00:06:46.319> so 05:19.796 --> 05:19.806 align:start position:0% butchered, and probably eaten. And so 05:19.806 --> 05:22.117 align:start position:0% butchered, and probably eaten. And so while<00:06:46.800> patchy,<00:06:47.440> the<00:06:47.680> archaeological<00:06:48.400> record 05:22.117 --> 05:22.127 align:start position:0% while patchy, the archaeological record 05:22.127 --> 05:23.477 align:start position:0% while patchy, the archaeological record shows<00:06:49.039> that<00:06:49.199> there<00:06:49.360> may<00:06:49.520> have<00:06:49.680> been<00:06:49.759> a<00:06:49.919> shred 05:23.477 --> 05:23.487 align:start position:0% shows that there may have been a shred 05:23.487 --> 05:26.197 align:start position:0% shows that there may have been a shred of<00:06:50.319> truth<00:06:50.880> to<00:06:51.039> what<00:06:51.280> Strao<00:06:51.919> and<00:06:52.080> the<00:06:52.319> Romans 05:26.197 --> 05:26.207 align:start position:0% of truth to what Strao and the Romans 05:26.207 --> 05:30.757 align:start position:0% of truth to what Strao and the Romans said. 05:30.757 --> 05:30.767 align:start position:0% 05:30.767 --> 05:32.437 align:start position:0% Of<00:06:57.680> course,<00:06:57.919> for<00:06:58.160> modern<00:06:58.479> humans, 05:32.437 --> 05:32.447 align:start position:0% Of course, for modern humans, 05:32.447 --> 05:34.117 align:start position:0% Of course, for modern humans, cannibalism<00:06:59.759> feels<00:07:00.080> like<00:07:00.319> something<00:07:00.560> we 05:34.117 --> 05:34.127 align:start position:0% cannibalism feels like something we 05:34.127 --> 05:36.037 align:start position:0% cannibalism feels like something we should<00:07:00.880> have<00:07:01.120> left<00:07:01.360> behind<00:07:01.840> in<00:07:02.080> the<00:07:02.240> distant 05:36.037 --> 05:36.047 align:start position:0% should have left behind in the distant 05:36.047 --> 05:38.277 align:start position:0% should have left behind in the distant past.<00:07:03.759> Most<00:07:04.000> of<00:07:04.080> us<00:07:04.240> like<00:07:04.479> to<00:07:04.560> think<00:07:04.639> that<00:07:04.800> we 05:38.277 --> 05:38.287 align:start position:0% past. Most of us like to think that we 05:38.287 --> 05:39.717 align:start position:0% past. Most of us like to think that we are<00:07:05.039> well<00:07:05.280> above<00:07:05.520> our<00:07:05.759> more<00:07:05.919> primitive 05:39.717 --> 05:39.727 align:start position:0% are well above our more primitive 05:39.727 --> 05:42.597 align:start position:0% are well above our more primitive instincts,<00:07:07.520> but<00:07:07.759> cannibalism<00:07:08.479> does<00:07:08.800> in<00:07:08.960> fact 05:42.597 --> 05:42.607 align:start position:0% instincts, but cannibalism does in fact 05:42.607 --> 05:45.717 align:start position:0% instincts, but cannibalism does in fact still<00:07:09.680> happen<00:07:10.080> today.<00:07:11.199> And<00:07:11.440> not<00:07:11.680> just<00:07:11.840> in<00:07:12.080> true 05:45.717 --> 05:45.727 align:start position:0% still happen today. And not just in true 05:45.727 --> 05:50.117 align:start position:0% still happen today. And not just in true crime<00:07:12.800> stories<00:07:13.199> or<00:07:13.520> survival<00:07:14.080> situations. 05:50.117 --> 05:50.127 align:start position:0% crime stories or survival situations. 05:50.127 --> 05:51.877 align:start position:0% crime stories or survival situations. Cannibalism<00:07:17.440> has<00:07:17.680> been<00:07:17.840> documented<00:07:18.240> among 05:51.877 --> 05:51.887 align:start position:0% Cannibalism has been documented among 05:51.887 --> 05:54.117 align:start position:0% Cannibalism has been documented among people<00:07:18.720> on<00:07:18.960> most<00:07:19.280> continents<00:07:20.160> and<00:07:20.400> even<00:07:20.560> as 05:54.117 --> 05:54.127 align:start position:0% people on most continents and even as 05:54.127 --> 05:55.956 align:start position:0% people on most continents and even as recently<00:07:21.120> as<00:07:21.280> the<00:07:21.520> previous<00:07:21.840> century 05:55.956 --> 05:55.966 align:start position:0% recently as the previous century 05:55.966 --> 05:57.477 align:start position:0% recently as the previous century continued<00:07:23.039> to<00:07:23.199> be<00:07:23.280> a<00:07:23.440> relatively<00:07:23.840> common 05:57.477 --> 05:57.487 align:start position:0% continued to be a relatively common 05:57.487 --> 05:59.317 align:start position:0% continued to be a relatively common custom<00:07:24.560> in<00:07:24.800> many<00:07:25.039> parts<00:07:25.280> of<00:07:25.360> the<00:07:25.599> world 05:59.317 --> 05:59.327 align:start position:0% custom in many parts of the world 05:59.327 --> 06:01.236 align:start position:0% custom in many parts of the world including<00:07:26.479> West<00:07:26.720> and<00:07:26.960> Central<00:07:27.199> Africa, 06:01.236 --> 06:01.246 align:start position:0% including West and Central Africa, 06:01.246 --> 06:04.037 align:start position:0% including West and Central Africa, Melanesia,<00:07:28.880> New<00:07:29.039> Guinea,<00:07:29.599> Australia<00:07:30.160> and<00:07:30.479> New 06:04.037 --> 06:04.047 align:start position:0% Melanesia, New Guinea, Australia and New 06:04.047 --> 06:06.277 align:start position:0% Melanesia, New Guinea, Australia and New Zealand<00:07:31.440> and<00:07:31.680> certain<00:07:32.080> regions<00:07:32.400> of<00:07:32.639> South 06:06.277 --> 06:06.287 align:start position:0% Zealand and certain regions of South 06:06.287 --> 06:11.157 align:start position:0% Zealand and certain regions of South America<00:07:34.319> and<00:07:34.560> it<00:07:34.800> also<00:07:35.440> happened<00:07:35.919> in<00:07:36.400> Europe. 06:11.157 --> 06:11.167 align:start position:0% America and it also happened in Europe. 06:11.167 --> 06:13.236 align:start position:0% America and it also happened in Europe. Indeed,<00:07:38.240> for<00:07:38.400> several<00:07:38.720> hundred<00:07:39.039> years,<00:07:39.680> many 06:13.236 --> 06:13.246 align:start position:0% Indeed, for several hundred years, many 06:13.246 --> 06:15.636 align:start position:0% Indeed, for several hundred years, many Europeans<00:07:40.639> routinely<00:07:41.199> consumed<00:07:41.680> remedies 06:15.636 --> 06:15.646 align:start position:0% Europeans routinely consumed remedies 06:15.646 --> 06:18.597 align:start position:0% Europeans routinely consumed remedies containing<00:07:42.800> human<00:07:43.120> bones,<00:07:43.840> blood,<00:07:44.319> and<00:07:44.720> fat 06:18.597 --> 06:18.607 align:start position:0% containing human bones, blood, and fat 06:18.607 --> 06:20.277 align:start position:0% containing human bones, blood, and fat as<00:07:45.599> treatments<00:07:46.080> for<00:07:46.319> everything<00:07:46.720> from 06:20.277 --> 06:20.287 align:start position:0% as treatments for everything from 06:20.287 --> 06:23.477 align:start position:0% as treatments for everything from headaches<00:07:47.440> to<00:07:47.759> cancer.<00:07:48.800> In<00:07:48.960> the<00:07:49.120> 1500s<00:07:49.759> and 06:23.477 --> 06:23.487 align:start position:0% headaches to cancer. In the 1500s and 06:23.487 --> 06:25.317 align:start position:0% headaches to cancer. In the 1500s and 1600s,<00:07:50.880> you<00:07:51.120> could<00:07:51.280> walk<00:07:51.520> into<00:07:51.759> any 06:25.317 --> 06:25.327 align:start position:0% 1600s, you could walk into any 06:25.327 --> 06:27.956 align:start position:0% 1600s, you could walk into any wellstocked<00:07:52.639> apostcree<00:07:53.199> in<00:07:53.360> London,<00:07:53.919> Paris, 06:27.956 --> 06:27.966 align:start position:0% wellstocked apostcree in London, Paris, 06:27.966 --> 06:30.356 align:start position:0% wellstocked apostcree in London, Paris, Zurich,<00:07:55.120> or<00:07:55.360> Copenhagen<00:07:56.400> and<00:07:56.639> find<00:07:56.879> the 06:30.356 --> 06:30.366 align:start position:0% Zurich, or Copenhagen and find the 06:30.366 --> 06:32.757 align:start position:0% Zurich, or Copenhagen and find the shelves<00:07:57.520> liberally<00:07:58.080> stocked<00:07:58.720> with<00:07:59.039> corpse 06:32.757 --> 06:32.767 align:start position:0% shelves liberally stocked with corpse 06:32.767 --> 06:35.877 align:start position:0% shelves liberally stocked with corpse medicines.<00:08:00.800> King<00:08:01.039> Charles<00:08:01.360> II<00:08:01.759> of<00:08:01.919> England, 06:35.877 --> 06:35.887 align:start position:0% medicines. King Charles II of England, 06:35.887 --> 06:38.677 align:start position:0% medicines. King Charles II of England, after<00:08:02.800> suffering<00:08:03.199> a<00:08:03.360> seizure<00:08:03.680> in<00:08:03.919> 1685,<00:08:05.120> was 06:38.677 --> 06:38.687 align:start position:0% after suffering a seizure in 1685, was 06:38.687 --> 06:40.117 align:start position:0% after suffering a seizure in 1685, was administered<00:08:05.759> a<00:08:05.919> tincture<00:08:06.479> made<00:08:06.639> from 06:40.117 --> 06:40.127 align:start position:0% administered a tincture made from 06:40.127 --> 06:42.277 align:start position:0% administered a tincture made from powdered<00:08:07.280> human<00:08:07.599> skull<00:08:08.080> in<00:08:08.240> a<00:08:08.400> lastditch 06:42.277 --> 06:42.287 align:start position:0% powdered human skull in a lastditch 06:42.287 --> 06:45.397 align:start position:0% powdered human skull in a lastditch attempt<00:08:09.280> to<00:08:09.440> save<00:08:09.680> his<00:08:10.000> life.<00:08:10.879> He<00:08:11.199> died<00:08:11.599> 5<00:08:11.840> days 06:45.397 --> 06:45.407 align:start position:0% attempt to save his life. He died 5 days 06:45.407 --> 06:50.356 align:start position:0% attempt to save his life. He died 5 days later. 06:50.356 --> 06:50.366 align:start position:0% 06:50.366 --> 06:52.757 align:start position:0% And<00:08:17.280> so<00:08:17.759> archaeological<00:08:18.479> and<00:08:18.720> ethnographic 06:52.757 --> 06:52.767 align:start position:0% And so archaeological and ethnographic 06:52.767 --> 06:54.916 align:start position:0% And so archaeological and ethnographic evidence<00:08:19.919> indicates<00:08:20.400> that<00:08:20.560> cannibalism<00:08:21.360> has 06:54.916 --> 06:54.926 align:start position:0% evidence indicates that cannibalism has 06:54.926 --> 06:57.477 align:start position:0% evidence indicates that cannibalism has emerged<00:08:22.080> repeatedly<00:08:22.879> across<00:08:23.280> diverse<00:08:23.759> human 06:57.477 --> 06:57.487 align:start position:0% emerged repeatedly across diverse human 06:57.487 --> 06:59.157 align:start position:0% emerged repeatedly across diverse human populations. 06:59.157 --> 06:59.167 align:start position:0% populations. 06:59.167 --> 07:01.236 align:start position:0% populations. The<00:08:26.000> pattern<00:08:26.319> is<00:08:26.479> so<00:08:26.720> consistent<00:08:27.440> and<00:08:27.680> so 07:01.236 --> 07:01.246 align:start position:0% The pattern is so consistent and so 07:01.246 --> 07:03.956 align:start position:0% The pattern is so consistent and so widespread<00:08:28.800> that<00:08:29.120> some<00:08:29.360> anthropologists<00:08:30.400> now 07:03.956 --> 07:03.966 align:start position:0% widespread that some anthropologists now 07:03.966 --> 07:05.877 align:start position:0% widespread that some anthropologists now argue<00:08:30.960> it<00:08:31.199> should<00:08:31.360> be<00:08:31.520> understood<00:08:32.000> not<00:08:32.240> as<00:08:32.399> an 07:05.877 --> 07:05.887 align:start position:0% argue it should be understood not as an 07:05.887 --> 07:08.677 align:start position:0% argue it should be understood not as an aberration<00:08:33.680> but<00:08:33.839> as<00:08:34.080> a<00:08:34.240> recurring<00:08:34.719> feature<00:08:35.120> of 07:08.677 --> 07:08.687 align:start position:0% aberration but as a recurring feature of 07:08.687 --> 07:11.877 align:start position:0% aberration but as a recurring feature of human<00:08:35.760> behavior<00:08:36.479> across<00:08:36.959> time. 07:11.877 --> 07:11.887 align:start position:0% human behavior across time. 07:11.887 --> 07:14.356 align:start position:0% human behavior across time. But<00:08:38.719> just<00:08:38.959> how<00:08:39.200> deep<00:08:39.519> into<00:08:39.760> our<00:08:40.080> past<00:08:40.800> does 07:14.356 --> 07:14.366 align:start position:0% But just how deep into our past does 07:14.366 --> 07:17.797 align:start position:0% But just how deep into our past does this<00:08:41.360> behavior<00:08:42.080> go?<00:08:43.360> The<00:08:43.599> answer,<00:08:44.000> it<00:08:44.240> turns 07:17.797 --> 07:17.807 align:start position:0% this behavior go? The answer, it turns 07:17.807 --> 07:19.877 align:start position:0% this behavior go? The answer, it turns out,<00:08:45.040> stretches<00:08:45.440> back<00:08:45.680> much<00:08:46.000> further<00:08:46.320> than 07:19.877 --> 07:19.887 align:start position:0% out, stretches back much further than 07:19.887 --> 07:26.117 align:start position:0% out, stretches back much further than Roman<00:08:47.040> Britain<00:08:47.920> or<00:08:48.160> even<00:08:48.959> modern<00:08:49.440> humans. 07:26.117 --> 07:26.127 align:start position:0% 07:26.127 --> 07:29.077 align:start position:0% In<00:08:53.040> 1899,<00:08:54.240> paleontologist<00:08:55.200> Dragutin 07:29.077 --> 07:29.087 align:start position:0% In 1899, paleontologist Dragutin 07:29.087 --> 07:31.397 align:start position:0% In 1899, paleontologist Dragutin Gurandovich<00:08:56.480> Cranberger<00:08:57.120> led<00:08:57.279> an<00:08:57.519> excavation 07:31.397 --> 07:31.407 align:start position:0% Gurandovich Cranberger led an excavation 07:31.407 --> 07:33.877 align:start position:0% Gurandovich Cranberger led an excavation at<00:08:58.320> a<00:08:58.480> cave<00:08:59.040> overlooking<00:08:59.519> the<00:08:59.680> Grapina<00:09:00.240> River 07:33.877 --> 07:33.887 align:start position:0% at a cave overlooking the Grapina River 07:33.887 --> 07:36.917 align:start position:0% at a cave overlooking the Grapina River in<00:09:00.800> Croatia.<00:09:01.839> He<00:09:02.080> expected<00:09:02.640> to<00:09:02.880> find<00:09:03.200> animal 07:36.917 --> 07:36.927 align:start position:0% in Croatia. He expected to find animal 07:36.927 --> 07:39.557 align:start position:0% in Croatia. He expected to find animal fossils,<00:09:04.560> but<00:09:04.720> what<00:09:04.880> he<00:09:05.040> found<00:09:05.279> instead<00:09:06.000> went 07:39.557 --> 07:39.567 align:start position:0% fossils, but what he found instead went 07:39.567 --> 07:42.596 align:start position:0% fossils, but what he found instead went on<00:09:06.399> to<00:09:06.560> make<00:09:06.720> headlines<00:09:07.440> across<00:09:07.920> Europe.<00:09:09.040> Over 07:42.596 --> 07:42.606 align:start position:0% on to make headlines across Europe. Over 07:42.606 --> 07:44.517 align:start position:0% on to make headlines across Europe. Over the<00:09:09.440> course<00:09:09.519> of<00:09:09.680> his<00:09:09.839> excavations,<00:09:10.800> he<00:09:11.040> would 07:44.517 --> 07:44.527 align:start position:0% the course of his excavations, he would 07:44.527 --> 07:46.517 align:start position:0% the course of his excavations, he would recover<00:09:11.519> the<00:09:11.680> remains<00:09:12.000> of<00:09:12.240> more<00:09:12.399> than<00:09:12.640> 80 07:46.517 --> 07:46.527 align:start position:0% recover the remains of more than 80 07:46.527 --> 07:49.156 align:start position:0% recover the remains of more than 80 individual<00:09:13.760> Neanderls.<00:09:15.120> To<00:09:15.279> this<00:09:15.519> day,<00:09:15.680> the 07:49.156 --> 07:49.166 align:start position:0% individual Neanderls. To this day, the 07:49.166 --> 07:51.237 align:start position:0% individual Neanderls. To this day, the Grapina<00:09:16.399> assemblage<00:09:17.040> remains<00:09:17.360> the<00:09:17.600> largest 07:51.237 --> 07:51.247 align:start position:0% Grapina assemblage remains the largest 07:51.247 --> 07:52.997 align:start position:0% Grapina assemblage remains the largest known<00:09:18.160> collection<00:09:18.480> of<00:09:18.640> Neanderal<00:09:19.279> skeletal 07:52.997 --> 07:53.007 align:start position:0% known collection of Neanderal skeletal 07:53.007 --> 07:55.156 align:start position:0% known collection of Neanderal skeletal remains<00:09:20.160> ever<00:09:20.480> recovered<00:09:20.959> from<00:09:21.200> a<00:09:21.440> single 07:55.156 --> 07:55.166 align:start position:0% remains ever recovered from a single 07:55.166 --> 07:57.477 align:start position:0% remains ever recovered from a single site.<00:09:23.040> But<00:09:23.200> there<00:09:23.360> was<00:09:23.519> something<00:09:23.760> about<00:09:23.920> the 07:57.477 --> 07:57.487 align:start position:0% site. But there was something about the 07:57.487 --> 08:00.517 align:start position:0% site. But there was something about the bones<00:09:24.480> that<00:09:24.640> made<00:09:24.880> Dragutin<00:09:25.680> deeply<00:09:26.080> uneasy. 08:00.517 --> 08:00.527 align:start position:0% bones that made Dragutin deeply uneasy. 08:00.527 --> 08:02.917 align:start position:0% bones that made Dragutin deeply uneasy. The<00:09:27.440> vast<00:09:27.760> majority<00:09:28.240> of<00:09:28.480> them<00:09:28.800> were<00:09:29.040> broken 08:02.917 --> 08:02.927 align:start position:0% The vast majority of them were broken 08:02.927 --> 08:04.836 align:start position:0% The vast majority of them were broken and<00:09:30.000> fragmented. 08:04.836 --> 08:04.846 align:start position:0% and fragmented. 08:04.846 --> 08:06.757 align:start position:0% and fragmented. Time<00:09:31.839> often<00:09:32.160> breaks<00:09:32.480> apart<00:09:32.720> and<00:09:32.959> wears<00:09:33.279> away 08:06.757 --> 08:06.767 align:start position:0% Time often breaks apart and wears away 08:06.767 --> 08:08.596 align:start position:0% Time often breaks apart and wears away at<00:09:33.680> bones,<00:09:34.240> but<00:09:34.480> this<00:09:34.640> didn't<00:09:34.880> look<00:09:35.040> like 08:08.596 --> 08:08.606 align:start position:0% at bones, but this didn't look like 08:08.606 --> 08:10.276 align:start position:0% at bones, but this didn't look like something<00:09:35.519> that<00:09:35.760> time<00:09:36.080> alone<00:09:36.560> could<00:09:36.720> have 08:10.276 --> 08:10.286 align:start position:0% something that time alone could have 08:10.286 --> 08:14.596 align:start position:0% something that time alone could have done.<00:09:38.080> It<00:09:38.399> looked<00:09:39.279> intentional. 08:14.596 --> 08:14.606 align:start position:0% done. It looked intentional. 08:14.606 --> 08:16.677 align:start position:0% done. It looked intentional. Several<00:09:41.760> long<00:09:42.000> bones<00:09:42.399> had<00:09:42.560> been<00:09:42.720> split<00:09:43.040> open 08:16.677 --> 08:16.687 align:start position:0% Several long bones had been split open 08:16.687 --> 08:19.156 align:start position:0% Several long bones had been split open lengthwise.<00:09:44.640> This<00:09:44.959> immediately<00:09:45.440> reminding 08:19.156 --> 08:19.166 align:start position:0% lengthwise. This immediately reminding 08:19.166 --> 08:20.997 align:start position:0% lengthwise. This immediately reminding Dragutin<00:09:46.480> of<00:09:46.640> the<00:09:46.800> damage<00:09:47.120> he<00:09:47.279> would<00:09:47.519> expect 08:20.997 --> 08:21.007 align:start position:0% Dragutin of the damage he would expect 08:21.007 --> 08:23.237 align:start position:0% Dragutin of the damage he would expect to<00:09:47.920> find<00:09:48.240> on<00:09:48.399> the<00:09:48.560> bones<00:09:48.880> of<00:09:49.040> prey<00:09:49.360> animals 08:23.237 --> 08:23.247 align:start position:0% to find on the bones of prey animals 08:23.247 --> 08:25.877 align:start position:0% to find on the bones of prey animals like<00:09:50.240> deer<00:09:50.560> or<00:09:50.880> cattle.<00:09:51.920> But<00:09:52.000> it<00:09:52.240> wasn't<00:09:52.399> just 08:25.877 --> 08:25.887 align:start position:0% like deer or cattle. But it wasn't just 08:25.887 --> 08:27.156 align:start position:0% like deer or cattle. But it wasn't just the<00:09:52.720> long<00:09:52.959> bones<00:09:53.200> that<00:09:53.440> caught<00:09:53.680> his 08:27.156 --> 08:27.166 align:start position:0% the long bones that caught his 08:27.166 --> 08:29.237 align:start position:0% the long bones that caught his attention.<00:09:54.800> Many<00:09:55.040> of<00:09:55.120> the<00:09:55.279> other<00:09:55.440> bones<00:09:55.760> had 08:29.237 --> 08:29.247 align:start position:0% attention. Many of the other bones had 08:29.247 --> 08:30.836 align:start position:0% attention. Many of the other bones had marks<00:09:56.240> on<00:09:56.320> them<00:09:56.480> that<00:09:56.720> looked<00:09:56.959> as<00:09:57.040> if<00:09:57.200> they<00:09:57.360> had 08:30.836 --> 08:30.846 align:start position:0% marks on them that looked as if they had 08:30.846 --> 08:32.997 align:start position:0% marks on them that looked as if they had been<00:09:57.680> made<00:09:57.920> with<00:09:58.160> cutting<00:09:58.560> tools.<00:09:59.519> And 08:32.997 --> 08:33.007 align:start position:0% been made with cutting tools. And 08:33.007 --> 08:34.596 align:start position:0% been made with cutting tools. And several<00:10:00.160> skulls<00:10:00.560> appeared<00:10:00.880> to<00:10:01.040> have<00:10:01.120> been 08:34.596 --> 08:34.606 align:start position:0% several skulls appeared to have been 08:34.606 --> 08:37.397 align:start position:0% several skulls appeared to have been broken<00:10:01.839> deliberately.<00:10:03.120> And<00:10:03.279> perhaps<00:10:03.680> most 08:37.397 --> 08:37.407 align:start position:0% broken deliberately. And perhaps most 08:37.407 --> 08:39.397 align:start position:0% broken deliberately. And perhaps most concerning<00:10:04.480> of<00:10:04.720> all,<00:10:05.279> many<00:10:05.519> of<00:10:05.600> the<00:10:05.760> human 08:39.397 --> 08:39.407 align:start position:0% concerning of all, many of the human 08:39.407 --> 08:41.797 align:start position:0% concerning of all, many of the human bones<00:10:06.560> were<00:10:06.800> found<00:10:06.959> near<00:10:07.360> hearths<00:10:07.920> and<00:10:08.160> show 08:41.797 --> 08:41.807 align:start position:0% bones were found near hearths and show 08:41.807 --> 08:45.477 align:start position:0% bones were found near hearths and show evidence<00:10:09.200> of<00:10:09.440> having<00:10:09.839> been<00:10:10.160> burned. 08:45.477 --> 08:45.487 align:start position:0% evidence of having been burned. 08:45.487 --> 08:47.557 align:start position:0% evidence of having been burned. Not<00:10:12.399> long<00:10:12.560> after<00:10:12.880> beginning<00:10:13.200> his<00:10:13.440> excavation, 08:47.557 --> 08:47.567 align:start position:0% Not long after beginning his excavation, 08:47.567 --> 08:50.037 align:start position:0% Not long after beginning his excavation, Dragutin<00:10:14.880> began<00:10:15.120> to<00:10:15.279> suspect<00:10:15.920> that<00:10:16.079> Grapina 08:50.037 --> 08:50.047 align:start position:0% Dragutin began to suspect that Grapina 08:50.047 --> 08:53.396 align:start position:0% Dragutin began to suspect that Grapina was<00:10:16.880> not<00:10:17.040> a<00:10:17.279> simple<00:10:17.680> burial<00:10:18.160> site.<00:10:19.120> It<00:10:19.600> was<00:10:19.760> an 08:53.396 --> 08:53.406 align:start position:0% was not a simple burial site. It was an 08:53.406 --> 08:56.117 align:start position:0% was not a simple burial site. It was an abattoire,<00:10:21.360> a<00:10:21.600> place<00:10:21.839> where<00:10:22.079> more<00:10:22.320> than<00:10:22.480> 80 08:56.117 --> 08:56.127 align:start position:0% abattoire, a place where more than 80 08:56.127 --> 08:58.836 align:start position:0% abattoire, a place where more than 80 people<00:10:23.120> had<00:10:23.360> been<00:10:23.519> killed,<00:10:24.320> butchered,<00:10:25.279> and 08:58.836 --> 08:58.846 align:start position:0% people had been killed, butchered, and 08:58.846 --> 09:04.997 align:start position:0% people had been killed, butchered, and probably<00:10:26.000> eaten. 09:04.997 --> 09:05.007 align:start position:0% 09:05.007 --> 09:06.437 align:start position:0% But<00:10:31.920> how<00:10:32.160> exactly<00:10:32.560> can<00:10:32.720> we<00:10:32.880> look<00:10:32.959> at 09:06.437 --> 09:06.447 align:start position:0% But how exactly can we look at 09:06.447 --> 09:09.317 align:start position:0% But how exactly can we look at fossilized<00:10:33.839> bones<00:10:34.399> and<00:10:34.720> decide<00:10:35.360> whether<00:10:35.760> they 09:09.317 --> 09:09.327 align:start position:0% fossilized bones and decide whether they 09:09.327 --> 09:13.557 align:start position:0% fossilized bones and decide whether they were<00:10:36.160> cannibalized? 09:13.557 --> 09:13.567 align:start position:0% 09:13.567 --> 09:15.716 align:start position:0% Looking<00:10:40.480> for<00:10:40.720> evidence<00:10:41.040> for<00:10:41.279> cannibalism<00:10:42.079> is 09:15.716 --> 09:15.726 align:start position:0% Looking for evidence for cannibalism is 09:15.726 --> 09:17.877 align:start position:0% Looking for evidence for cannibalism is really<00:10:42.640> about<00:10:42.959> looking<00:10:43.279> for<00:10:43.839> cut<00:10:44.160> marks 09:17.877 --> 09:17.887 align:start position:0% really about looking for cut marks 09:17.887 --> 09:20.677 align:start position:0% really about looking for cut marks mostly<00:10:45.120> on<00:10:45.680> human<00:10:46.079> bones<00:10:46.399> or<00:10:46.720> ancient<00:10:47.120> human 09:20.677 --> 09:20.687 align:start position:0% mostly on human bones or ancient human 09:20.687 --> 09:22.997 align:start position:0% mostly on human bones or ancient human bones.<00:10:48.000> There<00:10:48.240> are<00:10:48.399> differences<00:10:48.880> between<00:10:49.440> cut 09:22.997 --> 09:23.007 align:start position:0% bones. There are differences between cut 09:23.007 --> 09:24.836 align:start position:0% bones. There are differences between cut marks<00:10:50.000> and<00:10:50.240> other<00:10:50.560> natural<00:10:50.880> marks<00:10:51.200> you<00:10:51.440> might 09:24.836 --> 09:24.846 align:start position:0% marks and other natural marks you might 09:24.846 --> 09:27.716 align:start position:0% marks and other natural marks you might find<00:10:51.760> on<00:10:52.000> bones.<00:10:52.720> So<00:10:52.959> if<00:10:53.200> bones<00:10:53.839> roll<00:10:54.160> around 09:27.716 --> 09:27.726 align:start position:0% find on bones. So if bones roll around 09:27.726 --> 09:29.716 align:start position:0% find on bones. So if bones roll around on<00:10:54.640> the<00:10:54.800> ground<00:10:55.040> or<00:10:55.200> in<00:10:55.440> a<00:10:55.600> river<00:10:56.160> because 09:29.716 --> 09:29.726 align:start position:0% on the ground or in a river because 09:29.726 --> 09:32.037 align:start position:0% on the ground or in a river because they're<00:10:56.720> made<00:10:56.880> by<00:10:57.200> rounder<00:10:57.680> sand<00:10:58.000> grains, 09:32.037 --> 09:32.047 align:start position:0% they're made by rounder sand grains, 09:32.047 --> 09:34.276 align:start position:0% they're made by rounder sand grains, they<00:10:58.880> have<00:10:59.040> kind<00:10:59.200> of<00:10:59.279> a<00:10:59.519> U-shaped<00:11:00.240> or<00:11:00.480> a<00:11:00.720> kind 09:34.276 --> 09:34.286 align:start position:0% they have kind of a U-shaped or a kind 09:34.286 --> 09:36.757 align:start position:0% they have kind of a U-shaped or a kind of<00:11:01.040> a<00:11:01.200> a<00:11:01.519> curved<00:11:02.079> bottom<00:11:02.320> of<00:11:02.480> the<00:11:02.640> mark.<00:11:03.200> They 09:36.757 --> 09:36.767 align:start position:0% of a a curved bottom of the mark. They 09:36.767 --> 09:38.757 align:start position:0% of a a curved bottom of the mark. They tend<00:11:03.680> to<00:11:03.839> be<00:11:04.079> longer.<00:11:04.720> They're<00:11:05.040> almost 09:38.757 --> 09:38.767 align:start position:0% tend to be longer. They're almost 09:38.767 --> 09:41.156 align:start position:0% tend to be longer. They're almost chaotic<00:11:06.000> in<00:11:06.320> different<00:11:06.720> lengths<00:11:07.120> and<00:11:07.440> widths 09:41.156 --> 09:41.166 align:start position:0% chaotic in different lengths and widths 09:41.166 --> 09:43.077 align:start position:0% chaotic in different lengths and widths and<00:11:08.079> patterns<00:11:08.399> and<00:11:08.720> things<00:11:08.880> like<00:11:09.040> that.<00:11:09.519> Cut 09:43.077 --> 09:43.087 align:start position:0% and patterns and things like that. Cut 09:43.087 --> 09:45.957 align:start position:0% and patterns and things like that. Cut marks<00:11:10.160> tend<00:11:10.399> to<00:11:10.560> be<00:11:10.880> straighter,<00:11:11.920> often<00:11:12.320> times 09:45.957 --> 09:45.967 align:start position:0% marks tend to be straighter, often times 09:45.967 --> 09:48.677 align:start position:0% marks tend to be straighter, often times shorter,<00:11:13.600> kind<00:11:13.760> of<00:11:13.839> a<00:11:14.079> Vshape<00:11:14.720> on<00:11:14.880> the<00:11:15.040> bottom. 09:48.677 --> 09:48.687 align:start position:0% shorter, kind of a Vshape on the bottom. 09:48.687 --> 09:50.997 align:start position:0% shorter, kind of a Vshape on the bottom. If<00:11:15.519> you<00:11:15.680> were<00:11:16.000> looking<00:11:16.399> down<00:11:16.720> the<00:11:17.040> mark,<00:11:17.440> kind 09:50.997 --> 09:51.007 align:start position:0% If you were looking down the mark, kind 09:51.007 --> 09:52.997 align:start position:0% If you were looking down the mark, kind of<00:11:17.760> looking<00:11:18.079> down<00:11:18.320> the<00:11:18.480> surface<00:11:18.720> of<00:11:18.880> the<00:11:19.040> bone, 09:52.997 --> 09:53.007 align:start position:0% of looking down the surface of the bone, 09:53.007 --> 09:54.997 align:start position:0% of looking down the surface of the bone, that<00:11:20.000> the<00:11:20.320> bottom<00:11:20.560> of<00:11:20.720> the<00:11:20.880> mark<00:11:21.120> comes<00:11:21.360> to<00:11:21.519> a 09:54.997 --> 09:55.007 align:start position:0% that the bottom of the mark comes to a 09:55.007 --> 09:58.037 align:start position:0% that the bottom of the mark comes to a V.<00:11:22.480> Cut<00:11:22.720> marks<00:11:23.120> tend<00:11:23.360> to<00:11:23.600> be<00:11:23.839> in<00:11:24.160> particular 09:58.037 --> 09:58.047 align:start position:0% V. Cut marks tend to be in particular 09:58.047 --> 10:00.437 align:start position:0% V. Cut marks tend to be in particular places<00:11:25.040> on<00:11:25.279> bones<00:11:25.680> where<00:11:26.320> people<00:11:26.560> are<00:11:26.800> either 10:00.437 --> 10:00.447 align:start position:0% places on bones where people are either 10:00.447 --> 10:03.396 align:start position:0% places on bones where people are either trying<00:11:27.360> to<00:11:27.839> disarticulate<00:11:28.560> or<00:11:28.880> dismember<00:11:29.760> an 10:03.396 --> 10:03.406 align:start position:0% trying to disarticulate or dismember an 10:03.406 --> 10:06.437 align:start position:0% trying to disarticulate or dismember an animal<00:11:30.480> or<00:11:30.800> a<00:11:30.959> human<00:11:31.760> or<00:11:32.160> cutting<00:11:32.480> flesh<00:11:32.800> off, 10:06.437 --> 10:06.447 align:start position:0% animal or a human or cutting flesh off, 10:06.447 --> 10:09.557 align:start position:0% animal or a human or cutting flesh off, defleing.<00:11:34.160> So<00:11:34.640> placement<00:11:35.040> of<00:11:35.200> marks<00:11:35.680> also<00:11:36.000> is 10:09.557 --> 10:09.567 align:start position:0% defleing. So placement of marks also is 10:09.567 --> 10:15.156 align:start position:0% defleing. So placement of marks also is a<00:11:36.399> clue. 10:15.156 --> 10:15.166 align:start position:0% 10:15.166 --> 10:16.917 align:start position:0% >> Following<00:11:42.240> Goranovich<00:11:42.959> Cranberger's 10:16.917 --> 10:16.927 align:start position:0% >> Following Goranovich Cranberger's 10:16.927 --> 10:18.917 align:start position:0% >> Following Goranovich Cranberger's discovery,<00:11:44.320> little<00:11:44.640> other<00:11:44.959> evidence<00:11:45.360> to 10:18.917 --> 10:18.927 align:start position:0% discovery, little other evidence to 10:18.927 --> 10:20.836 align:start position:0% discovery, little other evidence to support<00:11:45.920> ancient<00:11:46.320> human<00:11:46.560> cannibalism<00:11:47.279> was 10:20.836 --> 10:20.846 align:start position:0% support ancient human cannibalism was 10:20.846 --> 10:23.477 align:start position:0% support ancient human cannibalism was found<00:11:47.760> for<00:11:48.000> nearly<00:11:48.320> a<00:11:48.560> century.<00:11:49.440> For<00:11:49.600> a<00:11:49.839> time, 10:23.477 --> 10:23.487 align:start position:0% found for nearly a century. For a time, 10:23.487 --> 10:26.117 align:start position:0% found for nearly a century. For a time, it<00:11:50.399> appeared<00:11:50.720> that<00:11:50.880> Grapina<00:11:51.519> was<00:11:51.680> an<00:11:51.839> outlier, 10:26.117 --> 10:26.127 align:start position:0% it appeared that Grapina was an outlier, 10:26.127 --> 10:29.797 align:start position:0% it appeared that Grapina was an outlier, unique<00:11:53.519> and<00:11:53.839> contested.<00:11:55.200> But<00:11:55.360> all<00:11:55.600> of<00:11:55.760> that 10:29.797 --> 10:29.807 align:start position:0% unique and contested. But all of that 10:29.807 --> 10:34.357 align:start position:0% unique and contested. But all of that would<00:11:56.800> change. 10:34.357 --> 10:34.367 align:start position:0% 10:34.367 --> 10:36.997 align:start position:0% In<00:12:01.279> the<00:12:01.360> 1880s,<00:12:02.320> Goff's<00:12:02.800> Cave<00:12:03.120> in<00:12:03.279> Cheddar 10:36.997 --> 10:37.007 align:start position:0% In the 1880s, Goff's Cave in Cheddar 10:37.007 --> 10:38.997 align:start position:0% In the 1880s, Goff's Cave in Cheddar Gorge<00:12:03.920> in<00:12:04.079> Somerset,<00:12:04.640> England,<00:12:05.200> had<00:12:05.519> been 10:38.997 --> 10:39.007 align:start position:0% Gorge in Somerset, England, had been 10:39.007 --> 10:41.396 align:start position:0% Gorge in Somerset, England, had been opened<00:12:05.920> up<00:12:06.079> as<00:12:06.320> a<00:12:06.480> tourist<00:12:06.800> attraction.<00:12:07.920> Much 10:41.396 --> 10:41.406 align:start position:0% opened up as a tourist attraction. Much 10:41.406 --> 10:42.917 align:start position:0% opened up as a tourist attraction. Much of<00:12:08.240> its<00:12:08.399> ancient<00:12:08.720> sediments<00:12:09.200> and<00:12:09.440> more 10:42.917 --> 10:42.927 align:start position:0% of its ancient sediments and more 10:42.927 --> 10:44.677 align:start position:0% of its ancient sediments and more inconvenient<00:12:10.240> rock<00:12:10.480> formations<00:12:11.120> were 10:44.677 --> 10:44.687 align:start position:0% inconvenient rock formations were 10:44.687 --> 10:46.836 align:start position:0% inconvenient rock formations were cleared<00:12:11.680> out<00:12:11.839> and<00:12:12.160> disposed<00:12:12.639> of. 10:46.836 --> 10:46.846 align:start position:0% cleared out and disposed of. 10:46.846 --> 10:49.237 align:start position:0% cleared out and disposed of. Archaeologists<00:12:14.480> despared,<00:12:15.279> thinking<00:12:15.600> any 10:49.237 --> 10:49.247 align:start position:0% Archaeologists despared, thinking any 10:49.247 --> 10:51.156 align:start position:0% Archaeologists despared, thinking any important<00:12:16.320> deposits<00:12:16.720> from<00:12:16.880> Gooff's<00:12:17.279> cave<00:12:17.600> had 10:51.156 --> 10:51.166 align:start position:0% important deposits from Gooff's cave had 10:51.166 --> 10:54.677 align:start position:0% important deposits from Gooff's cave had been<00:12:18.000> lost<00:12:18.320> forever.<00:12:19.360> But<00:12:19.519> then<00:12:19.839> in<00:12:20.079> 1903,<00:12:21.120> the 10:54.677 --> 10:54.687 align:start position:0% been lost forever. But then in 1903, the 10:54.687 --> 10:56.836 align:start position:0% been lost forever. But then in 1903, the skeleton<00:12:21.839> of<00:12:22.079> Cheddamman,<00:12:23.120> someone<00:12:23.279> who 10:56.836 --> 10:56.846 align:start position:0% skeleton of Cheddamman, someone who 10:56.846 --> 10:59.077 align:start position:0% skeleton of Cheddamman, someone who lived<00:12:23.760> more<00:12:24.000> than<00:12:24.160> 10,000<00:12:24.880> years<00:12:25.120> ago,<00:12:25.600> was 10:59.077 --> 10:59.087 align:start position:0% lived more than 10,000 years ago, was 10:59.087 --> 11:01.797 align:start position:0% lived more than 10,000 years ago, was discovered<00:12:26.240> inside<00:12:26.560> the<00:12:26.800> cave.<00:12:27.839> All,<00:12:28.240> it 11:01.797 --> 11:01.807 align:start position:0% discovered inside the cave. All, it 11:01.807 --> 11:04.117 align:start position:0% discovered inside the cave. All, it seemed,<00:12:28.959> was<00:12:29.200> not<00:12:29.519> lost. 11:04.117 --> 11:04.127 align:start position:0% seemed, was not lost. 11:04.127 --> 11:06.037 align:start position:0% seemed, was not lost. Further<00:12:31.200> excavations<00:12:32.000> followed<00:12:32.399> over<00:12:32.560> the 11:06.037 --> 11:06.047 align:start position:0% Further excavations followed over the 11:06.047 --> 11:07.797 align:start position:0% Further excavations followed over the next<00:12:32.959> few<00:12:33.120> decades,<00:12:33.920> but<00:12:34.079> the<00:12:34.320> most 11:07.797 --> 11:07.807 align:start position:0% next few decades, but the most 11:07.807 --> 11:09.956 align:start position:0% next few decades, but the most consequential<00:12:35.200> finds<00:12:35.760> didn't<00:12:36.079> come<00:12:36.320> until 11:09.956 --> 11:09.966 align:start position:0% consequential finds didn't come until 11:09.966 --> 11:11.797 align:start position:0% consequential finds didn't come until the<00:12:36.880> 1980s. 11:11.797 --> 11:11.807 align:start position:0% the 1980s. 11:11.807 --> 11:14.197 align:start position:0% the 1980s. Inside<00:12:38.880> Gor's<00:12:39.360> cave,<00:12:39.920> Elizabeth<00:12:40.320> and<00:12:40.560> Roger 11:14.197 --> 11:14.207 align:start position:0% Inside Gor's cave, Elizabeth and Roger 11:14.207 --> 11:16.357 align:start position:0% Inside Gor's cave, Elizabeth and Roger Jacabe,<00:12:41.440> a<00:12:41.600> pair<00:12:41.760> of<00:12:41.920> archaeologists, 11:16.357 --> 11:16.367 align:start position:0% Jacabe, a pair of archaeologists, 11:16.367 --> 11:19.077 align:start position:0% Jacabe, a pair of archaeologists, noticed<00:12:43.600> something<00:12:44.240> new.<00:12:45.120> Bones<00:12:45.519> were 11:19.077 --> 11:19.087 align:start position:0% noticed something new. Bones were 11:19.087 --> 11:20.596 align:start position:0% noticed something new. Bones were protruding<00:12:46.240> from<00:12:46.480> a<00:12:46.639> small<00:12:46.880> section<00:12:47.120> of 11:20.596 --> 11:20.606 align:start position:0% protruding from a small section of 11:20.606 --> 11:22.596 align:start position:0% protruding from a small section of sediment<00:12:47.680> in<00:12:47.920> the<00:12:48.079> northwest<00:12:48.560> corner<00:12:48.959> of<00:12:49.120> the 11:22.596 --> 11:22.606 align:start position:0% sediment in the northwest corner of the 11:22.606 --> 11:24.276 align:start position:0% sediment in the northwest corner of the same<00:12:49.600> feature<00:12:50.000> that<00:12:50.240> had<00:12:50.399> yielded<00:12:50.720> the 11:24.276 --> 11:24.286 align:start position:0% same feature that had yielded the 11:24.286 --> 11:26.917 align:start position:0% same feature that had yielded the Cheddam<00:12:51.680> skeleton.<00:12:52.880> And<00:12:53.040> in<00:12:53.279> these 11:26.917 --> 11:26.927 align:start position:0% Cheddam skeleton. And in these 11:26.927 --> 11:29.077 align:start position:0% Cheddam skeleton. And in these sediments,<00:12:54.399> they<00:12:54.639> discovered<00:12:55.040> an<00:12:55.279> assemblage 11:29.077 --> 11:29.087 align:start position:0% sediments, they discovered an assemblage 11:29.087 --> 11:32.276 align:start position:0% sediments, they discovered an assemblage of<00:12:56.079> human<00:12:56.480> bones.<00:12:57.600> Many<00:12:57.839> of<00:12:58.000> them<00:12:58.240> broken<00:12:58.639> into 11:32.276 --> 11:32.286 align:start position:0% of human bones. Many of them broken into 11:32.286 --> 11:34.437 align:start position:0% of human bones. Many of them broken into pieces<00:12:59.440> and<00:12:59.680> mixed<00:13:00.079> in<00:13:00.240> with<00:13:00.480> the<00:13:00.639> remains<00:13:00.959> of 11:34.437 --> 11:34.447 align:start position:0% pieces and mixed in with the remains of 11:34.447 --> 11:37.156 align:start position:0% pieces and mixed in with the remains of large<00:13:01.440> mammals<00:13:02.000> like<00:13:02.320> horses,<00:13:03.120> deer,<00:13:03.600> and 11:37.156 --> 11:37.166 align:start position:0% large mammals like horses, deer, and 11:37.166 --> 11:39.637 align:start position:0% large mammals like horses, deer, and oroxs.<00:13:05.200> These<00:13:05.519> were<00:13:05.600> the<00:13:05.839> kind<00:13:05.920> of<00:13:06.000> animals 11:39.637 --> 11:39.647 align:start position:0% oroxs. These were the kind of animals 11:39.647 --> 11:41.237 align:start position:0% oroxs. These were the kind of animals that<00:13:06.480> hunter<00:13:06.800> gatherers<00:13:07.200> in<00:13:07.360> prehistoric 11:41.237 --> 11:41.247 align:start position:0% that hunter gatherers in prehistoric 11:41.247 --> 11:43.317 align:start position:0% that hunter gatherers in prehistoric Britain<00:13:08.320> would<00:13:08.480> have<00:13:08.639> often<00:13:08.959> hunted,<00:13:09.760> and 11:43.317 --> 11:43.327 align:start position:0% Britain would have often hunted, and 11:43.327 --> 11:45.237 align:start position:0% Britain would have often hunted, and finding<00:13:10.320> human<00:13:10.639> remains<00:13:11.120> alongside<00:13:11.680> them 11:45.237 --> 11:45.247 align:start position:0% finding human remains alongside them 11:45.247 --> 11:48.037 align:start position:0% finding human remains alongside them wasn't<00:13:12.240> necessarily<00:13:12.880> unexpected. 11:48.037 --> 11:48.047 align:start position:0% wasn't necessarily unexpected. 11:48.047 --> 11:50.357 align:start position:0% wasn't necessarily unexpected. However,<00:13:15.360> what<00:13:15.600> did<00:13:15.839> come<00:13:16.000> as<00:13:16.160> a<00:13:16.399> surprise 11:50.357 --> 11:50.367 align:start position:0% However, what did come as a surprise 11:50.367 --> 11:52.677 align:start position:0% However, what did come as a surprise were<00:13:17.279> the<00:13:17.440> obvious<00:13:17.839> signs<00:13:18.160> of<00:13:18.399> butchery<00:13:19.120> on 11:52.677 --> 11:52.687 align:start position:0% were the obvious signs of butchery on 11:52.687 --> 12:02.437 align:start position:0% were the obvious signs of butchery on the<00:13:19.600> human<00:13:20.000> bones. 12:02.437 --> 12:02.447 align:start position:0% 12:02.447 --> 12:04.517 align:start position:0% Just<00:13:29.360> like<00:13:29.440> the<00:13:29.680> bones<00:13:29.920> from<00:13:30.079> Cpina,<00:13:30.959> they 12:04.517 --> 12:04.527 align:start position:0% Just like the bones from Cpina, they 12:04.527 --> 12:07.077 align:start position:0% Just like the bones from Cpina, they bore<00:13:31.519> marks<00:13:31.920> made<00:13:32.160> by<00:13:32.320> cutting<00:13:32.720> tools,<00:13:33.519> and 12:07.077 --> 12:07.087 align:start position:0% bore marks made by cutting tools, and 12:07.087 --> 12:08.997 align:start position:0% bore marks made by cutting tools, and several<00:13:34.079> long<00:13:34.399> bones<00:13:34.720> had<00:13:34.880> been<00:13:35.040> split<00:13:35.360> open 12:08.997 --> 12:09.007 align:start position:0% several long bones had been split open 12:09.007 --> 12:11.877 align:start position:0% several long bones had been split open to<00:13:35.920> access<00:13:36.320> the<00:13:36.560> marrow.<00:13:37.680> It<00:13:37.920> looked<00:13:38.240> very 12:11.877 --> 12:11.887 align:start position:0% to access the marrow. It looked very 12:11.887 --> 12:13.557 align:start position:0% to access the marrow. It looked very much<00:13:38.880> like<00:13:39.040> the<00:13:39.279> people<00:13:39.519> these<00:13:39.760> bones<00:13:40.079> had 12:13.557 --> 12:13.567 align:start position:0% much like the people these bones had 12:13.567 --> 12:15.557 align:start position:0% much like the people these bones had belonged<00:13:40.560> to<00:13:40.880> had<00:13:41.120> been<00:13:41.279> treated<00:13:41.600> in<00:13:41.839> exactly 12:15.557 --> 12:15.567 align:start position:0% belonged to had been treated in exactly 12:15.567 --> 12:18.197 align:start position:0% belonged to had been treated in exactly the<00:13:42.480> same<00:13:42.720> way<00:13:42.959> as<00:13:43.200> the<00:13:43.440> prey<00:13:43.760> animals<00:13:44.560> around 12:18.197 --> 12:18.207 align:start position:0% the same way as the prey animals around 12:18.207 --> 12:21.637 align:start position:0% the same way as the prey animals around them.<00:13:46.240> So,<00:13:46.720> what<00:13:46.959> exactly<00:13:47.519> happened<00:13:47.920> to<00:13:48.160> the 12:21.637 --> 12:21.647 align:start position:0% them. So, what exactly happened to the 12:21.647 --> 12:24.677 align:start position:0% them. So, what exactly happened to the people<00:13:48.480> at<00:13:48.720> Grapina<00:13:49.360> and<00:13:49.600> Gooff's<00:13:50.079> cave?<00:13:51.040> Were 12:24.677 --> 12:24.687 align:start position:0% people at Grapina and Gooff's cave? Were 12:24.687 --> 12:26.677 align:start position:0% people at Grapina and Gooff's cave? Were they<00:13:51.519> really<00:13:51.839> hunted<00:13:52.240> down<00:13:52.399> and<00:13:52.639> eaten<00:13:53.120> like 12:26.677 --> 12:26.687 align:start position:0% they really hunted down and eaten like 12:26.687 --> 12:30.836 align:start position:0% they really hunted down and eaten like animals?<00:13:54.160> Or<00:13:54.320> is<00:13:54.480> the<00:13:54.720> truth<00:13:55.360> more<00:13:55.680> nuanced? 12:30.836 --> 12:30.846 align:start position:0% animals? Or is the truth more nuanced? 12:30.846 --> 12:32.917 align:start position:0% animals? Or is the truth more nuanced? The<00:13:57.760> honest<00:13:58.079> answer<00:13:58.560> is<00:13:58.720> that<00:13:58.959> we<00:13:59.199> don't<00:13:59.440> know 12:32.917 --> 12:32.927 align:start position:0% The honest answer is that we don't know 12:32.927 --> 12:35.956 align:start position:0% The honest answer is that we don't know for<00:13:59.920> sure.<00:14:00.720> But<00:14:00.880> that<00:14:01.120> uncertainty<00:14:01.760> is<00:14:02.000> itself 12:35.956 --> 12:35.966 align:start position:0% for sure. But that uncertainty is itself 12:35.966 --> 12:38.197 align:start position:0% for sure. But that uncertainty is itself significant<00:14:03.600> because<00:14:03.920> it<00:14:04.160> tells<00:14:04.399> us<00:14:04.639> that 12:38.197 --> 12:38.207 align:start position:0% significant because it tells us that 12:38.207 --> 12:40.596 align:start position:0% significant because it tells us that even<00:14:05.120> tens<00:14:05.440> of<00:14:05.600> thousands<00:14:06.000> of<00:14:06.160> years<00:14:06.320> ago,<00:14:06.959> the 12:40.596 --> 12:40.606 align:start position:0% even tens of thousands of years ago, the 12:40.606 --> 12:42.516 align:start position:0% even tens of thousands of years ago, the reasons<00:14:07.680> people<00:14:07.920> had<00:14:08.160> for<00:14:08.320> consuming<00:14:08.800> human 12:42.516 --> 12:42.526 align:start position:0% reasons people had for consuming human 12:42.526 --> 12:45.156 align:start position:0% reasons people had for consuming human flesh<00:14:10.000> might<00:14:10.240> not<00:14:10.399> have<00:14:10.480> been<00:14:10.639> as<00:14:10.880> clear<00:14:11.440> as<00:14:11.680> we 12:45.156 --> 12:45.166 align:start position:0% flesh might not have been as clear as we 12:45.166 --> 12:47.956 align:start position:0% flesh might not have been as clear as we would<00:14:12.000> like<00:14:12.160> to<00:14:12.320> think.<00:14:13.600> And<00:14:13.839> indeed,<00:14:14.160> Goff's 12:47.956 --> 12:47.966 align:start position:0% would like to think. And indeed, Goff's 12:47.966 --> 12:50.117 align:start position:0% would like to think. And indeed, Goff's cave<00:14:14.800> and<00:14:14.959> Cina<00:14:15.600> are<00:14:15.839> far<00:14:16.079> from<00:14:16.320> the<00:14:16.560> only 12:50.117 --> 12:50.127 align:start position:0% cave and Cina are far from the only 12:50.127 --> 12:52.037 align:start position:0% cave and Cina are far from the only places<00:14:17.120> where<00:14:17.360> evidence<00:14:17.680> of<00:14:17.839> cannibalism<00:14:18.480> in 12:52.037 --> 12:52.047 align:start position:0% places where evidence of cannibalism in 12:52.047 --> 12:55.237 align:start position:0% places where evidence of cannibalism in ancient<00:14:19.040> humankind<00:14:19.839> can<00:14:20.079> be<00:14:20.320> found.<00:14:21.440> Not<00:14:21.680> only 12:55.237 --> 12:55.247 align:start position:0% ancient humankind can be found. Not only 12:55.247 --> 12:57.477 align:start position:0% ancient humankind can be found. Not only that,<00:14:22.560> they<00:14:22.800> are<00:14:22.959> far<00:14:23.199> from<00:14:23.440> being<00:14:23.600> the<00:14:23.839> places 12:57.477 --> 12:57.487 align:start position:0% that, they are far from being the places 12:57.487 --> 13:03.716 align:start position:0% that, they are far from being the places with<00:14:24.399> the<00:14:24.560> oldest<00:14:25.040> evidence. 13:03.716 --> 13:03.726 align:start position:0% 13:03.726 --> 13:06.197 align:start position:0% In<00:14:30.560> the<00:14:30.720> Atapa<00:14:31.440> mountains<00:14:31.760> of<00:14:32.000> northern<00:14:32.399> Spain 13:06.197 --> 13:06.207 align:start position:0% In the Atapa mountains of northern Spain 13:06.207 --> 13:09.396 align:start position:0% In the Atapa mountains of northern Spain sits<00:14:33.199> a<00:14:33.440> cave<00:14:33.920> called<00:14:34.320> Grandina.<00:14:35.600> Since<00:14:35.839> the 13:09.396 --> 13:09.406 align:start position:0% sits a cave called Grandina. Since the 13:09.406 --> 13:11.477 align:start position:0% sits a cave called Grandina. Since the 1960s,<00:14:36.880> researchers<00:14:37.360> have<00:14:37.519> been<00:14:37.680> excavating 13:11.477 --> 13:11.487 align:start position:0% 1960s, researchers have been excavating 13:11.487 --> 13:13.877 align:start position:0% 1960s, researchers have been excavating its<00:14:38.480> sediments<00:14:39.199> and<00:14:39.519> uncovering<00:14:40.000> the<00:14:40.240> bones 13:13.877 --> 13:13.887 align:start position:0% its sediments and uncovering the bones 13:13.887 --> 13:15.716 align:start position:0% its sediments and uncovering the bones of<00:14:40.720> an<00:14:40.880> ancient<00:14:41.199> homminin<00:14:41.760> community<00:14:42.160> that 13:15.716 --> 13:15.726 align:start position:0% of an ancient homminin community that 13:15.726 --> 13:18.516 align:start position:0% of an ancient homminin community that once<00:14:42.720> occupied<00:14:43.279> the<00:14:43.440> cave,<00:14:44.399> dated<00:14:44.800> to<00:14:45.040> an 13:18.516 --> 13:18.526 align:start position:0% once occupied the cave, dated to an 13:18.526 --> 13:22.037 align:start position:0% once occupied the cave, dated to an astonishing<00:14:46.079> 800,000<00:14:47.120> years<00:14:47.360> ago.<00:14:48.399> Since 13:22.037 --> 13:22.047 align:start position:0% astonishing 800,000 years ago. Since 13:22.047 --> 13:23.877 align:start position:0% astonishing 800,000 years ago. Since then,<00:14:49.120> they<00:14:49.360> have<00:14:49.440> uncovered<00:14:49.920> more<00:14:50.160> than<00:14:50.320> two 13:23.877 --> 13:23.887 align:start position:0% then, they have uncovered more than two 13:23.887 --> 13:25.797 align:start position:0% then, they have uncovered more than two dozen<00:14:50.959> examples<00:14:51.360> of<00:14:51.519> cannibalism<00:14:52.079> at<00:14:52.320> the 13:25.797 --> 13:25.807 align:start position:0% dozen examples of cannibalism at the 13:25.807 --> 13:28.437 align:start position:0% dozen examples of cannibalism at the site,<00:14:53.199> with<00:14:53.440> roughly<00:14:53.839> 30%<00:14:54.480> of<00:14:54.639> the<00:14:54.800> human 13:28.437 --> 13:28.447 align:start position:0% site, with roughly 30% of the human 13:28.447 --> 13:29.877 align:start position:0% site, with roughly 30% of the human bones<00:14:55.440> recovered<00:14:55.839> there<00:14:56.160> bearing 13:29.877 --> 13:29.887 align:start position:0% bones recovered there bearing 13:29.887 --> 13:32.677 align:start position:0% bones recovered there bearing anthropogenic<00:14:57.360> cut<00:14:57.680> marks. 13:32.677 --> 13:32.687 align:start position:0% anthropogenic cut marks. 13:32.687 --> 13:35.877 align:start position:0% anthropogenic cut marks. And<00:14:59.680> in<00:14:59.920> July<00:15:00.320> 2025,<00:15:01.440> the<00:15:01.680> team<00:15:01.920> excavating 13:35.877 --> 13:35.887 align:start position:0% And in July 2025, the team excavating 13:35.887 --> 13:37.797 align:start position:0% And in July 2025, the team excavating the<00:15:02.720> site<00:15:03.040> made<00:15:03.279> a<00:15:03.440> discovery<00:15:03.920> that<00:15:04.160> brought 13:37.797 --> 13:37.807 align:start position:0% the site made a discovery that brought 13:37.807 --> 13:41.237 align:start position:0% the site made a discovery that brought the<00:15:04.639> horror<00:15:04.959> of<00:15:05.279> Grandina<00:15:06.079> into<00:15:06.399> sharp<00:15:06.800> focus. 13:41.237 --> 13:41.247 align:start position:0% the horror of Grandina into sharp focus. 13:41.247 --> 13:44.197 align:start position:0% the horror of Grandina into sharp focus. Among<00:15:08.399> 10<00:15:08.800> newly<00:15:09.199> uncovered<00:15:09.600> sets<00:15:09.839> of<00:15:10.000> remains 13:44.197 --> 13:44.207 align:start position:0% Among 10 newly uncovered sets of remains 13:44.207 --> 13:47.637 align:start position:0% Among 10 newly uncovered sets of remains was<00:15:11.120> the<00:15:11.279> neckbone<00:15:12.160> of<00:15:12.399> a<00:15:12.639> child.<00:15:13.680> The<00:15:14.000> child 13:47.637 --> 13:47.647 align:start position:0% was the neckbone of a child. The child 13:47.647 --> 13:49.956 align:start position:0% was the neckbone of a child. The child had<00:15:14.560> been<00:15:14.720> between<00:15:15.040> 2<00:15:15.360> and<00:15:15.600> 5<00:15:15.839> years<00:15:16.079> old<00:15:16.320> when 13:49.956 --> 13:49.966 align:start position:0% had been between 2 and 5 years old when 13:49.966 --> 13:52.836 align:start position:0% had been between 2 and 5 years old when they<00:15:16.800> died.<00:15:17.839> The<00:15:18.079> vertebrae<00:15:18.639> bore<00:15:18.959> incisions 13:52.836 --> 13:52.846 align:start position:0% they died. The vertebrae bore incisions 13:52.846 --> 13:54.757 align:start position:0% they died. The vertebrae bore incisions at<00:15:19.760> exactly<00:15:20.240> the<00:15:20.399> anatomical<00:15:21.120> points 13:54.757 --> 13:54.767 align:start position:0% at exactly the anatomical points 13:54.767 --> 13:57.557 align:start position:0% at exactly the anatomical points required<00:15:22.000> to<00:15:22.240> detach<00:15:22.639> the<00:15:22.880> head. 13:57.557 --> 13:57.567 align:start position:0% required to detach the head. 13:57.567 --> 14:00.037 align:start position:0% required to detach the head. Palmira<00:15:24.800> Saladier,<00:15:25.680> the<00:15:25.839> co-director<00:15:26.399> of<00:15:26.560> the 14:00.037 --> 14:00.047 align:start position:0% Palmira Saladier, the co-director of the 14:00.047 --> 14:02.037 align:start position:0% Palmira Saladier, the co-director of the excavation,<00:15:27.680> noted<00:15:28.000> that<00:15:28.160> the<00:15:28.320> case<00:15:28.560> was 14:02.037 --> 14:02.047 align:start position:0% excavation, noted that the case was 14:02.047 --> 14:03.877 align:start position:0% excavation, noted that the case was striking<00:15:29.199> not<00:15:29.440> only<00:15:29.600> because<00:15:29.839> of<00:15:30.000> the<00:15:30.160> child's 14:03.877 --> 14:03.887 align:start position:0% striking not only because of the child's 14:03.887 --> 14:06.276 align:start position:0% striking not only because of the child's age,<00:15:31.120> but<00:15:31.360> because<00:15:31.519> of<00:15:31.680> how<00:15:32.000> precise<00:15:32.480> the<00:15:32.720> cut 14:06.276 --> 14:06.286 align:start position:0% age, but because of how precise the cut 14:06.286 --> 14:09.156 align:start position:0% age, but because of how precise the cut marks<00:15:33.440> were.<00:15:34.320> The<00:15:34.560> child<00:15:34.880> had<00:15:35.199> been<00:15:35.360> processed 14:09.156 --> 14:09.166 align:start position:0% marks were. The child had been processed 14:09.166 --> 14:11.477 align:start position:0% marks were. The child had been processed in<00:15:36.160> exactly<00:15:36.480> the<00:15:36.800> same<00:15:36.959> way<00:15:37.440> as<00:15:37.680> a<00:15:37.839> prey 14:11.477 --> 14:11.487 align:start position:0% in exactly the same way as a prey 14:11.487 --> 14:16.197 align:start position:0% in exactly the same way as a prey animal. 14:16.197 --> 14:16.207 align:start position:0% 14:16.207 --> 14:18.037 align:start position:0% The<00:15:43.040> homminins<00:15:43.600> found<00:15:43.839> at<00:15:44.000> this<00:15:44.160> site<00:15:44.480> were 14:18.037 --> 14:18.047 align:start position:0% The homminins found at this site were 14:18.047 --> 14:20.276 align:start position:0% The homminins found at this site were homo<00:15:45.120> anticcessor<00:15:46.240> which<00:15:46.480> means<00:15:46.800> that 14:20.276 --> 14:20.286 align:start position:0% homo anticcessor which means that 14:20.286 --> 14:22.677 align:start position:0% homo anticcessor which means that cannibalism<00:15:47.680> almost<00:15:48.000> certainly<00:15:48.480> predates<00:15:48.959> us 14:22.677 --> 14:22.687 align:start position:0% cannibalism almost certainly predates us 14:22.687 --> 14:24.917 align:start position:0% cannibalism almost certainly predates us and<00:15:49.680> existed<00:15:50.079> in<00:15:50.240> our<00:15:50.480> very<00:15:50.720> early<00:15:51.040> ancestors 14:24.917 --> 14:24.927 align:start position:0% and existed in our very early ancestors 14:24.927 --> 14:28.276 align:start position:0% and existed in our very early ancestors and<00:15:51.920> evolutionary<00:15:52.639> relatives.<00:15:54.079> So<00:15:54.560> whoever 14:28.276 --> 14:28.286 align:start position:0% and evolutionary relatives. So whoever 14:28.286 --> 14:30.516 align:start position:0% and evolutionary relatives. So whoever did<00:15:55.199> this<00:15:55.360> to<00:15:55.600> that<00:15:55.920> child<00:15:56.399> and<00:15:56.639> to<00:15:56.800> the<00:15:56.959> 11 14:30.516 --> 14:30.526 align:start position:0% did this to that child and to the 11 14:30.526 --> 14:33.076 align:start position:0% did this to that child and to the 11 others<00:15:57.519> whose<00:15:57.839> bones<00:15:58.160> tell<00:15:58.399> the<00:15:58.639> same<00:15:58.800> story 14:33.076 --> 14:33.086 align:start position:0% others whose bones tell the same story 14:33.086 --> 14:35.797 align:start position:0% others whose bones tell the same story were<00:15:59.920> they<00:16:00.160> homoantcessor<00:16:01.279> too?<00:16:02.079> Were<00:16:02.320> they 14:35.797 --> 14:35.807 align:start position:0% were they homoantcessor too? Were they 14:35.807 --> 14:37.637 align:start position:0% were they homoantcessor too? Were they members<00:16:02.800> of<00:16:02.880> the<00:16:03.120> same<00:16:03.279> community<00:16:03.839> performing 14:37.637 --> 14:37.647 align:start position:0% members of the same community performing 14:37.647 --> 14:39.956 align:start position:0% members of the same community performing mortuary<00:16:04.880> rights<00:16:05.519> or<00:16:05.759> were<00:16:05.920> they<00:16:06.079> members<00:16:06.399> of 14:39.956 --> 14:39.966 align:start position:0% mortuary rights or were they members of 14:39.966 --> 14:42.596 align:start position:0% mortuary rights or were they members of a<00:16:06.880> different<00:16:07.199> group<00:16:07.920> committing<00:16:08.639> acts<00:16:09.040> of 14:42.596 --> 14:42.606 align:start position:0% a different group committing acts of 14:42.606 --> 14:45.317 align:start position:0% a different group committing acts of warfare?<00:16:10.560> Indeed,<00:16:10.959> research<00:16:11.360> tells<00:16:11.600> us<00:16:11.759> that 14:45.317 --> 14:45.327 align:start position:0% warfare? Indeed, research tells us that 14:45.327 --> 14:47.317 align:start position:0% warfare? Indeed, research tells us that another<00:16:12.320> species<00:16:12.639> of<00:16:12.800> homminin<00:16:13.360> was<00:16:13.680> present 14:47.317 --> 14:47.327 align:start position:0% another species of homminin was present 14:47.327 --> 14:49.557 align:start position:0% another species of homminin was present in<00:16:14.160> the<00:16:14.399> area<00:16:14.720> at<00:16:14.959> roughly<00:16:15.360> the<00:16:15.600> same<00:16:15.759> time<00:16:16.000> as 14:49.557 --> 14:49.567 align:start position:0% in the area at roughly the same time as 14:49.567 --> 14:51.156 align:start position:0% in the area at roughly the same time as homoantcessor. 14:51.156 --> 14:51.166 align:start position:0% homoantcessor. 14:51.166 --> 14:53.076 align:start position:0% homoantcessor. Homo<00:16:18.399> erectus<00:16:19.040> was<00:16:19.199> one<00:16:19.360> of<00:16:19.440> the<00:16:19.600> most 14:53.076 --> 14:53.086 align:start position:0% Homo erectus was one of the most 14:53.086 --> 14:55.156 align:start position:0% Homo erectus was one of the most successful<00:16:20.320> and<00:16:20.560> widespread<00:16:21.120> homminins<00:16:21.680> to 14:55.156 --> 14:55.166 align:start position:0% successful and widespread homminins to 14:55.166 --> 14:57.877 align:start position:0% successful and widespread homminins to ever<00:16:22.079> exist.<00:16:23.120> A<00:16:23.279> species<00:16:23.680> that<00:16:23.920> had<00:16:24.160> already 14:57.877 --> 14:57.887 align:start position:0% ever exist. A species that had already 14:57.887 --> 14:59.557 align:start position:0% ever exist. A species that had already been<00:16:24.720> walking<00:16:25.040> the<00:16:25.279> earth<00:16:25.519> for<00:16:25.759> hundreds<00:16:26.079> of 14:59.557 --> 14:59.567 align:start position:0% been walking the earth for hundreds of 14:59.567 --> 15:02.197 align:start position:0% been walking the earth for hundreds of thousands<00:16:26.639> of<00:16:26.800> years<00:16:27.199> before<00:16:27.839> homoccessor 15:02.197 --> 15:02.207 align:start position:0% thousands of years before homoccessor 15:02.207 --> 15:05.076 align:start position:0% thousands of years before homoccessor appeared.<00:16:30.079> And<00:16:30.240> indeed,<00:16:30.639> if<00:16:30.800> Homo<00:16:31.279> erectus 15:05.076 --> 15:05.086 align:start position:0% appeared. And indeed, if Homo erectus 15:05.086 --> 15:06.677 align:start position:0% appeared. And indeed, if Homo erectus really<00:16:32.079> was<00:16:32.320> capable<00:16:32.639> of<00:16:32.880> this<00:16:33.040> kind<00:16:33.199> of 15:06.677 --> 15:06.687 align:start position:0% really was capable of this kind of 15:06.687 --> 15:09.237 align:start position:0% really was capable of this kind of violence,<00:16:34.240> it<00:16:34.480> wouldn't<00:16:34.720> be<00:16:34.880> surprising 15:09.237 --> 15:09.247 align:start position:0% violence, it wouldn't be surprising 15:09.247 --> 15:10.997 align:start position:0% violence, it wouldn't be surprising because<00:16:36.240> more<00:16:36.480> than<00:16:36.639> a<00:16:36.720> thousand<00:16:37.199> kilometers 15:10.997 --> 15:11.007 align:start position:0% because more than a thousand kilometers 15:11.007 --> 15:13.237 align:start position:0% because more than a thousand kilometers away<00:16:38.160> on<00:16:38.320> a<00:16:38.560> different<00:16:38.720> continent,<00:16:39.519> evidence 15:13.237 --> 15:13.247 align:start position:0% away on a different continent, evidence 15:13.247 --> 15:15.076 align:start position:0% away on a different continent, evidence had<00:16:40.240> already<00:16:40.639> been<00:16:40.880> accumulating<00:16:41.440> that 15:15.076 --> 15:15.086 align:start position:0% had already been accumulating that 15:15.086 --> 15:16.836 align:start position:0% had already been accumulating that placed<00:16:42.000> a<00:16:42.240> member<00:16:42.399> of<00:16:42.480> the<00:16:42.639> Homo<00:16:42.959> erectus 15:16.836 --> 15:16.846 align:start position:0% placed a member of the Homo erectus 15:16.846 --> 15:19.076 align:start position:0% placed a member of the Homo erectus lineage<00:16:44.240> at<00:16:44.480> the<00:16:44.720> center<00:16:44.959> of<00:16:45.120> the<00:16:45.360> oldest 15:19.076 --> 15:19.086 align:start position:0% lineage at the center of the oldest 15:19.086 --> 15:24.997 align:start position:0% lineage at the center of the oldest cannibalism<00:16:46.480> case<00:16:47.199> ever<00:16:47.600> found. 15:24.997 --> 15:25.007 align:start position:0% 15:25.007 --> 15:27.797 align:start position:0% In<00:16:52.000> 2017,<00:16:52.959> paleo<00:16:53.440> anthropologist<00:16:54.000> Brianna 15:27.797 --> 15:27.807 align:start position:0% In 2017, paleo anthropologist Brianna 15:27.807 --> 15:29.877 align:start position:0% In 2017, paleo anthropologist Brianna Pobner<00:16:55.120> was<00:16:55.360> working<00:16:55.600> through<00:16:55.839> old<00:16:56.160> fossil 15:29.877 --> 15:29.887 align:start position:0% Pobner was working through old fossil 15:29.887 --> 15:31.716 align:start position:0% Pobner was working through old fossil collections<00:16:57.120> at<00:16:57.279> the<00:16:57.440> National<00:16:57.839> Museum<00:16:58.160> of 15:31.716 --> 15:31.726 align:start position:0% collections at the National Museum of 15:31.726 --> 15:34.516 align:start position:0% collections at the National Museum of Kenya<00:16:58.959> in<00:16:59.199> Nairobi. 15:34.516 --> 15:34.526 align:start position:0% Kenya in Nairobi. 15:34.526 --> 15:36.037 align:start position:0% Kenya in Nairobi. >> So<00:17:01.440> I<00:17:01.759> thought<00:17:02.000> it<00:17:02.160> would<00:17:02.320> be<00:17:02.480> really 15:36.037 --> 15:36.047 align:start position:0% >> So I thought it would be really 15:36.047 --> 15:37.797 align:start position:0% >> So I thought it would be really interesting<00:17:03.120> to<00:17:03.360> look<00:17:03.519> at<00:17:03.759> actually<00:17:04.079> the 15:37.797 --> 15:37.807 align:start position:0% interesting to look at actually the 15:37.807 --> 15:40.116 align:start position:0% interesting to look at actually the early<00:17:04.799> human<00:17:05.280> fossil<00:17:05.679> bones<00:17:06.000> to<00:17:06.240> see<00:17:06.319> if<00:17:06.480> I<00:17:06.640> can 15:40.116 --> 15:40.126 align:start position:0% early human fossil bones to see if I can 15:40.126 --> 15:42.276 align:start position:0% early human fossil bones to see if I can find<00:17:07.039> any<00:17:07.360> carnivore<00:17:07.839> tooth<00:17:08.079> marks<00:17:08.319> on<00:17:08.480> them. 15:42.276 --> 15:42.286 align:start position:0% find any carnivore tooth marks on them. 15:42.286 --> 15:44.116 align:start position:0% find any carnivore tooth marks on them. Disappointingly,<00:17:09.679> I<00:17:09.919> didn't<00:17:10.079> find<00:17:10.240> any<00:17:10.480> tooth 15:44.116 --> 15:44.126 align:start position:0% Disappointingly, I didn't find any tooth 15:44.126 --> 15:46.597 align:start position:0% Disappointingly, I didn't find any tooth marks<00:17:11.120> at<00:17:11.360> all.<00:17:11.839> But<00:17:12.000> as<00:17:12.160> I<00:17:12.319> was<00:17:12.480> finishing<00:17:12.880> up, 15:46.597 --> 15:46.607 align:start position:0% marks at all. But as I was finishing up, 15:46.607 --> 15:48.437 align:start position:0% marks at all. But as I was finishing up, I<00:17:13.439> was<00:17:13.600> looking<00:17:13.679> at<00:17:13.839> a<00:17:14.000> tibia<00:17:14.319> of<00:17:14.480> a<00:17:14.559> hominin 15:48.437 --> 15:48.447 align:start position:0% I was looking at a tibia of a hominin 15:48.447 --> 15:50.756 align:start position:0% I was looking at a tibia of a hominin fossil<00:17:15.439> from<00:17:15.679> northern<00:17:16.079> Kenya<00:17:16.880> dated<00:17:17.280> to 15:50.756 --> 15:50.766 align:start position:0% fossil from northern Kenya dated to 15:50.766 --> 15:52.917 align:start position:0% fossil from northern Kenya dated to about<00:17:17.919> 1.45<00:17:18.559> four<00:17:18.720> or<00:17:18.959> five<00:17:19.120> million<00:17:19.439> years 15:52.917 --> 15:52.927 align:start position:0% about 1.45 four or five million years 15:52.927 --> 15:54.996 align:start position:0% about 1.45 four or five million years ago<00:17:20.160> with<00:17:20.400> my<00:17:20.559> hand<00:17:20.799> lens.<00:17:21.120> And<00:17:21.280> so<00:17:21.360> I<00:17:21.600> just 15:54.996 --> 15:55.006 align:start position:0% ago with my hand lens. And so I just 15:55.006 --> 15:56.597 align:start position:0% ago with my hand lens. And so I just used<00:17:21.839> a<00:17:22.079> pretty<00:17:22.240> simple<00:17:22.480> magnifying<00:17:23.039> lens 15:56.597 --> 15:56.607 align:start position:0% used a pretty simple magnifying lens 15:56.607 --> 15:57.876 align:start position:0% used a pretty simple magnifying lens when<00:17:23.520> I'm<00:17:23.679> looking<00:17:23.760> at<00:17:23.919> the<00:17:24.079> surface<00:17:24.319> of 15:57.876 --> 15:57.886 align:start position:0% when I'm looking at the surface of 15:57.886 --> 16:00.437 align:start position:0% when I'm looking at the surface of fossils<00:17:25.120> looking<00:17:25.600> with<00:17:25.839> a<00:17:26.079> nice<00:17:26.480> uh<00:17:26.799> light 16:00.437 --> 16:00.447 align:start position:0% fossils looking with a nice uh light 16:00.447 --> 16:02.116 align:start position:0% fossils looking with a nice uh light kind<00:17:27.280> of<00:17:27.439> raking<00:17:27.839> across<00:17:28.079> the<00:17:28.319> surface<00:17:28.480> of<00:17:28.640> the 16:02.116 --> 16:02.126 align:start position:0% kind of raking across the surface of the 16:02.126 --> 16:04.837 align:start position:0% kind of raking across the surface of the bone<00:17:29.520> looking<00:17:29.760> for<00:17:30.000> marks.<00:17:30.640> And<00:17:30.799> so<00:17:30.880> I<00:17:31.120> turned 16:04.837 --> 16:04.847 align:start position:0% bone looking for marks. And so I turned 16:04.847 --> 16:08.437 align:start position:0% bone looking for marks. And so I turned over<00:17:31.760> this<00:17:32.080> tibia<00:17:32.799> and<00:17:33.039> I<00:17:33.280> suddenly<00:17:33.760> saw<00:17:34.799> cut 16:08.437 --> 16:08.447 align:start position:0% over this tibia and I suddenly saw cut 16:08.447 --> 16:11.317 align:start position:0% over this tibia and I suddenly saw cut marks.<00:17:36.240> And<00:17:36.480> I<00:17:36.880> honestly<00:17:37.360> I<00:17:37.600> initially 16:11.317 --> 16:11.327 align:start position:0% marks. And I honestly I initially 16:11.327 --> 16:13.317 align:start position:0% marks. And I honestly I initially thought<00:17:38.400> there's<00:17:38.720> no<00:17:38.880> way<00:17:39.440> there's<00:17:39.760> no<00:17:39.919> way 16:13.317 --> 16:13.327 align:start position:0% thought there's no way there's no way 16:13.327 --> 16:14.757 align:start position:0% thought there's no way there's no way that<00:17:40.240> there's<00:17:40.400> butchery<00:17:40.880> marks<00:17:41.120> on<00:17:41.280> this 16:14.757 --> 16:14.767 align:start position:0% that there's butchery marks on this 16:14.767 --> 16:18.356 align:start position:0% that there's butchery marks on this tibia. 16:18.356 --> 16:18.366 align:start position:0% 16:18.366 --> 16:20.277 align:start position:0% So<00:17:45.280> they're<00:17:45.600> short.<00:17:46.000> They're<00:17:46.320> really<00:17:46.559> all 16:20.277 --> 16:20.287 align:start position:0% So they're short. They're really all 16:20.287 --> 16:22.677 align:start position:0% So they're short. They're really all kind<00:17:47.120> of<00:17:47.200> in<00:17:47.440> a<00:17:47.760> row,<00:17:48.000> all<00:17:48.320> facing<00:17:48.720> in<00:17:48.960> the<00:17:49.120> same 16:22.677 --> 16:22.687 align:start position:0% kind of in a row, all facing in the same 16:22.687 --> 16:24.597 align:start position:0% kind of in a row, all facing in the same direction<00:17:50.000> and<00:17:50.240> all<00:17:50.400> on<00:17:50.640> the<00:17:50.880> same<00:17:51.039> part<00:17:51.200> of 16:24.597 --> 16:24.607 align:start position:0% direction and all on the same part of 16:24.607 --> 16:27.317 align:start position:0% direction and all on the same part of the<00:17:51.440> bone.<00:17:52.080> They<00:17:52.320> are<00:17:52.480> mixed<00:17:52.720> in<00:17:52.880> with<00:17:53.200> two 16:27.317 --> 16:27.327 align:start position:0% the bone. They are mixed in with two 16:27.327 --> 16:29.317 align:start position:0% the bone. They are mixed in with two broader,<00:17:54.480> shallower<00:17:55.039> marks<00:17:55.360> that<00:17:55.600> I<00:17:55.840> thought 16:29.317 --> 16:29.327 align:start position:0% broader, shallower marks that I thought 16:29.327 --> 16:30.917 align:start position:0% broader, shallower marks that I thought were<00:17:56.160> tooth<00:17:56.400> marks.<00:17:56.720> Also<00:17:56.960> came<00:17:57.120> out<00:17:57.280> in<00:17:57.520> the 16:30.917 --> 16:30.927 align:start position:0% were tooth marks. Also came out in the 16:30.927 --> 16:32.677 align:start position:0% were tooth marks. Also came out in the analysis<00:17:58.080> as<00:17:58.240> tooth<00:17:58.559> marks,<00:17:58.880> but<00:17:59.120> they're 16:32.677 --> 16:32.687 align:start position:0% analysis as tooth marks, but they're 16:32.687 --> 16:34.356 align:start position:0% analysis as tooth marks, but they're kind<00:17:59.520> of<00:17:59.600> all<00:17:59.840> in<00:18:00.000> a<00:18:00.160> patch<00:18:00.400> and<00:18:00.640> they're<00:18:00.799> all 16:34.356 --> 16:34.366 align:start position:0% kind of all in a patch and they're all 16:34.366 --> 16:36.437 align:start position:0% kind of all in a patch and they're all short<00:18:01.280> and<00:18:01.600> they're<00:18:01.919> straight<00:18:02.320> and<00:18:02.640> they're 16:36.437 --> 16:36.447 align:start position:0% short and they're straight and they're 16:36.447 --> 16:38.356 align:start position:0% short and they're straight and they're just<00:18:03.360> in<00:18:03.520> this<00:18:03.760> grouping<00:18:04.080> that<00:18:04.320> to<00:18:04.480> me<00:18:04.720> really 16:38.356 --> 16:38.366 align:start position:0% just in this grouping that to me really 16:38.366 --> 16:40.197 align:start position:0% just in this grouping that to me really said<00:18:05.679> this<00:18:05.840> looks<00:18:06.080> like<00:18:06.240> a<00:18:06.400> group<00:18:06.480> of<00:18:06.640> cut 16:40.197 --> 16:40.207 align:start position:0% said this looks like a group of cut 16:40.207 --> 16:42.517 align:start position:0% said this looks like a group of cut marks<00:18:07.200> where<00:18:07.679> some<00:18:08.000> early<00:18:08.320> human<00:18:08.640> kind<00:18:08.880> of 16:42.517 --> 16:42.527 align:start position:0% marks where some early human kind of 16:42.527 --> 16:44.277 align:start position:0% marks where some early human kind of went<00:18:09.520> along<00:18:09.760> the<00:18:10.000> surface<00:18:10.240> of<00:18:10.400> this<00:18:10.640> bone 16:44.277 --> 16:44.287 align:start position:0% went along the surface of this bone 16:44.287 --> 16:46.757 align:start position:0% went along the surface of this bone trying<00:18:11.200> to<00:18:11.360> remove<00:18:11.600> a<00:18:11.840> muscle. 16:46.757 --> 16:46.767 align:start position:0% trying to remove a muscle. 16:46.767 --> 16:48.437 align:start position:0% trying to remove a muscle. Poiner<00:18:13.919> made<00:18:14.080> impressions<00:18:14.400> of<00:18:14.559> the<00:18:14.720> marks 16:48.437 --> 16:48.447 align:start position:0% Poiner made impressions of the marks 16:48.447 --> 16:50.437 align:start position:0% Poiner made impressions of the marks using<00:18:15.360> dental<00:18:15.760> molding<00:18:16.160> material<00:18:16.640> and<00:18:16.880> sent 16:50.437 --> 16:50.447 align:start position:0% using dental molding material and sent 16:50.447 --> 16:52.917 align:start position:0% using dental molding material and sent them<00:18:17.280> to<00:18:17.360> a<00:18:17.600> colleague<00:18:17.919> for<00:18:18.080> blind<00:18:18.480> analysis 16:52.917 --> 16:52.927 align:start position:0% them to a colleague for blind analysis 16:52.927 --> 16:54.837 align:start position:0% them to a colleague for blind analysis without<00:18:19.919> revealing<00:18:20.480> where<00:18:20.720> the<00:18:20.960> bone<00:18:21.200> had 16:54.837 --> 16:54.847 align:start position:0% without revealing where the bone had 16:54.847 --> 16:57.317 align:start position:0% without revealing where the bone had come<00:18:21.679> from.<00:18:23.039> The<00:18:23.280> marks<00:18:23.600> were<00:18:23.760> compared 16:57.317 --> 16:57.327 align:start position:0% come from. The marks were compared 16:57.327 --> 17:00.597 align:start position:0% come from. The marks were compared against<00:18:24.240> a<00:18:24.480> database<00:18:24.799> of<00:18:25.039> 898<00:18:26.240> tooth<00:18:26.720> butchery 17:00.597 --> 17:00.607 align:start position:0% against a database of 898 tooth butchery 17:00.607 --> 17:02.356 align:start position:0% against a database of 898 tooth butchery and<00:18:27.440> trample<00:18:27.840> marks<00:18:28.320> created<00:18:28.799> through 17:02.356 --> 17:02.366 align:start position:0% and trample marks created through 17:02.366 --> 17:05.317 align:start position:0% and trample marks created through controlled<00:18:29.520> experiments<00:18:30.880> and<00:18:31.120> the<00:18:31.360> result 17:05.317 --> 17:05.327 align:start position:0% controlled experiments and the result 17:05.327 --> 17:07.557 align:start position:0% controlled experiments and the result was<00:18:32.320> clear. 17:07.557 --> 17:07.567 align:start position:0% was clear. 17:07.567 --> 17:10.597 align:start position:0% was clear. Nine<00:18:34.640> of<00:18:34.799> the<00:18:34.960> 11<00:18:35.280> marks<00:18:35.679> on<00:18:35.840> the<00:18:36.000> Kooby<00:18:36.799> bone 17:10.597 --> 17:10.607 align:start position:0% Nine of the 11 marks on the Kooby bone 17:10.607 --> 17:13.077 align:start position:0% Nine of the 11 marks on the Kooby bone were<00:18:37.440> a<00:18:37.679> match<00:18:38.000> for<00:18:38.240> damage<00:18:38.720> caused<00:18:39.039> by<00:18:39.360> stone 17:13.077 --> 17:13.087 align:start position:0% were a match for damage caused by stone 17:13.087 --> 17:16.277 align:start position:0% were a match for damage caused by stone tools.<00:18:41.200> This<00:18:41.440> could<00:18:41.679> mean<00:18:42.000> that<00:18:42.160> the<00:18:42.400> bone<00:18:42.720> had 17:16.277 --> 17:16.287 align:start position:0% tools. This could mean that the bone had 17:16.287 --> 17:18.197 align:start position:0% tools. This could mean that the bone had been<00:18:43.280> defleshed, 17:18.197 --> 17:18.207 align:start position:0% been defleshed, 17:18.207 --> 17:29.157 align:start position:0% been defleshed, probably<00:18:45.600> so<00:18:45.760> the<00:18:46.000> meat<00:18:46.320> could<00:18:46.480> be<00:18:46.640> eaten. 17:29.157 --> 17:29.167 align:start position:0% 17:29.167 --> 17:34.197 align:start position:0% But<00:18:56.080> who<00:18:56.720> exactly<00:18:57.440> was<00:18:57.760> eating<00:18:58.559> who? 17:34.197 --> 17:34.207 align:start position:0% But who exactly was eating who? 17:34.207 --> 17:35.797 align:start position:0% But who exactly was eating who? The<00:19:01.039> tibia<00:19:01.520> was<00:19:01.679> originally<00:19:02.160> thought<00:19:02.320> to 17:35.797 --> 17:35.807 align:start position:0% The tibia was originally thought to 17:35.807 --> 17:38.116 align:start position:0% The tibia was originally thought to belong<00:19:02.799> to<00:19:02.960> Paranthropus<00:19:03.600> boi,<00:19:04.400> although<00:19:04.640> it 17:38.116 --> 17:38.126 align:start position:0% belong to Paranthropus boi, although it 17:38.126 --> 17:40.757 align:start position:0% belong to Paranthropus boi, although it was<00:19:04.960> later<00:19:05.200> recategorized<00:19:06.000> as<00:19:06.240> homoerectus. 17:40.757 --> 17:40.767 align:start position:0% was later recategorized as homoerectus. 17:40.767 --> 17:42.677 align:start position:0% was later recategorized as homoerectus. Poin's<00:19:08.080> team<00:19:08.320> concluded<00:19:08.799> that<00:19:09.039> there<00:19:09.200> was 17:42.677 --> 17:42.687 align:start position:0% Poin's team concluded that there was 17:42.687 --> 17:44.917 align:start position:0% Poin's team concluded that there was simply<00:19:09.679> insufficient<00:19:10.320> data<00:19:10.880> to<00:19:11.039> make<00:19:11.200> that 17:44.917 --> 17:44.927 align:start position:0% simply insufficient data to make that 17:44.927 --> 17:47.637 align:start position:0% simply insufficient data to make that identification<00:19:12.320> with<00:19:12.640> any<00:19:12.960> confidence.<00:19:14.080> But 17:47.637 --> 17:47.647 align:start position:0% identification with any confidence. But 17:47.647 --> 17:49.797 align:start position:0% identification with any confidence. But who<00:19:14.559> did<00:19:14.720> the<00:19:14.960> deed<00:19:15.520> is<00:19:15.760> not<00:19:16.000> really<00:19:16.240> as 17:49.797 --> 17:49.807 align:start position:0% who did the deed is not really as 17:49.807 --> 17:51.397 align:start position:0% who did the deed is not really as important<00:19:16.880> as<00:19:17.120> the<00:19:17.280> implication<00:19:17.840> that 17:51.397 --> 17:51.407 align:start position:0% important as the implication that 17:51.407 --> 17:54.677 align:start position:0% important as the implication that hominins<00:19:19.039> were<00:19:19.360> eating<00:19:19.760> other<00:19:20.080> hominins<00:19:21.120> more 17:54.677 --> 17:54.687 align:start position:0% hominins were eating other hominins more 17:54.687 --> 17:57.236 align:start position:0% hominins were eating other hominins more than<00:19:21.520> a<00:19:21.760> million<00:19:22.160> years<00:19:22.400> ago.<00:19:23.280> This<00:19:23.520> is<00:19:23.679> the 17:57.236 --> 17:57.246 align:start position:0% than a million years ago. This is the 17:57.246 --> 17:59.397 align:start position:0% than a million years ago. This is the oldest<00:19:24.400> undisputed<00:19:25.120> evidence<00:19:25.360> of<00:19:25.600> homminin 17:59.397 --> 17:59.407 align:start position:0% oldest undisputed evidence of homminin 17:59.407 --> 18:01.557 align:start position:0% oldest undisputed evidence of homminin cannibalism<00:19:26.799> and<00:19:27.039> joins<00:19:27.360> a<00:19:27.600> list<00:19:27.760> of<00:19:27.919> evidence 18:01.557 --> 18:01.567 align:start position:0% cannibalism and joins a list of evidence 18:01.567 --> 18:03.797 align:start position:0% cannibalism and joins a list of evidence that<00:19:28.559> spans<00:19:28.880> many<00:19:29.200> millennia<00:19:29.760> and<00:19:30.000> multiple 18:03.797 --> 18:03.807 align:start position:0% that spans many millennia and multiple 18:03.807 --> 18:06.757 align:start position:0% that spans many millennia and multiple species<00:19:30.880> of<00:19:31.120> humans.<00:19:32.400> These<00:19:32.799> cracked, 18:06.757 --> 18:06.767 align:start position:0% species of humans. These cracked, 18:06.767 --> 18:08.837 align:start position:0% species of humans. These cracked, shattered,<00:19:33.840> and<00:19:34.080> cutmarked<00:19:34.640> bones<00:19:35.039> present 18:08.837 --> 18:08.847 align:start position:0% shattered, and cutmarked bones present 18:08.847 --> 18:10.597 align:start position:0% shattered, and cutmarked bones present clear<00:19:35.840> evidence<00:19:36.240> for<00:19:36.559> ancient<00:19:36.880> human 18:10.597 --> 18:10.607 align:start position:0% clear evidence for ancient human 18:10.607 --> 18:12.597 align:start position:0% clear evidence for ancient human cannibalism<00:19:38.240> spanning<00:19:38.640> from<00:19:38.880> within<00:19:39.120> the 18:12.597 --> 18:12.607 align:start position:0% cannibalism spanning from within the 18:12.607 --> 18:15.557 align:start position:0% cannibalism spanning from within the last<00:19:39.520> 10,000<00:19:40.240> years<00:19:40.799> all<00:19:40.960> the<00:19:41.120> way<00:19:41.280> back<00:19:41.840> to 18:15.557 --> 18:15.567 align:start position:0% last 10,000 years all the way back to 18:15.567 --> 18:19.317 align:start position:0% last 10,000 years all the way back to 1.45<00:19:43.280> million<00:19:43.760> years<00:19:43.919> ago.<00:19:45.200> But<00:19:45.360> of<00:19:45.600> course, 18:19.317 --> 18:19.327 align:start position:0% 1.45 million years ago. But of course, 18:19.327 --> 18:23.397 align:start position:0% 1.45 million years ago. But of course, the<00:19:46.320> question<00:19:46.720> remains,<00:19:48.160> why?<00:19:49.280> What<00:19:49.600> drove 18:23.397 --> 18:23.407 align:start position:0% the question remains, why? What drove 18:23.407 --> 18:25.637 align:start position:0% the question remains, why? What drove these<00:19:50.400> humans<00:19:50.720> and<00:19:50.960> human<00:19:51.280> ancestors<00:19:51.919> to<00:19:52.160> cut 18:25.637 --> 18:25.647 align:start position:0% these humans and human ancestors to cut 18:25.647 --> 18:27.717 align:start position:0% these humans and human ancestors to cut the<00:19:52.480> flesh<00:19:52.720> of<00:19:52.960> their<00:19:53.120> own<00:19:53.360> kind<00:19:53.840> from<00:19:54.160> the 18:27.717 --> 18:27.727 align:start position:0% the flesh of their own kind from the 18:27.727 --> 18:29.317 align:start position:0% the flesh of their own kind from the bone? 18:29.317 --> 18:29.327 align:start position:0% bone? 18:29.327 --> 18:31.957 align:start position:0% bone? Why<00:19:56.320> did<00:19:56.640> ancient<00:19:56.960> cannibalism<00:19:58.160> happen<00:19:58.400> at 18:31.957 --> 18:31.967 align:start position:0% Why did ancient cannibalism happen at 18:31.967 --> 18:46.597 align:start position:0% Why did ancient cannibalism happen at all? 18:46.597 --> 18:46.607 align:start position:0% 18:46.607 --> 18:50.037 align:start position:0% In<00:20:13.600> July<00:20:14.000> 1867,<00:20:15.360> Reverend<00:20:15.760> Thomas<00:20:16.080> Baker<00:20:16.559> set 18:50.037 --> 18:50.047 align:start position:0% In July 1867, Reverend Thomas Baker set 18:50.047 --> 18:52.116 align:start position:0% In July 1867, Reverend Thomas Baker set off<00:20:16.880> into<00:20:17.120> the<00:20:17.280> rugged<00:20:17.679> highlands<00:20:18.160> of<00:20:18.400> Vitil 18:52.116 --> 18:52.126 align:start position:0% off into the rugged highlands of Vitil 18:52.126 --> 18:55.557 align:start position:0% off into the rugged highlands of Vitil Levu,<00:20:19.520> the<00:20:19.679> largest<00:20:20.080> island<00:20:20.400> of<00:20:20.720> Fiji.<00:20:22.000> He'd 18:55.557 --> 18:55.567 align:start position:0% Levu, the largest island of Fiji. He'd 18:55.567 --> 18:57.236 align:start position:0% Levu, the largest island of Fiji. He'd been<00:20:22.400> working<00:20:22.559> on<00:20:22.799> the<00:20:22.960> islands<00:20:23.280> for<00:20:23.440> nearly<00:20:23.679> a 18:57.236 --> 18:57.246 align:start position:0% been working on the islands for nearly a 18:57.246 --> 18:59.157 align:start position:0% been working on the islands for nearly a decade,<00:20:24.559> doing<00:20:24.880> everything<00:20:25.120> he<00:20:25.440> could<00:20:25.600> to 18:59.157 --> 18:59.167 align:start position:0% decade, doing everything he could to 18:59.167 --> 19:00.757 align:start position:0% decade, doing everything he could to convert<00:20:26.160> the<00:20:26.320> native<00:20:26.720> communities<00:20:27.200> to 19:00.757 --> 19:00.767 align:start position:0% convert the native communities to 19:00.767 --> 19:03.557 align:start position:0% convert the native communities to Christianity.<00:20:28.640> Now<00:20:28.960> he<00:20:29.200> was<00:20:29.440> determined<00:20:29.919> to 19:03.557 --> 19:03.567 align:start position:0% Christianity. Now he was determined to 19:03.567 --> 19:05.717 align:start position:0% Christianity. Now he was determined to travel<00:20:30.480> to<00:20:30.640> the<00:20:30.799> remote<00:20:31.120> interior<00:20:31.679> villages 19:05.717 --> 19:05.727 align:start position:0% travel to the remote interior villages 19:05.727 --> 19:08.677 align:start position:0% travel to the remote interior villages where<00:20:32.640> no<00:20:32.880> missionary<00:20:33.600> had<00:20:33.840> been<00:20:34.080> before.<00:20:35.200> He 19:08.677 --> 19:08.687 align:start position:0% where no missionary had been before. He 19:08.687 --> 19:10.757 align:start position:0% where no missionary had been before. He was<00:20:35.520> well<00:20:35.679> aware<00:20:36.000> of<00:20:36.159> the<00:20:36.400> potential<00:20:36.880> danger 19:10.757 --> 19:10.767 align:start position:0% was well aware of the potential danger 19:10.767 --> 19:12.757 align:start position:0% was well aware of the potential danger but<00:20:37.600> paid<00:20:37.919> the<00:20:38.080> warnings<00:20:38.480> the<00:20:38.799> locals<00:20:39.200> gave 19:12.757 --> 19:12.767 align:start position:0% but paid the warnings the locals gave 19:12.767 --> 19:16.116 align:start position:0% but paid the warnings the locals gave him<00:20:39.760> no<00:20:40.159> heed.<00:20:41.200> This<00:20:41.440> would<00:20:41.679> prove<00:20:42.240> to<00:20:42.480> be<00:20:42.640> a 19:16.116 --> 19:16.126 align:start position:0% him no heed. This would prove to be a 19:16.126 --> 19:18.996 align:start position:0% him no heed. This would prove to be a mistake.<00:20:43.760> When<00:20:44.000> Baker<00:20:44.400> met<00:20:44.559> a<00:20:44.720> Fijian<00:20:45.200> chief, 19:18.996 --> 19:19.006 align:start position:0% mistake. When Baker met a Fijian chief, 19:19.006 --> 19:21.476 align:start position:0% mistake. When Baker met a Fijian chief, he<00:20:45.840> offered<00:20:46.159> him<00:20:46.320> a<00:20:46.480> hair<00:20:46.720> comb<00:20:47.039> as<00:20:47.200> a<00:20:47.440> gift. 19:21.476 --> 19:21.486 align:start position:0% he offered him a hair comb as a gift. 19:21.486 --> 19:23.717 align:start position:0% he offered him a hair comb as a gift. The<00:20:48.400> chief<00:20:48.720> took<00:20:48.880> the<00:20:49.120> gift<00:20:49.440> but<00:20:49.679> declined<00:20:50.159> to 19:23.717 --> 19:23.727 align:start position:0% The chief took the gift but declined to 19:23.727 --> 19:25.957 align:start position:0% The chief took the gift but declined to convert<00:20:50.799> to<00:20:50.960> Christianity.<00:20:52.080> Thinking<00:20:52.400> the 19:25.957 --> 19:25.967 align:start position:0% convert to Christianity. Thinking the 19:25.967 --> 19:27.876 align:start position:0% convert to Christianity. Thinking the chief<00:20:52.960> was<00:20:53.120> refusing<00:20:53.520> the<00:20:53.760> gift<00:20:54.000> as<00:20:54.159> well, 19:27.876 --> 19:27.886 align:start position:0% chief was refusing the gift as well, 19:27.886 --> 19:29.637 align:start position:0% chief was refusing the gift as well, Baker<00:20:54.960> reached<00:20:55.200> out<00:20:55.360> and<00:20:55.600> took<00:20:55.760> the<00:20:56.000> comb 19:29.637 --> 19:29.647 align:start position:0% Baker reached out and took the comb 19:29.647 --> 19:32.037 align:start position:0% Baker reached out and took the comb back.<00:20:57.280> his<00:20:57.520> fingertips<00:20:58.000> briefly<00:20:58.480> touching 19:32.037 --> 19:32.047 align:start position:0% back. his fingertips briefly touching 19:32.047 --> 19:34.837 align:start position:0% back. his fingertips briefly touching the<00:20:58.880> chief's<00:20:59.280> head<00:20:59.600> as<00:20:59.840> he<00:21:00.080> did<00:21:00.240> so.<00:21:01.039> Up<00:21:01.280> until 19:34.837 --> 19:34.847 align:start position:0% the chief's head as he did so. Up until 19:34.847 --> 19:36.597 align:start position:0% the chief's head as he did so. Up until this<00:21:01.840> point,<00:21:02.240> dealings<00:21:02.640> with<00:21:02.720> the<00:21:02.880> villagers 19:36.597 --> 19:36.607 align:start position:0% this point, dealings with the villagers 19:36.607 --> 19:39.637 align:start position:0% this point, dealings with the villagers had<00:21:03.520> been<00:21:03.679> cordial,<00:21:04.559> but<00:21:04.799> now<00:21:05.120> the<00:21:05.440> atmosphere 19:39.637 --> 19:39.647 align:start position:0% had been cordial, but now the atmosphere 19:39.647 --> 19:42.197 align:start position:0% had been cordial, but now the atmosphere completely<00:21:06.960> changed.<00:21:08.000> For<00:21:08.159> in<00:21:08.320> Fijian 19:42.197 --> 19:42.207 align:start position:0% completely changed. For in Fijian 19:42.207 --> 19:44.917 align:start position:0% completely changed. For in Fijian culture,<00:21:09.440> the<00:21:09.600> head<00:21:09.760> of<00:21:09.840> a<00:21:10.080> chief<00:21:10.480> was<00:21:10.799> sacred, 19:44.917 --> 19:44.927 align:start position:0% culture, the head of a chief was sacred, 19:44.927 --> 19:48.116 align:start position:0% culture, the head of a chief was sacred, and<00:21:11.840> Baker's<00:21:12.320> actions<00:21:13.120> were<00:21:13.360> unforgivable. 19:48.116 --> 19:48.126 align:start position:0% and Baker's actions were unforgivable. 19:48.126 --> 19:51.557 align:start position:0% and Baker's actions were unforgivable. Baker<00:21:15.280> was<00:21:15.520> attacked,<00:21:16.320> killed,<00:21:17.120> cooked,<00:21:17.840> then 19:51.557 --> 19:51.567 align:start position:0% Baker was attacked, killed, cooked, then 19:51.567 --> 19:54.116 align:start position:0% Baker was attacked, killed, cooked, then consumed.<00:21:19.679> One<00:21:19.919> account<00:21:20.320> passed<00:21:20.640> down 19:54.116 --> 19:54.126 align:start position:0% consumed. One account passed down 19:54.126 --> 19:56.116 align:start position:0% consumed. One account passed down through<00:21:20.960> the<00:21:21.120> generations<00:21:22.080> records<00:21:22.480> that<00:21:22.640> the 19:56.116 --> 19:56.126 align:start position:0% through the generations records that the 19:56.126 --> 20:05.157 align:start position:0% through the generations records that the villagers<00:21:23.200> ate<00:21:23.600> everything<00:21:24.080> but<00:21:24.320> his<00:21:24.640> boots. 20:05.157 --> 20:05.167 align:start position:0% 20:05.167 --> 20:06.757 align:start position:0% But<00:21:32.080> perhaps<00:21:32.400> the<00:21:32.640> most<00:21:32.799> striking<00:21:33.280> thing 20:06.757 --> 20:06.767 align:start position:0% But perhaps the most striking thing 20:06.767 --> 20:08.917 align:start position:0% But perhaps the most striking thing about<00:21:33.679> Baker's<00:21:34.240> story<00:21:34.480> from<00:21:34.720> an<00:21:34.880> evolutionary 20:08.917 --> 20:08.927 align:start position:0% about Baker's story from an evolutionary 20:08.927 --> 20:11.637 align:start position:0% about Baker's story from an evolutionary perspective<00:21:36.320> is<00:21:36.559> not<00:21:36.720> the<00:21:36.960> violence<00:21:37.360> itself, 20:11.637 --> 20:11.647 align:start position:0% perspective is not the violence itself, 20:11.647 --> 20:13.397 align:start position:0% perspective is not the violence itself, but<00:21:38.559> what<00:21:38.720> it<00:21:38.960> tells<00:21:39.200> us<00:21:39.440> about<00:21:39.600> the<00:21:39.840> role 20:13.397 --> 20:13.407 align:start position:0% but what it tells us about the role 20:13.407 --> 20:16.277 align:start position:0% but what it tells us about the role cannibalism<00:21:40.799> played<00:21:41.120> in<00:21:41.360> Fijian<00:21:42.000> society<00:21:42.720> at 20:16.277 --> 20:16.287 align:start position:0% cannibalism played in Fijian society at 20:16.287 --> 20:18.917 align:start position:0% cannibalism played in Fijian society at the<00:21:43.200> time.<00:21:44.080> Archaeological<00:21:44.880> evidence<00:21:45.360> shows 20:18.917 --> 20:18.927 align:start position:0% the time. Archaeological evidence shows 20:18.927 --> 20:20.437 align:start position:0% the time. Archaeological evidence shows us<00:21:45.760> that<00:21:45.919> cannibalism<00:21:46.480> had<00:21:46.640> been<00:21:46.799> practiced 20:20.437 --> 20:20.447 align:start position:0% us that cannibalism had been practiced 20:20.447 --> 20:24.277 align:start position:0% us that cannibalism had been practiced in<00:21:47.280> Fiji<00:21:47.760> for<00:21:48.000> at<00:21:48.000> least<00:21:48.480> 2,300<00:21:49.679> years.<00:21:50.480> By<00:21:50.799> the 20:24.277 --> 20:24.287 align:start position:0% in Fiji for at least 2,300 years. By the 20:24.287 --> 20:26.517 align:start position:0% in Fiji for at least 2,300 years. By the 1800s,<00:21:51.600> when<00:21:51.840> Baker<00:21:52.240> was<00:21:52.400> killed,<00:21:52.799> it<00:21:53.039> was 20:26.517 --> 20:26.527 align:start position:0% 1800s, when Baker was killed, it was 20:26.527 --> 20:28.597 align:start position:0% 1800s, when Baker was killed, it was almost<00:21:53.440> a<00:21:53.679> normal<00:21:54.000> part<00:21:54.240> of<00:21:54.400> life<00:21:54.799> for<00:21:55.039> the 20:28.597 --> 20:28.607 align:start position:0% almost a normal part of life for the 20:28.607 --> 20:32.037 align:start position:0% almost a normal part of life for the local<00:21:55.679> people.<00:21:56.559> But<00:21:56.799> why<00:21:57.120> was<00:21:57.360> this?<00:21:58.320> What<00:21:58.559> was 20:32.037 --> 20:32.047 align:start position:0% local people. But why was this? What was 20:32.047 --> 20:34.677 align:start position:0% local people. But why was this? What was the<00:21:58.960> reason?<00:21:59.840> And<00:22:00.080> why<00:22:00.320> does<00:22:00.640> cannibalism 20:34.677 --> 20:34.687 align:start position:0% the reason? And why does cannibalism 20:34.687 --> 20:40.597 align:start position:0% the reason? And why does cannibalism happen<00:22:02.159> at<00:22:02.400> all? 20:40.597 --> 20:40.607 align:start position:0% 20:40.607 --> 20:42.677 align:start position:0% Among<00:22:07.760> animals,<00:22:08.480> cannibalism<00:22:09.120> is 20:42.677 --> 20:42.687 align:start position:0% Among animals, cannibalism is 20:42.687 --> 20:45.077 align:start position:0% Among animals, cannibalism is surprisingly<00:22:10.080> common.<00:22:10.880> It<00:22:11.120> tends<00:22:11.280> to<00:22:11.440> show<00:22:11.520> up 20:45.077 --> 20:45.087 align:start position:0% surprisingly common. It tends to show up 20:45.087 --> 20:47.077 align:start position:0% surprisingly common. It tends to show up most<00:22:12.000> reliably<00:22:12.559> in<00:22:12.799> smaller,<00:22:13.360> simpler 20:47.077 --> 20:47.087 align:start position:0% most reliably in smaller, simpler 20:47.087 --> 20:48.996 align:start position:0% most reliably in smaller, simpler creatures<00:22:14.080> like<00:22:14.320> invertebrates,<00:22:15.280> certain 20:48.996 --> 20:49.006 align:start position:0% creatures like invertebrates, certain 20:49.006 --> 20:51.397 align:start position:0% creatures like invertebrates, certain fish,<00:22:15.919> and<00:22:16.159> some<00:22:16.400> amphibians.<00:22:17.520> Indeed,<00:22:17.919> for 20:51.397 --> 20:51.407 align:start position:0% fish, and some amphibians. Indeed, for 20:51.407 --> 20:52.837 align:start position:0% fish, and some amphibians. Indeed, for those<00:22:18.240> animals,<00:22:18.720> the<00:22:18.960> logic<00:22:19.280> is 20:52.837 --> 20:52.847 align:start position:0% those animals, the logic is 20:52.847 --> 20:56.356 align:start position:0% those animals, the logic is straightforward.<00:22:20.799> Eat<00:22:21.360> to<00:22:21.679> survive.<00:22:22.880> But 20:56.356 --> 20:56.366 align:start position:0% straightforward. Eat to survive. But 20:56.366 --> 20:58.437 align:start position:0% straightforward. Eat to survive. But even<00:22:23.280> then,<00:22:23.760> the<00:22:24.000> reasons<00:22:24.400> why<00:22:24.720> they<00:22:24.960> might 20:58.437 --> 20:58.447 align:start position:0% even then, the reasons why they might 20:58.447 --> 21:00.677 align:start position:0% even then, the reasons why they might eat<00:22:25.280> a<00:22:25.440> member<00:22:25.600> of<00:22:25.760> their<00:22:25.919> own<00:22:26.159> species<00:22:26.960> can 21:00.677 --> 21:00.687 align:start position:0% eat a member of their own species can 21:00.687 --> 21:03.557 align:start position:0% eat a member of their own species can vary<00:22:27.840> wildly.<00:22:29.039> Many<00:22:29.280> of<00:22:29.360> us<00:22:29.600> will<00:22:29.760> immediately 21:03.557 --> 21:03.567 align:start position:0% vary wildly. Many of us will immediately 21:03.567 --> 21:06.116 align:start position:0% vary wildly. Many of us will immediately think<00:22:30.400> of<00:22:30.640> spiders<00:22:31.200> and<00:22:31.600> mantids<00:22:32.240> as<00:22:32.480> animals 21:06.116 --> 21:06.126 align:start position:0% think of spiders and mantids as animals 21:06.126 --> 21:09.077 align:start position:0% think of spiders and mantids as animals that<00:22:33.039> regularly<00:22:33.600> engage<00:22:34.000> in<00:22:34.240> cannibalism.<00:22:35.600> Of 21:09.077 --> 21:09.087 align:start position:0% that regularly engage in cannibalism. Of 21:09.087 --> 21:10.917 align:start position:0% that regularly engage in cannibalism. Of course,<00:22:35.919> it<00:22:36.159> doesn't<00:22:36.320> happen<00:22:36.559> all<00:22:36.799> the<00:22:37.039> time, 21:10.917 --> 21:10.927 align:start position:0% course, it doesn't happen all the time, 21:10.927 --> 21:12.837 align:start position:0% course, it doesn't happen all the time, but<00:22:37.760> it<00:22:37.919> happens<00:22:38.159> often<00:22:38.480> enough<00:22:38.880> to<00:22:39.120> have<00:22:39.280> its 21:12.837 --> 21:12.847 align:start position:0% but it happens often enough to have its 21:12.847 --> 21:16.677 align:start position:0% but it happens often enough to have its own<00:22:39.760> name,<00:22:41.039> sexual<00:22:41.679> cannibalism.<00:22:42.880> In<00:22:43.120> these 21:16.677 --> 21:16.687 align:start position:0% own name, sexual cannibalism. In these 21:16.687 --> 21:18.917 align:start position:0% own name, sexual cannibalism. In these cases,<00:22:43.919> the<00:22:44.240> female<00:22:44.640> will<00:22:44.880> kill<00:22:45.039> and<00:22:45.280> eat<00:22:45.440> the 21:18.917 --> 21:18.927 align:start position:0% cases, the female will kill and eat the 21:18.927 --> 21:20.996 align:start position:0% cases, the female will kill and eat the male<00:22:45.919> during<00:22:46.240> or<00:22:46.559> just<00:22:46.799> after<00:22:47.120> mating<00:22:47.520> with 21:20.996 --> 21:21.006 align:start position:0% male during or just after mating with 21:21.006 --> 21:23.637 align:start position:0% male during or just after mating with him.<00:22:48.400> It<00:22:48.640> sounds<00:22:49.039> brutal,<00:22:49.679> but<00:22:49.919> from<00:22:50.080> an 21:23.637 --> 21:23.647 align:start position:0% him. It sounds brutal, but from an 21:23.647 --> 21:26.277 align:start position:0% him. It sounds brutal, but from an evolutionary<00:22:51.120> standpoint,<00:22:51.840> it<00:22:52.080> makes<00:22:52.240> a<00:22:52.480> cold 21:26.277 --> 21:26.287 align:start position:0% evolutionary standpoint, it makes a cold 21:26.287 --> 21:28.917 align:start position:0% evolutionary standpoint, it makes a cold kind<00:22:53.120> of<00:22:53.360> sense.<00:22:54.320> The<00:22:54.480> male's<00:22:54.880> body<00:22:55.280> provides 21:28.917 --> 21:28.927 align:start position:0% kind of sense. The male's body provides 21:28.927 --> 21:31.157 align:start position:0% kind of sense. The male's body provides a<00:22:55.840> protein<00:22:56.240> richch<00:22:56.480> meal<00:22:56.799> at<00:22:57.120> precisely<00:22:57.600> the 21:31.157 --> 21:31.167 align:start position:0% a protein richch meal at precisely the 21:31.167 --> 21:33.476 align:start position:0% a protein richch meal at precisely the moment<00:22:58.159> the<00:22:58.400> female<00:22:58.799> needs<00:22:59.200> maximum<00:22:59.679> energy 21:33.476 --> 21:33.486 align:start position:0% moment the female needs maximum energy 21:33.486 --> 21:36.437 align:start position:0% moment the female needs maximum energy to<00:23:00.480> produce<00:23:00.799> and<00:23:01.120> carry<00:23:01.360> her<00:23:01.679> eggs.<00:23:02.720> In<00:23:02.880> some 21:36.437 --> 21:36.447 align:start position:0% to produce and carry her eggs. In some 21:36.447 --> 21:38.677 align:start position:0% to produce and carry her eggs. In some spider<00:23:03.520> species,<00:23:04.080> the<00:23:04.320> male<00:23:04.559> even<00:23:04.799> appears<00:23:05.200> to 21:38.677 --> 21:38.687 align:start position:0% spider species, the male even appears to 21:38.687 --> 21:41.077 align:start position:0% spider species, the male even appears to facilitate<00:23:05.919> this,<00:23:06.640> positioning<00:23:07.120> himself<00:23:07.520> to 21:41.077 --> 21:41.087 align:start position:0% facilitate this, positioning himself to 21:41.087 --> 21:43.957 align:start position:0% facilitate this, positioning himself to be<00:23:07.919> consumed<00:23:08.400> once<00:23:08.720> mating<00:23:09.120> is<00:23:09.360> complete.<00:23:10.400> In 21:43.957 --> 21:43.967 align:start position:0% be consumed once mating is complete. In 21:43.967 --> 21:46.356 align:start position:0% be consumed once mating is complete. In doing<00:23:10.880> so,<00:23:11.200> he<00:23:11.360> is<00:23:11.520> passing<00:23:11.840> on<00:23:12.000> his<00:23:12.240> genes 21:46.356 --> 21:46.366 align:start position:0% doing so, he is passing on his genes 21:46.366 --> 21:48.037 align:start position:0% doing so, he is passing on his genes while<00:23:13.280> simultaneously<00:23:14.159> becoming<00:23:14.559> his 21:48.037 --> 21:48.047 align:start position:0% while simultaneously becoming his 21:48.047 --> 21:51.557 align:start position:0% while simultaneously becoming his offspring's<00:23:15.679> first<00:23:16.080> meal.<00:23:17.120> Meanwhile,<00:23:17.919> sand 21:51.557 --> 21:51.567 align:start position:0% offspring's first meal. Meanwhile, sand 21:51.567 --> 21:53.957 align:start position:0% offspring's first meal. Meanwhile, sand tiger<00:23:18.559> sharks<00:23:19.120> have<00:23:19.280> evolved<00:23:19.679> a<00:23:19.919> ruthless<00:23:20.400> way 21:53.957 --> 21:53.967 align:start position:0% tiger sharks have evolved a ruthless way 21:53.967 --> 21:56.917 align:start position:0% tiger sharks have evolved a ruthless way of<00:23:20.880> ensuring<00:23:21.440> only<00:23:21.679> the<00:23:22.000> strong<00:23:22.400> survive. 21:56.917 --> 21:56.927 align:start position:0% of ensuring only the strong survive. 21:56.927 --> 21:58.996 align:start position:0% of ensuring only the strong survive. Female<00:23:24.159> sand<00:23:24.400> tiger<00:23:24.720> sharks<00:23:25.120> will<00:23:25.360> carry 21:58.996 --> 21:59.006 align:start position:0% Female sand tiger sharks will carry 21:59.006 --> 22:01.476 align:start position:0% Female sand tiger sharks will carry multiple<00:23:26.080> embryos<00:23:26.559> in<00:23:26.799> their<00:23:26.960> bodies,<00:23:27.840> but 22:01.476 --> 22:01.486 align:start position:0% multiple embryos in their bodies, but 22:01.486 --> 22:04.116 align:start position:0% multiple embryos in their bodies, but she<00:23:28.400> will<00:23:28.559> never<00:23:28.799> get<00:23:28.960> to<00:23:29.120> meet<00:23:29.440> most<00:23:29.679> of<00:23:29.840> them. 22:04.116 --> 22:04.126 align:start position:0% she will never get to meet most of them. 22:04.126 --> 22:06.277 align:start position:0% she will never get to meet most of them. Instead<00:23:31.120> of<00:23:31.280> birthing<00:23:31.760> multiple<00:23:32.240> pups,<00:23:32.720> the 22:06.277 --> 22:06.287 align:start position:0% Instead of birthing multiple pups, the 22:06.287 --> 22:08.677 align:start position:0% Instead of birthing multiple pups, the first<00:23:33.200> embryo<00:23:33.760> to<00:23:33.919> hatch<00:23:34.159> from<00:23:34.320> its<00:23:34.480> egg<00:23:34.720> case 22:08.677 --> 22:08.687 align:start position:0% first embryo to hatch from its egg case 22:08.687 --> 22:11.637 align:start position:0% first embryo to hatch from its egg case eats<00:23:36.000> its<00:23:36.320> siblings.<00:23:37.520> By<00:23:37.840> the<00:23:38.000> time<00:23:38.080> the 22:11.637 --> 22:11.647 align:start position:0% eats its siblings. By the time the 22:11.647 --> 22:14.116 align:start position:0% eats its siblings. By the time the mother<00:23:38.559> gives<00:23:38.880> birth,<00:23:39.520> only<00:23:39.840> one<00:23:40.159> pup 22:14.116 --> 22:14.126 align:start position:0% mother gives birth, only one pup 22:14.126 --> 22:16.037 align:start position:0% mother gives birth, only one pup remains. 22:16.037 --> 22:16.047 align:start position:0% remains. 22:16.047 --> 22:17.957 align:start position:0% remains. Then<00:23:42.960> there<00:23:43.120> are<00:23:43.200> cases<00:23:43.600> that<00:23:43.919> feel<00:23:44.159> almost 22:17.957 --> 22:17.967 align:start position:0% Then there are cases that feel almost 22:17.967 --> 22:21.397 align:start position:0% Then there are cases that feel almost tender<00:23:45.200> by<00:23:45.440> comparison.<00:23:46.720> Sicilians,<00:23:47.679> a<00:23:47.919> kind 22:21.397 --> 22:21.407 align:start position:0% tender by comparison. Sicilians, a kind 22:21.407 --> 22:23.876 align:start position:0% tender by comparison. Sicilians, a kind of<00:23:48.159> limbless<00:23:48.799> wormlike<00:23:49.280> amphibian,<00:23:50.240> do 22:23.876 --> 22:23.886 align:start position:0% of limbless wormlike amphibian, do 22:23.886 --> 22:26.996 align:start position:0% of limbless wormlike amphibian, do something<00:23:50.960> both<00:23:51.280> harrowing<00:23:52.000> and<00:23:52.320> remarkable. 22:26.996 --> 22:27.006 align:start position:0% something both harrowing and remarkable. 22:27.006 --> 22:29.077 align:start position:0% something both harrowing and remarkable. After<00:23:54.000> her<00:23:54.159> offspring<00:23:54.640> are<00:23:54.799> born,<00:23:55.280> the<00:23:55.520> mother 22:29.077 --> 22:29.087 align:start position:0% After her offspring are born, the mother 22:29.087 --> 22:30.757 align:start position:0% After her offspring are born, the mother grows<00:23:56.080> a<00:23:56.320> specialized<00:23:57.039> layer<00:23:57.200> of 22:30.757 --> 22:30.767 align:start position:0% grows a specialized layer of 22:30.767 --> 22:33.157 align:start position:0% grows a specialized layer of nutrientrich<00:23:58.320> skin<00:23:58.799> for<00:23:58.960> her<00:23:59.120> hatchlings<00:23:59.679> to 22:33.157 --> 22:33.167 align:start position:0% nutrientrich skin for her hatchlings to 22:33.167 --> 22:36.277 align:start position:0% nutrientrich skin for her hatchlings to peel<00:24:00.159> away<00:24:00.480> and<00:24:00.799> consume.<00:24:02.080> This<00:24:02.320> happens<00:24:02.720> over 22:36.277 --> 22:36.287 align:start position:0% peel away and consume. This happens over 22:36.287 --> 22:39.236 align:start position:0% peel away and consume. This happens over and<00:24:03.200> over<00:24:03.600> while<00:24:03.919> she<00:24:04.159> is<00:24:04.320> still<00:24:04.559> alive.<00:24:05.600> In 22:39.236 --> 22:39.246 align:start position:0% and over while she is still alive. In 22:39.246 --> 22:41.876 align:start position:0% and over while she is still alive. In essence,<00:24:06.559> she<00:24:06.880> farms<00:24:07.200> her<00:24:07.440> own<00:24:07.679> body<00:24:08.080> as<00:24:08.320> her 22:41.876 --> 22:41.886 align:start position:0% essence, she farms her own body as her 22:41.886 --> 22:43.957 align:start position:0% essence, she farms her own body as her final<00:24:08.880> investment<00:24:09.600> in<00:24:09.919> her<00:24:10.080> offspring's 22:43.957 --> 22:43.967 align:start position:0% final investment in her offspring's 22:43.967 --> 22:46.116 align:start position:0% final investment in her offspring's survival.<00:24:11.679> And<00:24:11.840> so,<00:24:12.000> in<00:24:12.240> most<00:24:12.400> of<00:24:12.480> these 22:46.116 --> 22:46.126 align:start position:0% survival. And so, in most of these 22:46.126 --> 22:48.677 align:start position:0% survival. And so, in most of these cases,<00:24:13.360> cannibalism<00:24:14.080> comes<00:24:14.320> down<00:24:14.720> to<00:24:15.039> nothing 22:48.677 --> 22:48.687 align:start position:0% cases, cannibalism comes down to nothing 22:48.687 --> 22:51.637 align:start position:0% cases, cannibalism comes down to nothing more<00:24:15.600> than<00:24:16.080> calories.<00:24:17.279> This<00:24:17.520> is<00:24:17.760> nutritional 22:51.637 --> 22:51.647 align:start position:0% more than calories. This is nutritional 22:51.647 --> 22:53.476 align:start position:0% more than calories. This is nutritional cannibalism,<00:24:19.200> killing<00:24:19.520> and<00:24:19.679> eating<00:24:19.840> a<00:24:20.000> member 22:53.476 --> 22:53.486 align:start position:0% cannibalism, killing and eating a member 22:53.486 --> 22:55.476 align:start position:0% cannibalism, killing and eating a member of<00:24:20.320> your<00:24:20.480> own<00:24:20.640> species<00:24:21.279> or<00:24:21.600> consuming<00:24:22.000> one 22:55.476 --> 22:55.486 align:start position:0% of your own species or consuming one 22:55.486 --> 22:57.717 align:start position:0% of your own species or consuming one that<00:24:22.400> is<00:24:22.559> already<00:24:22.880> dead<00:24:23.360> for<00:24:23.600> no<00:24:23.760> other<00:24:24.080> reason 22:57.717 --> 22:57.727 align:start position:0% that is already dead for no other reason 22:57.727 --> 23:00.596 align:start position:0% that is already dead for no other reason than<00:24:24.640> to<00:24:24.880> satisfy<00:24:25.440> your<00:24:25.679> hunger.<00:24:26.799> Survival 23:00.596 --> 23:00.606 align:start position:0% than to satisfy your hunger. Survival 23:00.606 --> 23:02.757 align:start position:0% than to satisfy your hunger. Survival cannibalism<00:24:27.919> is<00:24:28.080> a<00:24:28.240> narrower<00:24:28.720> version<00:24:29.039> of<00:24:29.200> the 23:02.757 --> 23:02.767 align:start position:0% cannibalism is a narrower version of the 23:02.767 --> 23:05.236 align:start position:0% cannibalism is a narrower version of the same<00:24:29.679> logic,<00:24:30.559> reserved<00:24:31.039> for<00:24:31.200> circumstances 23:05.236 --> 23:05.246 align:start position:0% same logic, reserved for circumstances 23:05.246 --> 23:07.077 align:start position:0% same logic, reserved for circumstances when<00:24:32.159> eating<00:24:32.400> a<00:24:32.559> member<00:24:32.720> of<00:24:32.880> your<00:24:33.039> own<00:24:33.279> species 23:07.077 --> 23:07.087 align:start position:0% when eating a member of your own species 23:07.087 --> 23:10.197 align:start position:0% when eating a member of your own species is<00:24:34.080> the<00:24:34.240> only<00:24:34.480> alternative<00:24:35.200> to<00:24:35.520> dying.<00:24:36.720> Of 23:10.197 --> 23:10.207 align:start position:0% is the only alternative to dying. Of 23:10.207 --> 23:11.876 align:start position:0% is the only alternative to dying. Of course,<00:24:37.039> the<00:24:37.279> sand<00:24:37.520> tiger<00:24:37.840> shark<00:24:38.159> pup<00:24:38.400> that 23:11.876 --> 23:11.886 align:start position:0% course, the sand tiger shark pup that 23:11.886 --> 23:13.957 align:start position:0% course, the sand tiger shark pup that consumes<00:24:38.880> its<00:24:39.120> own<00:24:39.279> siblings<00:24:39.840> is<00:24:40.080> not<00:24:40.320> being 23:13.957 --> 23:13.967 align:start position:0% consumes its own siblings is not being 23:13.967 --> 23:16.677 align:start position:0% consumes its own siblings is not being cruel.<00:24:41.360> On<00:24:41.600> an<00:24:41.760> instinctual<00:24:42.480> level,<00:24:42.960> it<00:24:43.120> knows 23:16.677 --> 23:16.687 align:start position:0% cruel. On an instinctual level, it knows 23:16.687 --> 23:18.677 align:start position:0% cruel. On an instinctual level, it knows that<00:24:43.520> it's<00:24:43.760> in<00:24:43.919> an<00:24:44.080> eat<00:24:44.400> or<00:24:44.559> be<00:24:44.799> eaten 23:18.677 --> 23:18.687 align:start position:0% that it's in an eat or be eaten 23:18.687 --> 23:22.277 align:start position:0% that it's in an eat or be eaten situation. 23:22.277 --> 23:22.287 align:start position:0% 23:22.287 --> 23:24.277 align:start position:0% But<00:24:49.200> the<00:24:49.360> picture<00:24:49.600> gets<00:24:49.919> more<00:24:50.159> complicated<00:24:50.799> as 23:24.277 --> 23:24.287 align:start position:0% But the picture gets more complicated as 23:24.287 --> 23:26.037 align:start position:0% But the picture gets more complicated as we<00:24:51.200> move<00:24:51.360> up<00:24:51.520> the<00:24:51.760> ladder<00:24:52.080> of<00:24:52.320> animal 23:26.037 --> 23:26.047 align:start position:0% we move up the ladder of animal 23:26.047 --> 23:28.596 align:start position:0% we move up the ladder of animal complexity.<00:24:53.919> Indeed,<00:24:54.240> among<00:24:54.559> mammals, 23:28.596 --> 23:28.606 align:start position:0% complexity. Indeed, among mammals, 23:28.606 --> 23:30.677 align:start position:0% complexity. Indeed, among mammals, outright<00:24:55.840> nutritional<00:24:56.400> cannibalism<00:24:57.039> is 23:30.677 --> 23:30.687 align:start position:0% outright nutritional cannibalism is 23:30.687 --> 23:32.677 align:start position:0% outright nutritional cannibalism is rare.<00:24:58.240> These<00:24:58.480> are<00:24:58.640> animals<00:24:58.880> with<00:24:59.120> more 23:32.677 --> 23:32.687 align:start position:0% rare. These are animals with more 23:32.687 --> 23:34.517 align:start position:0% rare. These are animals with more sophisticated<00:25:00.080> social<00:25:00.400> structures, 23:34.517 --> 23:34.527 align:start position:0% sophisticated social structures, 23:34.527 --> 23:36.596 align:start position:0% sophisticated social structures, stronger<00:25:01.600> kin<00:25:02.000> recognition,<00:25:02.640> and<00:25:02.880> in<00:25:03.039> many 23:36.596 --> 23:36.606 align:start position:0% stronger kin recognition, and in many 23:36.606 --> 23:39.317 align:start position:0% stronger kin recognition, and in many cases,<00:25:03.840> emotional<00:25:04.400> bonds.<00:25:05.279> And<00:25:05.440> so,<00:25:05.679> in<00:25:05.840> these 23:39.317 --> 23:39.327 align:start position:0% cases, emotional bonds. And so, in these 23:39.327 --> 23:41.876 align:start position:0% cases, emotional bonds. And so, in these cases,<00:25:06.559> survival<00:25:07.120> cannibalism<00:25:07.760> is<00:25:08.000> far<00:25:08.320> more 23:41.876 --> 23:41.886 align:start position:0% cases, survival cannibalism is far more 23:41.886 --> 23:44.037 align:start position:0% cases, survival cannibalism is far more likely.<00:25:09.520> Stress<00:25:10.000> is<00:25:10.159> one<00:25:10.320> of<00:25:10.400> the<00:25:10.559> most 23:44.037 --> 23:44.047 align:start position:0% likely. Stress is one of the most 23:44.047 --> 23:46.116 align:start position:0% likely. Stress is one of the most wellocumented<00:25:11.440> triggers<00:25:11.760> of<00:25:11.919> cannibalism<00:25:12.559> in 23:46.116 --> 23:46.126 align:start position:0% wellocumented triggers of cannibalism in 23:46.126 --> 23:48.037 align:start position:0% wellocumented triggers of cannibalism in these<00:25:13.120> kinds<00:25:13.279> of<00:25:13.440> animals.<00:25:14.159> A<00:25:14.480> mother 23:48.037 --> 23:48.047 align:start position:0% these kinds of animals. A mother 23:48.047 --> 23:49.957 align:start position:0% these kinds of animals. A mother hamster,<00:25:15.279> for<00:25:15.360> example,<00:25:15.919> might<00:25:16.240> sense<00:25:16.480> that 23:49.957 --> 23:49.967 align:start position:0% hamster, for example, might sense that 23:49.967 --> 23:51.876 align:start position:0% hamster, for example, might sense that her<00:25:16.880> environment<00:25:17.360> is<00:25:17.600> too<00:25:17.840> hostile<00:25:18.320> to 23:51.876 --> 23:51.886 align:start position:0% her environment is too hostile to 23:51.886 --> 23:54.037 align:start position:0% her environment is too hostile to successfully<00:25:19.120> raise<00:25:19.360> her<00:25:19.600> own<00:25:19.760> litter,<00:25:20.480> so 23:54.037 --> 23:54.047 align:start position:0% successfully raise her own litter, so 23:54.047 --> 23:56.517 align:start position:0% successfully raise her own litter, so she<00:25:20.880> will<00:25:21.120> choose<00:25:21.360> to<00:25:21.600> consume<00:25:22.000> them<00:25:22.880> rather 23:56.517 --> 23:56.527 align:start position:0% she will choose to consume them rather 23:56.527 --> 23:58.677 align:start position:0% she will choose to consume them rather than<00:25:23.440> expend<00:25:23.919> precious<00:25:24.320> energy<00:25:24.559> on<00:25:24.799> offspring 23:58.677 --> 23:58.687 align:start position:0% than expend precious energy on offspring 23:58.687 --> 24:00.917 align:start position:0% than expend precious energy on offspring unlikely<00:25:25.840> to<00:25:26.080> survive<00:25:26.720> and<00:25:26.960> risk<00:25:27.279> her<00:25:27.440> own 24:00.917 --> 24:00.927 align:start position:0% unlikely to survive and risk her own 24:00.927 --> 24:03.476 align:start position:0% unlikely to survive and risk her own life<00:25:27.840> in<00:25:28.080> the<00:25:28.240> process.<00:25:28.960> In<00:25:29.120> a<00:25:29.279> sense,<00:25:29.840> she 24:03.476 --> 24:03.486 align:start position:0% life in the process. In a sense, she 24:03.486 --> 24:05.957 align:start position:0% life in the process. In a sense, she reabsorbs<00:25:30.880> their<00:25:31.200> nutrients<00:25:31.919> and<00:25:32.240> preserves 24:05.957 --> 24:05.967 align:start position:0% reabsorbs their nutrients and preserves 24:05.967 --> 24:08.197 align:start position:0% reabsorbs their nutrients and preserves her<00:25:32.880> own<00:25:33.120> capacity<00:25:33.600> to<00:25:33.840> reproduce<00:25:34.559> when 24:08.197 --> 24:08.207 align:start position:0% her own capacity to reproduce when 24:08.207 --> 24:11.476 align:start position:0% her own capacity to reproduce when conditions<00:25:35.440> improve.<00:25:36.880> In<00:25:37.200> larger<00:25:37.600> mammals, 24:11.476 --> 24:11.486 align:start position:0% conditions improve. In larger mammals, 24:11.486 --> 24:14.116 align:start position:0% conditions improve. In larger mammals, starvation<00:25:38.880> is<00:25:39.120> usually<00:25:39.440> the<00:25:39.679> trigger.<00:25:40.400> Polar 24:14.116 --> 24:14.126 align:start position:0% starvation is usually the trigger. Polar 24:14.126 --> 24:15.637 align:start position:0% starvation is usually the trigger. Polar bears<00:25:41.039> have<00:25:41.200> been<00:25:41.360> observed<00:25:41.760> feasting<00:25:42.080> on 24:15.637 --> 24:15.647 align:start position:0% bears have been observed feasting on 24:15.647 --> 24:17.236 align:start position:0% bears have been observed feasting on members<00:25:42.559> of<00:25:42.640> their<00:25:42.799> own<00:25:43.039> species,<00:25:43.679> not 24:17.236 --> 24:17.246 align:start position:0% members of their own species, not 24:17.246 --> 24:19.077 align:start position:0% members of their own species, not because<00:25:44.159> they<00:25:44.400> want<00:25:44.559> to,<00:25:45.039> but<00:25:45.200> because<00:25:45.440> they 24:19.077 --> 24:19.087 align:start position:0% because they want to, but because they 24:19.087 --> 24:21.557 align:start position:0% because they want to, but because they have<00:25:45.919> no<00:25:46.159> other<00:25:46.480> choice.<00:25:47.360> Polar<00:25:47.679> bears<00:25:48.000> are 24:21.557 --> 24:21.567 align:start position:0% have no other choice. Polar bears are 24:21.567 --> 24:23.637 align:start position:0% have no other choice. Polar bears are specialized<00:25:48.960> seal<00:25:49.360> hunters,<00:25:50.080> but 24:23.637 --> 24:23.647 align:start position:0% specialized seal hunters, but 24:23.647 --> 24:25.557 align:start position:0% specialized seal hunters, but unfortunately,<00:25:51.039> seals<00:25:51.520> are<00:25:51.679> becoming<00:25:52.000> much 24:25.557 --> 24:25.567 align:start position:0% unfortunately, seals are becoming much 24:25.567 --> 24:28.437 align:start position:0% unfortunately, seals are becoming much rarer<00:25:52.559> in<00:25:52.799> the<00:25:52.880> Arctic<00:25:53.520> as<00:25:53.760> sea<00:25:54.000> ice<00:25:54.320> melts, 24:28.437 --> 24:28.447 align:start position:0% rarer in the Arctic as sea ice melts, 24:28.447 --> 24:30.197 align:start position:0% rarer in the Arctic as sea ice melts, leaving<00:25:55.360> the<00:25:55.600> bears<00:25:56.000> with<00:25:56.159> a<00:25:56.320> choice<00:25:56.559> between 24:30.197 --> 24:30.207 align:start position:0% leaving the bears with a choice between 24:30.207 --> 24:32.517 align:start position:0% leaving the bears with a choice between starving<00:25:57.279> to<00:25:57.520> death<00:25:57.919> or<00:25:58.159> living<00:25:58.400> on<00:25:58.640> the<00:25:58.799> meat 24:32.517 --> 24:32.527 align:start position:0% starving to death or living on the meat 24:32.527 --> 24:38.197 align:start position:0% starving to death or living on the meat of<00:25:59.440> their<00:25:59.600> own<00:25:59.840> kind. 24:38.197 --> 24:38.207 align:start position:0% 24:38.207 --> 24:40.197 align:start position:0% But<00:26:05.120> of<00:26:05.360> course,<00:26:05.760> in<00:26:06.000> the<00:26:06.159> case<00:26:06.320> of<00:26:06.480> Reverend 24:40.197 --> 24:40.207 align:start position:0% But of course, in the case of Reverend 24:40.207 --> 24:42.757 align:start position:0% But of course, in the case of Reverend Thomas<00:26:07.200> Baker<00:26:07.600> on<00:26:07.840> the<00:26:08.000> island<00:26:08.240> of<00:26:08.480> Fiji,<00:26:09.279> it 24:42.757 --> 24:42.767 align:start position:0% Thomas Baker on the island of Fiji, it 24:42.767 --> 24:44.837 align:start position:0% Thomas Baker on the island of Fiji, it had<00:26:09.600> nothing<00:26:09.840> to<00:26:10.000> do<00:26:10.240> with<00:26:10.480> nutrition<00:26:11.200> or 24:44.837 --> 24:44.847 align:start position:0% had nothing to do with nutrition or 24:44.847 --> 24:46.917 align:start position:0% had nothing to do with nutrition or survival. 24:46.917 --> 24:46.927 align:start position:0% survival. 24:46.927 --> 24:48.837 align:start position:0% survival. It<00:26:13.840> was<00:26:13.919> a<00:26:14.080> way<00:26:14.320> for<00:26:14.480> the<00:26:14.640> villagers<00:26:15.120> to<00:26:15.279> take 24:48.837 --> 24:48.847 align:start position:0% It was a way for the villagers to take 24:48.847 --> 24:50.996 align:start position:0% It was a way for the villagers to take revenge<00:26:16.000> on<00:26:16.320> Baker,<00:26:16.880> who<00:26:17.039> had<00:26:17.200> delivered<00:26:17.520> them 24:50.996 --> 24:51.006 align:start position:0% revenge on Baker, who had delivered them 24:51.006 --> 24:52.917 align:start position:0% revenge on Baker, who had delivered them a<00:26:17.919> great<00:26:18.159> insult<00:26:18.640> when<00:26:18.880> he<00:26:19.039> touched<00:26:19.360> their 24:52.917 --> 24:52.927 align:start position:0% a great insult when he touched their 24:52.927 --> 24:55.876 align:start position:0% a great insult when he touched their chief's<00:26:20.080> head.<00:26:21.200> Though<00:26:21.440> to<00:26:21.679> modern<00:26:22.000> ears,<00:26:22.320> it 24:55.876 --> 24:55.886 align:start position:0% chief's head. Though to modern ears, it 24:55.886 --> 24:57.717 align:start position:0% chief's head. Though to modern ears, it might<00:26:22.720> sound<00:26:22.880> like<00:26:23.039> an<00:26:23.200> unnecessarily<00:26:24.000> severe 24:57.717 --> 24:57.727 align:start position:0% might sound like an unnecessarily severe 24:57.727 --> 25:00.677 align:start position:0% might sound like an unnecessarily severe punishment,<00:26:25.440> for<00:26:25.679> the<00:26:25.840> Fijians,<00:26:26.960> it<00:26:27.200> was 25:00.677 --> 25:00.687 align:start position:0% punishment, for the Fijians, it was 25:00.687 --> 25:02.596 align:start position:0% punishment, for the Fijians, it was wholly<00:26:27.760> justified. 25:02.596 --> 25:02.606 align:start position:0% wholly justified. 25:02.606 --> 25:04.596 align:start position:0% wholly justified. Cannibalism<00:26:29.919> was<00:26:30.080> a<00:26:30.240> highly<00:26:30.480> ritualized<00:26:31.120> part 25:04.596 --> 25:04.606 align:start position:0% Cannibalism was a highly ritualized part 25:04.606 --> 25:06.517 align:start position:0% Cannibalism was a highly ritualized part of<00:26:31.440> life<00:26:31.679> in<00:26:31.919> parts<00:26:32.080> of<00:26:32.240> Fiji,<00:26:32.720> which<00:26:32.960> earned 25:06.517 --> 25:06.527 align:start position:0% of life in parts of Fiji, which earned 25:06.527 --> 25:08.596 align:start position:0% of life in parts of Fiji, which earned it<00:26:33.279> the<00:26:33.440> nickname<00:26:33.840> cannibal<00:26:34.240> Isles.<00:26:34.960> But<00:26:35.120> it 25:08.596 --> 25:08.606 align:start position:0% it the nickname cannibal Isles. But it 25:08.606 --> 25:10.677 align:start position:0% it the nickname cannibal Isles. But it was<00:26:35.520> also<00:26:35.919> culturally<00:26:36.480> accepted<00:26:36.880> in<00:26:37.120> many 25:10.677 --> 25:10.687 align:start position:0% was also culturally accepted in many 25:10.687 --> 25:13.476 align:start position:0% was also culturally accepted in many other<00:26:37.679> oceanic<00:26:38.240> communities,<00:26:39.440> including<00:26:39.840> in 25:13.476 --> 25:13.486 align:start position:0% other oceanic communities, including in 25:13.486 --> 25:16.037 align:start position:0% other oceanic communities, including in New<00:26:40.320> Zealand.<00:26:41.360> Indeed,<00:26:41.760> for<00:26:41.919> many<00:26:42.159> cultures, 25:16.037 --> 25:16.047 align:start position:0% New Zealand. Indeed, for many cultures, 25:16.047 --> 25:18.037 align:start position:0% New Zealand. Indeed, for many cultures, cannibalizing<00:26:43.360> an<00:26:43.600> enemy<00:26:43.919> was<00:26:44.159> the<00:26:44.400> ultimate 25:18.037 --> 25:18.047 align:start position:0% cannibalizing an enemy was the ultimate 25:18.047 --> 25:20.757 align:start position:0% cannibalizing an enemy was the ultimate act<00:26:44.960> of<00:26:45.200> humiliation<00:26:46.080> and<00:26:46.400> domination. 25:20.757 --> 25:20.767 align:start position:0% act of humiliation and domination. 25:20.767 --> 25:22.917 align:start position:0% act of humiliation and domination. Indeed,<00:26:47.840> in<00:26:48.080> Fiji,<00:26:48.640> anyone<00:26:48.960> from<00:26:49.200> outside 25:22.917 --> 25:22.927 align:start position:0% Indeed, in Fiji, anyone from outside 25:22.927 --> 25:24.837 align:start position:0% Indeed, in Fiji, anyone from outside your<00:26:49.760> own<00:26:50.000> community<00:26:50.480> was<00:26:50.720> generally<00:26:51.200> fair 25:24.837 --> 25:24.847 align:start position:0% your own community was generally fair 25:24.847 --> 25:26.837 align:start position:0% your own community was generally fair game,<00:26:52.240> especially<00:26:52.559> if<00:26:52.799> they<00:26:53.039> came<00:26:53.200> from<00:26:53.360> an 25:26.837 --> 25:26.847 align:start position:0% game, especially if they came from an 25:26.847 --> 25:30.037 align:start position:0% game, especially if they came from an enemy<00:26:53.919> clan.<00:26:54.960> And<00:26:55.120> this<00:26:55.600> is<00:26:55.919> called 25:30.037 --> 25:30.047 align:start position:0% enemy clan. And this is called 25:30.047 --> 25:33.797 align:start position:0% enemy clan. And this is called exocanibalism. 25:33.797 --> 25:33.807 align:start position:0% 25:33.807 --> 25:35.157 align:start position:0% Although<00:27:00.799> there<00:27:00.960> is<00:27:01.120> another<00:27:01.440> form<00:27:01.679> of 25:35.157 --> 25:35.167 align:start position:0% Although there is another form of 25:35.167 --> 25:40.677 align:start position:0% Although there is another form of cannibalism<00:27:02.559> that<00:27:02.880> is<00:27:03.039> much<00:27:03.360> less<00:27:03.760> hostile. 25:40.677 --> 25:40.687 align:start position:0% 25:40.687 --> 25:43.557 align:start position:0% In<00:27:07.600> the<00:27:07.760> 1930s,<00:27:08.799> a<00:27:09.039> small<00:27:09.279> team<00:27:09.440> of<00:27:09.679> Australian 25:43.557 --> 25:43.567 align:start position:0% In the 1930s, a small team of Australian 25:43.567 --> 25:46.197 align:start position:0% In the 1930s, a small team of Australian gold<00:27:10.559> prospectors<00:27:11.360> led<00:27:11.600> by<00:27:11.760> Michael<00:27:12.080> Lehey 25:46.197 --> 25:46.207 align:start position:0% gold prospectors led by Michael Lehey 25:46.207 --> 25:48.596 align:start position:0% gold prospectors led by Michael Lehey set<00:27:13.120> off<00:27:13.360> on<00:27:13.600> an<00:27:13.840> expedition.<00:27:14.880> Although 25:48.596 --> 25:48.606 align:start position:0% set off on an expedition. Although 25:48.606 --> 25:50.356 align:start position:0% set off on an expedition. Although colonizers<00:27:16.000> been<00:27:16.159> in<00:27:16.240> Papa<00:27:16.559> Newu<00:27:16.720> Guinea 25:50.356 --> 25:50.366 align:start position:0% colonizers been in Papa Newu Guinea 25:50.366 --> 25:52.677 align:start position:0% colonizers been in Papa Newu Guinea since<00:27:17.279> the<00:27:17.440> Victorian<00:27:18.080> era,<00:27:18.480> Lehey<00:27:18.960> and<00:27:19.120> his 25:52.677 --> 25:52.687 align:start position:0% since the Victorian era, Lehey and his 25:52.687 --> 25:54.596 align:start position:0% since the Victorian era, Lehey and his associates<00:27:20.000> were<00:27:20.240> heading<00:27:20.480> into<00:27:20.640> the<00:27:20.799> unknown 25:54.596 --> 25:54.606 align:start position:0% associates were heading into the unknown 25:54.606 --> 25:57.397 align:start position:0% associates were heading into the unknown territory<00:27:21.919> of<00:27:22.159> the<00:27:22.320> mountainous<00:27:22.880> interior. 25:57.397 --> 25:57.407 align:start position:0% territory of the mountainous interior. 25:57.407 --> 25:59.637 align:start position:0% territory of the mountainous interior. They<00:27:24.320> had<00:27:24.480> assumed<00:27:24.960> it<00:27:25.200> would<00:27:25.360> be<00:27:25.440> uninhabited 25:59.637 --> 25:59.647 align:start position:0% They had assumed it would be uninhabited 25:59.647 --> 26:00.996 align:start position:0% They had assumed it would be uninhabited and<00:27:26.559> that<00:27:26.720> they<00:27:26.880> would<00:27:27.039> be<00:27:27.120> able<00:27:27.279> to<00:27:27.440> search 26:00.996 --> 26:01.006 align:start position:0% and that they would be able to search 26:01.006 --> 26:03.637 align:start position:0% and that they would be able to search for<00:27:27.919> gold<00:27:28.400> without<00:27:28.880> human<00:27:29.200> interruption. 26:03.637 --> 26:03.647 align:start position:0% for gold without human interruption. 26:03.647 --> 26:05.876 align:start position:0% for gold without human interruption. However,<00:27:30.720> Ley<00:27:31.120> and<00:27:31.360> his<00:27:31.600> team<00:27:32.240> found 26:05.876 --> 26:05.886 align:start position:0% However, Ley and his team found 26:05.886 --> 26:08.757 align:start position:0% However, Ley and his team found something<00:27:33.039> far<00:27:33.440> more<00:27:33.840> valuable.<00:27:35.120> A 26:08.757 --> 26:08.767 align:start position:0% something far more valuable. A 26:08.767 --> 26:11.876 align:start position:0% something far more valuable. A population<00:27:36.559> of<00:27:36.880> hundreds<00:27:37.520> of<00:27:37.840> thousands<00:27:38.320> of 26:11.876 --> 26:11.886 align:start position:0% population of hundreds of thousands of 26:11.886 --> 26:14.757 align:start position:0% population of hundreds of thousands of people.<00:27:39.760> The<00:27:40.000> Fur,<00:27:40.640> as<00:27:40.799> they<00:27:40.960> came<00:27:41.120> to<00:27:41.279> be 26:14.757 --> 26:14.767 align:start position:0% people. The Fur, as they came to be 26:14.767 --> 26:16.677 align:start position:0% people. The Fur, as they came to be known,<00:27:41.840> had<00:27:42.080> lived<00:27:42.320> in<00:27:42.480> such<00:27:42.799> profound 26:16.677 --> 26:16.687 align:start position:0% known, had lived in such profound 26:16.687 --> 26:18.677 align:start position:0% known, had lived in such profound isolation<00:27:44.240> that<00:27:44.480> they<00:27:44.720> thought<00:27:44.960> they<00:27:45.200> were 26:18.677 --> 26:18.687 align:start position:0% isolation that they thought they were 26:18.687 --> 26:21.157 align:start position:0% isolation that they thought they were the<00:27:45.520> only<00:27:45.840> humans<00:27:46.159> in<00:27:46.400> existence.<00:27:47.440> Over<00:27:47.679> the 26:21.157 --> 26:21.167 align:start position:0% the only humans in existence. Over the 26:21.167 --> 26:22.996 align:start position:0% the only humans in existence. Over the next<00:27:48.080> few<00:27:48.240> decades,<00:27:48.960> colonists<00:27:49.520> had 26:22.996 --> 26:23.006 align:start position:0% next few decades, colonists had 26:23.006 --> 26:25.236 align:start position:0% next few decades, colonists had increasing<00:27:50.240> contact<00:27:50.559> with<00:27:50.799> the<00:27:50.960> foray<00:27:51.679> and 26:25.236 --> 26:25.246 align:start position:0% increasing contact with the foray and 26:25.246 --> 26:27.077 align:start position:0% increasing contact with the foray and learned<00:27:52.159> a<00:27:52.400> great<00:27:52.559> deal<00:27:52.720> about<00:27:52.960> them. 26:27.077 --> 26:27.087 align:start position:0% learned a great deal about them. 26:27.087 --> 26:28.596 align:start position:0% learned a great deal about them. However,<00:27:54.320> there<00:27:54.480> were<00:27:54.640> some<00:27:54.799> elements<00:27:55.120> of 26:28.596 --> 26:28.606 align:start position:0% However, there were some elements of 26:28.606 --> 26:30.517 align:start position:0% However, there were some elements of foray<00:27:55.760> culture<00:27:56.080> that<00:27:56.240> they<00:27:56.480> struggled<00:27:56.960> to 26:30.517 --> 26:30.527 align:start position:0% foray culture that they struggled to 26:30.527 --> 26:34.037 align:start position:0% foray culture that they struggled to understand<00:27:57.840> and<00:27:58.159> accept<00:27:59.279> and<00:27:59.600> cannibalism 26:34.037 --> 26:34.047 align:start position:0% understand and accept and cannibalism 26:34.047 --> 26:36.437 align:start position:0% understand and accept and cannibalism was<00:28:00.960> one<00:28:01.200> of<00:28:01.360> them. 26:36.437 --> 26:36.447 align:start position:0% was one of them. 26:36.447 --> 26:38.677 align:start position:0% was one of them. Among<00:28:03.440> the<00:28:03.600> foray,<00:28:04.320> the<00:28:04.559> dead<00:28:04.960> were<00:28:05.120> not 26:38.677 --> 26:38.687 align:start position:0% Among the foray, the dead were not 26:38.687 --> 26:42.356 align:start position:0% Among the foray, the dead were not buried<00:28:05.840> or<00:28:06.159> cremated.<00:28:07.520> Instead,<00:28:08.480> consuming 26:42.356 --> 26:42.366 align:start position:0% buried or cremated. Instead, consuming 26:42.366 --> 26:44.197 align:start position:0% buried or cremated. Instead, consuming the<00:28:09.279> body<00:28:09.520> of<00:28:09.679> a<00:28:09.840> deceased<00:28:10.320> relative<00:28:10.640> was 26:44.197 --> 26:44.207 align:start position:0% the body of a deceased relative was 26:44.207 --> 26:46.037 align:start position:0% the body of a deceased relative was thought<00:28:11.039> to<00:28:11.200> be<00:28:11.279> an<00:28:11.520> act<00:28:11.679> of<00:28:11.919> love<00:28:12.320> and 26:46.037 --> 26:46.047 align:start position:0% thought to be an act of love and 26:46.047 --> 26:48.517 align:start position:0% thought to be an act of love and reverence.<00:28:13.840> It<00:28:14.000> was<00:28:14.080> a<00:28:14.320> way<00:28:14.399> of<00:28:14.559> incorporating 26:48.517 --> 26:48.527 align:start position:0% reverence. It was a way of incorporating 26:48.527 --> 26:50.917 align:start position:0% reverence. It was a way of incorporating the<00:28:15.440> dead<00:28:15.760> into<00:28:16.080> the<00:28:16.320> living<00:28:16.880> and<00:28:17.120> that<00:28:17.279> eating 26:50.917 --> 26:50.927 align:start position:0% the dead into the living and that eating 26:50.927 --> 26:52.996 align:start position:0% the dead into the living and that eating the<00:28:17.760> body<00:28:17.919> of<00:28:18.080> a<00:28:18.240> dead<00:28:18.480> loved<00:28:18.720> one<00:28:19.200> helped<00:28:19.440> to 26:52.996 --> 26:53.006 align:start position:0% the body of a dead loved one helped to 26:53.006 --> 26:56.197 align:start position:0% the body of a dead loved one helped to free<00:28:19.919> the<00:28:20.159> spirit.<00:28:21.600> to<00:28:21.760> the<00:28:21.919> foray.<00:28:22.559> It<00:28:22.799> was 26:56.197 --> 26:56.207 align:start position:0% free the spirit. to the foray. It was 26:56.207 --> 26:57.876 align:start position:0% free the spirit. to the foray. It was much<00:28:23.120> better<00:28:23.279> to<00:28:23.520> be<00:28:23.600> consumed<00:28:24.080> by<00:28:24.240> the<00:28:24.399> people 26:57.876 --> 26:57.886 align:start position:0% much better to be consumed by the people 26:57.886 --> 27:00.596 align:start position:0% much better to be consumed by the people who<00:28:24.799> loved<00:28:25.120> you<00:28:25.600> than<00:28:25.840> to<00:28:26.080> be<00:28:26.159> consumed<00:28:26.960> by 27:00.596 --> 27:00.606 align:start position:0% who loved you than to be consumed by 27:00.606 --> 27:04.517 align:start position:0% who loved you than to be consumed by maggots. 27:04.517 --> 27:04.527 align:start position:0% 27:04.527 --> 27:07.236 align:start position:0% And<00:28:31.440> this<00:28:31.840> is<00:28:32.000> what<00:28:32.320> anthropologists<00:28:33.360> call 27:07.236 --> 27:07.246 align:start position:0% And this is what anthropologists call 27:07.246 --> 27:08.917 align:start position:0% And this is what anthropologists call endocanibalism, 27:08.917 --> 27:08.927 align:start position:0% endocanibalism, 27:08.927 --> 27:10.517 align:start position:0% endocanibalism, meaning<00:28:35.840> that<00:28:36.000> the<00:28:36.159> flesh<00:28:36.399> of<00:28:36.640> people<00:28:36.799> within 27:10.517 --> 27:10.527 align:start position:0% meaning that the flesh of people within 27:10.527 --> 27:13.317 align:start position:0% meaning that the flesh of people within the<00:28:37.360> same<00:28:37.679> community<00:28:38.320> is<00:28:38.720> eaten.<00:28:39.679> And<00:28:39.840> there 27:13.317 --> 27:13.327 align:start position:0% the same community is eaten. And there 27:13.327 --> 27:15.637 align:start position:0% the same community is eaten. And there is<00:28:40.159> evidence<00:28:40.559> for<00:28:40.799> this<00:28:41.039> kind<00:28:41.200> of<00:28:41.360> practice<00:28:42.000> as 27:15.637 --> 27:15.647 align:start position:0% is evidence for this kind of practice as 27:15.647 --> 27:22.037 align:start position:0% is evidence for this kind of practice as far<00:28:42.480> back<00:28:42.799> as<00:28:43.200> 15,000<00:28:44.080> years<00:28:44.320> ago. 27:22.037 --> 27:22.047 align:start position:0% 27:22.047 --> 27:24.677 align:start position:0% Inside<00:28:49.039> a<00:28:49.279> cave<00:28:49.679> deep<00:28:50.000> inside<00:28:50.399> a<00:28:50.720> limestone 27:24.677 --> 27:24.687 align:start position:0% Inside a cave deep inside a limestone 27:24.687 --> 27:27.716 align:start position:0% Inside a cave deep inside a limestone gorge,<00:28:52.080> a<00:28:52.240> hearth<00:28:52.640> fire<00:28:53.200> throws<00:28:53.600> long<00:28:53.919> shadows 27:27.716 --> 27:27.726 align:start position:0% gorge, a hearth fire throws long shadows 27:27.726 --> 27:30.116 align:start position:0% gorge, a hearth fire throws long shadows against<00:28:54.640> the<00:28:54.880> ancient<00:28:55.279> walls.<00:28:56.240> A<00:28:56.399> large<00:28:56.640> group 27:30.116 --> 27:30.126 align:start position:0% against the ancient walls. A large group 27:30.126 --> 27:32.037 align:start position:0% against the ancient walls. A large group of<00:28:56.960> people<00:28:57.200> are<00:28:57.360> gathered,<00:28:57.919> arranged<00:28:58.399> in<00:28:58.559> a 27:32.037 --> 27:32.047 align:start position:0% of people are gathered, arranged in a 27:32.047 --> 27:34.917 align:start position:0% of people are gathered, arranged in a rough<00:28:59.039> circle<00:28:59.679> around<00:29:00.000> the<00:29:00.240> flames.<00:29:01.200> In<00:29:01.440> front 27:34.917 --> 27:34.927 align:start position:0% rough circle around the flames. In front 27:34.927 --> 27:36.757 align:start position:0% rough circle around the flames. In front of<00:29:01.679> the<00:29:01.840> hearth,<00:29:02.320> laid<00:29:02.640> out<00:29:02.799> on<00:29:02.880> a<00:29:03.120> bed<00:29:03.279> of 27:36.757 --> 27:36.767 align:start position:0% of the hearth, laid out on a bed of 27:36.767 --> 27:40.437 align:start position:0% of the hearth, laid out on a bed of animal<00:29:03.760> fur,<00:29:04.399> is<00:29:04.559> a<00:29:04.799> human<00:29:05.279> skeleton. 27:40.437 --> 27:40.447 align:start position:0% animal fur, is a human skeleton. 27:40.447 --> 27:42.437 align:start position:0% animal fur, is a human skeleton. Although<00:29:07.440> it's<00:29:07.600> missing<00:29:07.919> its<00:29:08.159> skull<00:29:08.720> and<00:29:08.960> the 27:42.437 --> 27:42.447 align:start position:0% Although it's missing its skull and the 27:42.447 --> 27:44.517 align:start position:0% Although it's missing its skull and the long<00:29:09.440> bones<00:29:09.760> have<00:29:10.000> been<00:29:10.159> split<00:29:10.480> open,<00:29:11.039> the 27:44.517 --> 27:44.527 align:start position:0% long bones have been split open, the 27:44.527 --> 27:46.277 align:start position:0% long bones have been split open, the skeleton<00:29:11.679> seems<00:29:11.919> to<00:29:12.080> have<00:29:12.159> been<00:29:12.320> treated<00:29:12.640> with 27:46.277 --> 27:46.287 align:start position:0% skeleton seems to have been treated with 27:46.287 --> 27:49.236 align:start position:0% skeleton seems to have been treated with care<00:29:13.440> and<00:29:13.760> respect.<00:29:14.960> The<00:29:15.200> bones<00:29:15.520> have<00:29:15.760> been 27:49.236 --> 27:49.246 align:start position:0% care and respect. The bones have been 27:49.246 --> 27:51.557 align:start position:0% care and respect. The bones have been carefully<00:29:16.399> cleaned.<00:29:17.039> Whatever<00:29:17.440> soft<00:29:17.840> tissue 27:51.557 --> 27:51.567 align:start position:0% carefully cleaned. Whatever soft tissue 27:51.567 --> 27:54.037 align:start position:0% carefully cleaned. Whatever soft tissue still<00:29:18.480> clung<00:29:18.799> to<00:29:18.960> them<00:29:19.279> has<00:29:19.600> been<00:29:19.760> cut<00:29:20.000> away 27:54.037 --> 27:54.047 align:start position:0% still clung to them has been cut away 27:54.047 --> 27:55.957 align:start position:0% still clung to them has been cut away and<00:29:21.120> consumed. 27:55.957 --> 27:55.967 align:start position:0% and consumed. 27:55.967 --> 27:57.557 align:start position:0% and consumed. At<00:29:22.880> the<00:29:23.039> center<00:29:23.279> of<00:29:23.360> the<00:29:23.520> group,<00:29:24.000> someone 27:57.557 --> 27:57.567 align:start position:0% At the center of the group, someone 27:57.567 --> 28:00.517 align:start position:0% At the center of the group, someone holds<00:29:24.559> an<00:29:24.799> object<00:29:25.120> in<00:29:25.360> their<00:29:25.600> hands.<00:29:26.720> It<00:29:27.039> is 28:00.517 --> 28:00.527 align:start position:0% holds an object in their hands. It is 28:00.527 --> 28:03.557 align:start position:0% holds an object in their hands. It is the<00:29:27.600> skull.<00:29:28.399> Its<00:29:28.720> face<00:29:28.960> and<00:29:29.200> base<00:29:29.520> removed<00:29:30.000> and 28:03.557 --> 28:03.567 align:start position:0% the skull. Its face and base removed and 28:03.567 --> 28:05.557 align:start position:0% the skull. Its face and base removed and the<00:29:30.399> domed<00:29:30.799> brain<00:29:31.120> case<00:29:31.440> smooth<00:29:31.840> until<00:29:32.080> the 28:05.557 --> 28:05.567 align:start position:0% the domed brain case smooth until the 28:05.567 --> 28:08.596 align:start position:0% the domed brain case smooth until the edges<00:29:32.559> are<00:29:32.720> even.<00:29:34.000> It<00:29:34.240> slowly<00:29:34.640> passes<00:29:35.039> from 28:08.596 --> 28:08.606 align:start position:0% edges are even. It slowly passes from 28:08.606 --> 28:10.996 align:start position:0% edges are even. It slowly passes from hand<00:29:35.600> to<00:29:35.840> hand.<00:29:36.559> Each<00:29:36.880> person<00:29:37.039> who<00:29:37.360> receives 28:10.996 --> 28:11.006 align:start position:0% hand to hand. Each person who receives 28:11.006 --> 28:12.996 align:start position:0% hand to hand. Each person who receives it<00:29:38.000> drinks<00:29:38.320> a<00:29:38.480> sip<00:29:38.720> of<00:29:38.880> the<00:29:39.039> dark<00:29:39.360> liquid 28:12.996 --> 28:13.006 align:start position:0% it drinks a sip of the dark liquid 28:13.006 --> 28:15.157 align:start position:0% it drinks a sip of the dark liquid within<00:29:40.240> before<00:29:40.559> gently<00:29:40.960> offering<00:29:41.360> it<00:29:41.679> to 28:15.157 --> 28:15.167 align:start position:0% within before gently offering it to 28:15.167 --> 28:17.236 align:start position:0% within before gently offering it to their<00:29:42.080> neighbor. 28:17.236 --> 28:17.246 align:start position:0% their neighbor. 28:17.246 --> 28:19.317 align:start position:0% their neighbor. Today,<00:29:44.399> we<00:29:44.559> cannot<00:29:44.880> know<00:29:45.039> for<00:29:45.200> sure<00:29:45.440> what<00:29:45.760> this 28:19.317 --> 28:19.327 align:start position:0% Today, we cannot know for sure what this 28:19.327 --> 28:21.637 align:start position:0% Today, we cannot know for sure what this moment<00:29:46.320> meant<00:29:46.640> to<00:29:46.799> the<00:29:47.039> people<00:29:47.279> living<00:29:47.520> it.<00:29:48.159> We 28:21.637 --> 28:21.647 align:start position:0% moment meant to the people living it. We 28:21.647 --> 28:23.637 align:start position:0% moment meant to the people living it. We cannot<00:29:48.640> know<00:29:48.880> who<00:29:49.120> the<00:29:49.279> person<00:29:49.440> whose<00:29:49.760> remains 28:23.637 --> 28:23.647 align:start position:0% cannot know who the person whose remains 28:23.647 --> 28:25.716 align:start position:0% cannot know who the person whose remains lay<00:29:50.399> before<00:29:50.640> the<00:29:50.799> hearth<00:29:51.200> was<00:29:51.679> or<00:29:51.919> how<00:29:52.159> they 28:25.716 --> 28:25.726 align:start position:0% lay before the hearth was or how they 28:25.726 --> 28:28.517 align:start position:0% lay before the hearth was or how they died.<00:29:53.279> But<00:29:53.440> we<00:29:53.679> can<00:29:53.919> guess<00:29:54.320> that<00:29:54.640> this<00:29:54.880> kind<00:29:55.039> of 28:28.517 --> 28:28.527 align:start position:0% died. But we can guess that this kind of 28:28.527 --> 28:30.356 align:start position:0% died. But we can guess that this kind of scene<00:29:55.520> could<00:29:55.760> have<00:29:55.840> played<00:29:56.159> out<00:29:56.399> many<00:29:56.720> times 28:30.356 --> 28:30.366 align:start position:0% scene could have played out many times 28:30.366 --> 28:33.157 align:start position:0% scene could have played out many times in<00:29:57.279> the<00:29:57.440> ancient<00:29:57.840> past<00:29:58.480> because<00:29:58.799> Goff's<00:29:59.279> cave 28:33.157 --> 28:33.167 align:start position:0% in the ancient past because Goff's cave 28:33.167 --> 28:35.157 align:start position:0% in the ancient past because Goff's cave preserves<00:30:00.320> evidence<00:30:00.720> that<00:30:01.039> cannibalism<00:30:01.679> in 28:35.157 --> 28:35.167 align:start position:0% preserves evidence that cannibalism in 28:35.167 --> 28:37.957 align:start position:0% preserves evidence that cannibalism in human<00:30:02.159> evolution<00:30:03.039> was<00:30:03.279> much<00:30:03.520> more<00:30:03.760> complex 28:37.957 --> 28:37.967 align:start position:0% human evolution was much more complex 28:37.967 --> 28:43.957 align:start position:0% human evolution was much more complex than<00:30:04.960> once<00:30:05.279> thought. 28:43.957 --> 28:43.967 align:start position:0% 28:43.967 --> 28:46.517 align:start position:0% In<00:30:10.960> 2011,<00:30:11.679> a<00:30:11.919> team<00:30:12.080> of<00:30:12.240> researchers<00:30:12.799> from<00:30:13.039> the 28:46.517 --> 28:46.527 align:start position:0% In 2011, a team of researchers from the 28:46.527 --> 28:48.356 align:start position:0% In 2011, a team of researchers from the Natural<00:30:13.520> History<00:30:13.919> Museum<00:30:14.320> in<00:30:14.559> London 28:48.356 --> 28:48.366 align:start position:0% Natural History Museum in London 28:48.366 --> 28:50.197 align:start position:0% Natural History Museum in London published<00:30:15.440> a<00:30:15.600> detailed<00:30:16.080> analysis<00:30:16.559> of<00:30:16.720> the 28:50.197 --> 28:50.207 align:start position:0% published a detailed analysis of the 28:50.207 --> 28:52.837 align:start position:0% published a detailed analysis of the skulls<00:30:17.279> recovered<00:30:17.679> from<00:30:17.919> Goff's<00:30:18.480> cave.<00:30:19.360> And 28:52.837 --> 28:52.847 align:start position:0% skulls recovered from Goff's cave. And 28:52.847 --> 28:55.797 align:start position:0% skulls recovered from Goff's cave. And what<00:30:19.679> they<00:30:19.919> found<00:30:20.559> was<00:30:20.799> remarkable.<00:30:22.080> Three<00:30:22.320> of 28:55.797 --> 28:55.807 align:start position:0% what they found was remarkable. Three of 28:55.807 --> 28:57.557 align:start position:0% what they found was remarkable. Three of the<00:30:22.640> skulls<00:30:23.120> had<00:30:23.360> been<00:30:23.520> carefully<00:30:23.919> and 28:57.557 --> 28:57.567 align:start position:0% the skulls had been carefully and 28:57.567 --> 28:59.957 align:start position:0% the skulls had been carefully and deliberately<00:30:24.960> worked.<00:30:25.760> The<00:30:26.000> facial<00:30:26.320> bones 28:59.957 --> 28:59.967 align:start position:0% deliberately worked. The facial bones 28:59.967 --> 29:01.797 align:start position:0% deliberately worked. The facial bones and<00:30:26.799> base<00:30:27.120> had<00:30:27.360> been<00:30:27.440> removed,<00:30:28.080> while<00:30:28.320> the 29:01.797 --> 29:01.807 align:start position:0% and base had been removed, while the 29:01.807 --> 29:03.876 align:start position:0% and base had been removed, while the remaining<00:30:28.880> dome-shaped<00:30:29.600> crania<00:30:30.159> had<00:30:30.399> been 29:03.876 --> 29:03.886 align:start position:0% remaining dome-shaped crania had been 29:03.886 --> 29:05.637 align:start position:0% remaining dome-shaped crania had been smoothed<00:30:30.960> and<00:30:31.200> polished<00:30:31.760> to<00:30:32.000> create 29:05.637 --> 29:05.647 align:start position:0% smoothed and polished to create 29:05.647 --> 29:08.437 align:start position:0% smoothed and polished to create something<00:30:32.720> resembling<00:30:33.200> a<00:30:33.440> bowl<00:30:34.000> or<00:30:34.320> cup. 29:08.437 --> 29:08.447 align:start position:0% something resembling a bowl or cup. 29:08.447 --> 29:10.437 align:start position:0% something resembling a bowl or cup. These<00:30:35.440> were<00:30:35.600> obviously<00:30:36.000> not<00:30:36.399> skulls<00:30:36.799> that<00:30:36.960> had 29:10.437 --> 29:10.447 align:start position:0% These were obviously not skulls that had 29:10.447 --> 29:12.437 align:start position:0% These were obviously not skulls that had been<00:30:37.279> smashed<00:30:37.600> open<00:30:37.919> by<00:30:38.159> desperately<00:30:38.720> hungry 29:12.437 --> 29:12.447 align:start position:0% been smashed open by desperately hungry 29:12.447 --> 29:14.596 align:start position:0% been smashed open by desperately hungry individuals.<00:30:40.080> They<00:30:40.320> were<00:30:40.480> artifacts<00:30:41.039> that 29:14.596 --> 29:14.606 align:start position:0% individuals. They were artifacts that 29:14.606 --> 29:17.716 align:start position:0% individuals. They were artifacts that were<00:30:41.440> crafted<00:30:42.000> with<00:30:42.320> patience<00:30:43.039> and<00:30:43.440> skill. 29:17.716 --> 29:17.726 align:start position:0% were crafted with patience and skill. 29:17.726 --> 29:19.317 align:start position:0% were crafted with patience and skill. And<00:30:44.559> yet,<00:30:44.799> on<00:30:44.960> the<00:30:45.120> other<00:30:45.200> hand,<00:30:45.600> when<00:30:45.840> the 29:19.317 --> 29:19.327 align:start position:0% And yet, on the other hand, when the 29:19.327 --> 29:21.157 align:start position:0% And yet, on the other hand, when the same<00:30:46.240> researchers<00:30:46.880> returned<00:30:47.200> to<00:30:47.279> the<00:30:47.440> Goff's 29:21.157 --> 29:21.167 align:start position:0% same researchers returned to the Goff's 29:21.167 --> 29:23.476 align:start position:0% same researchers returned to the Goff's cave<00:30:48.080> bones<00:30:48.399> a<00:30:48.640> few<00:30:48.799> years<00:30:49.039> later,<00:30:49.679> they<00:30:49.919> found 29:23.476 --> 29:23.486 align:start position:0% cave bones a few years later, they found 29:23.486 --> 29:26.037 align:start position:0% cave bones a few years later, they found almost<00:30:50.559> undeniable<00:30:51.440> proof<00:30:51.679> that<00:30:51.919> cannibalism 29:26.037 --> 29:26.047 align:start position:0% almost undeniable proof that cannibalism 29:26.047 --> 29:28.996 align:start position:0% almost undeniable proof that cannibalism did<00:30:53.039> indeed<00:30:53.600> take<00:30:53.919> place<00:30:54.080> at<00:30:54.320> the<00:30:54.480> site.<00:30:55.440> They 29:28.996 --> 29:29.006 align:start position:0% did indeed take place at the site. They 29:29.006 --> 29:31.236 align:start position:0% did indeed take place at the site. They even<00:30:56.000> found<00:30:56.320> human<00:30:56.720> tooth<00:30:56.960> marks<00:30:57.360> on<00:30:57.600> many<00:30:57.760> of 29:31.236 --> 29:31.246 align:start position:0% even found human tooth marks on many of 29:31.246 --> 29:33.957 align:start position:0% even found human tooth marks on many of the<00:30:58.080> bones.<00:30:59.440> These<00:30:59.679> bones<00:31:00.000> were<00:31:00.159> even<00:31:00.399> mixed 29:33.957 --> 29:33.967 align:start position:0% the bones. These bones were even mixed 29:33.967 --> 29:35.797 align:start position:0% the bones. These bones were even mixed in<00:31:00.799> with<00:31:00.960> the<00:31:01.120> bones<00:31:01.360> of<00:31:01.520> deer<00:31:01.919> and<00:31:02.159> other 29:35.797 --> 29:35.807 align:start position:0% in with the bones of deer and other 29:35.807 --> 29:37.797 align:start position:0% in with the bones of deer and other large<00:31:02.799> prey<00:31:03.120> animals.<00:31:03.760> And<00:31:03.919> so<00:31:04.080> it<00:31:04.240> looked 29:37.797 --> 29:37.807 align:start position:0% large prey animals. And so it looked 29:37.807 --> 29:39.476 align:start position:0% large prey animals. And so it looked very<00:31:04.720> much<00:31:04.880> like<00:31:05.039> the<00:31:05.279> human<00:31:05.520> remains<00:31:06.000> were 29:39.476 --> 29:39.486 align:start position:0% very much like the human remains were 29:39.486 --> 29:41.876 align:start position:0% very much like the human remains were treated<00:31:06.480> in<00:31:06.720> exactly<00:31:07.200> the<00:31:07.440> same<00:31:07.679> way<00:31:08.159> as<00:31:08.399> the 29:41.876 --> 29:41.886 align:start position:0% treated in exactly the same way as the 29:41.886 --> 29:43.797 align:start position:0% treated in exactly the same way as the remains<00:31:08.880> of<00:31:09.039> animals<00:31:09.600> that<00:31:09.840> were<00:31:10.000> eaten<00:31:10.320> at 29:43.797 --> 29:43.807 align:start position:0% remains of animals that were eaten at 29:43.807 --> 29:46.517 align:start position:0% remains of animals that were eaten at the<00:31:10.640> site.<00:31:11.840> And<00:31:12.000> this<00:31:12.320> was<00:31:12.480> not<00:31:12.640> a<00:31:12.880> single 29:46.517 --> 29:46.527 align:start position:0% the site. And this was not a single 29:46.527 --> 29:49.397 align:start position:0% the site. And this was not a single incident.<00:31:14.240> The<00:31:14.480> human<00:31:14.799> remains<00:31:15.600> appeared<00:31:16.000> to 29:49.397 --> 29:49.407 align:start position:0% incident. The human remains appeared to 29:49.407 --> 29:51.716 align:start position:0% incident. The human remains appeared to have<00:31:16.240> been<00:31:16.399> deposited<00:31:16.960> at<00:31:17.200> different<00:31:17.520> times, 29:51.716 --> 29:51.726 align:start position:0% have been deposited at different times, 29:51.726 --> 29:53.957 align:start position:0% have been deposited at different times, possibly<00:31:18.960> during<00:31:19.279> a<00:31:19.520> series<00:31:19.840> of<00:31:20.159> seasonal 29:53.957 --> 29:53.967 align:start position:0% possibly during a series of seasonal 29:53.967 --> 29:56.757 align:start position:0% possibly during a series of seasonal occupations<00:31:21.200> at<00:31:21.360> the<00:31:21.600> cave.<00:31:22.640> So<00:31:22.799> whatever<00:31:23.200> was 29:56.757 --> 29:56.767 align:start position:0% occupations at the cave. So whatever was 29:56.767 --> 29:58.837 align:start position:0% occupations at the cave. So whatever was happening<00:31:23.760> at<00:31:24.000> Goff's<00:31:24.480> cave,<00:31:25.200> it<00:31:25.360> was 29:58.837 --> 29:58.847 align:start position:0% happening at Goff's cave, it was 29:58.847 --> 30:00.996 align:start position:0% happening at Goff's cave, it was happening<00:31:25.919> repeatedly<00:31:26.640> to<00:31:26.960> different<00:31:27.279> people 30:00.996 --> 30:01.006 align:start position:0% happening repeatedly to different people 30:01.006 --> 30:02.917 align:start position:0% happening repeatedly to different people and<00:31:27.919> it<00:31:28.080> was<00:31:28.240> carried<00:31:28.480> out<00:31:28.720> by<00:31:28.880> a<00:31:29.120> community 30:02.917 --> 30:02.927 align:start position:0% and it was carried out by a community 30:02.927 --> 30:06.197 align:start position:0% and it was carried out by a community for<00:31:29.840> whom<00:31:30.080> this<00:31:30.320> was<00:31:30.399> a<00:31:30.640> normal<00:31:31.039> part<00:31:31.279> of<00:31:31.520> life. 30:06.197 --> 30:06.207 align:start position:0% for whom this was a normal part of life. 30:06.207 --> 30:08.116 align:start position:0% for whom this was a normal part of life. It<00:31:33.039> was<00:31:33.200> only<00:31:33.360> the<00:31:33.600> skulls<00:31:34.000> that<00:31:34.240> sat<00:31:34.480> apart 30:08.116 --> 30:08.126 align:start position:0% It was only the skulls that sat apart 30:08.126 --> 30:10.116 align:start position:0% It was only the skulls that sat apart from<00:31:34.960> this<00:31:35.520> which<00:31:35.840> suggests<00:31:36.240> that<00:31:36.480> for<00:31:36.640> the 30:10.116 --> 30:10.126 align:start position:0% from this which suggests that for the 30:10.126 --> 30:12.996 align:start position:0% from this which suggests that for the people<00:31:36.960> of<00:31:37.120> Gooff's<00:31:37.600> cave,<00:31:38.480> skulls<00:31:39.200> held 30:12.996 --> 30:13.006 align:start position:0% people of Gooff's cave, skulls held 30:13.006 --> 30:15.557 align:start position:0% people of Gooff's cave, skulls held special<00:31:40.159> meaning.<00:31:41.200> What<00:31:41.440> their<00:31:41.600> meaning<00:31:41.919> was 30:15.557 --> 30:15.567 align:start position:0% special meaning. What their meaning was 30:15.567 --> 30:18.277 align:start position:0% special meaning. What their meaning was is<00:31:42.480> uncertain,<00:31:43.600> but<00:31:43.760> it<00:31:44.000> could<00:31:44.159> be<00:31:44.320> an<00:31:44.559> ancient 30:18.277 --> 30:18.287 align:start position:0% is uncertain, but it could be an ancient 30:18.287 --> 30:24.356 align:start position:0% is uncertain, but it could be an ancient example<00:31:45.679> of<00:31:46.000> endocanibalism. 30:24.356 --> 30:24.366 align:start position:0% 30:24.366 --> 30:26.116 align:start position:0% And<00:31:51.200> this<00:31:51.360> is<00:31:51.519> certainly<00:31:51.919> not<00:31:52.159> the<00:31:52.399> end<00:31:52.480> of<00:31:52.559> the 30:26.116 --> 30:26.126 align:start position:0% And this is certainly not the end of the 30:26.126 --> 30:28.596 align:start position:0% And this is certainly not the end of the evidence,<00:31:53.840> nor<00:31:54.159> the<00:31:54.480> most<00:31:54.640> disturbing 30:28.596 --> 30:28.606 align:start position:0% evidence, nor the most disturbing 30:28.606 --> 30:31.077 align:start position:0% evidence, nor the most disturbing example. 30:31.077 --> 30:31.087 align:start position:0% example. 30:31.087 --> 30:33.957 align:start position:0% example. About<00:31:58.080> 75<00:31:58.559> km<00:31:59.120> southeast<00:31:59.519> of<00:31:59.679> Brussels,<00:32:00.480> the 30:33.957 --> 30:33.967 align:start position:0% About 75 km southeast of Brussels, the 30:33.967 --> 30:35.876 align:start position:0% About 75 km southeast of Brussels, the caves<00:32:00.960> of<00:32:01.120> Goyer<00:32:01.679> were<00:32:01.919> discovered<00:32:02.240> to<00:32:02.399> hold 30:35.876 --> 30:35.886 align:start position:0% caves of Goyer were discovered to hold 30:35.886 --> 30:39.077 align:start position:0% caves of Goyer were discovered to hold an<00:32:02.799> assemblage<00:32:03.279> of<00:32:03.600> 101<00:32:04.320> Neanderal<00:32:05.039> bones 30:39.077 --> 30:39.087 align:start position:0% an assemblage of 101 Neanderal bones 30:39.087 --> 30:41.957 align:start position:0% an assemblage of 101 Neanderal bones representing<00:32:06.559> six<00:32:06.960> different<00:32:07.360> individuals. 30:41.957 --> 30:41.967 align:start position:0% representing six different individuals. 30:41.967 --> 30:43.957 align:start position:0% representing six different individuals. Nearly<00:32:09.039> onethird<00:32:09.440> of<00:32:09.519> the<00:32:09.679> bones<00:32:10.159> have<00:32:10.399> some 30:43.957 --> 30:43.967 align:start position:0% Nearly onethird of the bones have some 30:43.967 --> 30:46.437 align:start position:0% Nearly onethird of the bones have some form<00:32:10.799> of<00:32:10.960> anthropogenic<00:32:11.760> modification, 30:46.437 --> 30:46.447 align:start position:0% form of anthropogenic modification, 30:46.447 --> 30:48.677 align:start position:0% form of anthropogenic modification, including<00:32:13.440> cut<00:32:13.760> marks,<00:32:14.240> bone<00:32:14.559> fractures, 30:48.677 --> 30:48.687 align:start position:0% including cut marks, bone fractures, 30:48.687 --> 30:50.757 align:start position:0% including cut marks, bone fractures, percussion<00:32:15.919> marks,<00:32:16.559> and<00:32:16.720> the<00:32:16.960> splitting<00:32:17.279> of 30:50.757 --> 30:50.767 align:start position:0% percussion marks, and the splitting of 30:50.767 --> 30:53.637 align:start position:0% percussion marks, and the splitting of long<00:32:17.760> bones<00:32:18.159> for<00:32:18.320> marrow<00:32:18.799> extraction.<00:32:20.159> There 30:53.637 --> 30:53.647 align:start position:0% long bones for marrow extraction. There 30:53.647 --> 30:55.557 align:start position:0% long bones for marrow extraction. There are<00:32:20.480> two<00:32:20.799> striking<00:32:21.200> implications<00:32:21.840> to<00:32:22.080> come 30:55.557 --> 30:55.567 align:start position:0% are two striking implications to come 30:55.567 --> 30:59.157 align:start position:0% are two striking implications to come out<00:32:22.399> of<00:32:22.480> the<00:32:22.640> [ __ ]<00:32:23.200> caves.<00:32:24.320> First,<00:32:24.799> a<00:32:25.120> 2016 30:59.157 --> 30:59.167 align:start position:0% out of the [ __ ] caves. First, a 2016 30:59.167 --> 31:01.077 align:start position:0% out of the [ __ ] caves. First, a 2016 study<00:32:26.240> found<00:32:26.480> that<00:32:26.640> five<00:32:26.880> of<00:32:26.960> the<00:32:27.120> Neanderal 31:01.077 --> 31:01.087 align:start position:0% study found that five of the Neanderal 31:01.087 --> 31:02.836 align:start position:0% study found that five of the Neanderal bone<00:32:28.000> fragments<00:32:28.559> had<00:32:28.880> been<00:32:29.039> used<00:32:29.200> as 31:02.836 --> 31:02.846 align:start position:0% bone fragments had been used as 31:02.846 --> 31:04.836 align:start position:0% bone fragments had been used as retouchers,<00:32:30.640> meaning<00:32:30.880> they<00:32:31.120> were<00:32:31.200> struck 31:04.836 --> 31:04.846 align:start position:0% retouchers, meaning they were struck 31:04.846 --> 31:06.836 align:start position:0% retouchers, meaning they were struck against<00:32:31.760> stone<00:32:32.080> tools<00:32:32.480> to<00:32:32.720> reshape<00:32:33.200> or 31:06.836 --> 31:06.846 align:start position:0% against stone tools to reshape or 31:06.846 --> 31:09.557 align:start position:0% against stone tools to reshape or sharpen<00:32:34.000> edges.<00:32:35.039> These<00:32:35.360> retouchers<00:32:36.080> were 31:09.557 --> 31:09.567 align:start position:0% sharpen edges. These retouchers were 31:09.567 --> 31:11.876 align:start position:0% sharpen edges. These retouchers were made<00:32:36.480> from<00:32:36.720> fresh,<00:32:37.360> dense,<00:32:37.919> long<00:32:38.240> bone 31:11.876 --> 31:11.886 align:start position:0% made from fresh, dense, long bone 31:11.886 --> 31:14.677 align:start position:0% made from fresh, dense, long bone fragments,<00:32:39.440> and<00:32:39.679> some<00:32:40.000> show<00:32:40.320> repeated<00:32:40.799> use, 31:14.677 --> 31:14.687 align:start position:0% fragments, and some show repeated use, 31:14.687 --> 31:16.836 align:start position:0% fragments, and some show repeated use, which<00:32:41.600> suggests<00:32:42.159> the<00:32:42.399> bones<00:32:42.880> were<00:32:43.120> selected 31:16.836 --> 31:16.846 align:start position:0% which suggests the bones were selected 31:16.846 --> 31:19.476 align:start position:0% which suggests the bones were selected deliberately<00:32:44.399> and<00:32:44.640> knowingly<00:32:45.279> as<00:32:45.679> usable 31:19.476 --> 31:19.486 align:start position:0% deliberately and knowingly as usable 31:19.486 --> 31:22.356 align:start position:0% deliberately and knowingly as usable blanks.<00:32:47.360> So,<00:32:47.600> by<00:32:47.840> using<00:32:48.080> human<00:32:48.480> bones<00:32:48.799> as 31:22.356 --> 31:22.366 align:start position:0% blanks. So, by using human bones as 31:22.366 --> 31:24.437 align:start position:0% blanks. So, by using human bones as tools,<00:32:49.760> were<00:32:50.000> the<00:32:50.159> people<00:32:50.320> who<00:32:50.559> made<00:32:50.799> them 31:24.437 --> 31:24.447 align:start position:0% tools, were the people who made them 31:24.447 --> 31:26.596 align:start position:0% tools, were the people who made them humiliating<00:32:51.760> their<00:32:52.000> enemies,<00:32:52.720> honoring 31:26.596 --> 31:26.606 align:start position:0% humiliating their enemies, honoring 31:26.606 --> 31:28.677 align:start position:0% humiliating their enemies, honoring loved<00:32:53.519> ones,<00:32:54.159> or<00:32:54.320> did<00:32:54.480> they<00:32:54.720> see<00:32:54.960> human 31:28.677 --> 31:28.687 align:start position:0% loved ones, or did they see human 31:28.687 --> 31:31.236 align:start position:0% loved ones, or did they see human remains<00:32:55.919> as<00:32:56.240> nothing<00:32:56.480> more<00:32:56.720> than<00:32:56.960> objects<00:32:57.600> to 31:31.236 --> 31:31.246 align:start position:0% remains as nothing more than objects to 31:31.246 --> 31:33.557 align:start position:0% remains as nothing more than objects to be<00:32:58.080> used?<00:32:59.039> It<00:32:59.200> would<00:32:59.360> be<00:32:59.440> impossible<00:32:59.840> to<00:33:00.000> say 31:33.557 --> 31:33.567 align:start position:0% be used? It would be impossible to say 31:33.567 --> 31:35.637 align:start position:0% be used? It would be impossible to say for<00:33:00.480> sure,<00:33:00.799> but<00:33:00.960> it<00:33:01.200> does<00:33:01.360> echo<00:33:01.679> the<00:33:01.919> historic 31:35.637 --> 31:35.647 align:start position:0% for sure, but it does echo the historic 31:35.647 --> 31:37.797 align:start position:0% for sure, but it does echo the historic use<00:33:02.559> of<00:33:02.720> human<00:33:02.960> remains<00:33:03.360> as<00:33:03.600> tools<00:33:04.000> in<00:33:04.320> New 31:37.797 --> 31:37.807 align:start position:0% use of human remains as tools in New 31:37.807 --> 31:41.637 align:start position:0% use of human remains as tools in New Zealand.<00:33:05.919> And<00:33:06.080> indeed,<00:33:06.399> a<00:33:06.640> 2025<00:33:07.440> study<00:33:08.000> offers 31:41.637 --> 31:41.647 align:start position:0% Zealand. And indeed, a 2025 study offers 31:41.647 --> 31:43.876 align:start position:0% Zealand. And indeed, a 2025 study offers the<00:33:08.559> second<00:33:08.960> implication,<00:33:09.919> which<00:33:10.159> further 31:43.876 --> 31:43.886 align:start position:0% the second implication, which further 31:43.886 --> 31:46.356 align:start position:0% the second implication, which further suggests<00:33:11.039> that<00:33:11.360> honor<00:33:11.760> and<00:33:12.000> love<00:33:12.640> likely 31:46.356 --> 31:46.366 align:start position:0% suggests that honor and love likely 31:46.366 --> 31:47.876 align:start position:0% suggests that honor and love likely didn't<00:33:13.360> feature<00:33:13.679> in<00:33:13.919> the<00:33:14.080> treatment<00:33:14.320> of<00:33:14.480> the 31:47.876 --> 31:47.886 align:start position:0% didn't feature in the treatment of the 31:47.886 --> 31:50.996 align:start position:0% didn't feature in the treatment of the Neanderal<00:33:15.279> remains<00:33:15.919> at<00:33:16.080> [ __ ]<00:33:17.200> Genetic 31:50.996 --> 31:51.006 align:start position:0% Neanderal remains at [ __ ] Genetic 31:51.006 --> 31:53.236 align:start position:0% Neanderal remains at [ __ ] Genetic analysis<00:33:18.159> of<00:33:18.399> bone<00:33:18.720> samples<00:33:19.360> revealed<00:33:19.760> that 31:53.236 --> 31:53.246 align:start position:0% analysis of bone samples revealed that 31:53.246 --> 31:55.876 align:start position:0% analysis of bone samples revealed that of<00:33:20.080> the<00:33:20.240> six<00:33:20.480> individuals,<00:33:21.600> four<00:33:22.000> were<00:33:22.159> adult 31:55.876 --> 31:55.886 align:start position:0% of the six individuals, four were adult 31:55.886 --> 31:58.917 align:start position:0% of the six individuals, four were adult females,<00:33:23.440> one<00:33:23.679> was<00:33:23.840> a<00:33:24.080> juvenile,<00:33:24.799> and<00:33:25.120> one<00:33:25.360> was 31:58.917 --> 31:58.927 align:start position:0% females, one was a juvenile, and one was 31:58.927 --> 32:01.557 align:start position:0% females, one was a juvenile, and one was a<00:33:25.840> neonate.<00:33:27.039> This<00:33:27.200> led<00:33:27.440> the<00:33:27.600> authors<00:33:27.919> of<00:33:28.000> the 32:01.557 --> 32:01.567 align:start position:0% a neonate. This led the authors of the 32:01.567 --> 32:04.356 align:start position:0% a neonate. This led the authors of the study<00:33:28.559> to<00:33:28.799> a<00:33:28.960> disturbing<00:33:29.600> conclusion<00:33:30.720> that 32:04.356 --> 32:04.366 align:start position:0% study to a disturbing conclusion that 32:04.366 --> 32:05.797 align:start position:0% study to a disturbing conclusion that women<00:33:31.279> and<00:33:31.600> children<00:33:32.080> had<00:33:32.320> been 32:05.797 --> 32:05.807 align:start position:0% women and children had been 32:05.807 --> 32:08.437 align:start position:0% women and children had been preferentially<00:33:33.200> chosen<00:33:33.679> for<00:33:34.000> consumption. 32:08.437 --> 32:08.447 align:start position:0% preferentially chosen for consumption. 32:08.447 --> 32:10.677 align:start position:0% preferentially chosen for consumption. Again,<00:33:35.679> this<00:33:35.840> prehistoric<00:33:36.559> evidence<00:33:36.960> mirrors 32:10.677 --> 32:10.687 align:start position:0% Again, this prehistoric evidence mirrors 32:10.687 --> 32:12.437 align:start position:0% Again, this prehistoric evidence mirrors what<00:33:37.600> we<00:33:37.760> know<00:33:37.919> about<00:33:38.159> who<00:33:38.399> was<00:33:38.559> chosen<00:33:38.880> for 32:12.437 --> 32:12.447 align:start position:0% what we know about who was chosen for 32:12.447 --> 32:15.397 align:start position:0% what we know about who was chosen for consumption<00:33:39.600> in<00:33:39.919> historic<00:33:40.480> communities. 32:15.397 --> 32:15.407 align:start position:0% consumption in historic communities. 32:15.407 --> 32:17.637 align:start position:0% consumption in historic communities. Not<00:33:42.320> only<00:33:42.559> that,<00:33:43.200> but<00:33:43.519> measurements<00:33:43.919> of<00:33:44.080> the 32:17.637 --> 32:17.647 align:start position:0% Not only that, but measurements of the 32:17.647 --> 32:19.797 align:start position:0% Not only that, but measurements of the adult<00:33:44.640> female<00:33:45.039> limb<00:33:45.360> bones<00:33:45.919> suggest<00:33:46.320> that 32:19.797 --> 32:19.807 align:start position:0% adult female limb bones suggest that 32:19.807 --> 32:21.397 align:start position:0% adult female limb bones suggest that they<00:33:46.640> would<00:33:46.799> have<00:33:46.960> been<00:33:47.120> far<00:33:47.360> shorter<00:33:47.840> and 32:21.397 --> 32:21.407 align:start position:0% they would have been far shorter and 32:21.407 --> 32:23.476 align:start position:0% they would have been far shorter and more<00:33:48.320> slender<00:33:48.799> than<00:33:48.960> the<00:33:49.120> average<00:33:49.440> Neanderl 32:23.476 --> 32:23.486 align:start position:0% more slender than the average Neanderl 32:23.486 --> 32:25.957 align:start position:0% more slender than the average Neanderl woman.<00:33:50.960> Could<00:33:51.120> this<00:33:51.360> indicate<00:33:51.919> that<00:33:52.240> whoever 32:25.957 --> 32:25.967 align:start position:0% woman. Could this indicate that whoever 32:25.967 --> 32:27.957 align:start position:0% woman. Could this indicate that whoever killed<00:33:52.880> them<00:33:53.200> was<00:33:53.440> deliberately<00:33:54.000> targeting 32:27.957 --> 32:27.967 align:start position:0% killed them was deliberately targeting 32:27.967 --> 32:31.157 align:start position:0% killed them was deliberately targeting smaller,<00:33:55.279> weaker<00:33:55.919> individuals? 32:31.157 --> 32:31.167 align:start position:0% smaller, weaker individuals? 32:31.167 --> 32:33.236 align:start position:0% smaller, weaker individuals? Whatever<00:33:58.159> the<00:33:58.399> case,<00:33:58.960> the<00:33:59.120> evidence<00:33:59.519> seems<00:33:59.760> to 32:33.236 --> 32:33.246 align:start position:0% Whatever the case, the evidence seems to 32:33.246 --> 32:35.317 align:start position:0% Whatever the case, the evidence seems to signify<00:34:00.640> that<00:34:00.799> the<00:34:00.960> Neanderal<00:34:01.600> women<00:34:01.840> and 32:35.317 --> 32:35.327 align:start position:0% signify that the Neanderal women and 32:35.327 --> 32:37.637 align:start position:0% signify that the Neanderal women and children<00:34:02.240> at<00:34:02.480> [ __ ]<00:34:03.120> were<00:34:03.360> not<00:34:03.519> beloved<00:34:04.000> members 32:37.637 --> 32:37.647 align:start position:0% children at [ __ ] were not beloved members 32:37.647 --> 32:39.557 align:start position:0% children at [ __ ] were not beloved members of<00:34:04.480> the<00:34:04.640> community,<00:34:05.519> and<00:34:05.679> they<00:34:05.919> were<00:34:06.000> not 32:39.557 --> 32:39.567 align:start position:0% of the community, and they were not 32:39.567 --> 32:41.476 align:start position:0% of the community, and they were not defedged<00:34:06.799> and<00:34:07.039> consumed<00:34:07.519> by<00:34:07.840> people<00:34:08.000> who 32:41.476 --> 32:41.486 align:start position:0% defedged and consumed by people who 32:41.486 --> 32:43.797 align:start position:0% defedged and consumed by people who honored<00:34:08.480> and<00:34:08.720> respected<00:34:09.280> them.<00:34:09.919> Instead, 32:43.797 --> 32:43.807 align:start position:0% honored and respected them. Instead, 32:43.807 --> 32:45.396 align:start position:0% honored and respected them. Instead, they<00:34:10.800> appear<00:34:11.040> to<00:34:11.200> have<00:34:11.359> been<00:34:11.520> victims<00:34:11.919> of 32:45.396 --> 32:45.406 align:start position:0% they appear to have been victims of 32:45.406 --> 32:48.037 align:start position:0% they appear to have been victims of introup<00:34:12.720> violence<00:34:13.599> and<00:34:13.919> aggressive 32:48.037 --> 32:48.047 align:start position:0% introup violence and aggressive 32:48.047 --> 32:50.357 align:start position:0% introup violence and aggressive exocannibalism. 32:50.357 --> 32:50.367 align:start position:0% exocannibalism. 32:50.367 --> 32:52.757 align:start position:0% exocannibalism. >> Exocolism<00:34:18.079> tends<00:34:18.320> to<00:34:18.480> be<00:34:18.560> a<00:34:18.720> bit<00:34:18.879> more<00:34:19.040> in<00:34:19.280> like 32:52.757 --> 32:52.767 align:start position:0% >> Exocolism tends to be a bit more in like 32:52.767 --> 32:55.317 align:start position:0% >> Exocolism tends to be a bit more in like a<00:34:19.679> context<00:34:20.079> of<00:34:20.320> conflict<00:34:20.960> and<00:34:21.280> intergroup 32:55.317 --> 32:55.327 align:start position:0% a context of conflict and intergroup 32:55.327 --> 32:57.476 align:start position:0% a context of conflict and intergroup maybe<00:34:22.320> violence.<00:34:23.280> the<00:34:23.599> evidence<00:34:23.919> from 32:57.476 --> 32:57.486 align:start position:0% maybe violence. the evidence from 32:57.486 --> 32:59.637 align:start position:0% maybe violence. the evidence from Grandalina<00:34:24.879> from<00:34:25.040> those<00:34:25.280> homo<00:34:25.599> anticcessor 32:59.637 --> 32:59.647 align:start position:0% Grandalina from those homo anticcessor 32:59.647 --> 33:01.716 align:start position:0% Grandalina from those homo anticcessor fossils.<00:34:26.879> There's<00:34:27.200> a<00:34:27.359> suggestion<00:34:27.760> that<00:34:28.079> that 33:01.716 --> 33:01.726 align:start position:0% fossils. There's a suggestion that that 33:01.726 --> 33:04.277 align:start position:0% fossils. There's a suggestion that that might<00:34:28.720> be<00:34:29.280> exocannibalism.<00:34:30.320> It<00:34:30.560> might<00:34:30.720> be 33:04.277 --> 33:04.287 align:start position:0% might be exocannibalism. It might be 33:04.287 --> 33:06.196 align:start position:0% might be exocannibalism. It might be consumption<00:34:31.440> of<00:34:31.679> members<00:34:32.000> of<00:34:32.159> another<00:34:32.480> group. 33:06.196 --> 33:06.206 align:start position:0% consumption of members of another group. 33:06.206 --> 33:08.196 align:start position:0% consumption of members of another group. We're<00:34:33.119> still<00:34:33.280> kind<00:34:33.520> of<00:34:33.599> unsure<00:34:34.079> about<00:34:34.320> that. 33:08.196 --> 33:08.206 align:start position:0% We're still kind of unsure about that. 33:08.206 --> 33:10.357 align:start position:0% We're still kind of unsure about that. And<00:34:35.040> so<00:34:35.200> I<00:34:35.440> think<00:34:35.520> that<00:34:35.760> the<00:34:36.159> cannibalism<00:34:36.800> we 33:10.357 --> 33:10.367 align:start position:0% And so I think that the cannibalism we 33:10.367 --> 33:12.436 align:start position:0% And so I think that the cannibalism we see<00:34:37.200> deeper<00:34:37.599> in<00:34:37.760> the<00:34:37.839> fossil<00:34:38.240> record<00:34:38.560> is<00:34:38.879> more 33:12.436 --> 33:12.446 align:start position:0% see deeper in the fossil record is more 33:12.446 --> 33:14.517 align:start position:0% see deeper in the fossil record is more likely<00:34:39.520> in<00:34:39.839> general<00:34:40.240> to<00:34:40.560> probably<00:34:40.960> be 33:14.517 --> 33:14.527 align:start position:0% likely in general to probably be 33:14.527 --> 33:17.156 align:start position:0% likely in general to probably be nutritional<00:34:41.839> cannibalism.<00:34:43.119> Then<00:34:43.359> we<00:34:43.520> get<00:34:43.679> to 33:17.156 --> 33:17.166 align:start position:0% nutritional cannibalism. Then we get to 33:17.166 --> 33:19.637 align:start position:0% nutritional cannibalism. Then we get to Neanderls.<00:34:44.720> We<00:34:44.879> have<00:34:45.040> sites<00:34:45.359> in<00:34:45.599> Belgium,<00:34:46.159> in 33:19.637 --> 33:19.647 align:start position:0% Neanderls. We have sites in Belgium, in 33:19.647 --> 33:22.117 align:start position:0% Neanderls. We have sites in Belgium, in France,<00:34:46.800> in<00:34:47.040> Spain,<00:34:47.440> in<00:34:47.679> Croatia.<00:34:48.480> Pretty 33:22.117 --> 33:22.127 align:start position:0% France, in Spain, in Croatia. Pretty 33:22.127 --> 33:23.956 align:start position:0% France, in Spain, in Croatia. Pretty clear<00:34:49.119> evidence<00:34:49.440> that<00:34:49.679> Neanderls<00:34:50.399> were 33:23.956 --> 33:23.966 align:start position:0% clear evidence that Neanderls were 33:23.966 --> 33:25.956 align:start position:0% clear evidence that Neanderls were engaged<00:34:51.119> in<00:34:51.440> cannibalism.<00:34:52.159> And<00:34:52.320> I<00:34:52.480> think 33:25.956 --> 33:25.966 align:start position:0% engaged in cannibalism. And I think 33:25.966 --> 33:27.156 align:start position:0% engaged in cannibalism. And I think there's,<00:34:53.040> you<00:34:53.200> know,<00:34:53.280> a<00:34:53.440> little<00:34:53.520> bit<00:34:53.679> of 33:27.156 --> 33:27.166 align:start position:0% there's, you know, a little bit of 33:27.166 --> 33:29.077 align:start position:0% there's, you know, a little bit of questions<00:34:54.159> of<00:34:54.399> was<00:34:54.560> this<00:34:54.800> ritual<00:34:55.200> behavior, 33:29.077 --> 33:29.087 align:start position:0% questions of was this ritual behavior, 33:29.087 --> 33:31.156 align:start position:0% questions of was this ritual behavior, was<00:34:55.919> it<00:34:56.079> nutritional<00:34:56.720> cannibalism?<00:34:57.680> There 33:31.156 --> 33:31.166 align:start position:0% was it nutritional cannibalism? There 33:31.166 --> 33:33.237 align:start position:0% was it nutritional cannibalism? There are<00:34:57.920> groups,<00:34:58.400> you<00:34:58.560> know,<00:34:58.880> restudying<00:34:59.520> some<00:34:59.760> of 33:33.237 --> 33:33.247 align:start position:0% are groups, you know, restudying some of 33:33.247 --> 33:35.957 align:start position:0% are groups, you know, restudying some of those<00:35:00.400> um<00:35:00.640> collections<00:35:01.200> now<00:35:01.520> to<00:35:02.079> get<00:35:02.320> better 33:35.957 --> 33:35.967 align:start position:0% those um collections now to get better 33:35.967 --> 33:38.277 align:start position:0% those um collections now to get better answers<00:35:03.040> to<00:35:03.200> those<00:35:03.520> questions.<00:35:04.240> And<00:35:04.400> then<00:35:04.640> we 33:38.277 --> 33:38.287 align:start position:0% answers to those questions. And then we 33:38.287 --> 33:40.837 align:start position:0% answers to those questions. And then we also<00:35:05.200> see<00:35:05.680> cannibalism<00:35:06.400> in<00:35:06.800> early<00:35:07.119> homo 33:40.837 --> 33:40.847 align:start position:0% also see cannibalism in early homo 33:40.847 --> 33:42.997 align:start position:0% also see cannibalism in early homo sapiens<00:35:08.000> and<00:35:08.160> early<00:35:08.560> modern<00:35:08.960> human<00:35:09.280> fossil 33:42.997 --> 33:43.007 align:start position:0% sapiens and early modern human fossil 33:43.007 --> 33:45.717 align:start position:0% sapiens and early modern human fossil sites<00:35:10.000> as<00:35:10.160> well.<00:35:10.640> It's<00:35:10.960> really<00:35:11.280> tricky<00:35:11.680> to<00:35:12.079> get 33:45.717 --> 33:45.727 align:start position:0% sites as well. It's really tricky to get 33:45.727 --> 33:48.757 align:start position:0% sites as well. It's really tricky to get at<00:35:12.880> ritual<00:35:13.680> aspects<00:35:14.240> in<00:35:14.560> the<00:35:14.800> really<00:35:15.119> deep 33:48.757 --> 33:48.767 align:start position:0% at ritual aspects in the really deep 33:48.767 --> 33:51.156 align:start position:0% at ritual aspects in the really deep past.<00:35:15.920> I<00:35:16.160> think<00:35:16.400> you<00:35:16.480> know<00:35:16.640> we<00:35:17.040> tend<00:35:17.359> to 33:51.156 --> 33:51.166 align:start position:0% past. I think you know we tend to 33:51.166 --> 33:54.597 align:start position:0% past. I think you know we tend to project<00:35:18.320> our<00:35:18.720> own<00:35:19.680> understanding<00:35:20.320> of<00:35:20.640> meaning 33:54.597 --> 33:54.607 align:start position:0% project our own understanding of meaning 33:54.607 --> 33:56.676 align:start position:0% project our own understanding of meaning but<00:35:21.599> sometimes<00:35:22.240> ritual<00:35:22.640> is<00:35:22.880> just<00:35:23.119> a 33:56.676 --> 33:56.686 align:start position:0% but sometimes ritual is just a 33:56.686 --> 33:59.156 align:start position:0% but sometimes ritual is just a consistent<00:35:23.920> practice<00:35:24.320> of<00:35:24.560> something<00:35:25.040> and<00:35:25.280> so 33:59.156 --> 33:59.166 align:start position:0% consistent practice of something and so 33:59.166 --> 34:01.077 align:start position:0% consistent practice of something and so telling<00:35:26.240> where<00:35:26.480> the<00:35:26.720> line<00:35:27.040> crosses<00:35:27.440> between 34:01.077 --> 34:01.087 align:start position:0% telling where the line crosses between 34:01.087 --> 34:03.077 align:start position:0% telling where the line crosses between this<00:35:27.920> is<00:35:28.079> just<00:35:28.240> sort<00:35:28.400> of<00:35:28.480> how<00:35:28.720> we<00:35:28.880> do<00:35:29.119> things<00:35:29.440> in 34:03.077 --> 34:03.087 align:start position:0% this is just sort of how we do things in 34:03.087 --> 34:05.317 align:start position:0% this is just sort of how we do things in our<00:35:30.320> group<00:35:30.560> and<00:35:30.800> in<00:35:30.960> our<00:35:31.200> lives<00:35:31.440> and<00:35:31.680> that's 34:05.317 --> 34:05.327 align:start position:0% our group and in our lives and that's 34:05.327 --> 34:07.877 align:start position:0% our group and in our lives and that's part<00:35:32.240> of<00:35:32.400> ritual<00:35:33.280> versus<00:35:33.680> this<00:35:34.000> has<00:35:34.160> a<00:35:34.400> very 34:07.877 --> 34:07.887 align:start position:0% part of ritual versus this has a very 34:07.887 --> 34:09.957 align:start position:0% part of ritual versus this has a very deep<00:35:34.880> cultural<00:35:35.520> and<00:35:35.839> maybe<00:35:36.079> symbolic 34:09.957 --> 34:09.967 align:start position:0% deep cultural and maybe symbolic 34:09.967 --> 34:11.477 align:start position:0% deep cultural and maybe symbolic meaning.<00:35:37.040> So<00:35:37.200> I<00:35:37.359> think<00:35:37.760> trying<00:35:38.000> to 34:11.477 --> 34:11.487 align:start position:0% meaning. So I think trying to 34:11.487 --> 34:13.557 align:start position:0% meaning. So I think trying to distinguish<00:35:38.720> between<00:35:39.040> those<00:35:39.359> is<00:35:39.599> a<00:35:39.760> bit<00:35:40.000> can 34:13.557 --> 34:13.567 align:start position:0% distinguish between those is a bit can 34:13.567 --> 34:21.877 align:start position:0% distinguish between those is a bit can be<00:35:40.320> a<00:35:40.480> bit<00:35:40.640> fuzzy. 34:21.877 --> 34:21.887 align:start position:0% 34:21.887 --> 34:24.117 align:start position:0% Cannibalism,<00:35:49.440> it<00:35:49.599> would<00:35:49.839> seem,<00:35:50.400> does<00:35:50.640> not 34:24.117 --> 34:24.127 align:start position:0% Cannibalism, it would seem, does not 34:24.127 --> 34:26.357 align:start position:0% Cannibalism, it would seem, does not appear<00:35:51.040> in<00:35:51.280> human<00:35:51.599> history<00:35:52.240> for<00:35:52.400> a<00:35:52.640> single 34:26.357 --> 34:26.367 align:start position:0% appear in human history for a single 34:26.367 --> 34:28.517 align:start position:0% appear in human history for a single reason.<00:35:53.920> Through<00:35:54.160> both<00:35:54.400> recorded<00:35:54.960> and 34:28.517 --> 34:28.527 align:start position:0% reason. Through both recorded and 34:28.527 --> 34:30.597 align:start position:0% reason. Through both recorded and ancient<00:35:55.599> history,<00:35:56.160> we<00:35:56.400> can<00:35:56.560> find<00:35:56.800> examples 34:30.597 --> 34:30.607 align:start position:0% ancient history, we can find examples 34:30.607 --> 34:32.837 align:start position:0% ancient history, we can find examples that<00:35:57.520> indicate<00:35:58.000> necessity,<00:35:58.960> potential 34:32.837 --> 34:32.847 align:start position:0% that indicate necessity, potential 34:32.847 --> 34:35.156 align:start position:0% that indicate necessity, potential brutality,<00:36:00.320> and<00:36:00.560> also<00:36:00.960> entirely<00:36:01.520> different 34:35.156 --> 34:35.166 align:start position:0% brutality, and also entirely different 34:35.166 --> 34:37.317 align:start position:0% brutality, and also entirely different attitudes<00:36:02.400> towards<00:36:02.880> cannibalism<00:36:03.599> as<00:36:03.839> a 34:37.317 --> 34:37.327 align:start position:0% attitudes towards cannibalism as a 34:37.327 --> 34:40.117 align:start position:0% attitudes towards cannibalism as a ritual<00:36:04.480> practice.<00:36:05.760> Although<00:36:06.160> cannibalism 34:40.117 --> 34:40.127 align:start position:0% ritual practice. Although cannibalism 34:40.127 --> 34:41.877 align:start position:0% ritual practice. Although cannibalism was<00:36:06.960> never<00:36:07.119> a<00:36:07.280> day-to-day<00:36:07.760> practice<00:36:08.160> for<00:36:08.320> most 34:41.877 --> 34:41.887 align:start position:0% was never a day-to-day practice for most 34:41.887 --> 34:43.957 align:start position:0% was never a day-to-day practice for most humans,<00:36:09.280> it<00:36:09.520> happened<00:36:09.760> often<00:36:10.079> enough<00:36:10.320> and 34:43.957 --> 34:43.967 align:start position:0% humans, it happened often enough and 34:43.967 --> 34:46.117 align:start position:0% humans, it happened often enough and across<00:36:10.960> all<00:36:11.200> continents,<00:36:11.920> but<00:36:12.079> it<00:36:12.320> seems<00:36:12.640> to 34:46.117 --> 34:46.127 align:start position:0% across all continents, but it seems to 34:46.127 --> 34:48.277 align:start position:0% across all continents, but it seems to have<00:36:12.960> only<00:36:13.119> been<00:36:13.280> in<00:36:13.520> select<00:36:13.920> societies<00:36:14.720> where 34:48.277 --> 34:48.287 align:start position:0% have only been in select societies where 34:48.287 --> 34:49.957 align:start position:0% have only been in select societies where it<00:36:15.200> became<00:36:15.359> a<00:36:15.599> recurring<00:36:16.079> part<00:36:16.240> of<00:36:16.400> the 34:49.957 --> 34:49.967 align:start position:0% it became a recurring part of the 34:49.967 --> 34:55.077 align:start position:0% it became a recurring part of the culture.<00:36:17.839> And<00:36:18.079> so<00:36:18.720> why<00:36:19.040> is<00:36:19.200> this?<00:36:20.560> Why<00:36:20.800> did 34:55.077 --> 34:55.087 align:start position:0% culture. And so why is this? Why did 34:55.087 --> 34:57.396 align:start position:0% culture. And so why is this? Why did never<00:36:22.000> take<00:36:22.240> root<00:36:22.480> as<00:36:22.640> a<00:36:22.880> widespread<00:36:23.760> human 34:57.396 --> 34:57.406 align:start position:0% never take root as a widespread human 34:57.406 --> 35:00.277 align:start position:0% never take root as a widespread human habitual<00:36:24.720> practice<00:36:25.599> like<00:36:25.839> with<00:36:26.160> spiders<00:36:26.640> or 35:00.277 --> 35:00.287 align:start position:0% habitual practice like with spiders or 35:00.287 --> 35:03.396 align:start position:0% habitual practice like with spiders or mantids?<00:36:28.400> Why<00:36:28.640> do<00:36:28.880> so<00:36:29.119> many<00:36:29.359> of<00:36:29.520> us<00:36:29.760> think<00:36:29.920> of 35:03.396 --> 35:03.406 align:start position:0% mantids? Why do so many of us think of 35:03.406 --> 35:20.037 align:start position:0% mantids? Why do so many of us think of cannibalism<00:36:30.720> as<00:36:31.040> disgusting<00:36:32.079> and<00:36:32.400> wrong? 35:20.037 --> 35:20.047 align:start position:0% 35:20.047 --> 35:22.597 align:start position:0% The<00:36:46.960> pilot's<00:36:47.359> eyes<00:36:47.680> widen<00:36:48.320> as<00:36:48.640> mountains<00:36:49.119> come 35:22.597 --> 35:22.607 align:start position:0% The pilot's eyes widen as mountains come 35:22.607 --> 35:25.077 align:start position:0% The pilot's eyes widen as mountains come into<00:36:49.599> view<00:36:49.920> through<00:36:50.079> the<00:36:50.320> clouds.<00:36:51.520> In<00:36:51.680> the 35:25.077 --> 35:25.087 align:start position:0% into view through the clouds. In the 35:25.087 --> 35:26.837 align:start position:0% into view through the clouds. In the co-pilot<00:36:52.400> wrench<00:36:52.640> at<00:36:52.800> the<00:36:52.960> controls, 35:26.837 --> 35:26.847 align:start position:0% co-pilot wrench at the controls, 35:26.847 --> 35:29.077 align:start position:0% co-pilot wrench at the controls, desperately<00:36:54.079> trying<00:36:54.320> to<00:36:54.400> gain<00:36:54.640> altitude,<00:36:55.599> but 35:29.077 --> 35:29.087 align:start position:0% desperately trying to gain altitude, but 35:29.087 --> 35:31.957 align:start position:0% desperately trying to gain altitude, but it<00:36:56.000> is<00:36:56.160> too<00:36:56.400> late.<00:36:57.520> Uruguayan<00:36:58.160> Air<00:36:58.400> Force 35:31.957 --> 35:31.967 align:start position:0% it is too late. Uruguayan Air Force 35:31.967 --> 35:34.837 align:start position:0% it is too late. Uruguayan Air Force Flight<00:36:59.040> 571<00:36:59.920> crashes<00:37:00.400> into<00:37:00.560> a<00:37:00.720> glacial<00:37:01.119> ridge 35:34.837 --> 35:34.847 align:start position:0% Flight 571 crashes into a glacial ridge 35:34.847 --> 35:38.357 align:start position:0% Flight 571 crashes into a glacial ridge deep<00:37:02.000> in<00:37:02.160> the<00:37:02.320> Andes.<00:37:03.200> Of<00:37:03.920> the<00:37:04.079> 45<00:37:04.560> people<00:37:04.800> on 35:38.357 --> 35:38.367 align:start position:0% deep in the Andes. Of the 45 people on 35:38.367 --> 35:40.436 align:start position:0% deep in the Andes. Of the 45 people on board<00:37:05.440> the<00:37:05.599> chartered<00:37:06.000> flight,<00:37:06.640> 12<00:37:06.960> are 35:40.436 --> 35:40.446 align:start position:0% board the chartered flight, 12 are 35:40.446 --> 35:43.077 align:start position:0% board the chartered flight, 12 are killed<00:37:07.520> during<00:37:07.839> or<00:37:08.160> just<00:37:08.320> after<00:37:08.560> the<00:37:08.800> crash. 35:43.077 --> 35:43.087 align:start position:0% killed during or just after the crash. 35:43.087 --> 35:45.237 align:start position:0% killed during or just after the crash. The<00:37:09.920> remaining<00:37:10.400> 33<00:37:11.040> are<00:37:11.200> left<00:37:11.440> to<00:37:11.599> deal<00:37:11.760> with 35:45.237 --> 35:45.247 align:start position:0% The remaining 33 are left to deal with 35:45.247 --> 35:46.837 align:start position:0% The remaining 33 are left to deal with their<00:37:12.079> injuries,<00:37:12.800> the<00:37:13.040> freezing 35:46.837 --> 35:46.847 align:start position:0% their injuries, the freezing 35:46.847 --> 35:49.077 align:start position:0% their injuries, the freezing temperatures,<00:37:14.400> and<00:37:14.640> their<00:37:14.800> grief<00:37:15.359> for<00:37:15.599> those 35:49.077 --> 35:49.087 align:start position:0% temperatures, and their grief for those 35:49.087 --> 35:51.717 align:start position:0% temperatures, and their grief for those who<00:37:15.920> have<00:37:16.079> been<00:37:16.240> lost.<00:37:17.680> They<00:37:17.920> hope<00:37:18.079> to<00:37:18.240> be 35:51.717 --> 35:51.727 align:start position:0% who have been lost. They hope to be 35:51.727 --> 35:54.357 align:start position:0% who have been lost. They hope to be rescued<00:37:18.800> within<00:37:19.119> a<00:37:19.280> few<00:37:19.520> days,<00:37:20.320> but<00:37:20.560> after<00:37:20.800> a 35:54.357 --> 35:54.367 align:start position:0% rescued within a few days, but after a 35:54.367 --> 35:56.197 align:start position:0% rescued within a few days, but after a week,<00:37:21.359> the<00:37:21.599> wreckage<00:37:21.920> of<00:37:22.079> the<00:37:22.160> plane<00:37:22.560> still 35:56.197 --> 35:56.207 align:start position:0% week, the wreckage of the plane still 35:56.207 --> 35:58.037 align:start position:0% week, the wreckage of the plane still hasn't<00:37:23.200> been<00:37:23.440> found,<00:37:24.000> and<00:37:24.160> the<00:37:24.320> huddle 35:58.037 --> 35:58.047 align:start position:0% hasn't been found, and the huddle 35:58.047 --> 35:59.877 align:start position:0% hasn't been found, and the huddle survivors<00:37:25.200> hear<00:37:25.440> over<00:37:25.599> the<00:37:25.760> radio<00:37:26.079> that<00:37:26.320> the 35:59.877 --> 35:59.887 align:start position:0% survivors hear over the radio that the 35:59.887 --> 36:02.837 align:start position:0% survivors hear over the radio that the search<00:37:26.960> has<00:37:27.280> been<00:37:27.520> called<00:37:27.760> off.<00:37:28.960> By<00:37:29.280> this 36:02.837 --> 36:02.847 align:start position:0% search has been called off. By this 36:02.847 --> 36:04.436 align:start position:0% search has been called off. By this time,<00:37:29.920> what<00:37:30.160> little<00:37:30.480> food<00:37:30.640> they<00:37:30.800> had<00:37:31.040> been 36:04.436 --> 36:04.446 align:start position:0% time, what little food they had been 36:04.446 --> 36:06.117 align:start position:0% time, what little food they had been able<00:37:31.280> to<00:37:31.440> scavenge<00:37:31.839> from<00:37:31.920> the<00:37:32.079> wreckage<00:37:32.560> is 36:06.117 --> 36:06.127 align:start position:0% able to scavenge from the wreckage is 36:06.127 --> 36:08.597 align:start position:0% able to scavenge from the wreckage is long<00:37:33.119> gone.<00:37:33.920> They<00:37:34.160> begun<00:37:34.400> chewing<00:37:34.800> on<00:37:34.960> leather 36:08.597 --> 36:08.607 align:start position:0% long gone. They begun chewing on leather 36:08.607 --> 36:10.357 align:start position:0% long gone. They begun chewing on leather belts<00:37:35.599> and<00:37:35.839> filling<00:37:36.160> their<00:37:36.400> bellies<00:37:36.640> with<00:37:36.880> the 36:10.357 --> 36:10.367 align:start position:0% belts and filling their bellies with the 36:10.367 --> 36:12.916 align:start position:0% belts and filling their bellies with the cotton<00:37:37.359> lining<00:37:37.680> from<00:37:37.839> the<00:37:38.079> airplane<00:37:38.640> seats. 36:12.916 --> 36:12.926 align:start position:0% cotton lining from the airplane seats. 36:12.926 --> 36:14.676 align:start position:0% cotton lining from the airplane seats. Several<00:37:40.000> survivors<00:37:40.400> have<00:37:40.640> already<00:37:40.960> succumbed 36:14.676 --> 36:14.686 align:start position:0% Several survivors have already succumbed 36:14.686 --> 36:16.757 align:start position:0% Several survivors have already succumbed to<00:37:41.520> their<00:37:41.680> injuries,<00:37:42.400> and<00:37:42.640> the<00:37:42.800> others<00:37:43.119> know 36:16.757 --> 36:16.767 align:start position:0% to their injuries, and the others know 36:16.767 --> 36:18.916 align:start position:0% to their injuries, and the others know they<00:37:43.680> themselves<00:37:44.320> won't<00:37:44.480> last<00:37:44.800> much<00:37:45.040> longer 36:18.916 --> 36:18.926 align:start position:0% they themselves won't last much longer 36:18.926 --> 36:25.957 align:start position:0% they themselves won't last much longer if<00:37:45.839> they<00:37:46.079> don't<00:37:46.400> find<00:37:46.720> something<00:37:47.040> to<00:37:47.280> eat. 36:25.957 --> 36:25.967 align:start position:0% 36:25.967 --> 36:27.877 align:start position:0% With<00:37:52.880> no<00:37:53.200> animal<00:37:53.440> or<00:37:53.760> plant<00:37:54.000> life<00:37:54.160> at<00:37:54.400> this 36:27.877 --> 36:27.887 align:start position:0% With no animal or plant life at this 36:27.887 --> 36:30.357 align:start position:0% With no animal or plant life at this altitude,<00:37:55.440> they<00:37:55.680> are<00:37:55.760> left<00:37:56.000> with<00:37:56.240> one 36:30.357 --> 36:30.367 align:start position:0% altitude, they are left with one 36:30.367 --> 36:32.117 align:start position:0% altitude, they are left with one horrifying<00:37:57.680> option. 36:32.117 --> 36:32.127 align:start position:0% horrifying option. 36:32.127 --> 36:37.557 align:start position:0% horrifying option. They<00:37:59.040> will<00:37:59.280> have<00:37:59.440> to<00:38:00.320> eat<00:38:01.040> the<00:38:01.280> dead. 36:37.557 --> 36:37.567 align:start position:0% They will have to eat the dead. 36:37.567 --> 36:40.117 align:start position:0% They will have to eat the dead. 72<00:38:04.880> days<00:38:05.200> would<00:38:05.520> pass<00:38:05.760> before<00:38:06.079> rescue<00:38:06.560> would 36:40.117 --> 36:40.127 align:start position:0% 72 days would pass before rescue would 36:40.127 --> 36:41.797 align:start position:0% 72 days would pass before rescue would finally<00:38:07.200> come<00:38:07.520> for<00:38:07.760> the<00:38:07.920> survivors<00:38:08.320> of 36:41.797 --> 36:41.807 align:start position:0% finally come for the survivors of 36:41.807 --> 36:44.837 align:start position:0% finally come for the survivors of Uruguayan<00:38:09.119> Air<00:38:09.280> Force<00:38:09.599> Flight<00:38:09.920> 571. 36:44.837 --> 36:44.847 align:start position:0% Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571. 36:44.847 --> 36:46.517 align:start position:0% Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571. At<00:38:11.760> first,<00:38:12.079> when<00:38:12.320> questioned<00:38:12.720> about<00:38:12.880> how<00:38:13.040> they 36:46.517 --> 36:46.527 align:start position:0% At first, when questioned about how they 36:46.527 --> 36:48.436 align:start position:0% At first, when questioned about how they managed<00:38:13.520> to<00:38:13.680> survive<00:38:14.079> for<00:38:14.320> so<00:38:14.560> long<00:38:14.720> without 36:48.436 --> 36:48.446 align:start position:0% managed to survive for so long without 36:48.446 --> 36:50.277 align:start position:0% managed to survive for so long without food,<00:38:15.599> the<00:38:15.760> survivors<00:38:16.240> claimed<00:38:16.560> they<00:38:16.800> had 36:50.277 --> 36:50.287 align:start position:0% food, the survivors claimed they had 36:50.287 --> 36:52.037 align:start position:0% food, the survivors claimed they had found<00:38:17.119> enough<00:38:17.359> in<00:38:17.520> the<00:38:17.680> wreckage<00:38:18.079> to<00:38:18.240> last<00:38:18.480> a 36:52.037 --> 36:52.047 align:start position:0% found enough in the wreckage to last a 36:52.047 --> 36:53.957 align:start position:0% found enough in the wreckage to last a while.<00:38:19.119> And<00:38:19.280> when<00:38:19.520> that<00:38:19.680> had<00:38:19.839> run<00:38:20.079> out,<00:38:20.400> they 36:53.957 --> 36:53.967 align:start position:0% while. And when that had run out, they 36:53.967 --> 36:55.396 align:start position:0% while. And when that had run out, they had<00:38:20.800> foraged<00:38:21.200> for<00:38:21.440> plants<00:38:21.760> in<00:38:21.920> the 36:55.396 --> 36:55.406 align:start position:0% had foraged for plants in the 36:55.406 --> 36:57.797 align:start position:0% had foraged for plants in the surrounding<00:38:22.640> area.<00:38:23.680> And<00:38:23.839> yet,<00:38:24.079> when<00:38:24.240> the 36:57.797 --> 36:57.807 align:start position:0% surrounding area. And yet, when the 36:57.807 --> 36:59.317 align:start position:0% surrounding area. And yet, when the truth<00:38:24.640> of<00:38:24.800> what<00:38:24.960> they<00:38:25.119> had<00:38:25.280> actually<00:38:25.520> eaten 36:59.317 --> 36:59.327 align:start position:0% truth of what they had actually eaten 36:59.327 --> 37:01.396 align:start position:0% truth of what they had actually eaten eventually<00:38:26.560> came<00:38:26.800> out,<00:38:27.359> many<00:38:27.680> people<00:38:27.839> around 37:01.396 --> 37:01.406 align:start position:0% eventually came out, many people around 37:01.406 --> 37:03.797 align:start position:0% eventually came out, many people around the<00:38:28.320> world<00:38:28.560> were<00:38:28.880> disgusted.<00:38:30.079> Others, 37:03.797 --> 37:03.807 align:start position:0% the world were disgusted. Others, 37:03.807 --> 37:06.436 align:start position:0% the world were disgusted. Others, however,<00:38:31.119> felt<00:38:31.520> sympathy.<00:38:32.640> These<00:38:32.880> were 37:06.436 --> 37:06.446 align:start position:0% however, felt sympathy. These were 37:06.446 --> 37:08.357 align:start position:0% however, felt sympathy. These were ordinary<00:38:33.680> people<00:38:34.320> trapped<00:38:34.640> in<00:38:34.800> an 37:08.357 --> 37:08.367 align:start position:0% ordinary people trapped in an 37:08.367 --> 37:10.517 align:start position:0% ordinary people trapped in an extraordinary<00:38:35.760> situation<00:38:36.480> who<00:38:36.640> had<00:38:36.800> done<00:38:36.960> the 37:10.517 --> 37:10.527 align:start position:0% extraordinary situation who had done the 37:10.527 --> 37:12.037 align:start position:0% extraordinary situation who had done the only<00:38:37.440> thing<00:38:37.599> that<00:38:37.839> would<00:38:38.079> give<00:38:38.160> them<00:38:38.400> a<00:38:38.560> chance 37:12.037 --> 37:12.047 align:start position:0% only thing that would give them a chance 37:12.047 --> 37:18.357 align:start position:0% only thing that would give them a chance of<00:38:38.960> seeing<00:38:39.200> their<00:38:39.520> families<00:38:39.920> again. 37:18.357 --> 37:18.367 align:start position:0% 37:18.367 --> 37:20.597 align:start position:0% And<00:38:45.359> yet<00:38:46.160> history<00:38:46.640> and<00:38:46.880> paleo 37:20.597 --> 37:20.607 align:start position:0% And yet history and paleo 37:20.607 --> 37:22.916 align:start position:0% And yet history and paleo anthropological<00:38:48.079> research<00:38:48.960> consistently 37:22.916 --> 37:22.926 align:start position:0% anthropological research consistently 37:22.926 --> 37:24.916 align:start position:0% anthropological research consistently shows<00:38:49.920> that<00:38:50.160> cannibalism<00:38:50.880> took<00:38:51.200> place<00:38:51.359> with 37:24.916 --> 37:24.926 align:start position:0% shows that cannibalism took place with 37:24.926 --> 37:27.637 align:start position:0% shows that cannibalism took place with at<00:38:51.680> least<00:38:52.079> some<00:38:52.320> regularity<00:38:53.440> in<00:38:53.680> the<00:38:53.920> human 37:27.637 --> 37:27.647 align:start position:0% at least some regularity in the human 37:27.647 --> 37:30.357 align:start position:0% at least some regularity in the human past.<00:38:55.440> It<00:38:55.599> is<00:38:55.760> a<00:38:55.920> behavior<00:38:56.240> that<00:38:56.480> has<00:38:56.640> surfaced 37:30.357 --> 37:30.367 align:start position:0% past. It is a behavior that has surfaced 37:30.367 --> 37:33.237 align:start position:0% past. It is a behavior that has surfaced again<00:38:57.280> and<00:38:57.520> again<00:38:58.240> in<00:38:58.560> many<00:38:58.800> homminin<00:38:59.359> species 37:33.237 --> 37:33.247 align:start position:0% again and again in many homminin species 37:33.247 --> 37:35.156 align:start position:0% again and again in many homminin species and<00:39:00.160> in<00:39:00.400> hundreds<00:39:00.720> of<00:39:00.880> homo<00:39:01.280> sapiens 37:35.156 --> 37:35.166 align:start position:0% and in hundreds of homo sapiens 37:35.166 --> 37:37.797 align:start position:0% and in hundreds of homo sapiens communities<00:39:02.480> across<00:39:02.880> thousands<00:39:03.359> of<00:39:03.520> years. 37:37.797 --> 37:37.807 align:start position:0% communities across thousands of years. 37:37.807 --> 37:40.037 align:start position:0% communities across thousands of years. But<00:39:04.640> when<00:39:04.800> it<00:39:04.960> occurs<00:39:05.200> in<00:39:05.359> our<00:39:05.599> own<00:39:05.760> societies 37:40.037 --> 37:40.047 align:start position:0% But when it occurs in our own societies 37:40.047 --> 37:42.117 align:start position:0% But when it occurs in our own societies to<00:39:06.960> people<00:39:07.200> who<00:39:07.440> could<00:39:07.599> just<00:39:07.839> as<00:39:08.079> easily<00:39:08.560> be 37:42.117 --> 37:42.127 align:start position:0% to people who could just as easily be 37:42.127 --> 37:44.357 align:start position:0% to people who could just as easily be us,<00:39:09.520> it<00:39:09.839> feels<00:39:10.160> as<00:39:10.320> if<00:39:10.560> something 37:44.357 --> 37:44.367 align:start position:0% us, it feels as if something 37:44.367 --> 37:46.837 align:start position:0% us, it feels as if something particularly<00:39:11.760> egregious<00:39:12.320> has<00:39:12.560> happened. 37:46.837 --> 37:46.847 align:start position:0% particularly egregious has happened. 37:46.847 --> 37:49.077 align:start position:0% particularly egregious has happened. Something<00:39:13.839> on<00:39:14.079> an<00:39:14.320> entirely<00:39:14.880> new<00:39:15.119> level<00:39:15.440> of 37:49.077 --> 37:49.087 align:start position:0% Something on an entirely new level of 37:49.087 --> 37:52.676 align:start position:0% Something on an entirely new level of taboo.<00:39:17.200> And<00:39:17.359> so<00:39:17.520> why<00:39:17.680> do<00:39:17.839> we<00:39:18.079> feel<00:39:18.320> this<00:39:18.640> way? 37:52.676 --> 37:52.686 align:start position:0% taboo. And so why do we feel this way? 37:52.686 --> 37:54.837 align:start position:0% taboo. And so why do we feel this way? What<00:39:19.599> is<00:39:19.760> it<00:39:19.920> about<00:39:20.240> cannibalism<00:39:21.040> that<00:39:21.359> makes 37:54.837 --> 37:54.847 align:start position:0% What is it about cannibalism that makes 37:54.847 --> 38:02.517 align:start position:0% What is it about cannibalism that makes it<00:39:21.839> seem<00:39:22.160> so<00:39:22.480> wrong? 38:02.517 --> 38:02.527 align:start position:0% 38:02.527 --> 38:04.997 align:start position:0% In<00:39:29.440> the<00:39:29.599> new<00:39:29.839> kingdom<00:39:30.240> of<00:39:30.400> ancient<00:39:30.720> Egypt,<00:39:31.440> a 38:04.997 --> 38:05.007 align:start position:0% In the new kingdom of ancient Egypt, a 38:05.007 --> 38:07.077 align:start position:0% In the new kingdom of ancient Egypt, a woman<00:39:31.920> was<00:39:32.079> buried<00:39:32.560> in<00:39:32.720> a<00:39:32.960> small<00:39:33.280> pyramid 38:07.077 --> 38:07.087 align:start position:0% woman was buried in a small pyramid 38:07.087 --> 38:10.676 align:start position:0% woman was buried in a small pyramid tomb.<00:39:34.880> Her<00:39:35.200> name<00:39:35.599> was<00:39:35.920> Merritt.<00:39:36.800> She<00:39:37.040> was<00:39:37.119> the 38:10.676 --> 38:10.686 align:start position:0% tomb. Her name was Merritt. She was the 38:10.686 --> 38:13.557 align:start position:0% tomb. Her name was Merritt. She was the wife<00:39:37.599> of<00:39:37.920> Kr,<00:39:38.800> a<00:39:39.040> middle-class<00:39:39.599> official<00:39:40.000> who 38:13.557 --> 38:13.567 align:start position:0% wife of Kr, a middle-class official who 38:13.567 --> 38:15.156 align:start position:0% wife of Kr, a middle-class official who supervised<00:39:40.720> the<00:39:40.880> construction<00:39:41.280> of<00:39:41.440> royal 38:15.156 --> 38:15.166 align:start position:0% supervised the construction of royal 38:15.166 --> 38:17.557 align:start position:0% supervised the construction of royal graves<00:39:42.240> in<00:39:42.400> the<00:39:42.560> Valley<00:39:42.800> of<00:39:42.960> the<00:39:43.119> Kings. 38:17.557 --> 38:17.567 align:start position:0% graves in the Valley of the Kings. 38:17.567 --> 38:19.557 align:start position:0% graves in the Valley of the Kings. Merritt<00:39:44.640> was<00:39:44.800> no<00:39:44.960> more<00:39:45.119> than<00:39:45.359> 35<00:39:45.839> years<00:39:46.079> old 38:19.557 --> 38:19.567 align:start position:0% Merritt was no more than 35 years old 38:19.567 --> 38:21.797 align:start position:0% Merritt was no more than 35 years old when<00:39:46.560> she<00:39:46.720> died.<00:39:47.359> So,<00:39:47.520> her<00:39:47.760> death<00:39:48.000> came<00:39:48.160> as<00:39:48.320> a 38:21.797 --> 38:21.807 align:start position:0% when she died. So, her death came as a 38:21.807 --> 38:23.637 align:start position:0% when she died. So, her death came as a shock<00:39:48.720> to<00:39:48.880> her<00:39:49.119> husband<00:39:49.440> and<00:39:49.760> her<00:39:50.000> three 38:23.637 --> 38:23.647 align:start position:0% shock to her husband and her three 38:23.647 --> 38:26.277 align:start position:0% shock to her husband and her three children.<00:39:51.680> Carr<00:39:52.000> had<00:39:52.160> assumed<00:39:52.400> that<00:39:52.560> his<00:39:52.800> wife 38:26.277 --> 38:26.287 align:start position:0% children. Carr had assumed that his wife 38:26.287 --> 38:28.197 align:start position:0% children. Carr had assumed that his wife would<00:39:53.040> outlive<00:39:53.520> him.<00:39:53.920> So<00:39:54.160> while<00:39:54.320> he<00:39:54.480> had<00:39:54.640> spent 38:28.197 --> 38:28.207 align:start position:0% would outlive him. So while he had spent 38:28.207 --> 38:30.357 align:start position:0% would outlive him. So while he had spent years<00:39:55.280> working<00:39:55.520> on<00:39:55.680> his<00:39:55.920> own<00:39:56.079> tomb,<00:39:56.800> he<00:39:56.880> had 38:30.357 --> 38:30.367 align:start position:0% years working on his own tomb, he had 38:30.367 --> 38:31.957 align:start position:0% years working on his own tomb, he had not<00:39:57.200> yet<00:39:57.359> made<00:39:57.599> any<00:39:57.839> preparations<00:39:58.400> for 38:31.957 --> 38:31.967 align:start position:0% not yet made any preparations for 38:31.967 --> 38:34.357 align:start position:0% not yet made any preparations for Meritt's<00:39:59.200> passing.<00:40:00.160> And<00:40:00.320> so<00:40:00.480> not<00:40:00.720> wanting<00:40:00.960> to 38:34.357 --> 38:34.367 align:start position:0% Meritt's passing. And so not wanting to 38:34.367 --> 38:36.597 align:start position:0% Meritt's passing. And so not wanting to give<00:40:01.200> Merritt<00:40:01.599> a<00:40:01.680> subpass<00:40:02.240> sendoff,<00:40:02.960> Carr 38:36.597 --> 38:36.607 align:start position:0% give Merritt a subpass sendoff, Carr 38:36.607 --> 38:38.436 align:start position:0% give Merritt a subpass sendoff, Carr decided<00:40:03.680> to<00:40:03.839> give<00:40:04.000> her<00:40:04.160> the<00:40:04.240> tomb<00:40:04.560> he<00:40:04.720> had<00:40:04.960> been 38:38.436 --> 38:38.446 align:start position:0% decided to give her the tomb he had been 38:38.446 --> 38:40.517 align:start position:0% decided to give her the tomb he had been building<00:40:05.359> for<00:40:05.680> himself. 38:40.517 --> 38:40.527 align:start position:0% building for himself. 38:40.527 --> 38:43.396 align:start position:0% building for himself. But<00:40:07.520> there<00:40:07.760> was<00:40:08.000> one<00:40:08.400> problem.<00:40:09.440> The<00:40:09.680> coffin 38:43.396 --> 38:43.406 align:start position:0% But there was one problem. The coffin 38:43.406 --> 38:44.916 align:start position:0% But there was one problem. The coffin Merritt<00:40:10.480> was<00:40:10.640> placed<00:40:10.800> in<00:40:11.040> had<00:40:11.280> originally 38:44.916 --> 38:44.926 align:start position:0% Merritt was placed in had originally 38:44.926 --> 38:47.637 align:start position:0% Merritt was placed in had originally been<00:40:11.839> crafted<00:40:12.240> for<00:40:12.480> Carr.<00:40:13.599> We<00:40:13.760> can<00:40:13.920> imagine 38:47.637 --> 38:47.647 align:start position:0% been crafted for Carr. We can imagine 38:47.647 --> 38:49.317 align:start position:0% been crafted for Carr. We can imagine Carr<00:40:14.720> looking<00:40:15.040> down<00:40:15.200> on<00:40:15.440> his<00:40:15.680> wife's 38:49.317 --> 38:49.327 align:start position:0% Carr looking down on his wife's 38:49.327 --> 38:51.396 align:start position:0% Carr looking down on his wife's mummified<00:40:16.640> body,<00:40:17.200> feeling<00:40:17.440> that<00:40:17.680> Meritt 38:51.396 --> 38:51.406 align:start position:0% mummified body, feeling that Meritt 38:51.406 --> 38:53.077 align:start position:0% mummified body, feeling that Meritt appeared<00:40:18.400> small<00:40:18.640> and<00:40:18.880> lonely<00:40:19.280> inside<00:40:19.599> the 38:53.077 --> 38:53.087 align:start position:0% appeared small and lonely inside the 38:53.087 --> 38:55.077 align:start position:0% appeared small and lonely inside the oversized<00:40:20.320> coffin.<00:40:20.880> And<00:40:21.040> so<00:40:21.280> to<00:40:21.440> keep<00:40:21.520> her 38:55.077 --> 38:55.087 align:start position:0% oversized coffin. And so to keep her 38:55.087 --> 38:57.077 align:start position:0% oversized coffin. And so to keep her warm<00:40:21.920> and<00:40:22.160> comfortable,<00:40:22.880> he<00:40:23.119> cradled<00:40:23.520> her 38:57.077 --> 38:57.087 align:start position:0% warm and comfortable, he cradled her 38:57.087 --> 38:58.997 align:start position:0% warm and comfortable, he cradled her body<00:40:24.000> with<00:40:24.240> linen<00:40:24.720> monogrammed<00:40:25.359> with<00:40:25.440> his 38:58.997 --> 38:59.007 align:start position:0% body with linen monogrammed with his 38:59.007 --> 39:01.557 align:start position:0% body with linen monogrammed with his name<00:40:26.320> and<00:40:26.560> padded<00:40:26.960> the<00:40:27.119> extra<00:40:27.440> space<00:40:27.920> with 39:01.557 --> 39:01.567 align:start position:0% name and padded the extra space with 39:01.567 --> 39:07.317 align:start position:0% name and padded the extra space with rolls<00:40:28.560> of<00:40:28.720> cloth. 39:07.317 --> 39:07.327 align:start position:0% 39:07.327 --> 39:09.797 align:start position:0% Ancient<00:40:34.480> Egyptians<00:40:35.040> like<00:40:35.359> Kr<00:40:36.079> believe<00:40:36.320> the 39:09.797 --> 39:09.807 align:start position:0% Ancient Egyptians like Kr believe the 39:09.807 --> 39:11.717 align:start position:0% Ancient Egyptians like Kr believe the souls<00:40:36.800> of<00:40:36.960> the<00:40:37.040> dead<00:40:37.359> remained<00:40:37.839> in<00:40:38.160> their 39:11.717 --> 39:11.727 align:start position:0% souls of the dead remained in their 39:11.727 --> 39:14.357 align:start position:0% souls of the dead remained in their bodies.<00:40:39.440> Human<00:40:39.760> remains<00:40:40.240> therefore<00:40:40.800> needed 39:14.357 --> 39:14.367 align:start position:0% bodies. Human remains therefore needed 39:14.367 --> 39:16.197 align:start position:0% bodies. Human remains therefore needed to<00:40:41.200> be<00:40:41.359> treated<00:40:41.680> with<00:40:41.839> just<00:40:42.079> as<00:40:42.240> much<00:40:42.480> respect 39:16.197 --> 39:16.207 align:start position:0% to be treated with just as much respect 39:16.207 --> 39:19.156 align:start position:0% to be treated with just as much respect as<00:40:43.200> living<00:40:43.599> people.<00:40:44.720> Mummifying<00:40:45.280> a<00:40:45.440> body<00:40:45.680> to 39:19.156 --> 39:19.166 align:start position:0% as living people. Mummifying a body to 39:19.166 --> 39:21.237 align:start position:0% as living people. Mummifying a body to preserve<00:40:46.160> it<00:40:46.560> and<00:40:46.800> interring<00:40:47.280> the<00:40:47.440> deceased 39:21.237 --> 39:21.247 align:start position:0% preserve it and interring the deceased 39:21.247 --> 39:23.957 align:start position:0% preserve it and interring the deceased in<00:40:48.079> elaborate<00:40:48.640> graves<00:40:49.359> was<00:40:49.599> a<00:40:49.760> mark<00:40:50.000> of<00:40:50.240> utmost 39:23.957 --> 39:23.967 align:start position:0% in elaborate graves was a mark of utmost 39:23.967 --> 39:25.797 align:start position:0% in elaborate graves was a mark of utmost respect. 39:25.797 --> 39:25.807 align:start position:0% respect. 39:25.807 --> 39:27.797 align:start position:0% respect. Indeed,<00:40:52.960> to<00:40:53.119> car<00:40:53.520> Merritt<00:40:53.839> had<00:40:54.000> not<00:40:54.160> stopped 39:27.797 --> 39:27.807 align:start position:0% Indeed, to car Merritt had not stopped 39:27.807 --> 39:30.757 align:start position:0% Indeed, to car Merritt had not stopped existing<00:40:55.119> when<00:40:55.440> she<00:40:55.760> died.<00:40:56.560> Her<00:40:56.800> body<00:40:57.119> was<00:40:57.280> not 39:30.757 --> 39:30.767 align:start position:0% existing when she died. Her body was not 39:30.767 --> 39:33.396 align:start position:0% existing when she died. Her body was not an<00:40:57.599> empty<00:40:57.920> shell<00:40:58.240> to<00:40:58.480> be<00:40:58.560> disposed<00:40:58.960> of,<00:40:59.599> but<00:40:59.839> a 39:33.396 --> 39:33.406 align:start position:0% an empty shell to be disposed of, but a 39:33.406 --> 39:36.436 align:start position:0% an empty shell to be disposed of, but a home<00:41:00.480> for<00:41:00.800> her<00:41:01.040> soul.<00:41:02.079> To<00:41:02.319> damage<00:41:02.640> it<00:41:02.880> or 39:36.436 --> 39:36.446 align:start position:0% home for her soul. To damage it or 39:36.446 --> 39:38.197 align:start position:0% home for her soul. To damage it or neglect<00:41:03.599> it<00:41:03.920> would<00:41:04.160> have<00:41:04.240> been<00:41:04.400> to<00:41:04.560> harm 39:38.197 --> 39:38.207 align:start position:0% neglect it would have been to harm 39:38.207 --> 39:43.636 align:start position:0% neglect it would have been to harm Merritt<00:41:05.520> herself. 39:43.636 --> 39:43.646 align:start position:0% 39:43.646 --> 39:45.957 align:start position:0% So,<00:41:10.640> of<00:41:10.800> course,<00:41:11.119> the<00:41:11.359> idea<00:41:11.599> of<00:41:11.839> consuming<00:41:12.400> a 39:45.957 --> 39:45.967 align:start position:0% So, of course, the idea of consuming a 39:45.967 --> 39:47.636 align:start position:0% So, of course, the idea of consuming a human<00:41:12.960> body<00:41:13.440> would<00:41:13.599> not<00:41:13.760> have<00:41:13.920> been<00:41:14.079> just 39:47.636 --> 39:47.646 align:start position:0% human body would not have been just 39:47.646 --> 39:50.277 align:start position:0% human body would not have been just distasteful<00:41:14.960> to<00:41:15.200> the<00:41:15.359> ancient<00:41:15.680> Egyptians.<00:41:16.800> It 39:50.277 --> 39:50.287 align:start position:0% distasteful to the ancient Egyptians. It 39:50.287 --> 39:52.197 align:start position:0% distasteful to the ancient Egyptians. It would<00:41:17.119> have<00:41:17.200> been<00:41:17.280> an<00:41:17.520> unthinkable<00:41:18.319> violation 39:52.197 --> 39:52.207 align:start position:0% would have been an unthinkable violation 39:52.207 --> 39:54.357 align:start position:0% would have been an unthinkable violation of<00:41:19.040> the<00:41:19.280> deceased<00:41:19.920> and<00:41:20.160> of<00:41:20.319> their<00:41:20.560> continued 39:54.357 --> 39:54.367 align:start position:0% of the deceased and of their continued 39:54.367 --> 39:57.317 align:start position:0% of the deceased and of their continued existence<00:41:21.599> in<00:41:21.839> the<00:41:22.079> afterlife.<00:41:23.440> Tragically, 39:57.317 --> 39:57.327 align:start position:0% existence in the afterlife. Tragically, 39:57.327 --> 39:59.396 align:start position:0% existence in the afterlife. Tragically, however,<00:41:24.480> this<00:41:24.640> didn't<00:41:24.960> stop<00:41:25.280> Europeans<00:41:25.920> in 39:59.396 --> 39:59.406 align:start position:0% however, this didn't stop Europeans in 39:59.406 --> 40:01.396 align:start position:0% however, this didn't stop Europeans in the<00:41:26.160> Middle<00:41:26.400> Ages<00:41:26.720> and<00:41:26.960> afterwards<00:41:27.599> grinding 40:01.396 --> 40:01.406 align:start position:0% the Middle Ages and afterwards grinding 40:01.406 --> 40:04.277 align:start position:0% the Middle Ages and afterwards grinding up<00:41:28.400> mummies<00:41:29.040> and<00:41:29.280> using<00:41:29.599> them<00:41:29.760> as<00:41:30.000> medicine. 40:04.277 --> 40:04.287 align:start position:0% up mummies and using them as medicine. 40:04.287 --> 40:06.037 align:start position:0% up mummies and using them as medicine. Indeed,<00:41:31.359> today,<00:41:31.760> the<00:41:31.920> treatment<00:41:32.240> of<00:41:32.400> human 40:06.037 --> 40:06.047 align:start position:0% Indeed, today, the treatment of human 40:06.047 --> 40:08.277 align:start position:0% Indeed, today, the treatment of human remains<00:41:33.359> continues<00:41:33.920> to<00:41:34.079> be<00:41:34.160> a<00:41:34.319> controversial 40:08.277 --> 40:08.287 align:start position:0% remains continues to be a controversial 40:08.287 --> 40:10.997 align:start position:0% remains continues to be a controversial subject<00:41:35.440> all<00:41:35.680> over<00:41:35.839> the<00:41:36.079> world.<00:41:37.119> For<00:41:37.280> over<00:41:37.440> a 40:10.997 --> 40:11.007 align:start position:0% subject all over the world. For over a 40:11.007 --> 40:13.396 align:start position:0% subject all over the world. For over a century,<00:41:38.160> museums,<00:41:38.960> universities,<00:41:39.599> and<00:41:39.839> even 40:13.396 --> 40:13.406 align:start position:0% century, museums, universities, and even 40:13.406 --> 40:15.396 align:start position:0% century, museums, universities, and even private<00:41:40.480> collections<00:41:41.040> have<00:41:41.280> amassed<00:41:41.680> vast 40:15.396 --> 40:15.406 align:start position:0% private collections have amassed vast 40:15.406 --> 40:17.636 align:start position:0% private collections have amassed vast collections<00:41:42.640> of<00:41:42.800> human<00:41:43.200> remains<00:41:43.760> taken<00:41:44.079> from 40:17.636 --> 40:17.646 align:start position:0% collections of human remains taken from 40:17.646 --> 40:20.277 align:start position:0% collections of human remains taken from indigenous<00:41:44.880> burial<00:41:45.359> grounds.<00:41:46.319> In<00:41:46.560> the<00:41:46.720> United 40:20.277 --> 40:20.287 align:start position:0% indigenous burial grounds. In the United 40:20.287 --> 40:22.597 align:start position:0% indigenous burial grounds. In the United States<00:41:47.280> alone,<00:41:48.079> tens<00:41:48.480> of<00:41:48.640> thousands<00:41:49.119> of 40:22.597 --> 40:22.607 align:start position:0% States alone, tens of thousands of 40:22.607 --> 40:24.357 align:start position:0% States alone, tens of thousands of Native<00:41:49.599> American<00:41:50.079> skeletons<00:41:50.560> are<00:41:50.720> held<00:41:50.880> in 40:24.357 --> 40:24.367 align:start position:0% Native American skeletons are held in 40:24.367 --> 40:26.916 align:start position:0% Native American skeletons are held in institutions<00:41:51.680> across<00:41:52.079> the<00:41:52.319> country,<00:41:53.200> stored 40:26.916 --> 40:26.926 align:start position:0% institutions across the country, stored 40:26.926 --> 40:29.557 align:start position:0% institutions across the country, stored in<00:41:53.839> sterile<00:41:54.319> drawers<00:41:54.800> or<00:41:55.040> displayed<00:41:55.520> in<00:41:55.839> glass 40:29.557 --> 40:29.567 align:start position:0% in sterile drawers or displayed in glass 40:29.567 --> 40:31.877 align:start position:0% in sterile drawers or displayed in glass cases.<00:41:57.440> To<00:41:57.599> the<00:41:57.839> communities<00:41:58.240> these 40:31.877 --> 40:31.887 align:start position:0% cases. To the communities these 40:31.887 --> 40:33.877 align:start position:0% cases. To the communities these ancestors<00:41:59.119> belong<00:41:59.440> to,<00:42:00.000> this<00:42:00.240> is 40:33.877 --> 40:33.887 align:start position:0% ancestors belong to, this is 40:33.887 --> 40:36.517 align:start position:0% ancestors belong to, this is desecration.<00:42:01.760> Many<00:42:02.000> Native<00:42:02.319> American<00:42:02.800> belief 40:36.517 --> 40:36.527 align:start position:0% desecration. Many Native American belief 40:36.527 --> 40:38.597 align:start position:0% desecration. Many Native American belief systems<00:42:03.680> hold<00:42:04.000> that<00:42:04.160> the<00:42:04.319> dead<00:42:04.560> must<00:42:04.880> remain 40:38.597 --> 40:38.607 align:start position:0% systems hold that the dead must remain 40:38.607 --> 40:41.477 align:start position:0% systems hold that the dead must remain undisturbed<00:42:06.079> to<00:42:06.319> rest<00:42:06.720> peacefully.<00:42:07.760> Removing 40:41.477 --> 40:41.487 align:start position:0% undisturbed to rest peacefully. Removing 40:41.487 --> 40:43.156 align:start position:0% undisturbed to rest peacefully. Removing their<00:42:08.400> remains<00:42:08.800> from<00:42:08.960> the<00:42:09.119> earth<00:42:09.359> not<00:42:09.599> only 40:43.156 --> 40:43.166 align:start position:0% their remains from the earth not only 40:43.166 --> 40:45.717 align:start position:0% their remains from the earth not only violates<00:42:10.400> them<00:42:10.880> but<00:42:11.119> brings<00:42:11.440> spiritual<00:42:12.000> harm 40:45.717 --> 40:45.727 align:start position:0% violates them but brings spiritual harm 40:45.727 --> 40:47.957 align:start position:0% violates them but brings spiritual harm to<00:42:12.640> their<00:42:12.800> living<00:42:13.119> descendants.<00:42:14.319> And<00:42:14.480> so 40:47.957 --> 40:47.967 align:start position:0% to their living descendants. And so 40:47.967 --> 40:50.117 align:start position:0% to their living descendants. And so although<00:42:15.119> separated<00:42:15.599> by<00:42:15.839> thousands<00:42:16.240> of<00:42:16.480> years 40:50.117 --> 40:50.127 align:start position:0% although separated by thousands of years 40:50.127 --> 40:52.436 align:start position:0% although separated by thousands of years and<00:42:17.040> on<00:42:17.280> different<00:42:17.680> continents<00:42:18.560> as<00:42:18.800> well<00:42:18.880> as 40:52.436 --> 40:52.446 align:start position:0% and on different continents as well as 40:52.446 --> 40:54.676 align:start position:0% and on different continents as well as having<00:42:19.359> distinct<00:42:19.839> cultural<00:42:20.319> beliefs,<00:42:21.119> the 40:54.676 --> 40:54.686 align:start position:0% having distinct cultural beliefs, the 40:54.686 --> 40:57.156 align:start position:0% having distinct cultural beliefs, the same<00:42:21.680> conviction<00:42:22.560> that<00:42:22.880> human<00:42:23.200> remains 40:57.156 --> 40:57.166 align:start position:0% same conviction that human remains 40:57.166 --> 40:59.636 align:start position:0% same conviction that human remains deserve<00:42:24.319> respect<00:42:25.200> appears<00:42:25.520> in<00:42:25.760> both<00:42:25.920> Native 40:59.636 --> 40:59.646 align:start position:0% deserve respect appears in both Native 40:59.646 --> 41:02.357 align:start position:0% deserve respect appears in both Native American<00:42:26.800> communities<00:42:27.839> and<00:42:28.319> in<00:42:28.560> the<00:42:28.720> ancient 41:02.357 --> 41:02.367 align:start position:0% American communities and in the ancient 41:02.367 --> 41:04.676 align:start position:0% American communities and in the ancient Egyptians.<00:42:30.240> And<00:42:30.480> these<00:42:30.720> are<00:42:30.880> just<00:42:31.040> two 41:04.676 --> 41:04.686 align:start position:0% Egyptians. And these are just two 41:04.686 --> 41:06.997 align:start position:0% Egyptians. And these are just two examples.<00:42:32.480> The<00:42:32.640> profound<00:42:33.119> sense<00:42:33.359> that<00:42:33.520> the 41:06.997 --> 41:07.007 align:start position:0% examples. The profound sense that the 41:07.007 --> 41:09.557 align:start position:0% examples. The profound sense that the dead<00:42:34.000> do<00:42:34.240> not<00:42:34.400> stop<00:42:34.640> mattering<00:42:35.119> when<00:42:35.359> they<00:42:35.599> die 41:09.557 --> 41:09.567 align:start position:0% dead do not stop mattering when they die 41:09.567 --> 41:12.117 align:start position:0% dead do not stop mattering when they die appears<00:42:36.800> all<00:42:37.040> over<00:42:37.280> the<00:42:37.520> world.<00:42:38.400> But<00:42:38.560> where 41:12.117 --> 41:12.127 align:start position:0% appears all over the world. But where 41:12.127 --> 41:14.517 align:start position:0% appears all over the world. But where did<00:42:38.960> this<00:42:39.200> way<00:42:39.359> of<00:42:39.520> thinking<00:42:40.000> come<00:42:40.240> from?<00:42:40.960> And 41:14.517 --> 41:14.527 align:start position:0% did this way of thinking come from? And 41:14.527 --> 41:16.916 align:start position:0% did this way of thinking come from? And what<00:42:41.680> is<00:42:41.839> the<00:42:42.079> evolutionary<00:42:42.880> advantage<00:42:43.359> of 41:16.916 --> 41:16.926 align:start position:0% what is the evolutionary advantage of 41:16.926 --> 41:24.117 align:start position:0% what is the evolutionary advantage of it? 41:24.117 --> 41:24.127 align:start position:0% 41:24.127 --> 41:26.676 align:start position:0% There<00:42:51.040> is<00:42:51.200> no<00:42:51.520> one<00:42:51.920> single<00:42:52.400> answer,<00:42:53.119> but 41:26.676 --> 41:26.686 align:start position:0% There is no one single answer, but 41:26.686 --> 41:28.597 align:start position:0% There is no one single answer, but researchers<00:42:53.920> have<00:42:54.079> proposed<00:42:54.640> several 41:28.597 --> 41:28.607 align:start position:0% researchers have proposed several 41:28.607 --> 41:30.757 align:start position:0% researchers have proposed several overlapping<00:42:55.839> possibilities.<00:42:57.040> And<00:42:57.200> they 41:30.757 --> 41:30.767 align:start position:0% overlapping possibilities. And they 41:30.767 --> 41:32.837 align:start position:0% overlapping possibilities. And they begin<00:42:57.920> with<00:42:58.240> something<00:42:58.640> surprisingly 41:32.837 --> 41:32.847 align:start position:0% begin with something surprisingly 41:32.847 --> 41:37.156 align:start position:0% begin with something surprisingly practical.<00:43:00.720> A<00:43:00.960> dead<00:43:01.200> body<00:43:01.920> is<00:43:02.319> dangerous. 41:37.156 --> 41:37.166 align:start position:0% practical. A dead body is dangerous. 41:37.166 --> 41:39.396 align:start position:0% practical. A dead body is dangerous. As<00:43:04.079> it<00:43:04.240> decomposes,<00:43:05.040> it<00:43:05.200> becomes<00:43:05.440> a<00:43:05.599> source<00:43:05.839> of 41:39.396 --> 41:39.406 align:start position:0% As it decomposes, it becomes a source of 41:39.406 --> 41:41.237 align:start position:0% As it decomposes, it becomes a source of disease,<00:43:06.880> attracts<00:43:07.280> insects<00:43:07.680> and 41:41.237 --> 41:41.247 align:start position:0% disease, attracts insects and 41:41.247 --> 41:43.477 align:start position:0% disease, attracts insects and scavengers,<00:43:08.720> and<00:43:08.960> contaminates<00:43:09.599> the<00:43:09.839> space 41:43.477 --> 41:43.487 align:start position:0% scavengers, and contaminates the space 41:43.487 --> 41:45.717 align:start position:0% scavengers, and contaminates the space around<00:43:10.480> it.<00:43:11.280> For<00:43:11.599> animals<00:43:12.000> living<00:43:12.240> in 41:45.717 --> 41:45.727 align:start position:0% around it. For animals living in 41:45.727 --> 41:47.797 align:start position:0% around it. For animals living in close-knit<00:43:13.040> groups,<00:43:13.520> a<00:43:13.680> corpse<00:43:14.079> left<00:43:14.319> where 41:47.797 --> 41:47.807 align:start position:0% close-knit groups, a corpse left where 41:47.807 --> 41:49.717 align:start position:0% close-knit groups, a corpse left where it<00:43:14.640> fell<00:43:15.040> can<00:43:15.280> become<00:43:15.440> a<00:43:15.680> genuine<00:43:16.079> health 41:49.717 --> 41:49.727 align:start position:0% it fell can become a genuine health 41:49.727 --> 41:52.277 align:start position:0% it fell can become a genuine health risk.<00:43:17.119> And<00:43:17.280> so,<00:43:17.520> this<00:43:17.680> is<00:43:17.839> why<00:43:18.400> even<00:43:18.720> some 41:52.277 --> 41:52.287 align:start position:0% risk. And so, this is why even some 41:52.287 --> 41:54.676 align:start position:0% risk. And so, this is why even some non-human<00:43:19.680> animals,<00:43:20.400> including<00:43:20.960> social 41:54.676 --> 41:54.686 align:start position:0% non-human animals, including social 41:54.686 --> 41:57.156 align:start position:0% non-human animals, including social insects,<00:43:22.160> have<00:43:22.319> evolved<00:43:22.800> ways<00:43:23.119> of<00:43:23.280> removing 41:57.156 --> 41:57.166 align:start position:0% insects, have evolved ways of removing 41:57.166 --> 41:59.957 align:start position:0% insects, have evolved ways of removing or<00:43:24.079> avoiding<00:43:24.640> their<00:43:24.960> dead.<00:43:25.839> Getting<00:43:26.160> a<00:43:26.319> body 41:59.957 --> 41:59.967 align:start position:0% or avoiding their dead. Getting a body 41:59.967 --> 42:01.957 align:start position:0% or avoiding their dead. Getting a body away<00:43:26.880> from<00:43:27.119> the<00:43:27.280> living,<00:43:27.760> whether<00:43:28.079> by<00:43:28.240> burying 42:01.957 --> 42:01.967 align:start position:0% away from the living, whether by burying 42:01.967 --> 42:03.717 align:start position:0% away from the living, whether by burying it,<00:43:29.040> covering<00:43:29.359> it,<00:43:29.599> or<00:43:29.839> carrying<00:43:30.240> it 42:03.717 --> 42:03.727 align:start position:0% it, covering it, or carrying it 42:03.727 --> 42:05.477 align:start position:0% it, covering it, or carrying it elsewhere,<00:43:31.119> may<00:43:31.280> have<00:43:31.359> been<00:43:31.520> one<00:43:31.680> of<00:43:31.760> the<00:43:31.920> very 42:05.477 --> 42:05.487 align:start position:0% elsewhere, may have been one of the very 42:05.487 --> 42:07.636 align:start position:0% elsewhere, may have been one of the very first<00:43:32.480> drivers<00:43:32.880> of<00:43:33.040> mortuary<00:43:33.680> behavior<00:43:34.079> in 42:07.636 --> 42:07.646 align:start position:0% first drivers of mortuary behavior in 42:07.646 --> 42:10.277 align:start position:0% first drivers of mortuary behavior in our<00:43:34.560> lineage,<00:43:35.359> long<00:43:35.680> before<00:43:36.079> it<00:43:36.319> carried<00:43:36.640> any 42:10.277 --> 42:10.287 align:start position:0% our lineage, long before it carried any 42:10.287 --> 42:12.837 align:start position:0% our lineage, long before it carried any spiritual<00:43:37.520> or<00:43:37.839> cultural<00:43:38.400> meaning.<00:43:39.359> But 42:12.837 --> 42:12.847 align:start position:0% spiritual or cultural meaning. But 42:12.847 --> 42:15.237 align:start position:0% spiritual or cultural meaning. But disease<00:43:39.920> avoidance<00:43:40.480> alone<00:43:41.119> cannot<00:43:41.520> explain 42:15.237 --> 42:15.247 align:start position:0% disease avoidance alone cannot explain 42:15.247 --> 42:17.237 align:start position:0% disease avoidance alone cannot explain the<00:43:42.160> care<00:43:42.640> and<00:43:42.880> the<00:43:43.040> rituals<00:43:43.520> that<00:43:43.760> have 42:17.237 --> 42:17.247 align:start position:0% the care and the rituals that have 42:17.247 --> 42:21.396 align:start position:0% the care and the rituals that have evolved<00:43:44.319> around<00:43:44.880> death.<00:43:46.079> For<00:43:46.319> that,<00:43:47.200> emotion 42:21.396 --> 42:21.406 align:start position:0% evolved around death. For that, emotion 42:21.406 --> 42:24.676 align:start position:0% evolved around death. For that, emotion plays<00:43:48.319> a<00:43:48.560> much<00:43:48.720> more<00:43:48.960> central<00:43:49.520> role.<00:43:50.880> Humans 42:24.676 --> 42:24.686 align:start position:0% plays a much more central role. Humans 42:24.686 --> 42:27.396 align:start position:0% plays a much more central role. Humans are<00:43:51.520> an<00:43:51.680> intensely<00:43:52.319> social<00:43:52.800> species<00:43:53.599> and<00:43:53.920> we 42:27.396 --> 42:27.406 align:start position:0% are an intensely social species and we 42:27.406 --> 42:29.717 align:start position:0% are an intensely social species and we form<00:43:54.480> powerful<00:43:55.119> lasting<00:43:55.599> bonds<00:43:56.000> with<00:43:56.160> the 42:29.717 --> 42:29.727 align:start position:0% form powerful lasting bonds with the 42:29.727 --> 42:32.117 align:start position:0% form powerful lasting bonds with the individuals<00:43:56.880> around<00:43:57.200> us.<00:43:58.000> When<00:43:58.240> one<00:43:58.480> of<00:43:58.560> those 42:32.117 --> 42:32.127 align:start position:0% individuals around us. When one of those 42:32.127 --> 42:34.757 align:start position:0% individuals around us. When one of those individuals<00:43:59.440> dies,<00:44:00.160> those<00:44:00.480> bonds<00:44:00.960> don't<00:44:01.280> just 42:34.757 --> 42:34.767 align:start position:0% individuals dies, those bonds don't just 42:34.767 --> 42:38.357 align:start position:0% individuals dies, those bonds don't just simply<00:44:01.920> disappear.<00:44:03.200> All<00:44:03.440> of<00:44:03.599> us<00:44:03.839> feel<00:44:04.160> grief. 42:38.357 --> 42:38.367 align:start position:0% simply disappear. All of us feel grief. 42:38.367 --> 42:40.597 align:start position:0% simply disappear. All of us feel grief. And<00:44:05.280> painful<00:44:05.680> as<00:44:05.839> it<00:44:06.079> is,<00:44:06.560> grief<00:44:06.960> is<00:44:07.119> an 42:40.597 --> 42:40.607 align:start position:0% And painful as it is, grief is an 42:40.607 --> 42:42.757 align:start position:0% And painful as it is, grief is an evolutionary<00:44:08.000> byproduct<00:44:08.640> of<00:44:08.800> the<00:44:09.040> social 42:42.757 --> 42:42.767 align:start position:0% evolutionary byproduct of the social 42:42.767 --> 42:44.916 align:start position:0% evolutionary byproduct of the social attachments<00:44:10.079> that<00:44:10.400> keep<00:44:10.800> human<00:44:11.200> social 42:44.916 --> 42:44.926 align:start position:0% attachments that keep human social 42:44.926 --> 42:47.396 align:start position:0% attachments that keep human social groups<00:44:12.000> together.<00:44:13.040> The<00:44:13.200> act<00:44:13.359> of<00:44:13.599> caring<00:44:13.920> for 42:47.396 --> 42:47.406 align:start position:0% groups together. The act of caring for 42:47.406 --> 42:49.477 align:start position:0% groups together. The act of caring for the<00:44:14.240> dead<00:44:14.800> seems<00:44:15.200> to<00:44:15.359> help<00:44:15.520> the<00:44:15.760> living 42:49.477 --> 42:49.487 align:start position:0% the dead seems to help the living 42:49.487 --> 42:52.117 align:start position:0% the dead seems to help the living process<00:44:16.640> that<00:44:17.040> grief<00:44:17.599> and<00:44:17.920> return<00:44:18.240> to<00:44:18.400> normal 42:52.117 --> 42:52.127 align:start position:0% process that grief and return to normal 42:52.127 --> 42:54.117 align:start position:0% process that grief and return to normal functioning<00:44:19.440> sooner<00:44:20.000> than<00:44:20.240> if<00:44:20.400> they<00:44:20.560> didn't 42:54.117 --> 42:54.127 align:start position:0% functioning sooner than if they didn't 42:54.127 --> 42:56.037 align:start position:0% functioning sooner than if they didn't have<00:44:20.960> the<00:44:21.200> opportunity<00:44:21.599> to<00:44:21.839> say<00:44:22.079> goodbye 42:56.037 --> 42:56.047 align:start position:0% have the opportunity to say goodbye 42:56.047 --> 42:58.597 align:start position:0% have the opportunity to say goodbye according<00:44:23.119> to<00:44:23.280> their<00:44:23.520> cultural<00:44:24.000> beliefs.<00:44:25.119> And 42:58.597 --> 42:58.607 align:start position:0% according to their cultural beliefs. And 42:58.607 --> 43:00.357 align:start position:0% according to their cultural beliefs. And there<00:44:25.440> is<00:44:25.599> also<00:44:25.839> a<00:44:26.000> somewhat<00:44:26.319> territorial 43:00.357 --> 43:00.367 align:start position:0% there is also a somewhat territorial 43:00.367 --> 43:03.396 align:start position:0% there is also a somewhat territorial aspect<00:44:27.440> to<00:44:27.760> caring<00:44:28.079> for<00:44:28.240> human<00:44:28.640> remains.<00:44:29.920> The 43:03.396 --> 43:03.406 align:start position:0% aspect to caring for human remains. The 43:03.406 --> 43:05.237 align:start position:0% aspect to caring for human remains. The act<00:44:30.240> of<00:44:30.400> burying<00:44:30.800> the<00:44:30.960> dead<00:44:31.280> or<00:44:31.520> scattering 43:05.237 --> 43:05.247 align:start position:0% act of burying the dead or scattering 43:05.247 --> 43:07.636 align:start position:0% act of burying the dead or scattering their<00:44:32.160> ashes<00:44:32.560> in<00:44:32.720> a<00:44:32.880> particular<00:44:33.280> location<00:44:33.920> can 43:07.636 --> 43:07.646 align:start position:0% their ashes in a particular location can 43:07.646 --> 43:10.037 align:start position:0% their ashes in a particular location can essentially<00:44:34.800> tie<00:44:35.040> a<00:44:35.280> person<00:44:35.760> or<00:44:36.079> even<00:44:36.240> a<00:44:36.480> whole 43:10.037 --> 43:10.047 align:start position:0% essentially tie a person or even a whole 43:10.047 --> 43:13.396 align:start position:0% essentially tie a person or even a whole community<00:44:37.520> to<00:44:37.839> that<00:44:38.319> landscape. 43:13.396 --> 43:13.406 align:start position:0% community to that landscape. 43:13.406 --> 43:15.237 align:start position:0% community to that landscape. And<00:44:40.240> so<00:44:40.400> what<00:44:40.640> began<00:44:40.880> as<00:44:41.119> something<00:44:41.440> purely 43:15.237 --> 43:15.247 align:start position:0% And so what began as something purely 43:15.247 --> 43:17.396 align:start position:0% And so what began as something purely practical<00:44:42.720> gradually<00:44:43.280> became<00:44:43.680> something 43:17.396 --> 43:17.406 align:start position:0% practical gradually became something 43:17.406 --> 43:27.156 align:start position:0% practical gradually became something richer<00:44:44.560> and<00:44:44.880> more<00:44:45.119> culturally<00:44:45.760> important. 43:27.156 --> 43:27.166 align:start position:0% 43:27.166 --> 43:29.477 align:start position:0% Perhaps<00:44:54.319> this<00:44:54.560> is<00:44:54.640> why<00:44:54.880> cannibalism<00:44:55.599> sits<00:44:55.920> so 43:29.477 --> 43:29.487 align:start position:0% Perhaps this is why cannibalism sits so 43:29.487 --> 43:32.037 align:start position:0% Perhaps this is why cannibalism sits so uneasily<00:44:56.800> with<00:44:57.040> many<00:44:57.280> of<00:44:57.440> us.<00:44:58.079> The<00:44:58.319> bodies<00:44:58.640> of 43:32.037 --> 43:32.047 align:start position:0% uneasily with many of us. The bodies of 43:32.047 --> 43:34.597 align:start position:0% uneasily with many of us. The bodies of the<00:44:58.880> dead<00:44:59.440> are<00:44:59.599> to<00:44:59.839> be<00:45:00.000> protected,<00:45:00.960> not 43:34.597 --> 43:34.607 align:start position:0% the dead are to be protected, not 43:34.607 --> 43:36.597 align:start position:0% the dead are to be protected, not consumed. 43:36.597 --> 43:36.607 align:start position:0% consumed. 43:36.607 --> 43:41.077 align:start position:0% consumed. And<00:45:03.440> there<00:45:03.599> is<00:45:03.839> one<00:45:04.079> more<00:45:04.400> reason. 43:41.077 --> 43:41.087 align:start position:0% 43:41.087 --> 43:43.957 align:start position:0% In<00:45:08.000> 1961,<00:45:09.119> Shirley<00:45:09.520> Lindenbound<00:45:10.319> and<00:45:10.480> her 43:43.957 --> 43:43.967 align:start position:0% In 1961, Shirley Lindenbound and her 43:43.967 --> 43:45.957 align:start position:0% In 1961, Shirley Lindenbound and her husband<00:45:10.960> Robert<00:45:11.359> Glass<00:45:12.000> arrived<00:45:12.319> in<00:45:12.480> the 43:45.957 --> 43:45.967 align:start position:0% husband Robert Glass arrived in the 43:45.967 --> 43:48.277 align:start position:0% husband Robert Glass arrived in the eastern<00:45:12.960> highlands<00:45:13.440> of<00:45:13.599> Papa<00:45:14.000> Newu<00:45:14.240> Guinea. 43:48.277 --> 43:48.287 align:start position:0% eastern highlands of Papa Newu Guinea. 43:48.287 --> 43:50.117 align:start position:0% eastern highlands of Papa Newu Guinea. They<00:45:15.200> were<00:45:15.359> both<00:45:15.599> anthropologists<00:45:16.640> and 43:50.117 --> 43:50.127 align:start position:0% They were both anthropologists and 43:50.127 --> 43:52.197 align:start position:0% They were both anthropologists and they'd<00:45:17.040> been<00:45:17.200> sent<00:45:17.359> to<00:45:17.520> Papua<00:45:18.160> to<00:45:18.400> study<00:45:18.640> how 43:52.197 --> 43:52.207 align:start position:0% they'd been sent to Papua to study how 43:52.207 --> 43:54.357 align:start position:0% they'd been sent to Papua to study how kinship<00:45:19.359> systems<00:45:19.760> worked<00:45:20.160> among<00:45:20.480> the<00:45:20.640> local 43:54.357 --> 43:54.367 align:start position:0% kinship systems worked among the local 43:54.367 --> 43:57.557 align:start position:0% kinship systems worked among the local foray<00:45:21.599> people.<00:45:22.560> At<00:45:22.800> this<00:45:22.960> time,<00:45:23.440> a<00:45:23.599> mysterious 43:57.557 --> 43:57.567 align:start position:0% foray people. At this time, a mysterious 43:57.567 --> 43:59.957 align:start position:0% foray people. At this time, a mysterious disease<00:45:24.800> had<00:45:25.040> been<00:45:25.200> taking<00:45:25.520> at<00:45:25.520> least<00:45:26.000> 200 43:59.957 --> 43:59.967 align:start position:0% disease had been taking at least 200 43:59.967 --> 44:02.357 align:start position:0% disease had been taking at least 200 fora<00:45:27.040> lives<00:45:27.359> every<00:45:27.760> year,<00:45:28.400> and<00:45:28.640> Western 44:02.357 --> 44:02.367 align:start position:0% fora lives every year, and Western 44:02.367 --> 44:04.197 align:start position:0% fora lives every year, and Western researchers<00:45:29.599> were<00:45:29.839> trying<00:45:30.079> to<00:45:30.240> discover<00:45:30.560> the 44:04.197 --> 44:04.207 align:start position:0% researchers were trying to discover the 44:04.207 --> 44:06.597 align:start position:0% researchers were trying to discover the cause.<00:45:31.839> Nobody<00:45:32.240> knew<00:45:32.560> exactly<00:45:32.880> where<00:45:33.040> the 44:06.597 --> 44:06.607 align:start position:0% cause. Nobody knew exactly where the 44:06.607 --> 44:08.916 align:start position:0% cause. Nobody knew exactly where the disease<00:45:33.680> came<00:45:33.920> from<00:45:34.160> and<00:45:34.400> how<00:45:34.560> it<00:45:34.880> spread,<00:45:35.359> but 44:08.916 --> 44:08.926 align:start position:0% disease came from and how it spread, but 44:08.926 --> 44:10.916 align:start position:0% disease came from and how it spread, but the<00:45:35.839> leading<00:45:36.160> theory<00:45:36.560> was<00:45:36.800> that<00:45:36.960> it<00:45:37.200> seemed<00:45:37.440> to 44:10.916 --> 44:10.926 align:start position:0% the leading theory was that it seemed to 44:10.926 --> 44:14.037 align:start position:0% the leading theory was that it seemed to run<00:45:37.920> in<00:45:38.240> families.<00:45:39.520> Lynen<00:45:40.000> Bower<00:45:40.400> Glass 44:14.037 --> 44:14.047 align:start position:0% run in families. Lynen Bower Glass 44:14.047 --> 44:15.636 align:start position:0% run in families. Lynen Bower Glass therefore<00:45:41.200> had<00:45:41.440> been<00:45:41.599> given<00:45:41.760> a<00:45:42.000> research 44:15.636 --> 44:15.646 align:start position:0% therefore had been given a research 44:15.646 --> 44:18.357 align:start position:0% therefore had been given a research grant<00:45:42.720> to<00:45:42.960> map<00:45:43.119> out<00:45:43.440> for<00:45:43.680> a<00:45:43.920> family<00:45:44.240> trees<00:45:44.800> in 44:18.357 --> 44:18.367 align:start position:0% grant to map out for a family trees in 44:18.367 --> 44:20.197 align:start position:0% grant to map out for a family trees in the<00:45:45.200> hope<00:45:45.359> that<00:45:45.520> detailed<00:45:46.000> kinship<00:45:46.480> data 44:20.197 --> 44:20.207 align:start position:0% the hope that detailed kinship data 44:20.207 --> 44:21.717 align:start position:0% the hope that detailed kinship data would<00:45:47.119> reveal<00:45:47.359> the<00:45:47.599> genetic<00:45:48.000> pattern 44:21.717 --> 44:21.727 align:start position:0% would reveal the genetic pattern 44:21.727 --> 44:24.517 align:start position:0% would reveal the genetic pattern everybody<00:45:48.960> expected<00:45:49.440> to<00:45:49.760> see.<00:45:50.640> But<00:45:50.800> as<00:45:50.960> the 44:24.517 --> 44:24.527 align:start position:0% everybody expected to see. But as the 44:24.527 --> 44:26.597 align:start position:0% everybody expected to see. But as the two<00:45:51.440> researchers<00:45:52.079> moved<00:45:52.400> from<00:45:52.640> village<00:45:53.040> to 44:26.597 --> 44:26.607 align:start position:0% two researchers moved from village to 44:26.607 --> 44:29.237 align:start position:0% two researchers moved from village to village,<00:45:54.000> they<00:45:54.240> learned<00:45:54.560> that<00:45:54.880> for<00:45:55.119> a<00:45:55.359> kinship 44:29.237 --> 44:29.247 align:start position:0% village, they learned that for a kinship 44:29.247 --> 44:30.916 align:start position:0% village, they learned that for a kinship functioned<00:45:56.400> very<00:45:56.720> differently<00:45:57.119> to<00:45:57.359> the 44:30.916 --> 44:30.926 align:start position:0% functioned very differently to the 44:30.926 --> 44:33.317 align:start position:0% functioned very differently to the western<00:45:57.920> ideas<00:45:58.480> Lynden<00:45:58.960> Bow<00:45:59.200> and<00:45:59.359> Glass<00:45:59.760> were 44:33.317 --> 44:33.327 align:start position:0% western ideas Lynden Bow and Glass were 44:33.327 --> 44:36.037 align:start position:0% western ideas Lynden Bow and Glass were familiar<00:46:00.400> with.<00:46:01.280> In<00:46:01.440> the<00:46:01.599> foray,<00:46:02.319> families 44:36.037 --> 44:36.047 align:start position:0% familiar with. In the foray, families 44:36.047 --> 44:38.357 align:start position:0% familiar with. In the foray, families were<00:46:02.880> defined<00:46:03.280> by<00:46:03.599> proximity<00:46:04.319> and<00:46:04.640> social 44:38.357 --> 44:38.367 align:start position:0% were defined by proximity and social 44:38.367 --> 44:40.997 align:start position:0% were defined by proximity and social bonds<00:46:05.599> as<00:46:05.839> much<00:46:06.160> or<00:46:06.480> even<00:46:06.720> more<00:46:07.040> so<00:46:07.359> than 44:40.997 --> 44:41.007 align:start position:0% bonds as much or even more so than 44:41.007 --> 44:43.557 align:start position:0% bonds as much or even more so than biology.<00:46:08.720> People<00:46:08.960> who<00:46:09.119> were<00:46:09.280> not<00:46:09.520> biological 44:43.557 --> 44:43.567 align:start position:0% biology. People who were not biological 44:43.567 --> 44:45.557 align:start position:0% biology. People who were not biological relatives<00:46:10.800> were<00:46:11.040> nonetheless<00:46:11.599> counted<00:46:12.000> as 44:45.557 --> 44:45.567 align:start position:0% relatives were nonetheless counted as 44:45.567 --> 44:48.197 align:start position:0% relatives were nonetheless counted as kin.<00:46:13.040> And<00:46:13.200> so<00:46:13.359> this<00:46:13.599> meant<00:46:14.079> if<00:46:14.240> the<00:46:14.480> disease 44:48.197 --> 44:48.207 align:start position:0% kin. And so this meant if the disease 44:48.207 --> 44:50.117 align:start position:0% kin. And so this meant if the disease really<00:46:15.119> was<00:46:15.440> genetic,<00:46:16.160> it<00:46:16.400> should<00:46:16.480> have<00:46:16.640> only 44:50.117 --> 44:50.127 align:start position:0% really was genetic, it should have only 44:50.127 --> 44:52.197 align:start position:0% really was genetic, it should have only affected<00:46:17.359> those<00:46:17.680> who<00:46:17.920> were<00:46:18.079> actually<00:46:18.480> related 44:52.197 --> 44:52.207 align:start position:0% affected those who were actually related 44:52.207 --> 44:56.357 align:start position:0% affected those who were actually related to<00:46:19.040> each<00:46:19.280> other<00:46:19.760> by<00:46:20.160> blood.<00:46:21.520> However,<00:46:22.560> it<00:46:22.880> did 44:56.357 --> 44:56.367 align:start position:0% to each other by blood. However, it did 44:56.367 --> 44:59.317 align:start position:0% to each other by blood. However, it did not.<00:46:24.400> Two<00:46:24.640> women<00:46:24.880> affected<00:46:25.280> by<00:46:25.440> the<00:46:25.599> disease 44:59.317 --> 44:59.327 align:start position:0% not. Two women affected by the disease 44:59.327 --> 45:01.077 align:start position:0% not. Two women affected by the disease might<00:46:26.240> say<00:46:26.319> they<00:46:26.560> were<00:46:26.720> family,<00:46:27.359> but<00:46:27.520> they 45:01.077 --> 45:01.087 align:start position:0% might say they were family, but they 45:01.087 --> 45:02.997 align:start position:0% might say they were family, but they might<00:46:27.920> not<00:46:28.160> actually<00:46:28.560> share<00:46:28.800> a<00:46:29.119> single<00:46:29.359> drop 45:02.997 --> 45:03.007 align:start position:0% might not actually share a single drop 45:03.007 --> 45:05.077 align:start position:0% might not actually share a single drop of<00:46:29.839> blood.<00:46:30.640> Clearly,<00:46:31.119> this<00:46:31.280> meant<00:46:31.520> the 45:05.077 --> 45:05.087 align:start position:0% of blood. Clearly, this meant the 45:05.087 --> 45:07.396 align:start position:0% of blood. Clearly, this meant the disease<00:46:32.079> was<00:46:32.240> not<00:46:32.480> genetic.<00:46:33.520> There<00:46:33.680> had<00:46:33.839> to<00:46:34.000> be 45:07.396 --> 45:07.406 align:start position:0% disease was not genetic. There had to be 45:07.406 --> 45:10.436 align:start position:0% disease was not genetic. There had to be another<00:46:34.560> cause.<00:46:35.920> That<00:46:36.240> cause,<00:46:36.720> it<00:46:36.960> turned 45:10.436 --> 45:10.446 align:start position:0% another cause. That cause, it turned 45:10.446 --> 45:12.837 align:start position:0% another cause. That cause, it turned out,<00:46:37.440> had<00:46:37.760> been<00:46:37.839> hiding<00:46:38.160> in<00:46:38.400> plain<00:46:38.720> sight<00:46:39.200> all 45:12.837 --> 45:12.847 align:start position:0% out, had been hiding in plain sight all 45:12.847 --> 45:15.957 align:start position:0% out, had been hiding in plain sight all along.<00:46:40.960> Endocanibalism<00:46:42.079> had<00:46:42.319> been<00:46:42.400> an 45:15.957 --> 45:15.967 align:start position:0% along. Endocanibalism had been an 45:15.967 --> 45:18.037 align:start position:0% along. Endocanibalism had been an important<00:46:42.960> part<00:46:43.119> of<00:46:43.359> foray<00:46:43.839> funeral<00:46:44.240> culture 45:18.037 --> 45:18.047 align:start position:0% important part of foray funeral culture 45:18.047 --> 45:20.517 align:start position:0% important part of foray funeral culture for<00:46:44.960> thousands<00:46:45.359> of<00:46:45.599> years.<00:46:46.480> When<00:46:46.720> somebody<00:46:46.960> in 45:20.517 --> 45:20.527 align:start position:0% for thousands of years. When somebody in 45:20.527 --> 45:22.676 align:start position:0% for thousands of years. When somebody in the<00:46:47.359> community<00:46:47.839> died,<00:46:48.560> their<00:46:48.800> meat<00:46:49.119> and 45:22.676 --> 45:22.686 align:start position:0% the community died, their meat and 45:22.686 --> 45:24.277 align:start position:0% the community died, their meat and organs<00:46:49.760> were<00:46:49.920> divided<00:46:50.240> up<00:46:50.400> amongst<00:46:50.720> their 45:24.277 --> 45:24.287 align:start position:0% organs were divided up amongst their 45:24.287 --> 45:27.077 align:start position:0% organs were divided up amongst their kin.<00:46:51.839> Men<00:46:52.160> usually<00:46:52.480> ate<00:46:52.720> the<00:46:52.960> flesh<00:46:53.440> or<00:46:53.599> the 45:27.077 --> 45:27.087 align:start position:0% kin. Men usually ate the flesh or the 45:27.087 --> 45:29.077 align:start position:0% kin. Men usually ate the flesh or the organs<00:46:54.400> including<00:46:54.720> the<00:46:54.960> brains<00:46:55.520> were 45:29.077 --> 45:29.087 align:start position:0% organs including the brains were 45:29.087 --> 45:31.957 align:start position:0% organs including the brains were reserved<00:46:56.160> for<00:46:56.319> the<00:46:56.480> women<00:46:56.640> and<00:46:56.960> children.<00:46:58.240> And 45:31.957 --> 45:31.967 align:start position:0% reserved for the women and children. And 45:31.967 --> 45:34.277 align:start position:0% reserved for the women and children. And as<00:46:58.880> Lynden<00:46:59.359> Bowman<00:46:59.760> Glass<00:47:00.079> would<00:47:00.319> discover, 45:34.277 --> 45:34.287 align:start position:0% as Lynden Bowman Glass would discover, 45:34.287 --> 45:36.916 align:start position:0% as Lynden Bowman Glass would discover, the<00:47:01.200> mysterious<00:47:01.839> disease<00:47:02.480> overwhelmingly 45:36.916 --> 45:36.926 align:start position:0% the mysterious disease overwhelmingly 45:36.926 --> 45:40.436 align:start position:0% the mysterious disease overwhelmingly affected<00:47:04.240> women<00:47:04.720> and<00:47:05.119> children.<00:47:06.480> This<00:47:06.960> was 45:40.436 --> 45:40.446 align:start position:0% affected women and children. This was 45:40.446 --> 45:43.717 align:start position:0% affected women and children. This was the<00:47:07.440> answer.<00:47:08.800> Kuru,<00:47:09.440> as<00:47:09.599> the<00:47:09.680> foray<00:47:10.160> called 45:43.717 --> 45:43.727 align:start position:0% the answer. Kuru, as the foray called 45:43.727 --> 45:45.717 align:start position:0% the answer. Kuru, as the foray called it,<00:47:10.720> was<00:47:11.040> transmitted<00:47:11.599> from<00:47:11.839> person<00:47:12.160> to 45:45.717 --> 45:45.727 align:start position:0% it, was transmitted from person to 45:45.727 --> 45:48.117 align:start position:0% it, was transmitted from person to person<00:47:12.880> by<00:47:13.200> consuming<00:47:13.680> the<00:47:13.920> infected<00:47:14.480> brain 45:48.117 --> 45:48.127 align:start position:0% person by consuming the infected brain 45:48.127 --> 45:57.077 align:start position:0% person by consuming the infected brain tissue<00:47:15.359> of<00:47:15.680> another<00:47:16.000> person. 45:57.077 --> 45:57.087 align:start position:0% 45:57.087 --> 45:58.997 align:start position:0% In<00:47:23.920> a<00:47:24.160> sense,<00:47:24.560> Kuru<00:47:24.960> is<00:47:25.119> a<00:47:25.280> perfect 45:58.997 --> 45:59.007 align:start position:0% In a sense, Kuru is a perfect 45:59.007 --> 46:00.597 align:start position:0% In a sense, Kuru is a perfect illustration<00:47:26.079> of<00:47:26.319> something<00:47:26.640> ecologists 46:00.597 --> 46:00.607 align:start position:0% illustration of something ecologists 46:00.607 --> 46:02.037 align:start position:0% illustration of something ecologists have<00:47:27.440> come<00:47:27.599> to<00:47:27.839> understand<00:47:28.319> about 46:02.037 --> 46:02.047 align:start position:0% have come to understand about 46:02.047 --> 46:04.357 align:start position:0% have come to understand about cannibalism.<00:47:29.920> At<00:47:30.160> first,<00:47:30.560> it<00:47:30.720> might<00:47:30.880> look 46:04.357 --> 46:04.367 align:start position:0% cannibalism. At first, it might look 46:04.367 --> 46:06.597 align:start position:0% cannibalism. At first, it might look like<00:47:31.200> a<00:47:31.359> logical<00:47:31.760> solution<00:47:32.240> to<00:47:32.480> scarcity<00:47:32.960> and 46:06.597 --> 46:06.607 align:start position:0% like a logical solution to scarcity and 46:06.607 --> 46:09.317 align:start position:0% like a logical solution to scarcity and competition,<00:47:34.160> but<00:47:34.319> it<00:47:34.560> carries<00:47:34.880> hidden<00:47:35.359> costs 46:09.317 --> 46:09.327 align:start position:0% competition, but it carries hidden costs 46:09.327 --> 46:11.317 align:start position:0% competition, but it carries hidden costs that<00:47:36.240> often<00:47:36.640> far<00:47:36.960> outweigh<00:47:37.520> whatever 46:11.317 --> 46:11.327 align:start position:0% that often far outweigh whatever 46:11.327 --> 46:13.877 align:start position:0% that often far outweigh whatever short-term<00:47:38.560> benefits<00:47:38.960> it<00:47:39.200> provides. 46:13.877 --> 46:13.887 align:start position:0% short-term benefits it provides. 46:13.887 --> 46:15.636 align:start position:0% short-term benefits it provides. Cannibalism<00:47:41.200> has<00:47:41.440> been<00:47:41.520> recorded<00:47:41.920> in<00:47:42.160> more 46:15.636 --> 46:15.646 align:start position:0% Cannibalism has been recorded in more 46:15.646 --> 46:19.077 align:start position:0% Cannibalism has been recorded in more than500<00:47:43.359> species,<00:47:44.400> and<00:47:44.640> across<00:47:44.960> all<00:47:45.200> of<00:47:45.359> them, 46:19.077 --> 46:19.087 align:start position:0% than500 species, and across all of them, 46:19.087 --> 46:22.117 align:start position:0% than500 species, and across all of them, the<00:47:46.079> same<00:47:46.319> pattern<00:47:46.800> tends<00:47:47.200> to<00:47:47.359> emerge.<00:47:48.480> While 46:22.117 --> 46:22.127 align:start position:0% the same pattern tends to emerge. While 46:22.127 --> 46:23.957 align:start position:0% the same pattern tends to emerge. While eating<00:47:49.040> a<00:47:49.200> member<00:47:49.359> of<00:47:49.520> your<00:47:49.680> own<00:47:49.920> species 46:23.957 --> 46:23.967 align:start position:0% eating a member of your own species 46:23.967 --> 46:25.877 align:start position:0% eating a member of your own species might<00:47:50.880> benefit<00:47:51.280> you<00:47:51.440> as<00:47:51.599> an<00:47:51.839> individual<00:47:52.319> in 46:25.877 --> 46:25.887 align:start position:0% might benefit you as an individual in 46:25.887 --> 46:28.117 align:start position:0% might benefit you as an individual in the<00:47:52.800> moment,<00:47:53.520> the<00:47:53.680> presence<00:47:54.000> of<00:47:54.160> cannibalism 46:28.117 --> 46:28.127 align:start position:0% the moment, the presence of cannibalism 46:28.127 --> 46:30.117 align:start position:0% the moment, the presence of cannibalism within<00:47:55.119> a<00:47:55.359> population<00:47:56.079> consistently 46:30.117 --> 46:30.127 align:start position:0% within a population consistently 46:30.127 --> 46:32.357 align:start position:0% within a population consistently decreases<00:47:57.280> that<00:47:57.599> population's<00:47:58.480> overall 46:32.357 --> 46:32.367 align:start position:0% decreases that population's overall 46:32.367 --> 46:35.317 align:start position:0% decreases that population's overall survival<00:47:59.520> rate.<00:48:00.480> And<00:48:00.800> Kuru<00:48:01.359> showed<00:48:01.680> one<00:48:01.920> of 46:35.317 --> 46:35.327 align:start position:0% survival rate. And Kuru showed one of 46:35.327 --> 46:38.277 align:start position:0% survival rate. And Kuru showed one of the<00:48:02.160> reasons<00:48:02.480> why<00:48:02.800> this<00:48:03.040> happens.<00:48:04.240> The<00:48:04.480> fur 46:38.277 --> 46:38.287 align:start position:0% the reasons why this happens. The fur 46:38.287 --> 46:39.396 align:start position:0% the reasons why this happens. The fur were<00:48:05.119> not<00:48:05.280> harmed<00:48:05.520> by<00:48:05.680> the<00:48:05.839> act<00:48:05.920> of 46:39.396 --> 46:39.406 align:start position:0% were not harmed by the act of 46:39.406 --> 46:41.797 align:start position:0% were not harmed by the act of cannibalism<00:48:06.720> itself,<00:48:07.520> but<00:48:07.839> by<00:48:08.000> doing<00:48:08.240> it 46:41.797 --> 46:41.807 align:start position:0% cannibalism itself, but by doing it 46:41.807 --> 46:43.797 align:start position:0% cannibalism itself, but by doing it regularly<00:48:09.119> and<00:48:09.440> passing<00:48:09.760> it<00:48:09.920> down<00:48:10.160> through 46:43.797 --> 46:43.807 align:start position:0% regularly and passing it down through 46:43.807 --> 46:45.957 align:start position:0% regularly and passing it down through generations,<00:48:11.440> which<00:48:11.680> allowed<00:48:12.000> the<00:48:12.240> fatal 46:45.957 --> 46:45.967 align:start position:0% generations, which allowed the fatal 46:45.967 --> 46:48.997 align:start position:0% generations, which allowed the fatal pryion<00:48:13.200> folding<00:48:13.599> disease<00:48:14.240> to<00:48:14.560> spread. 46:48.997 --> 46:49.007 align:start position:0% pryion folding disease to spread. 46:49.007 --> 46:50.757 align:start position:0% pryion folding disease to spread. Indeed,<00:48:16.079> a<00:48:16.240> similar<00:48:16.560> disease<00:48:16.960> affects 46:50.757 --> 46:50.767 align:start position:0% Indeed, a similar disease affects 46:50.767 --> 46:53.477 align:start position:0% Indeed, a similar disease affects domestic<00:48:17.920> cattle.<00:48:18.800> Mad<00:48:19.119> cow<00:48:19.440> disease<00:48:19.839> kills 46:53.477 --> 46:53.487 align:start position:0% domestic cattle. Mad cow disease kills 46:53.487 --> 46:55.396 align:start position:0% domestic cattle. Mad cow disease kills hundreds<00:48:20.480> of<00:48:20.640> cows<00:48:20.960> around<00:48:21.200> the<00:48:21.440> world<00:48:21.680> every 46:55.396 --> 46:55.406 align:start position:0% hundreds of cows around the world every 46:55.406 --> 46:57.557 align:start position:0% hundreds of cows around the world every year<00:48:22.559> and<00:48:22.800> is<00:48:23.040> believed<00:48:23.200> to<00:48:23.440> be<00:48:23.599> caused<00:48:23.920> by 46:57.557 --> 46:57.567 align:start position:0% year and is believed to be caused by 46:57.567 --> 46:59.477 align:start position:0% year and is believed to be caused by farmers<00:48:24.720> feeding<00:48:25.119> young<00:48:25.359> calves<00:48:25.760> meat<00:48:26.000> and 46:59.477 --> 46:59.487 align:start position:0% farmers feeding young calves meat and 46:59.487 --> 47:01.957 align:start position:0% farmers feeding young calves meat and bone<00:48:26.480> meal<00:48:26.720> from<00:48:27.040> other<00:48:27.280> cows.<00:48:28.240> And<00:48:28.400> so 47:01.957 --> 47:01.967 align:start position:0% bone meal from other cows. And so 47:01.967 --> 47:03.957 align:start position:0% bone meal from other cows. And so cannibalism<00:48:29.280> is<00:48:29.599> known<00:48:29.839> to<00:48:30.160> increase<00:48:30.400> the 47:03.957 --> 47:03.967 align:start position:0% cannibalism is known to increase the 47:03.967 --> 47:05.477 align:start position:0% cannibalism is known to increase the risk<00:48:30.800> of<00:48:30.960> pathogen<00:48:31.440> and<00:48:31.680> disease 47:05.477 --> 47:05.487 align:start position:0% risk of pathogen and disease 47:05.487 --> 47:07.636 align:start position:0% risk of pathogen and disease transmission.<00:48:33.040> Since<00:48:33.359> predator<00:48:33.760> and<00:48:34.000> prey 47:07.636 --> 47:07.646 align:start position:0% transmission. Since predator and prey 47:07.646 --> 47:09.717 align:start position:0% transmission. Since predator and prey are<00:48:34.480> biologically<00:48:35.280> near<00:48:35.680> identical, 47:09.717 --> 47:09.727 align:start position:0% are biologically near identical, 47:09.727 --> 47:12.117 align:start position:0% are biologically near identical, anything<00:48:36.880> dangerous<00:48:37.440> carried<00:48:37.760> by<00:48:38.000> one<00:48:38.559> can 47:12.117 --> 47:12.127 align:start position:0% anything dangerous carried by one can 47:12.127 --> 47:15.477 align:start position:0% anything dangerous carried by one can just<00:48:39.040> as<00:48:39.280> easily<00:48:39.920> infect<00:48:40.319> the<00:48:40.559> other. 47:15.477 --> 47:15.487 align:start position:0% just as easily infect the other. 47:15.487 --> 47:17.477 align:start position:0% just as easily infect the other. And<00:48:42.319> there<00:48:42.480> is<00:48:42.640> also<00:48:42.800> a<00:48:43.040> broader<00:48:43.520> cost<00:48:43.839> to 47:17.477 --> 47:17.487 align:start position:0% And there is also a broader cost to 47:17.487 --> 47:19.557 align:start position:0% And there is also a broader cost to cannibalism<00:48:44.960> that<00:48:45.280> could<00:48:45.440> explain<00:48:45.839> why<00:48:46.079> it 47:19.557 --> 47:19.567 align:start position:0% cannibalism that could explain why it 47:19.567 --> 47:21.797 align:start position:0% cannibalism that could explain why it was<00:48:46.400> not<00:48:46.559> more<00:48:46.800> widespread<00:48:47.599> in<00:48:47.839> the<00:48:48.000> ancient 47:21.797 --> 47:21.807 align:start position:0% was not more widespread in the ancient 47:21.807 --> 47:23.717 align:start position:0% was not more widespread in the ancient past. 47:23.717 --> 47:23.727 align:start position:0% past. 47:23.727 --> 47:26.037 align:start position:0% past. When<00:48:50.720> somebody<00:48:51.040> eats<00:48:51.359> another<00:48:51.839> person,<00:48:52.400> they 47:26.037 --> 47:26.047 align:start position:0% When somebody eats another person, they 47:26.047 --> 47:29.317 align:start position:0% When somebody eats another person, they inherently<00:48:53.280> risk<00:48:54.000> accidentally<00:48:54.880> consuming<00:48:55.680> a 47:29.317 --> 47:29.327 align:start position:0% inherently risk accidentally consuming a 47:29.327 --> 47:31.636 align:start position:0% inherently risk accidentally consuming a relative.<00:48:57.200> Of<00:48:57.440> course,<00:48:57.680> this<00:48:57.839> could<00:48:58.000> be<00:48:58.079> a 47:31.636 --> 47:31.646 align:start position:0% relative. Of course, this could be a 47:31.646 --> 47:33.557 align:start position:0% relative. Of course, this could be a serious<00:48:58.720> problem<00:48:59.040> for<00:48:59.200> the<00:48:59.359> longevity<00:48:59.839> of<00:49:00.000> the 47:33.557 --> 47:33.567 align:start position:0% serious problem for the longevity of the 47:33.567 --> 47:36.277 align:start position:0% serious problem for the longevity of the species<00:49:00.720> as<00:49:00.960> a<00:49:01.119> whole.<00:49:02.000> Every<00:49:02.319> relative<00:49:02.720> the 47:36.277 --> 47:36.287 align:start position:0% species as a whole. Every relative the 47:36.287 --> 47:38.436 align:start position:0% species as a whole. Every relative the cannibal<00:49:03.359> inadvertently<00:49:04.079> kills<00:49:04.400> and<00:49:04.640> eats<00:49:04.960> is 47:38.436 --> 47:38.446 align:start position:0% cannibal inadvertently kills and eats is 47:38.446 --> 47:40.916 align:start position:0% cannibal inadvertently kills and eats is a<00:49:05.280> carrier<00:49:05.680> of<00:49:05.839> shared<00:49:06.160> genetic<00:49:06.640> material. 47:40.916 --> 47:40.926 align:start position:0% a carrier of shared genetic material. 47:40.926 --> 47:42.916 align:start position:0% a carrier of shared genetic material. And<00:49:07.760> every<00:49:08.160> one<00:49:08.400> the<00:49:08.559> cannibal<00:49:08.960> eliminates 47:42.916 --> 47:42.926 align:start position:0% And every one the cannibal eliminates 47:42.926 --> 47:44.997 align:start position:0% And every one the cannibal eliminates reduces<00:49:10.000> the<00:49:10.240> chances<00:49:10.559> that<00:49:10.800> those<00:49:11.040> genes<00:49:11.440> get 47:44.997 --> 47:45.007 align:start position:0% reduces the chances that those genes get 47:45.007 --> 47:47.797 align:start position:0% reduces the chances that those genes get passed<00:49:11.920> on<00:49:12.240> to<00:49:12.480> future<00:49:12.880> generations.<00:49:14.240> And 47:47.797 --> 47:47.807 align:start position:0% passed on to future generations. And 47:47.807 --> 47:49.717 align:start position:0% passed on to future generations. And this<00:49:14.640> is<00:49:14.720> why<00:49:14.960> kin<00:49:15.359> selection<00:49:15.839> is<00:49:16.160> so 47:49.717 --> 47:49.727 align:start position:0% this is why kin selection is so 47:49.727 --> 47:52.037 align:start position:0% this is why kin selection is so important.<00:49:17.440> If<00:49:17.680> an<00:49:17.839> animal<00:49:18.160> can<00:49:18.319> tell<00:49:18.559> the 47:52.037 --> 47:52.047 align:start position:0% important. If an animal can tell the 47:52.047 --> 47:53.557 align:start position:0% important. If an animal can tell the difference<00:49:18.960> between<00:49:19.280> a<00:49:19.520> stranger<00:49:19.839> and<00:49:20.079> a 47:53.557 --> 47:53.567 align:start position:0% difference between a stranger and a 47:53.567 --> 47:55.396 align:start position:0% difference between a stranger and a sibling,<00:49:20.880> they<00:49:21.119> can<00:49:21.200> avoid<00:49:21.599> paying<00:49:21.920> the 47:55.396 --> 47:55.406 align:start position:0% sibling, they can avoid paying the 47:55.406 --> 47:57.477 align:start position:0% sibling, they can avoid paying the genetic<00:49:22.559> cost<00:49:22.800> of<00:49:23.040> harming<00:49:23.599> their<00:49:23.839> own 47:57.477 --> 47:57.487 align:start position:0% genetic cost of harming their own 47:57.487 --> 48:00.676 align:start position:0% genetic cost of harming their own family.<00:49:25.280> Humans<00:49:26.000> with<00:49:26.240> our<00:49:26.480> large<00:49:26.880> complex 48:00.676 --> 48:00.686 align:start position:0% family. Humans with our large complex 48:00.686 --> 48:03.077 align:start position:0% family. Humans with our large complex social<00:49:27.680> groups<00:49:28.160> and<00:49:28.400> our<00:49:28.640> unusually<00:49:29.359> strong 48:03.077 --> 48:03.087 align:start position:0% social groups and our unusually strong 48:03.087 --> 48:04.916 align:start position:0% social groups and our unusually strong sense<00:49:30.000> of<00:49:30.160> who<00:49:30.400> belongs<00:49:30.640> to<00:49:30.880> our<00:49:31.119> family<00:49:31.359> and 48:04.916 --> 48:04.926 align:start position:0% sense of who belongs to our family and 48:04.926 --> 48:07.396 align:start position:0% sense of who belongs to our family and our<00:49:31.839> community<00:49:32.640> may<00:49:32.880> simply<00:49:33.119> be<00:49:33.280> an<00:49:33.520> extreme 48:07.396 --> 48:07.406 align:start position:0% our community may simply be an extreme 48:07.406 --> 48:18.757 align:start position:0% our community may simply be an extreme version<00:49:34.559> of<00:49:34.800> this<00:49:35.119> same<00:49:35.520> evolutionary<00:49:36.400> logic. 48:18.757 --> 48:18.767 align:start position:0% 48:18.767 --> 48:21.077 align:start position:0% And<00:49:45.760> so<00:49:46.240> the<00:49:46.480> oldest<00:49:46.880> evidence<00:49:47.280> we<00:49:47.440> have<00:49:47.599> for 48:21.077 --> 48:21.087 align:start position:0% And so the oldest evidence we have for 48:21.087 --> 48:22.916 align:start position:0% And so the oldest evidence we have for cannibalism<00:49:48.319> in<00:49:48.559> our<00:49:48.720> own<00:49:48.880> evolutionary 48:22.916 --> 48:22.926 align:start position:0% cannibalism in our own evolutionary 48:22.926 --> 48:25.477 align:start position:0% cannibalism in our own evolutionary lineage<00:49:50.160> is<00:49:50.400> the<00:49:50.559> 1.45<00:49:51.440> millionyear-old 48:25.477 --> 48:25.487 align:start position:0% lineage is the 1.45 millionyear-old 48:25.487 --> 48:28.037 align:start position:0% lineage is the 1.45 millionyear-old shinbone<00:49:52.720> from<00:49:52.960> Kub<00:49:53.520> fora.<00:49:54.240> But<00:49:54.400> it<00:49:54.559> would<00:49:54.640> be 48:28.037 --> 48:28.047 align:start position:0% shinbone from Kub fora. But it would be 48:28.047 --> 48:30.117 align:start position:0% shinbone from Kub fora. But it would be a<00:49:54.880> mistake<00:49:55.280> to<00:49:55.440> treat<00:49:55.760> that<00:49:55.920> date<00:49:56.319> as<00:49:56.559> a 48:30.117 --> 48:30.127 align:start position:0% a mistake to treat that date as a 48:30.127 --> 48:32.436 align:start position:0% a mistake to treat that date as a starting<00:49:57.200> point.<00:49:58.079> It<00:49:58.240> is<00:49:58.400> simply<00:49:58.640> the<00:49:58.800> oldest 48:32.436 --> 48:32.446 align:start position:0% starting point. It is simply the oldest 48:32.446 --> 48:35.557 align:start position:0% starting point. It is simply the oldest evidence<00:49:59.520> we<00:49:59.760> happen<00:50:00.000> to<00:50:00.160> have<00:50:00.240> found<00:50:00.880> so<00:50:01.119> far. 48:35.557 --> 48:35.567 align:start position:0% evidence we happen to have found so far. 48:35.567 --> 48:37.156 align:start position:0% evidence we happen to have found so far. There<00:50:02.400> is<00:50:02.640> good<00:50:02.800> reason<00:50:03.040> to<00:50:03.280> think<00:50:03.440> that<00:50:03.599> the 48:37.156 --> 48:37.166 align:start position:0% There is good reason to think that the 48:37.166 --> 48:39.797 align:start position:0% There is good reason to think that the true<00:50:04.160> history<00:50:04.559> goes<00:50:04.880> back<00:50:05.280> even<00:50:05.680> further. 48:39.797 --> 48:39.807 align:start position:0% true history goes back even further. 48:39.807 --> 48:41.636 align:start position:0% true history goes back even further. Fossils<00:50:06.960> are<00:50:07.119> rare<00:50:07.359> to<00:50:07.520> begin<00:50:07.680> with<00:50:08.000> and 48:41.636 --> 48:41.646 align:start position:0% Fossils are rare to begin with and 48:41.646 --> 48:43.636 align:start position:0% Fossils are rare to begin with and fossils<00:50:08.720> bearing<00:50:09.040> the<00:50:09.280> kind<00:50:09.440> of<00:50:09.599> fine 48:43.636 --> 48:43.646 align:start position:0% fossils bearing the kind of fine 48:43.646 --> 48:45.396 align:start position:0% fossils bearing the kind of fine specific<00:50:10.800> cut<00:50:11.119> marks<00:50:11.359> needed<00:50:11.680> to<00:50:11.839> prove 48:45.396 --> 48:45.406 align:start position:0% specific cut marks needed to prove 48:45.406 --> 48:48.517 align:start position:0% specific cut marks needed to prove cannibalism<00:50:13.119> are<00:50:13.280> rarer<00:50:13.760> still.<00:50:14.720> For<00:50:14.960> most<00:50:15.119> of 48:48.517 --> 48:48.527 align:start position:0% cannibalism are rarer still. For most of 48:48.527 --> 48:50.517 align:start position:0% cannibalism are rarer still. For most of the<00:50:15.440> history<00:50:15.599> of<00:50:15.839> paleo<00:50:16.319> anthropology, 48:50.517 --> 48:50.527 align:start position:0% the history of paleo anthropology, 48:50.527 --> 48:52.117 align:start position:0% the history of paleo anthropology, researchers<00:50:17.680> were<00:50:17.920> not<00:50:18.079> even<00:50:18.400> looking<00:50:18.640> for 48:52.117 --> 48:52.127 align:start position:0% researchers were not even looking for 48:52.127 --> 48:54.197 align:start position:0% researchers were not even looking for this.<00:50:19.440> They<00:50:19.680> didn't<00:50:19.839> know<00:50:20.000> what<00:50:20.240> subtle<00:50:20.559> signs 48:54.197 --> 48:54.207 align:start position:0% this. They didn't know what subtle signs 48:54.207 --> 48:56.357 align:start position:0% this. They didn't know what subtle signs to<00:50:21.119> search<00:50:21.280> for,<00:50:21.760> and<00:50:22.000> the<00:50:22.160> tools<00:50:22.480> needed<00:50:22.880> to 48:56.357 --> 48:56.367 align:start position:0% to search for, and the tools needed to 48:56.367 --> 48:58.117 align:start position:0% to search for, and the tools needed to distinguish<00:50:23.520> a<00:50:23.680> deliberate<00:50:24.160> cut<00:50:24.400> from<00:50:24.640> a 48:58.117 --> 48:58.127 align:start position:0% distinguish a deliberate cut from a 48:58.127 --> 49:00.357 align:start position:0% distinguish a deliberate cut from a trampling<00:50:25.200> mark<00:50:25.440> or<00:50:25.599> a<00:50:25.760> carnivore's<00:50:26.319> tooth 49:00.357 --> 49:00.367 align:start position:0% trampling mark or a carnivore's tooth 49:00.367 --> 49:03.797 align:start position:0% trampling mark or a carnivore's tooth simply<00:50:27.520> didn't<00:50:27.920> exist<00:50:28.400> yet.<00:50:29.520> Each<00:50:29.839> year,<00:50:30.160> as 49:03.797 --> 49:03.807 align:start position:0% simply didn't exist yet. Each year, as 49:03.807 --> 49:06.037 align:start position:0% simply didn't exist yet. Each year, as techniques<00:50:31.040> improve<00:50:31.520> and<00:50:31.839> old<00:50:32.160> collections 49:06.037 --> 49:06.047 align:start position:0% techniques improve and old collections 49:06.047 --> 49:08.436 align:start position:0% techniques improve and old collections are<00:50:32.880> revisited<00:50:33.440> with<00:50:33.680> fresh<00:50:34.000> eyes,<00:50:34.880> more 49:08.436 --> 49:08.446 align:start position:0% are revisited with fresh eyes, more 49:08.446 --> 49:10.757 align:start position:0% are revisited with fresh eyes, more evidence<00:50:35.599> surfaces<00:50:36.319> and<00:50:36.640> sites<00:50:36.960> that<00:50:37.200> once 49:10.757 --> 49:10.767 align:start position:0% evidence surfaces and sites that once 49:10.767 --> 49:12.676 align:start position:0% evidence surfaces and sites that once seemed<00:50:37.760> unremarkable<00:50:38.880> are<00:50:39.119> being 49:12.676 --> 49:12.686 align:start position:0% seemed unremarkable are being 49:12.686 --> 49:14.597 align:start position:0% seemed unremarkable are being reclassified. 49:14.597 --> 49:14.607 align:start position:0% reclassified. 49:14.607 --> 49:16.117 align:start position:0% reclassified. So,<00:50:41.520> it<00:50:41.760> could<00:50:41.839> be<00:50:42.000> that<00:50:42.160> there's<00:50:42.559> more 49:16.117 --> 49:16.127 align:start position:0% So, it could be that there's more 49:16.127 --> 49:18.517 align:start position:0% So, it could be that there's more evidence<00:50:43.280> kind<00:50:43.520> of<00:50:44.000> hiding<00:50:44.319> in<00:50:44.559> plain<00:50:44.880> sight 49:18.517 --> 49:18.527 align:start position:0% evidence kind of hiding in plain sight 49:18.527 --> 49:21.156 align:start position:0% evidence kind of hiding in plain sight out<00:50:45.440> there<00:50:45.599> in<00:50:45.839> a<00:50:46.000> sense<00:50:46.240> in<00:50:46.880> uh<00:50:47.119> museum<00:50:47.520> and 49:21.156 --> 49:21.166 align:start position:0% out there in a sense in uh museum and 49:21.166 --> 49:23.237 align:start position:0% out there in a sense in uh museum and other<00:50:48.079> fossil<00:50:48.480> collections.<00:50:49.280> It<00:50:49.440> also<00:50:49.680> just 49:23.237 --> 49:23.247 align:start position:0% other fossil collections. It also just 49:23.247 --> 49:26.037 align:start position:0% other fossil collections. It also just could<00:50:50.079> be<00:50:50.240> that<00:50:50.720> it<00:50:51.040> was<00:50:51.200> a<00:50:51.359> a<00:50:51.680> rare<00:50:52.000> practice. 49:26.037 --> 49:26.047 align:start position:0% could be that it was a a rare practice. 49:26.047 --> 49:28.436 align:start position:0% could be that it was a a rare practice. I<00:50:52.960> really<00:50:53.119> do<00:50:53.359> think<00:50:53.520> we<00:50:53.760> would<00:50:54.000> see<00:50:54.559> much<00:50:54.880> more 49:28.436 --> 49:28.446 align:start position:0% I really do think we would see much more 49:28.446 --> 49:29.797 align:start position:0% I really do think we would see much more evidence<00:50:55.440> of<00:50:55.599> it<00:50:55.760> if<00:50:55.920> this<00:50:56.160> was<00:50:56.240> something 49:29.797 --> 49:29.807 align:start position:0% evidence of it if this was something 49:29.807 --> 49:32.037 align:start position:0% evidence of it if this was something that<00:50:56.720> happened<00:50:56.960> on<00:50:57.119> a<00:50:57.359> very<00:50:57.599> regular<00:50:58.000> basis. 49:32.037 --> 49:32.047 align:start position:0% that happened on a very regular basis. 49:32.047 --> 49:34.757 align:start position:0% that happened on a very regular basis. Then<00:50:58.960> again,<00:50:59.760> even<00:51:00.000> in<00:51:00.400> fossil<00:51:00.880> assemblages 49:34.757 --> 49:34.767 align:start position:0% Then again, even in fossil assemblages 49:34.767 --> 49:36.277 align:start position:0% Then again, even in fossil assemblages of<00:51:01.680> animals<00:51:01.920> that<00:51:02.160> I've<00:51:02.319> studied,<00:51:02.720> the 49:36.277 --> 49:36.287 align:start position:0% of animals that I've studied, the 49:36.287 --> 49:38.517 align:start position:0% of animals that I've studied, the proportions<00:51:03.520> of<00:51:04.079> individual<00:51:04.640> animal<00:51:04.960> bones 49:38.517 --> 49:38.527 align:start position:0% proportions of individual animal bones 49:38.527 --> 49:40.436 align:start position:0% proportions of individual animal bones that<00:51:05.359> are<00:51:05.520> cut<00:51:05.760> marked<00:51:06.000> can<00:51:06.160> be<00:51:06.319> very<00:51:06.559> low.<00:51:06.960> And 49:40.436 --> 49:40.446 align:start position:0% that are cut marked can be very low. And 49:40.446 --> 49:41.797 align:start position:0% that are cut marked can be very low. And we<00:51:07.280> know<00:51:07.359> that<00:51:07.680> early<00:51:08.000> humans<00:51:08.319> were 49:41.797 --> 49:41.807 align:start position:0% we know that early humans were 49:41.807 --> 49:43.237 align:start position:0% we know that early humans were butchering<00:51:08.880> those<00:51:09.119> animals.<00:51:09.440> So,<00:51:09.680> I<00:51:09.839> don't 49:43.237 --> 49:43.247 align:start position:0% butchering those animals. So, I don't 49:43.247 --> 49:44.436 align:start position:0% butchering those animals. So, I don't know.<00:51:10.160> I<00:51:10.319> mean,<00:51:10.400> I<00:51:10.559> think<00:51:10.640> you<00:51:10.800> can<00:51:10.960> make 49:44.436 --> 49:44.446 align:start position:0% know. I mean, I think you can make 49:44.446 --> 49:47.636 align:start position:0% know. I mean, I think you can make arguments<00:51:11.599> either<00:51:11.920> way<00:51:12.079> in<00:51:12.319> a<00:51:12.480> sense. 49:47.636 --> 49:47.646 align:start position:0% arguments either way in a sense. 49:47.646 --> 49:50.117 align:start position:0% arguments either way in a sense. >> Taken<00:51:14.720> purely<00:51:15.040> at<00:51:15.280> face<00:51:15.599> value,<00:51:16.160> the<00:51:16.319> fossil 49:50.117 --> 49:50.127 align:start position:0% >> Taken purely at face value, the fossil 49:50.127 --> 49:52.597 align:start position:0% >> Taken purely at face value, the fossil record<00:51:17.280> seems<00:51:17.599> to<00:51:17.839> suggest<00:51:18.240> that<00:51:18.559> cannibalism 49:52.597 --> 49:52.607 align:start position:0% record seems to suggest that cannibalism 49:52.607 --> 49:55.557 align:start position:0% record seems to suggest that cannibalism was<00:51:19.520> a<00:51:19.680> rare<00:51:20.240> occasional<00:51:20.880> behavior<00:51:21.680> scattered 49:55.557 --> 49:55.567 align:start position:0% was a rare occasional behavior scattered 49:55.567 --> 49:58.277 align:start position:0% was a rare occasional behavior scattered across<00:51:22.640> human<00:51:22.960> evolution.<00:51:24.240> But<00:51:24.400> that<00:51:24.559> is<00:51:24.720> not 49:58.277 --> 49:58.287 align:start position:0% across human evolution. But that is not 49:58.287 --> 50:00.757 align:start position:0% across human evolution. But that is not quite<00:51:25.200> the<00:51:25.520> full<00:51:25.760> picture.<00:51:26.800> And<00:51:26.880> the<00:51:27.040> rate<00:51:27.280> at 50:00.757 --> 50:00.767 align:start position:0% quite the full picture. And the rate at 50:00.767 --> 50:03.237 align:start position:0% quite the full picture. And the rate at which<00:51:27.599> we<00:51:27.839> are<00:51:28.000> finding<00:51:28.319> new<00:51:28.559> evidence<00:51:29.599> is 50:03.237 --> 50:03.247 align:start position:0% which we are finding new evidence is 50:03.247 --> 50:17.557 align:start position:0% which we are finding new evidence is accelerating,<00:51:31.200> not<00:51:32.079> slowing<00:51:32.480> down. 50:17.557 --> 50:17.567 align:start position:0% 50:17.567 --> 50:19.156 align:start position:0% You've<00:51:44.480> been<00:51:44.640> watching<00:51:44.960> the<00:51:45.200> entire<00:51:45.520> history 50:19.156 --> 50:19.166 align:start position:0% You've been watching the entire history 50:19.166 --> 50:20.837 align:start position:0% You've been watching the entire history of<00:51:46.000> humankind. 50:20.837 --> 50:20.847 align:start position:0% of humankind. 50:20.847 --> 50:22.517 align:start position:0% of humankind. Don't<00:51:47.760> forget<00:51:48.000> to<00:51:48.160> like<00:51:48.319> and<00:51:48.559> subscribe<00:51:48.960> and 50:22.517 --> 50:22.527 align:start position:0% Don't forget to like and subscribe and 50:22.527 --> 50:23.957 align:start position:0% Don't forget to like and subscribe and leave<00:51:49.280> us<00:51:49.440> a<00:51:49.599> comment<00:51:49.839> to<00:51:50.000> tell<00:51:50.079> us<00:51:50.240> what<00:51:50.400> you 50:23.957 --> 50:23.967 align:start position:0% leave us a comment to tell us what you 50:23.967 --> 50:26.997 align:start position:0% leave us a comment to tell us what you think.<00:51:51.920> Thanks<00:51:52.240> for<00:51:52.400> watching<00:51:53.119> and<00:51:53.280> we'll<00:51:53.520> see 50:26.997 --> 50:27.007 align:start position:0% think. Thanks for watching and we'll see 50:27.007 --> 50:31.047 align:start position:0% think. Thanks for watching and we'll see you<00:51:54.480> next<00:51:54.720> time.