WEBVTT 00:00.080 --> 00:06.470 align:start position:0% The<00:00:00.400> world<00:00:00.800> has<00:00:01.199> changed.<00:00:02.480> Can<00:00:02.800> life<00:00:03.679> survive? 00:06.470 --> 00:06.480 align:start position:0% The world has changed. Can life survive? 00:06.480 --> 00:09.030 align:start position:0% The world has changed. Can life survive? Birds<00:00:06.799> that<00:00:07.040> nest<00:00:07.279> under<00:00:07.600> street<00:00:07.919> lights<00:00:08.720> are 00:09.030 --> 00:09.040 align:start position:0% Birds that nest under street lights are 00:09.040 --> 00:11.270 align:start position:0% Birds that nest under street lights are stressed.<00:00:10.400> The<00:00:10.639> stress<00:00:10.880> hormone 00:11.270 --> 00:11.280 align:start position:0% stressed. The stress hormone 00:11.280 --> 00:13.509 align:start position:0% stressed. The stress hormone corticostone<00:00:12.240> was<00:00:12.400> measured<00:00:12.719> in<00:00:12.880> song<00:00:13.200> birds 00:13.509 --> 00:13.519 align:start position:0% corticostone was measured in song birds 00:13.519 --> 00:15.829 align:start position:0% corticostone was measured in song birds nesting<00:00:13.920> under<00:00:14.160> white<00:00:14.480> artificial<00:00:15.120> lights, 00:15.829 --> 00:15.839 align:start position:0% nesting under white artificial lights, 00:15.839 --> 00:17.830 align:start position:0% nesting under white artificial lights, and<00:00:16.000> it<00:00:16.240> was<00:00:16.400> found<00:00:16.640> to<00:00:16.880> be<00:00:16.960> at<00:00:17.199> similar<00:00:17.520> levels 00:17.830 --> 00:17.840 align:start position:0% and it was found to be at similar levels 00:17.840 --> 00:19.910 align:start position:0% and it was found to be at similar levels to<00:00:18.080> birds<00:00:18.400> who<00:00:18.640> were<00:00:18.800> being<00:00:19.039> caught<00:00:19.680> or 00:19.910 --> 00:19.920 align:start position:0% to birds who were being caught or 00:19.920 --> 00:22.710 align:start position:0% to birds who were being caught or handled.<00:00:21.359> The<00:00:21.600> same<00:00:21.760> hormone<00:00:22.240> was<00:00:22.480> found 00:22.710 --> 00:22.720 align:start position:0% handled. The same hormone was found 00:22.720 --> 00:25.429 align:start position:0% handled. The same hormone was found elevated<00:00:23.199> in<00:00:23.439> female<00:00:23.920> woodf<00:00:24.320> frogs<00:00:25.039> triggered 00:25.429 --> 00:25.439 align:start position:0% elevated in female woodf frogs triggered 00:25.439 --> 00:27.990 align:start position:0% elevated in female woodf frogs triggered by<00:00:25.600> the<00:00:25.840> noise<00:00:26.080> of<00:00:26.400> traffic.<00:00:27.439> Through<00:00:27.760> either 00:27.990 --> 00:28.000 align:start position:0% by the noise of traffic. Through either 00:28.000 --> 00:30.550 align:start position:0% by the noise of traffic. Through either the<00:00:28.160> disorientation<00:00:29.119> or<00:00:29.359> a<00:00:29.599> stress<00:00:29.920> response, 00:30.550 --> 00:30.560 align:start position:0% the disorientation or a stress response, 00:30.560 --> 00:32.470 align:start position:0% the disorientation or a stress response, the<00:00:30.800> increased<00:00:31.199> hum<00:00:31.519> of<00:00:31.679> ambient<00:00:32.160> noise 00:32.470 --> 00:32.480 align:start position:0% the increased hum of ambient noise 00:32.480 --> 00:34.470 align:start position:0% the increased hum of ambient noise caused<00:00:32.719> a<00:00:32.960> lower<00:00:33.200> percentage<00:00:33.520> of<00:00:33.680> the<00:00:33.920> frogs 00:34.470 --> 00:34.480 align:start position:0% caused a lower percentage of the frogs 00:34.480 --> 00:36.549 align:start position:0% caused a lower percentage of the frogs to<00:00:34.640> find<00:00:34.800> the<00:00:35.040> chorus<00:00:35.440> of<00:00:35.680> breeding<00:00:36.160> male 00:36.549 --> 00:36.559 align:start position:0% to find the chorus of breeding male 00:36.559 --> 00:39.910 align:start position:0% to find the chorus of breeding male frogs.<00:00:37.920> And<00:00:38.160> even<00:00:38.399> fumes<00:00:38.800> from<00:00:39.040> traffic<00:00:39.680> along 00:39.910 --> 00:39.920 align:start position:0% frogs. And even fumes from traffic along 00:39.920 --> 00:42.069 align:start position:0% frogs. And even fumes from traffic along with<00:00:40.160> ozone<00:00:40.559> exposure<00:00:41.120> can<00:00:41.360> have<00:00:41.440> a<00:00:41.680> direct 00:42.069 --> 00:42.079 align:start position:0% with ozone exposure can have a direct 00:42.079 --> 00:44.069 align:start position:0% with ozone exposure can have a direct impact<00:00:42.480> on<00:00:42.719> the<00:00:42.879> neural<00:00:43.280> circuitry<00:00:43.840> of 00:44.069 --> 00:44.079 align:start position:0% impact on the neural circuitry of 00:44.079 --> 00:46.790 align:start position:0% impact on the neural circuitry of insects.<00:00:45.520> Honeybees<00:00:46.079> exposed<00:00:46.399> to<00:00:46.559> these 00:46.790 --> 00:46.800 align:start position:0% insects. Honeybees exposed to these 00:46.800 --> 00:48.709 align:start position:0% insects. Honeybees exposed to these toxins<00:00:47.440> have<00:00:47.600> displayed<00:00:48.000> greatly<00:00:48.320> reduced 00:48.709 --> 00:48.719 align:start position:0% toxins have displayed greatly reduced 00:48.719 --> 00:51.750 align:start position:0% toxins have displayed greatly reduced memory<00:00:49.120> and<00:00:49.440> even<00:00:49.920> learning<00:00:50.320> ability. 00:51.750 --> 00:51.760 align:start position:0% memory and even learning ability. 00:51.760 --> 00:53.590 align:start position:0% memory and even learning ability. However,<00:00:52.239> the<00:00:52.480> picture<00:00:52.719> is<00:00:52.879> not<00:00:53.120> quite<00:00:53.360> so 00:53.590 --> 00:53.600 align:start position:0% However, the picture is not quite so 00:53.600 --> 00:55.750 align:start position:0% However, the picture is not quite so simple<00:00:54.160> for<00:00:54.480> other<00:00:54.719> species<00:00:55.199> appear<00:00:55.520> to<00:00:55.600> have 00:55.750 --> 00:55.760 align:start position:0% simple for other species appear to have 00:55.760 --> 00:58.549 align:start position:0% simple for other species appear to have adapted<00:00:56.239> well<00:00:56.640> to<00:00:56.879> the<00:00:57.039> chaos<00:00:57.680> of<00:00:57.920> the<00:00:58.079> modern 00:58.549 --> 00:58.559 align:start position:0% adapted well to the chaos of the modern 00:58.559 --> 01:01.189 align:start position:0% adapted well to the chaos of the modern world.<00:00:59.520> The<00:00:59.760> London<00:01:00.079> Underground<00:01:00.559> mosquito, 01:01.189 --> 01:01.199 align:start position:0% world. The London Underground mosquito, 01:01.199 --> 01:02.950 align:start position:0% world. The London Underground mosquito, for<00:01:01.280> example,<00:01:01.840> has<00:01:02.079> changed<00:01:02.399> from<00:01:02.559> its<00:01:02.800> life 01:02.950 --> 01:02.960 align:start position:0% for example, has changed from its life 01:02.960 --> 01:04.950 align:start position:0% for example, has changed from its life of<00:01:03.120> feeding<00:01:03.359> on<00:01:03.600> birds<00:01:03.920> and<00:01:04.159> hibernating<00:01:04.720> in 01:04.950 --> 01:04.960 align:start position:0% of feeding on birds and hibernating in 01:04.960 --> 01:08.070 align:start position:0% of feeding on birds and hibernating in winter.<00:01:05.920> Now<00:01:06.240> it<00:01:06.479> feeds<00:01:06.799> all<00:01:07.040> year<00:01:07.280> round<00:01:07.760> on 01:08.070 --> 01:08.080 align:start position:0% winter. Now it feeds all year round on 01:08.080 --> 01:11.990 align:start position:0% winter. Now it feeds all year round on mice,<00:01:08.720> rats,<00:01:09.360> and<00:01:09.600> humans.<00:01:11.040> Anoli<00:01:11.520> lizards<00:01:11.840> of 01:11.990 --> 01:12.000 align:start position:0% mice, rats, and humans. Anoli lizards of 01:12.000 --> 01:13.910 align:start position:0% mice, rats, and humans. Anoli lizards of Puerto<00:01:12.320> Rican<00:01:12.640> cities<00:01:13.119> have<00:01:13.280> evolved<00:01:13.760> more 01:13.910 --> 01:13.920 align:start position:0% Puerto Rican cities have evolved more 01:13.920 --> 01:16.310 align:start position:0% Puerto Rican cities have evolved more tiny<00:01:14.320> brush-like<00:01:14.799> lamelli<00:01:15.360> on<00:01:15.520> their<00:01:15.680> feet, 01:16.310 --> 01:16.320 align:start position:0% tiny brush-like lamelli on their feet, 01:16.320 --> 01:18.789 align:start position:0% tiny brush-like lamelli on their feet, allowing<00:01:16.640> them<00:01:16.880> to<00:01:17.040> scale<00:01:17.520> walls<00:01:18.080> and<00:01:18.400> even 01:18.789 --> 01:18.799 align:start position:0% allowing them to scale walls and even 01:18.799 --> 01:24.070 align:start position:0% allowing them to scale walls and even glass<00:01:19.200> windows. 01:24.070 --> 01:24.080 align:start position:0% 01:24.080 --> 01:26.070 align:start position:0% We<00:01:24.320> are<00:01:24.479> changing<00:01:24.799> the<00:01:25.040> world<00:01:25.200> around<00:01:25.520> us<00:01:25.680> at<00:01:25.920> a 01:26.070 --> 01:26.080 align:start position:0% We are changing the world around us at a 01:26.080 --> 01:28.870 align:start position:0% We are changing the world around us at a rapid<00:01:26.479> pace.<00:01:27.040> And<00:01:27.200> in<00:01:27.360> many<00:01:27.600> cases,<00:01:28.159> nature<00:01:28.560> is 01:28.870 --> 01:28.880 align:start position:0% rapid pace. And in many cases, nature is 01:28.880 --> 01:34.310 align:start position:0% rapid pace. And in many cases, nature is keeping<00:01:29.200> up.<00:01:30.240> But<00:01:30.400> the<00:01:30.560> question<00:01:30.880> is,<00:01:31.920> are<00:01:32.159> we? 01:34.310 --> 01:34.320 align:start position:0% keeping up. But the question is, are we? 01:34.320 --> 01:36.310 align:start position:0% keeping up. But the question is, are we? Humans<00:01:34.640> have<00:01:34.799> built<00:01:35.040> a<00:01:35.200> modern<00:01:35.600> world<00:01:35.840> that<00:01:36.159> is 01:36.310 --> 01:36.320 align:start position:0% Humans have built a modern world that is 01:36.320 --> 01:38.550 align:start position:0% Humans have built a modern world that is fast<00:01:36.720> becoming<00:01:37.119> totally<00:01:37.600> unlike<00:01:38.079> anything 01:38.550 --> 01:38.560 align:start position:0% fast becoming totally unlike anything 01:38.560 --> 01:41.429 align:start position:0% fast becoming totally unlike anything seen<00:01:38.880> before<00:01:39.280> on<00:01:39.520> the<00:01:39.759> earth.<00:01:40.640> And<00:01:40.880> now<00:01:41.200> we 01:41.429 --> 01:41.439 align:start position:0% seen before on the earth. And now we 01:41.439 --> 01:43.749 align:start position:0% seen before on the earth. And now we live<00:01:41.600> entrenched<00:01:42.240> within<00:01:42.560> it.<00:01:43.360> not<00:01:43.520> only 01:43.749 --> 01:43.759 align:start position:0% live entrenched within it. not only 01:43.759 --> 01:45.429 align:start position:0% live entrenched within it. not only under<00:01:44.079> artificial<00:01:44.560> light<00:01:44.880> and<00:01:45.040> in<00:01:45.280> the 01:45.429 --> 01:45.439 align:start position:0% under artificial light and in the 01:45.439 --> 01:47.749 align:start position:0% under artificial light and in the constant<00:01:45.840> hum<00:01:46.079> of<00:01:46.320> traffic,<00:01:46.880> but<00:01:47.119> in<00:01:47.280> vastly 01:47.749 --> 01:47.759 align:start position:0% constant hum of traffic, but in vastly 01:47.759 --> 01:49.749 align:start position:0% constant hum of traffic, but in vastly different<00:01:48.159> social<00:01:48.560> structures,<00:01:49.280> larger 01:49.749 --> 01:49.759 align:start position:0% different social structures, larger 01:49.759 --> 01:51.910 align:start position:0% different social structures, larger networks,<00:01:50.399> and<00:01:50.640> with<00:01:50.880> frequent<00:01:51.280> triggers<00:01:51.680> for 01:51.910 --> 01:51.920 align:start position:0% networks, and with frequent triggers for 01:51.920 --> 01:54.950 align:start position:0% networks, and with frequent triggers for stress<00:01:52.399> or<00:01:52.720> alarm.<00:01:54.079> And<00:01:54.240> so,<00:01:54.479> are<00:01:54.640> humans 01:54.950 --> 01:54.960 align:start position:0% stress or alarm. And so, are humans 01:54.960 --> 01:57.109 align:start position:0% stress or alarm. And so, are humans really<00:01:55.280> flexible<00:01:55.840> enough<00:01:56.079> to<00:01:56.399> cope<00:01:56.720> in<00:01:56.880> these 01:57.109 --> 01:57.119 align:start position:0% really flexible enough to cope in these 01:57.119 --> 01:59.990 align:start position:0% really flexible enough to cope in these bizarre<00:01:57.680> new<00:01:58.079> concrete<00:01:58.640> landscapes?<00:01:59.759> And 01:59.990 --> 02:00.000 align:start position:0% bizarre new concrete landscapes? And 02:00.000 --> 02:02.149 align:start position:0% bizarre new concrete landscapes? And could<00:02:00.399> an<00:02:00.640> anatomically<00:02:01.439> modern<00:02:01.759> homo 02:02.149 --> 02:02.159 align:start position:0% could an anatomically modern homo 02:02.159 --> 02:04.149 align:start position:0% could an anatomically modern homo sapiens<00:02:02.799> from<00:02:03.119> hundreds<00:02:03.439> of<00:02:03.600> thousands<00:02:04.000> of 02:04.149 --> 02:04.159 align:start position:0% sapiens from hundreds of thousands of 02:04.159 --> 02:06.149 align:start position:0% sapiens from hundreds of thousands of years<00:02:04.320> ago<00:02:04.880> with<00:02:05.040> a<00:02:05.200> body<00:02:05.439> and<00:02:05.680> brain 02:06.149 --> 02:06.159 align:start position:0% years ago with a body and brain 02:06.159 --> 02:08.710 align:start position:0% years ago with a body and brain virtually<00:02:06.640> indistinguishable<00:02:07.520> from<00:02:07.759> our<00:02:08.000> own 02:08.710 --> 02:08.720 align:start position:0% virtually indistinguishable from our own 02:08.720 --> 02:28.229 align:start position:0% virtually indistinguishable from our own adapt<00:02:09.520> to<00:02:09.759> our<00:02:10.000> life<00:02:10.239> today? 02:15.294 --> 02:20.964 align:start position:0% this yourself, download Opera via my link<00:03:45.200> in<00:03:45.440> the<00:03:45.599> description. 02:20.964 --> 02:20.974 align:start position:0% 02:20.974 --> 02:23.924 align:start position:0% It<00:03:50.959> is<00:03:51.200> 2009<00:03:52.080> and<00:03:52.319> a<00:03:52.560> team<00:03:52.720> of<00:03:52.799> archaeologists 02:23.924 --> 02:23.934 align:start position:0% It is 2009 and a team of archaeologists 02:23.934 --> 02:26.324 align:start position:0% It is 2009 and a team of archaeologists are<00:03:53.840> lying<00:03:54.159> face<00:03:54.480> down<00:03:54.720> in<00:03:54.879> a<00:03:55.120> trench<00:03:55.519> in<00:03:55.760> White 02:26.324 --> 02:26.334 align:start position:0% are lying face down in a trench in White 02:26.334 --> 02:29.763 align:start position:0% are lying face down in a trench in White Sands<00:03:56.560> National<00:03:56.959> Park,<00:03:57.599> New<00:03:57.840> Mexico.<00:03:59.200> They 02:29.763 --> 02:29.773 align:start position:0% Sands National Park, New Mexico. They 02:29.773 --> 02:31.763 align:start position:0% Sands National Park, New Mexico. They have<00:03:59.680> uncovered<00:04:00.159> footprints<00:04:00.959> that<00:04:01.280> are 02:31.763 --> 02:31.773 align:start position:0% have uncovered footprints that are 02:31.773 --> 02:35.123 align:start position:0% have uncovered footprints that are 23,000<00:04:02.959> years<00:04:03.280> old. 02:35.123 --> 02:35.133 align:start position:0% 23,000 years old. 02:35.133 --> 02:37.043 align:start position:0% 23,000 years old. For<00:04:05.040> at<00:04:05.200> that<00:04:05.439> time,<00:04:05.920> White<00:04:06.239> Sands<00:04:06.560> was<00:04:06.720> not 02:37.043 --> 02:37.053 align:start position:0% For at that time, White Sands was not 02:37.053 --> 02:39.364 align:start position:0% For at that time, White Sands was not the<00:04:07.040> desert<00:04:07.360> we<00:04:07.599> know<00:04:07.760> today,<00:04:08.400> but<00:04:08.560> a<00:04:08.799> lush 02:39.364 --> 02:39.374 align:start position:0% the desert we know today, but a lush 02:39.374 --> 02:41.524 align:start position:0% the desert we know today, but a lush landscape<00:04:09.599> of<00:04:09.840> grassy<00:04:10.239> wetlands<00:04:10.799> around<00:04:11.120> the 02:41.524 --> 02:41.534 align:start position:0% landscape of grassy wetlands around the 02:41.534 --> 02:44.324 align:start position:0% landscape of grassy wetlands around the great<00:04:11.599> paleo<00:04:12.000> lake<00:04:12.480> Otto. 02:44.324 --> 02:44.334 align:start position:0% great paleo lake Otto. 02:44.334 --> 02:46.404 align:start position:0% great paleo lake Otto. Here<00:04:14.400> in<00:04:14.640> a<00:04:14.799> world<00:04:14.959> alive<00:04:15.360> with<00:04:15.519> mammoths, 02:46.404 --> 02:46.414 align:start position:0% Here in a world alive with mammoths, 02:46.414 --> 02:49.043 align:start position:0% Here in a world alive with mammoths, direwolves,<00:04:16.880> and<00:04:17.040> saber-tooth<00:04:17.680> cats,<00:04:18.479> lived 02:49.043 --> 02:49.053 align:start position:0% direwolves, and saber-tooth cats, lived 02:49.053 --> 02:52.084 align:start position:0% direwolves, and saber-tooth cats, lived a<00:04:19.040> group<00:04:19.199> of<00:04:19.359> humans.<00:04:20.720> One<00:04:20.959> trail<00:04:21.199> of<00:04:21.359> prints 02:52.084 --> 02:52.094 align:start position:0% a group of humans. One trail of prints 02:52.094 --> 02:53.524 align:start position:0% a group of humans. One trail of prints appears<00:04:22.079> to<00:04:22.240> show<00:04:22.400> a<00:04:22.639> small<00:04:22.880> number<00:04:23.120> of 02:53.524 --> 02:53.534 align:start position:0% appears to show a small number of 02:53.534 --> 02:55.604 align:start position:0% appears to show a small number of humans,<00:04:24.080> perhaps<00:04:24.479> just<00:04:24.720> two<00:04:24.880> or<00:04:25.120> three 02:55.604 --> 02:55.614 align:start position:0% humans, perhaps just two or three 02:55.614 --> 02:58.324 align:start position:0% humans, perhaps just two or three individuals,<00:04:26.400> stalking<00:04:26.880> behind<00:04:27.280> a<00:04:27.600> giant 02:58.324 --> 02:58.334 align:start position:0% individuals, stalking behind a giant 02:58.334 --> 03:00.804 align:start position:0% individuals, stalking behind a giant ground<00:04:28.400> sloth.<00:04:29.199> A<00:04:29.440> short<00:04:29.600> distance<00:04:30.000> away, 03:00.804 --> 03:00.814 align:start position:0% ground sloth. A short distance away, 03:00.814 --> 03:02.723 align:start position:0% ground sloth. A short distance away, another<00:04:30.880> set<00:04:31.120> of<00:04:31.280> footprints<00:04:31.840> suggests<00:04:32.240> that 03:02.723 --> 03:02.733 align:start position:0% another set of footprints suggests that 03:02.733 --> 03:04.484 align:start position:0% another set of footprints suggests that crowds<00:04:32.800> of<00:04:32.960> adults<00:04:33.280> and<00:04:33.520> children<00:04:34.000> were 03:04.484 --> 03:04.494 align:start position:0% crowds of adults and children were 03:04.494 --> 03:06.723 align:start position:0% crowds of adults and children were gathered<00:04:34.560> together,<00:04:35.360> watching<00:04:35.840> as<00:04:36.080> the<00:04:36.240> hunt 03:06.723 --> 03:06.733 align:start position:0% gathered together, watching as the hunt 03:06.733 --> 03:08.883 align:start position:0% gathered together, watching as the hunt progressed.<00:04:37.280> Of<00:04:37.919> course,<00:04:38.080> the<00:04:38.240> footprints 03:08.883 --> 03:08.893 align:start position:0% progressed. Of course, the footprints 03:08.893 --> 03:11.044 align:start position:0% progressed. Of course, the footprints aren't<00:04:38.880> an<00:04:39.120> exact<00:04:39.520> census,<00:04:40.080> but<00:04:40.320> they<00:04:40.479> seem<00:04:40.639> to 03:11.044 --> 03:11.054 align:start position:0% aren't an exact census, but they seem to 03:11.054 --> 03:13.443 align:start position:0% aren't an exact census, but they seem to suggest<00:04:41.360> small,<00:04:41.919> highly<00:04:42.320> mobile<00:04:42.720> groups<00:04:42.960> of 03:13.443 --> 03:13.453 align:start position:0% suggest small, highly mobile groups of 03:13.453 --> 03:16.003 align:start position:0% suggest small, highly mobile groups of perhaps<00:04:43.600> 20<00:04:43.759> to<00:04:44.080> 50<00:04:44.320> individuals<00:04:45.199> living<00:04:45.600> off 03:16.003 --> 03:16.013 align:start position:0% perhaps 20 to 50 individuals living off 03:16.013 --> 03:18.644 align:start position:0% perhaps 20 to 50 individuals living off the<00:04:45.919> resources<00:04:46.479> the<00:04:46.720> ancient<00:04:47.040> lake<00:04:47.360> provided. 03:18.644 --> 03:18.654 align:start position:0% the resources the ancient lake provided. 03:18.654 --> 03:20.484 align:start position:0% the resources the ancient lake provided. And<00:04:48.560> we<00:04:48.720> can<00:04:48.880> see<00:04:49.120> traces<00:04:49.520> of<00:04:49.680> a<00:04:49.840> similar 03:20.484 --> 03:20.494 align:start position:0% And we can see traces of a similar 03:20.494 --> 03:22.644 align:start position:0% And we can see traces of a similar lifestyle<00:04:50.880> in<00:04:51.120> human<00:04:51.440> footprints<00:04:52.000> found<00:04:52.240> at 03:22.644 --> 03:22.654 align:start position:0% lifestyle in human footprints found at 03:22.654 --> 03:25.764 align:start position:0% lifestyle in human footprints found at Kooie<00:04:52.880> Fora<00:04:53.360> in<00:04:53.600> Kenya.<00:04:54.639> Again,<00:04:55.040> here 03:25.764 --> 03:25.774 align:start position:0% Kooie Fora in Kenya. Again, here 03:25.774 --> 03:27.924 align:start position:0% Kooie Fora in Kenya. Again, here evidence<00:04:55.919> seems<00:04:56.240> to<00:04:56.400> suggest<00:04:56.800> around<00:04:57.120> 20<00:04:57.360> to 03:27.924 --> 03:27.934 align:start position:0% evidence seems to suggest around 20 to 03:27.934 --> 03:30.163 align:start position:0% evidence seems to suggest around 20 to 50<00:04:58.000> highly<00:04:58.479> mobile<00:04:58.880> and<00:04:59.120> interdependent 03:30.163 --> 03:30.173 align:start position:0% 50 highly mobile and interdependent 03:30.173 --> 03:32.723 align:start position:0% 50 highly mobile and interdependent individuals.<00:05:01.120> And<00:05:01.360> again,<00:05:01.759> these<00:05:02.000> footprints 03:32.723 --> 03:32.733 align:start position:0% individuals. And again, these footprints 03:32.733 --> 03:34.324 align:start position:0% individuals. And again, these footprints were<00:05:02.639> made<00:05:02.880> near<00:05:03.120> the<00:05:03.280> shore<00:05:03.520> of<00:05:03.600> an<00:05:03.759> ancient 03:34.324 --> 03:34.334 align:start position:0% were made near the shore of an ancient 03:34.334 --> 03:36.644 align:start position:0% were made near the shore of an ancient paleo<00:05:04.560> lake<00:05:04.800> that<00:05:05.120> could<00:05:05.280> sustain<00:05:05.840> all<00:05:06.080> manner 03:36.644 --> 03:36.654 align:start position:0% paleo lake that could sustain all manner 03:36.654 --> 03:39.124 align:start position:0% paleo lake that could sustain all manner of<00:05:06.560> life.<00:05:07.280> But<00:05:07.680> animal<00:05:08.000> bones<00:05:08.400> show<00:05:08.639> this 03:39.124 --> 03:39.134 align:start position:0% of life. But animal bones show this 03:39.134 --> 03:40.804 align:start position:0% of life. But animal bones show this small<00:05:09.120> group<00:05:09.280> of<00:05:09.440> humans<00:05:09.840> were<00:05:10.080> processing 03:40.804 --> 03:40.814 align:start position:0% small group of humans were processing 03:40.814 --> 03:43.283 align:start position:0% small group of humans were processing large<00:05:11.039> game<00:05:11.440> with<00:05:11.680> stone<00:05:12.080> tools<00:05:12.560> near<00:05:12.800> the 03:43.283 --> 03:43.293 align:start position:0% large game with stone tools near the 03:43.293 --> 03:46.163 align:start position:0% large game with stone tools near the lakes's<00:05:13.440> shore.<00:05:14.479> And<00:05:14.639> so<00:05:14.960> clearly<00:05:15.360> the<00:05:15.600> daily 03:46.163 --> 03:46.173 align:start position:0% lakes's shore. And so clearly the daily 03:46.173 --> 03:48.404 align:start position:0% lakes's shore. And so clearly the daily lives<00:05:16.240> of<00:05:16.400> these<00:05:16.720> two<00:05:16.880> groups<00:05:17.120> of<00:05:17.280> humans<00:05:17.919> in 03:48.404 --> 03:48.414 align:start position:0% lives of these two groups of humans in 03:48.414 --> 03:50.564 align:start position:0% lives of these two groups of humans in Kenya<00:05:18.479> and<00:05:18.720> North<00:05:18.960> America<00:05:19.600> may<00:05:19.840> have<00:05:20.000> shared 03:50.564 --> 03:50.574 align:start position:0% Kenya and North America may have shared 03:50.574 --> 03:52.883 align:start position:0% Kenya and North America may have shared many<00:05:20.639> similarities<00:05:21.680> and<00:05:21.919> would<00:05:22.080> both<00:05:22.400> stand 03:52.883 --> 03:52.893 align:start position:0% many similarities and would both stand 03:52.893 --> 03:55.443 align:start position:0% many similarities and would both stand in<00:05:22.880> stark<00:05:23.360> contrast<00:05:23.919> to<00:05:24.160> the<00:05:24.320> lifestyle<00:05:24.880> most 03:55.443 --> 03:55.453 align:start position:0% in stark contrast to the lifestyle most 03:55.453 --> 03:57.764 align:start position:0% in stark contrast to the lifestyle most humans<00:05:25.520> live<00:05:25.840> today.<00:05:26.960> However,<00:05:27.280> these 03:57.764 --> 03:57.774 align:start position:0% humans live today. However, these 03:57.774 --> 03:59.764 align:start position:0% humans live today. However, these footprints<00:05:28.000> are<00:05:28.240> separated<00:05:28.800> by<00:05:29.120> more<00:05:29.360> than 03:59.764 --> 03:59.774 align:start position:0% footprints are separated by more than 03:59.774 --> 04:02.084 align:start position:0% footprints are separated by more than just<00:05:29.919> distance<00:05:30.880> because<00:05:31.199> the<00:05:31.440> human<00:05:31.680> group 04:02.084 --> 04:02.094 align:start position:0% just distance because the human group 04:02.094 --> 04:04.163 align:start position:0% just distance because the human group that<00:05:32.080> lived<00:05:32.240> in<00:05:32.400> Kubora 04:04.163 --> 04:04.173 align:start position:0% that lived in Kubora 04:04.173 --> 04:14.084 align:start position:0% that lived in Kubora lived<00:05:34.400> 1.5<00:05:35.520> million<00:05:36.160> years<00:05:36.479> earlier. 04:14.084 --> 04:14.094 align:start position:0% 04:14.094 --> 04:16.484 align:start position:0% As<00:05:44.080> far<00:05:44.320> back<00:05:44.479> as<00:05:44.720> ancient<00:05:45.039> Homo<00:05:45.440> erectus<00:05:46.000> that 04:16.484 --> 04:16.494 align:start position:0% As far back as ancient Homo erectus that 04:16.494 --> 04:18.404 align:start position:0% As far back as ancient Homo erectus that evolved<00:05:46.560> in<00:05:46.720> Africa<00:05:47.039> around<00:05:47.360> 2<00:05:47.600> million<00:05:47.919> years 04:18.404 --> 04:18.414 align:start position:0% evolved in Africa around 2 million years 04:18.414 --> 04:20.723 align:start position:0% evolved in Africa around 2 million years ago,<00:05:48.639> we<00:05:48.880> can<00:05:48.960> see<00:05:49.120> elements<00:05:49.520> of<00:05:49.680> a<00:05:49.840> lifestyle 04:20.723 --> 04:20.733 align:start position:0% ago, we can see elements of a lifestyle 04:20.733 --> 04:22.404 align:start position:0% ago, we can see elements of a lifestyle that<00:05:50.720> persisted<00:05:51.199> right<00:05:51.520> through<00:05:51.759> to<00:05:52.000> the 04:22.404 --> 04:22.414 align:start position:0% that persisted right through to the 04:22.414 --> 04:25.044 align:start position:0% that persisted right through to the advent<00:05:52.479> of<00:05:52.720> farming<00:05:53.199> between<00:05:53.520> 10<00:05:53.759> and<00:05:54.080> 20,000 04:25.044 --> 04:25.054 align:start position:0% advent of farming between 10 and 20,000 04:25.054 --> 04:27.364 align:start position:0% advent of farming between 10 and 20,000 years<00:05:54.960> ago.<00:05:55.520> Of<00:05:56.080> course,<00:05:56.320> over<00:05:56.560> that<00:05:56.720> span<00:05:56.960> of 04:27.364 --> 04:27.374 align:start position:0% years ago. Of course, over that span of 04:27.374 --> 04:29.283 align:start position:0% years ago. Of course, over that span of time,<00:05:57.520> human<00:05:57.840> brains<00:05:58.160> would<00:05:58.479> increase<00:05:58.720> in 04:29.283 --> 04:29.293 align:start position:0% time, human brains would increase in 04:29.293 --> 04:31.364 align:start position:0% time, human brains would increase in size,<00:05:59.520> and<00:05:59.759> our<00:06:00.000> technologies<00:06:00.479> and<00:06:00.720> culture 04:31.364 --> 04:31.374 align:start position:0% size, and our technologies and culture 04:31.374 --> 04:33.764 align:start position:0% size, and our technologies and culture would<00:06:01.440> develop.<00:06:02.160> And<00:06:02.320> yet,<00:06:02.560> despite<00:06:02.960> this, 04:33.764 --> 04:33.774 align:start position:0% would develop. And yet, despite this, 04:33.774 --> 04:35.764 align:start position:0% would develop. And yet, despite this, many<00:06:03.759> aspects<00:06:04.240> of<00:06:04.479> the<00:06:04.639> living<00:06:04.960> experience 04:35.764 --> 04:35.774 align:start position:0% many aspects of the living experience 04:35.774 --> 04:38.084 align:start position:0% many aspects of the living experience and<00:06:05.759> daily<00:06:06.080> routine<00:06:06.400> of<00:06:06.639> humans<00:06:07.360> would<00:06:07.600> be 04:38.084 --> 04:38.094 align:start position:0% and daily routine of humans would be 04:38.094 --> 04:40.484 align:start position:0% and daily routine of humans would be similar.<00:06:08.560> Despite<00:06:08.960> the<00:06:09.280> truly<00:06:09.680> vast<00:06:10.080> amount 04:40.484 --> 04:40.494 align:start position:0% similar. Despite the truly vast amount 04:40.494 --> 04:43.044 align:start position:0% similar. Despite the truly vast amount of<00:06:10.479> time<00:06:10.960> that<00:06:11.199> passed,<00:06:12.000> our<00:06:12.319> ancestors 04:43.044 --> 04:43.054 align:start position:0% of time that passed, our ancestors 04:43.054 --> 04:45.204 align:start position:0% of time that passed, our ancestors hunted<00:06:13.120> and<00:06:13.360> scavenged,<00:06:14.080> surviving<00:06:14.479> in<00:06:14.720> small 04:45.204 --> 04:45.214 align:start position:0% hunted and scavenged, surviving in small 04:45.214 --> 04:46.804 align:start position:0% hunted and scavenged, surviving in small groups<00:06:15.199> that<00:06:15.440> lived<00:06:15.600> near<00:06:15.759> the<00:06:16.000> resources 04:46.804 --> 04:46.814 align:start position:0% groups that lived near the resources 04:46.814 --> 04:49.364 align:start position:0% groups that lived near the resources they<00:06:16.880> required.<00:06:17.840> Their<00:06:18.080> natural<00:06:18.639> world 04:49.364 --> 04:49.374 align:start position:0% they required. Their natural world 04:49.374 --> 04:52.563 align:start position:0% they required. Their natural world dictated<00:06:19.680> where<00:06:19.840> they<00:06:20.080> lived<00:06:20.720> and<00:06:20.960> also<00:06:21.759> when 04:52.563 --> 04:52.573 align:start position:0% dictated where they lived and also when 04:52.573 --> 05:00.484 align:start position:0% dictated where they lived and also when their<00:06:22.639> days<00:06:22.960> began. 05:00.484 --> 05:00.494 align:start position:0% 05:00.494 --> 05:02.563 align:start position:0% In<00:06:30.400> a<00:06:30.639> world<00:06:30.800> with<00:06:30.960> no<00:06:31.199> blackout<00:06:31.680> blinds<00:06:32.080> or 05:02.563 --> 05:02.573 align:start position:0% In a world with no blackout blinds or 05:02.573 --> 05:04.324 align:start position:0% In a world with no blackout blinds or alarm<00:06:32.639> clocks,<00:06:33.199> ancient<00:06:33.680> sleep<00:06:33.919> and 05:04.324 --> 05:04.334 align:start position:0% alarm clocks, ancient sleep and 05:04.334 --> 05:06.404 align:start position:0% alarm clocks, ancient sleep and wakefulness<00:06:34.720> patterns<00:06:35.280> likely<00:06:35.680> aligned 05:06.404 --> 05:06.414 align:start position:0% wakefulness patterns likely aligned 05:06.414 --> 05:08.563 align:start position:0% wakefulness patterns likely aligned closely<00:06:36.639> to<00:06:36.800> the<00:06:36.960> rising<00:06:37.360> and<00:06:37.600> setting<00:06:37.919> of<00:06:38.080> the 05:08.563 --> 05:08.573 align:start position:0% closely to the rising and setting of the 05:08.573 --> 05:11.443 align:start position:0% closely to the rising and setting of the sun.<00:06:39.199> In<00:06:39.360> fact,<00:06:39.919> a<00:06:40.160> study<00:06:40.400> from<00:06:40.560> the<00:06:40.800> sleep<00:06:41.039> and 05:11.443 --> 05:11.453 align:start position:0% sun. In fact, a study from the sleep and 05:11.453 --> 05:12.964 align:start position:0% sun. In fact, a study from the sleep and chronobiology<00:06:42.000> laboratory<00:06:42.479> at<00:06:42.639> the 05:12.964 --> 05:12.974 align:start position:0% chronobiology laboratory at the 05:12.974 --> 05:14.964 align:start position:0% chronobiology laboratory at the University<00:06:43.039> of<00:06:43.280> Colorado<00:06:44.080> highlighted<00:06:44.560> the 05:14.964 --> 05:14.974 align:start position:0% University of Colorado highlighted the 05:14.974 --> 05:16.804 align:start position:0% University of Colorado highlighted the changes<00:06:45.039> in<00:06:45.280> present-day<00:06:45.840> humans<00:06:46.240> body 05:16.804 --> 05:16.814 align:start position:0% changes in present-day humans body 05:16.814 --> 05:19.044 align:start position:0% changes in present-day humans body clocks<00:06:47.039> after<00:06:47.360> as<00:06:47.600> little<00:06:48.000> as<00:06:48.240> one<00:06:48.479> week 05:19.044 --> 05:19.054 align:start position:0% clocks after as little as one week 05:19.054 --> 05:21.443 align:start position:0% clocks after as little as one week camping.<00:06:49.759> The<00:06:50.000> study<00:06:50.319> investigated<00:06:50.880> the 05:21.443 --> 05:21.453 align:start position:0% camping. The study investigated the 05:21.453 --> 05:23.364 align:start position:0% camping. The study investigated the participants<00:06:51.759> circadian<00:06:52.479> rhythm<00:06:52.880> by 05:23.364 --> 05:23.374 align:start position:0% participants circadian rhythm by 05:23.374 --> 05:25.604 align:start position:0% participants circadian rhythm by measuring<00:06:53.440> the<00:06:53.680> sleep<00:06:53.919> hormone<00:06:54.479> melatonin 05:25.604 --> 05:25.614 align:start position:0% measuring the sleep hormone melatonin 05:25.614 --> 05:27.924 align:start position:0% measuring the sleep hormone melatonin and<00:06:55.600> found<00:06:55.840> that<00:06:56.000> campus<00:06:56.479> circadian<00:06:57.120> clocks 05:27.924 --> 05:27.934 align:start position:0% and found that campus circadian clocks 05:27.934 --> 05:31.124 align:start position:0% and found that campus circadian clocks shifted<00:06:58.160> 2<00:06:58.479> hours<00:06:58.880> earlier<00:06:59.520> during<00:06:59.840> the<00:07:00.080> trip. 05:31.124 --> 05:31.134 align:start position:0% shifted 2 hours earlier during the trip. 05:31.134 --> 05:32.723 align:start position:0% shifted 2 hours earlier during the trip. The<00:07:01.039> lead<00:07:01.199> author<00:07:01.520> of<00:07:01.599> the<00:07:01.759> paper<00:07:02.080> suggested 05:32.723 --> 05:32.733 align:start position:0% The lead author of the paper suggested 05:32.733 --> 05:34.723 align:start position:0% The lead author of the paper suggested that<00:07:02.639> sleeping<00:07:03.039> outside<00:07:03.599> keeps<00:07:03.840> us<00:07:04.080> more<00:07:04.240> in 05:34.723 --> 05:34.733 align:start position:0% that sleeping outside keeps us more in 05:34.733 --> 05:36.964 align:start position:0% that sleeping outside keeps us more in sync<00:07:04.800> with<00:07:05.039> our<00:07:05.280> biology<00:07:05.919> and<00:07:06.160> went<00:07:06.319> on<00:07:06.479> to<00:07:06.639> run 05:36.964 --> 05:36.974 align:start position:0% sync with our biology and went on to run 05:36.974 --> 05:38.723 align:start position:0% sync with our biology and went on to run a<00:07:06.880> follow-up<00:07:07.280> study<00:07:07.440> in<00:07:07.680> the<00:07:07.759> cold<00:07:07.919> of<00:07:08.160> winter 05:38.723 --> 05:38.733 align:start position:0% a follow-up study in the cold of winter 05:38.733 --> 05:40.644 align:start position:0% a follow-up study in the cold of winter that<00:07:08.720> showed<00:07:08.960> a<00:07:09.120> more<00:07:09.280> disturbed<00:07:09.840> sleep<00:07:10.160> but 05:40.644 --> 05:40.654 align:start position:0% that showed a more disturbed sleep but 05:40.654 --> 05:43.044 align:start position:0% that showed a more disturbed sleep but more<00:07:10.720> sleep<00:07:11.120> overall.<00:07:12.240> Indeed,<00:07:12.639> this 05:43.044 --> 05:43.054 align:start position:0% more sleep overall. Indeed, this 05:43.054 --> 05:44.964 align:start position:0% more sleep overall. Indeed, this disturbed<00:07:13.440> but<00:07:13.759> effective<00:07:14.240> sleep<00:07:14.479> is 05:44.964 --> 05:44.974 align:start position:0% disturbed but effective sleep is 05:44.974 --> 05:46.644 align:start position:0% disturbed but effective sleep is observed<00:07:14.960> in<00:07:15.199> huntergatherer<00:07:15.840> societies 05:46.644 --> 05:46.654 align:start position:0% observed in huntergatherer societies 05:46.654 --> 05:49.364 align:start position:0% observed in huntergatherer societies today.<00:07:17.199> Evolutionary<00:07:17.840> anthropologist<00:07:18.639> David 05:49.364 --> 05:49.374 align:start position:0% today. Evolutionary anthropologist David 05:49.374 --> 05:51.124 align:start position:0% today. Evolutionary anthropologist David Samson<00:07:19.680> found<00:07:19.919> the<00:07:20.000> Hadza<00:07:20.479> people<00:07:20.720> of 05:51.124 --> 05:51.134 align:start position:0% Samson found the Hadza people of 05:51.134 --> 05:53.124 align:start position:0% Samson found the Hadza people of Tanzania<00:07:21.599> would<00:07:21.840> generally<00:07:22.240> perceive<00:07:22.639> they 05:53.124 --> 05:53.134 align:start position:0% Tanzania would generally perceive they 05:53.134 --> 05:55.283 align:start position:0% Tanzania would generally perceive they had<00:07:23.120> a<00:07:23.280> good<00:07:23.520> sleep<00:07:24.160> even<00:07:24.479> if<00:07:24.720> it<00:07:24.880> was 05:55.283 --> 05:55.293 align:start position:0% had a good sleep even if it was 05:55.293 --> 05:58.003 align:start position:0% had a good sleep even if it was disturbed.<00:07:26.240> Helen<00:07:26.639> Bore,<00:07:27.120> director<00:07:27.520> of<00:07:27.599> the 05:58.003 --> 05:58.013 align:start position:0% disturbed. Helen Bore, director of the 05:58.013 --> 06:00.163 align:start position:0% disturbed. Helen Bore, director of the Durham<00:07:28.160> Infancy<00:07:28.560> and<00:07:28.720> Sleep<00:07:29.039> Center<00:07:29.440> has<00:07:29.680> even 06:00.163 --> 06:00.173 align:start position:0% Durham Infancy and Sleep Center has even 06:00.173 --> 06:02.804 align:start position:0% Durham Infancy and Sleep Center has even suggested<00:07:30.560> the<00:07:30.800> idea<00:07:31.039> of<00:07:31.280> one<00:07:31.759> large<00:07:32.080> bank<00:07:32.319> of 06:02.804 --> 06:02.814 align:start position:0% suggested the idea of one large bank of 06:02.814 --> 06:05.204 align:start position:0% suggested the idea of one large bank of consolidated<00:07:33.360> sleep<00:07:33.759> has<00:07:34.080> only<00:07:34.240> existed<00:07:34.720> for 06:05.204 --> 06:05.214 align:start position:0% consolidated sleep has only existed for 06:05.214 --> 06:07.684 align:start position:0% consolidated sleep has only existed for the<00:07:35.120> last<00:07:35.360> two<00:07:35.680> centuries.<00:07:36.880> And<00:07:36.960> so<00:07:37.199> we<00:07:37.360> can 06:07.684 --> 06:07.694 align:start position:0% the last two centuries. And so we can 06:07.694 --> 06:09.843 align:start position:0% the last two centuries. And so we can envision<00:07:37.919> the<00:07:38.160> days<00:07:38.479> and<00:07:38.720> nights<00:07:39.039> of<00:07:39.280> ancient 06:09.843 --> 06:09.853 align:start position:0% envision the days and nights of ancient 06:09.853 --> 06:12.644 align:start position:0% envision the days and nights of ancient humans.<00:07:40.560> But<00:07:40.720> of<00:07:40.960> course,<00:07:41.360> human<00:07:41.680> days<00:07:42.080> didn't 06:12.644 --> 06:12.654 align:start position:0% humans. But of course, human days didn't 06:12.654 --> 06:14.723 align:start position:0% humans. But of course, human days didn't always<00:07:42.880> end<00:07:43.199> immediately<00:07:43.680> after<00:07:44.000> the<00:07:44.240> setting 06:14.723 --> 06:14.733 align:start position:0% always end immediately after the setting 06:14.733 --> 06:21.524 align:start position:0% always end immediately after the setting of<00:07:44.639> the<00:07:44.880> sun. 06:21.524 --> 06:21.534 align:start position:0% 06:21.534 --> 06:23.764 align:start position:0% Burned<00:07:51.680> animal<00:07:52.000> bone<00:07:52.319> and<00:07:52.560> plant<00:07:52.880> material<00:07:53.360> at 06:23.764 --> 06:23.774 align:start position:0% Burned animal bone and plant material at 06:23.774 --> 06:26.084 align:start position:0% Burned animal bone and plant material at Wanderwork<00:07:54.160> Cave<00:07:54.400> in<00:07:54.639> South<00:07:54.879> Africa<00:07:55.440> suggest 06:26.084 --> 06:26.094 align:start position:0% Wanderwork Cave in South Africa suggest 06:26.094 --> 06:28.563 align:start position:0% Wanderwork Cave in South Africa suggest that<00:07:56.000> Homo<00:07:56.400> erectus<00:07:56.960> was<00:07:57.120> using<00:07:57.440> fire<00:07:57.919> around 06:28.563 --> 06:28.573 align:start position:0% that Homo erectus was using fire around 06:28.573 --> 06:30.964 align:start position:0% that Homo erectus was using fire around 1<00:07:58.560> million<00:07:58.960> years<00:07:59.199> ago.<00:08:00.080> Of<00:08:00.319> course,<00:08:00.560> this 06:30.964 --> 06:30.974 align:start position:0% 1 million years ago. Of course, this 06:30.974 --> 06:32.644 align:start position:0% 1 million years ago. Of course, this would<00:08:00.879> have<00:08:01.039> marked<00:08:01.280> a<00:08:01.440> profound<00:08:01.919> transition 06:32.644 --> 06:32.654 align:start position:0% would have marked a profound transition 06:32.654 --> 06:34.563 align:start position:0% would have marked a profound transition in<00:08:02.720> human<00:08:02.960> evolution.<00:08:03.840> Where<00:08:04.000> earlier 06:34.563 --> 06:34.573 align:start position:0% in human evolution. Where earlier 06:34.573 --> 06:36.484 align:start position:0% in human evolution. Where earlier hominins<00:08:04.800> like<00:08:04.960> Oralopythecus<00:08:05.919> would<00:08:06.080> have 06:36.484 --> 06:36.494 align:start position:0% hominins like Oralopythecus would have 06:36.494 --> 06:38.244 align:start position:0% hominins like Oralopythecus would have retreated<00:08:06.560> to<00:08:06.720> the<00:08:06.879> trees<00:08:07.199> when<00:08:07.360> the<00:08:07.520> sun<00:08:07.759> went 06:38.244 --> 06:38.254 align:start position:0% retreated to the trees when the sun went 06:38.254 --> 06:40.563 align:start position:0% retreated to the trees when the sun went down,<00:08:08.479> groups<00:08:08.800> of<00:08:08.960> Homo<00:08:09.360> erectus<00:08:10.080> could 06:40.563 --> 06:40.573 align:start position:0% down, groups of Homo erectus could 06:40.573 --> 06:43.524 align:start position:0% down, groups of Homo erectus could kindle<00:08:10.720> a<00:08:10.960> flame.<00:08:12.000> It<00:08:12.160> would<00:08:12.319> keep<00:08:12.479> them<00:08:12.720> warm, 06:43.524 --> 06:43.534 align:start position:0% kindle a flame. It would keep them warm, 06:43.534 --> 06:46.163 align:start position:0% kindle a flame. It would keep them warm, cook<00:08:13.599> highquality<00:08:14.319> food,<00:08:14.960> and<00:08:15.360> discourage 06:46.163 --> 06:46.173 align:start position:0% cook highquality food, and discourage 06:46.173 --> 06:48.723 align:start position:0% cook highquality food, and discourage predators.<00:08:16.960> And<00:08:17.120> indeed,<00:08:17.520> ever<00:08:17.759> since<00:08:18.000> then, 06:48.723 --> 06:48.733 align:start position:0% predators. And indeed, ever since then, 06:48.733 --> 06:51.044 align:start position:0% predators. And indeed, ever since then, fire<00:08:18.879> has<00:08:19.039> become<00:08:19.280> a<00:08:19.520> central<00:08:19.919> part<00:08:20.240> of<00:08:20.479> every 06:51.044 --> 06:51.054 align:start position:0% fire has become a central part of every 06:51.054 --> 06:53.924 align:start position:0% fire has become a central part of every human<00:08:21.280> community.<00:08:22.160> For<00:08:22.240> example,<00:08:22.800> just<00:08:23.120> 3,000 06:53.924 --> 06:53.934 align:start position:0% human community. For example, just 3,000 06:53.934 --> 06:55.364 align:start position:0% human community. For example, just 3,000 years<00:08:23.840> after<00:08:24.080> the<00:08:24.240> footprints<00:08:24.720> were<00:08:24.800> made<00:08:24.960> at 06:55.364 --> 06:55.374 align:start position:0% years after the footprints were made at 06:55.374 --> 06:57.524 align:start position:0% years after the footprints were made at the<00:08:25.199> Paleo<00:08:25.599> Lake<00:08:25.840> Otero,<00:08:26.639> researchers<00:08:27.120> at 06:57.524 --> 06:57.534 align:start position:0% the Paleo Lake Otero, researchers at 06:57.534 --> 06:59.604 align:start position:0% the Paleo Lake Otero, researchers at O'Haro,<00:08:27.919> Israel,<00:08:28.479> have<00:08:28.639> found<00:08:28.800> that<00:08:29.039> people 06:59.604 --> 06:59.614 align:start position:0% O'Haro, Israel, have found that people 06:59.614 --> 07:02.403 align:start position:0% O'Haro, Israel, have found that people built<00:08:29.680> oval<00:08:30.160> brush<00:08:30.479> huts,<00:08:31.199> each<00:08:31.520> constructed 07:02.403 --> 07:02.413 align:start position:0% built oval brush huts, each constructed 07:02.413 --> 07:05.044 align:start position:0% built oval brush huts, each constructed around<00:08:32.479> a<00:08:32.719> central<00:08:33.200> hearth.<00:08:34.159> But<00:08:34.320> of<00:08:34.479> course, 07:05.044 --> 07:05.054 align:start position:0% around a central hearth. But of course, 07:05.054 --> 07:06.723 align:start position:0% around a central hearth. But of course, for<00:08:34.959> most<00:08:35.120> of<00:08:35.279> the<00:08:35.360> preceding<00:08:35.839> million<00:08:36.240> years 07:06.723 --> 07:06.733 align:start position:0% for most of the preceding million years 07:06.733 --> 07:09.444 align:start position:0% for most of the preceding million years or<00:08:36.719> more,<00:08:37.279> there<00:08:37.519> were<00:08:37.919> no<00:08:38.240> brush<00:08:38.479> huts.<00:08:39.120> And 07:09.444 --> 07:09.454 align:start position:0% or more, there were no brush huts. And 07:09.454 --> 07:11.044 align:start position:0% or more, there were no brush huts. And so<00:08:39.279> over<00:08:39.519> the<00:08:39.599> vast<00:08:39.919> majority<00:08:40.240> of<00:08:40.399> the<00:08:40.560> time 07:11.044 --> 07:11.054 align:start position:0% so over the vast majority of the time 07:11.054 --> 07:12.884 align:start position:0% so over the vast majority of the time humans<00:08:41.039> have<00:08:41.200> been<00:08:41.360> making<00:08:41.680> fires,<00:08:42.320> they<00:08:42.479> were 07:12.884 --> 07:12.894 align:start position:0% humans have been making fires, they were 07:12.894 --> 07:15.444 align:start position:0% humans have been making fires, they were likely<00:08:42.959> kindled<00:08:43.440> in<00:08:43.599> caves<00:08:44.159> or<00:08:44.399> in<00:08:44.640> and<00:08:44.880> around 07:15.444 --> 07:15.454 align:start position:0% likely kindled in caves or in and around 07:15.454 --> 07:18.244 align:start position:0% likely kindled in caves or in and around the<00:08:45.440> most<00:08:45.600> rudimentary<00:08:46.320> of<00:08:46.640> structures.<00:08:47.839> And 07:18.244 --> 07:18.254 align:start position:0% the most rudimentary of structures. And 07:18.254 --> 07:20.164 align:start position:0% the most rudimentary of structures. And anthropologist<00:08:48.800> Pauly<00:08:49.040> Whisner<00:08:49.600> at<00:08:49.760> the 07:20.164 --> 07:20.174 align:start position:0% anthropologist Pauly Whisner at the 07:20.174 --> 07:22.404 align:start position:0% anthropologist Pauly Whisner at the University<00:08:50.240> of<00:08:50.480> Utah<00:08:51.120> argues<00:08:51.519> that<00:08:51.839> fire 07:22.404 --> 07:22.414 align:start position:0% University of Utah argues that fire 07:22.414 --> 07:30.244 align:start position:0% University of Utah argues that fire light<00:08:52.640> effectively<00:08:53.360> created<00:08:54.240> new<00:08:54.640> time. 07:30.244 --> 07:30.254 align:start position:0% 07:30.254 --> 07:32.244 align:start position:0% For<00:09:00.240> earlier<00:09:00.560> hominins,<00:09:01.200> after<00:09:01.519> dark,<00:09:01.839> there 07:32.244 --> 07:32.254 align:start position:0% For earlier hominins, after dark, there 07:32.254 --> 07:34.884 align:start position:0% For earlier hominins, after dark, there had<00:09:02.160> been<00:09:02.240> little<00:09:02.480> to<00:09:02.640> do<00:09:02.800> but<00:09:03.120> sleep.<00:09:04.080> Fire 07:34.884 --> 07:34.894 align:start position:0% had been little to do but sleep. Fire 07:34.894 --> 07:37.044 align:start position:0% had been little to do but sleep. Fire changed<00:09:05.120> everything.<00:09:05.920> To<00:09:06.240> understand<00:09:06.560> what 07:37.044 --> 07:37.054 align:start position:0% changed everything. To understand what 07:37.054 --> 07:38.643 align:start position:0% changed everything. To understand what happened<00:09:07.040> in<00:09:07.279> those<00:09:07.519> fire<00:09:07.760> lit<00:09:08.000> hours, 07:38.643 --> 07:38.653 align:start position:0% happened in those fire lit hours, 07:38.653 --> 07:40.484 align:start position:0% happened in those fire lit hours, Whisner<00:09:08.959> spent<00:09:09.120> time<00:09:09.279> with<00:09:09.440> hunter<00:09:09.760> gatherers 07:40.484 --> 07:40.494 align:start position:0% Whisner spent time with hunter gatherers 07:40.494 --> 07:42.724 align:start position:0% Whisner spent time with hunter gatherers in<00:09:10.480> South<00:09:10.720> Africa.<00:09:11.519> During<00:09:11.839> the<00:09:12.000> day,<00:09:12.240> she 07:42.724 --> 07:42.734 align:start position:0% in South Africa. During the day, she 07:42.734 --> 07:44.643 align:start position:0% in South Africa. During the day, she observed<00:09:12.800> that<00:09:13.040> conversation<00:09:13.680> tended<00:09:14.080> to<00:09:14.240> be 07:44.643 --> 07:44.653 align:start position:0% observed that conversation tended to be 07:44.653 --> 07:46.564 align:start position:0% observed that conversation tended to be practical.<00:09:15.200> People<00:09:15.440> would<00:09:15.600> discuss<00:09:15.920> hunting 07:46.564 --> 07:46.574 align:start position:0% practical. People would discuss hunting 07:46.574 --> 07:48.404 align:start position:0% practical. People would discuss hunting strategies<00:09:16.720> and<00:09:17.040> resource<00:09:17.360> availability 07:48.404 --> 07:48.414 align:start position:0% strategies and resource availability 07:48.414 --> 07:50.244 align:start position:0% strategies and resource availability with<00:09:18.399> only<00:09:18.560> a<00:09:18.720> small<00:09:18.880> amount<00:09:19.120> of<00:09:19.360> gossip<00:09:19.760> or 07:50.244 --> 07:50.254 align:start position:0% with only a small amount of gossip or 07:50.254 --> 07:52.643 align:start position:0% with only a small amount of gossip or small<00:09:20.399> talk.<00:09:21.120> But<00:09:21.200> around<00:09:21.519> the<00:09:21.760> fire<00:09:22.160> at 07:52.643 --> 07:52.653 align:start position:0% small talk. But around the fire at 07:52.653 --> 07:55.523 align:start position:0% small talk. But around the fire at night,<00:09:23.200> something<00:09:23.680> shifted.<00:09:24.800> Talk<00:09:25.120> would 07:55.523 --> 07:55.533 align:start position:0% night, something shifted. Talk would 07:55.533 --> 07:57.684 align:start position:0% night, something shifted. Talk would turn<00:09:25.519> to<00:09:25.680> deeper<00:09:26.080> subjects,<00:09:26.880> and<00:09:27.040> the<00:09:27.200> camp 07:57.684 --> 07:57.694 align:start position:0% turn to deeper subjects, and the camp 07:57.694 --> 08:00.004 align:start position:0% turn to deeper subjects, and the camp would<00:09:27.680> gather<00:09:27.920> to<00:09:28.160> sing,<00:09:28.720> dance,<00:09:29.200> and<00:09:29.440> tell 08:00.004 --> 08:00.014 align:start position:0% would gather to sing, dance, and tell 08:00.014 --> 08:02.404 align:start position:0% would gather to sing, dance, and tell stories.<00:09:30.880> For<00:09:31.040> hunter<00:09:31.360> gatherers,<00:09:31.920> these 08:02.404 --> 08:02.414 align:start position:0% stories. For hunter gatherers, these 08:02.414 --> 08:04.164 align:start position:0% stories. For hunter gatherers, these stories<00:09:32.640> carried<00:09:33.040> practical<00:09:33.519> knowledge 08:04.164 --> 08:04.174 align:start position:0% stories carried practical knowledge 08:04.174 --> 08:06.484 align:start position:0% stories carried practical knowledge about<00:09:34.240> animals,<00:09:34.880> landscapes,<00:09:35.600> and<00:09:35.839> the<00:09:36.000> land 08:06.484 --> 08:06.494 align:start position:0% about animals, landscapes, and the land 08:06.494 --> 08:08.724 align:start position:0% about animals, landscapes, and the land around<00:09:36.560> them.<00:09:37.120> But<00:09:37.279> they<00:09:37.519> also<00:09:37.920> transmitted 08:08.724 --> 08:08.734 align:start position:0% around them. But they also transmitted 08:08.734 --> 08:12.083 align:start position:0% around them. But they also transmitted shared<00:09:39.040> identity<00:09:39.600> and<00:09:40.000> social<00:09:40.399> rules.<00:09:41.680> Of 08:12.083 --> 08:12.093 align:start position:0% shared identity and social rules. Of 08:12.093 --> 08:13.763 align:start position:0% shared identity and social rules. Of course,<00:09:42.080> we<00:09:42.240> must<00:09:42.480> remember<00:09:42.800> that<00:09:43.200> human 08:13.763 --> 08:13.773 align:start position:0% course, we must remember that human 08:13.773 --> 08:16.324 align:start position:0% course, we must remember that human culture<00:09:43.839> and<00:09:44.080> society<00:09:44.800> changed<00:09:45.279> over<00:09:45.600> time, 08:16.324 --> 08:16.334 align:start position:0% culture and society changed over time, 08:16.334 --> 08:18.643 align:start position:0% culture and society changed over time, and<00:09:46.320> it's<00:09:46.480> unlikely<00:09:46.959> Homoctus,<00:09:47.839> for<00:09:47.920> example, 08:18.643 --> 08:18.653 align:start position:0% and it's unlikely Homoctus, for example, 08:18.653 --> 08:20.724 align:start position:0% and it's unlikely Homoctus, for example, were<00:09:48.640> telling<00:09:48.959> stories<00:09:49.360> around<00:09:49.600> the<00:09:49.839> fire<00:09:50.240> a 08:20.724 --> 08:20.734 align:start position:0% were telling stories around the fire a 08:20.734 --> 08:22.804 align:start position:0% were telling stories around the fire a million<00:09:50.800> years<00:09:51.040> ago.<00:09:51.839> But<00:09:52.000> even<00:09:52.160> in<00:09:52.399> the 08:22.804 --> 08:22.814 align:start position:0% million years ago. But even in the 08:22.814 --> 08:25.124 align:start position:0% million years ago. But even in the earliest<00:09:52.959> days<00:09:53.200> of<00:09:53.360> human<00:09:53.760> fire,<00:09:54.399> the<00:09:54.640> fire 08:25.124 --> 08:25.134 align:start position:0% earliest days of human fire, the fire 08:25.134 --> 08:27.124 align:start position:0% earliest days of human fire, the fire itself<00:09:55.680> could<00:09:55.920> have<00:09:56.000> been<00:09:56.080> a<00:09:56.320> remarkably 08:27.124 --> 08:27.134 align:start position:0% itself could have been a remarkably 08:27.134 --> 08:29.924 align:start position:0% itself could have been a remarkably strong<00:09:57.360> shared<00:09:57.839> experience.<00:09:59.279> and<00:09:59.440> the 08:29.924 --> 08:29.934 align:start position:0% strong shared experience. and the 08:29.934 --> 08:31.844 align:start position:0% strong shared experience. and the setting<00:10:00.000> of<00:10:00.160> the<00:10:00.320> fire<00:10:00.720> may<00:10:00.959> have<00:10:01.120> allowed<00:10:01.360> the 08:31.844 --> 08:31.854 align:start position:0% setting of the fire may have allowed the 08:31.854 --> 08:34.164 align:start position:0% setting of the fire may have allowed the practice<00:10:01.920> of<00:10:02.080> storytelling<00:10:02.880> to<00:10:03.120> evolve<00:10:03.600> over 08:34.164 --> 08:34.174 align:start position:0% practice of storytelling to evolve over 08:34.174 --> 08:38.164 align:start position:0% practice of storytelling to evolve over time. 08:38.164 --> 08:38.174 align:start position:0% 08:38.174 --> 08:41.124 align:start position:0% And<00:10:08.160> what's<00:10:08.399> more,<00:10:09.040> around<00:10:09.440> those<00:10:09.760> fires<00:10:10.720> lay 08:41.124 --> 08:41.134 align:start position:0% And what's more, around those fires lay 08:41.134 --> 08:44.724 align:start position:0% And what's more, around those fires lay objects<00:10:11.680> that<00:10:12.000> were<00:10:12.240> useful. 08:44.724 --> 08:44.734 align:start position:0% objects that were useful. 08:44.734 --> 08:47.124 align:start position:0% objects that were useful. Not<00:10:14.720> all<00:10:14.959> materials<00:10:15.440> fossilize<00:10:16.160> well,<00:10:16.720> so 08:47.124 --> 08:47.134 align:start position:0% Not all materials fossilize well, so 08:47.134 --> 08:48.964 align:start position:0% Not all materials fossilize well, so it's<00:10:17.120> hard<00:10:17.279> to<00:10:17.440> inventory<00:10:18.000> what<00:10:18.240> possessions 08:48.964 --> 08:48.974 align:start position:0% it's hard to inventory what possessions 08:48.974 --> 08:51.523 align:start position:0% it's hard to inventory what possessions our<00:10:18.880> huntergatherer<00:10:19.600> ancestors<00:10:20.160> owned,<00:10:21.120> but 08:51.523 --> 08:51.533 align:start position:0% our huntergatherer ancestors owned, but 08:51.533 --> 08:53.763 align:start position:0% our huntergatherer ancestors owned, but it<00:10:21.519> is<00:10:21.680> important<00:10:22.000> to<00:10:22.160> note<00:10:22.640> the<00:10:22.880> relatively 08:53.763 --> 08:53.773 align:start position:0% it is important to note the relatively 08:53.773 --> 08:56.164 align:start position:0% it is important to note the relatively few<00:10:23.760> forms<00:10:24.320> the<00:10:24.640> surviving<00:10:25.120> material<00:10:25.600> culture 08:56.164 --> 08:56.174 align:start position:0% few forms the surviving material culture 08:56.174 --> 08:58.724 align:start position:0% few forms the surviving material culture of<00:10:26.160> humans<00:10:26.480> more<00:10:26.640> than<00:10:26.880> 100,000<00:10:27.519> years<00:10:27.760> ago 08:58.724 --> 08:58.734 align:start position:0% of humans more than 100,000 years ago 08:58.734 --> 09:02.083 align:start position:0% of humans more than 100,000 years ago take.<00:10:29.600> Most<00:10:29.920> items<00:10:30.399> are<00:10:30.640> practical,<00:10:31.440> such<00:10:31.600> as 09:02.083 --> 09:02.093 align:start position:0% take. Most items are practical, such as 09:02.093 --> 09:03.924 align:start position:0% take. Most items are practical, such as stone<00:10:32.160> tools<00:10:32.480> for<00:10:32.640> hunting<00:10:32.880> and<00:10:33.120> butchering 09:03.924 --> 09:03.934 align:start position:0% stone tools for hunting and butchering 09:03.934 --> 09:06.164 align:start position:0% stone tools for hunting and butchering or<00:10:33.920> ostrich<00:10:34.320> eggshells<00:10:35.040> for<00:10:35.279> storing<00:10:35.680> and 09:06.164 --> 09:06.174 align:start position:0% or ostrich eggshells for storing and 09:06.174 --> 09:08.643 align:start position:0% or ostrich eggshells for storing and carrying<00:10:36.480> water.<00:10:37.600> And<00:10:37.760> of<00:10:37.920> course,<00:10:38.160> this 09:08.643 --> 09:08.653 align:start position:0% carrying water. And of course, this 09:08.653 --> 09:10.724 align:start position:0% carrying water. And of course, this makes<00:10:38.640> sense<00:10:39.200> given<00:10:39.519> that<00:10:39.760> every<00:10:40.000> possession 09:10.724 --> 09:10.734 align:start position:0% makes sense given that every possession 09:10.734 --> 09:12.484 align:start position:0% makes sense given that every possession has<00:10:40.640> to<00:10:40.800> be<00:10:40.880> carried<00:10:41.200> in<00:10:41.360> a<00:10:41.519> nomadic<00:10:42.000> or 09:12.484 --> 09:12.494 align:start position:0% has to be carried in a nomadic or 09:12.494 --> 09:15.044 align:start position:0% has to be carried in a nomadic or semi-nomadic<00:10:43.120> lifestyle.<00:10:44.079> So<00:10:44.480> every 09:15.044 --> 09:15.054 align:start position:0% semi-nomadic lifestyle. So every 09:15.054 --> 09:17.763 align:start position:0% semi-nomadic lifestyle. So every possession<00:10:45.440> has<00:10:45.680> to<00:10:45.920> earn<00:10:46.160> its<00:10:46.480> place. 09:17.763 --> 09:17.773 align:start position:0% possession has to earn its place. 09:17.773 --> 09:19.924 align:start position:0% possession has to earn its place. Anthropologist<00:10:48.320> Marshall<00:10:48.720> Salins<00:10:49.440> called 09:19.924 --> 09:19.934 align:start position:0% Anthropologist Marshall Salins called 09:19.934 --> 09:21.924 align:start position:0% Anthropologist Marshall Salins called early<00:10:50.000> hunter<00:10:50.320> gatherers<00:10:50.880> the<00:10:51.200> original 09:21.924 --> 09:21.934 align:start position:0% early hunter gatherers the original 09:21.934 --> 09:24.484 align:start position:0% early hunter gatherers the original affluent<00:10:52.320> society,<00:10:53.279> suggesting<00:10:53.760> they<00:10:54.079> were 09:24.484 --> 09:24.494 align:start position:0% affluent society, suggesting they were 09:24.494 --> 09:26.964 align:start position:0% affluent society, suggesting they were able<00:10:54.480> to<00:10:54.720> satisfy<00:10:55.279> their<00:10:55.519> material<00:10:56.000> needs, 09:26.964 --> 09:26.974 align:start position:0% able to satisfy their material needs, 09:26.974 --> 09:29.284 align:start position:0% able to satisfy their material needs, what<00:10:56.959> he<00:10:57.200> called<00:10:57.760> affluence<00:10:58.560> without 09:29.284 --> 09:29.294 align:start position:0% what he called affluence without 09:29.294 --> 09:32.004 align:start position:0% what he called affluence without abundance.<00:11:00.399> And<00:11:00.640> indeed,<00:11:01.040> although<00:11:01.440> ancient 09:32.004 --> 09:32.014 align:start position:0% abundance. And indeed, although ancient 09:32.014 --> 09:33.604 align:start position:0% abundance. And indeed, although ancient hunter<00:11:02.160> gatherers<00:11:02.560> lived<00:11:02.880> physically 09:33.604 --> 09:33.614 align:start position:0% hunter gatherers lived physically 09:33.614 --> 09:35.763 align:start position:0% hunter gatherers lived physically demanding<00:11:03.839> lives,<00:11:04.560> exposed<00:11:04.959> to<00:11:05.120> the<00:11:05.200> elements 09:35.763 --> 09:35.773 align:start position:0% demanding lives, exposed to the elements 09:35.773 --> 09:37.844 align:start position:0% demanding lives, exposed to the elements and<00:11:05.680> at<00:11:05.839> risk<00:11:06.079> of<00:11:06.160> predation,<00:11:06.959> perhaps<00:11:07.279> there 09:37.844 --> 09:37.854 align:start position:0% and at risk of predation, perhaps there 09:37.854 --> 09:39.924 align:start position:0% and at risk of predation, perhaps there was<00:11:07.839> a<00:11:08.079> more<00:11:08.240> straightforward<00:11:08.959> nature<00:11:09.279> to<00:11:09.519> the 09:39.924 --> 09:39.934 align:start position:0% was a more straightforward nature to the 09:39.934 --> 09:42.643 align:start position:0% was a more straightforward nature to the challenges<00:11:10.160> they<00:11:10.399> faced<00:11:10.720> in<00:11:11.040> daily<00:11:11.440> life.<00:11:12.160> In 09:42.643 --> 09:42.653 align:start position:0% challenges they faced in daily life. In 09:42.653 --> 09:44.244 align:start position:0% challenges they faced in daily life. In general,<00:11:12.880> their<00:11:13.120> problems<00:11:13.519> would<00:11:13.680> have<00:11:13.839> been 09:44.244 --> 09:44.254 align:start position:0% general, their problems would have been 09:44.254 --> 09:46.244 align:start position:0% general, their problems would have been immediate<00:11:14.399> ones,<00:11:15.040> which<00:11:15.279> creates<00:11:15.760> very 09:46.244 --> 09:46.254 align:start position:0% immediate ones, which creates very 09:46.254 --> 09:49.763 align:start position:0% immediate ones, which creates very different<00:11:16.399> activity<00:11:17.040> in<00:11:17.279> the<00:11:17.519> human<00:11:17.920> brain. 09:49.763 --> 09:49.773 align:start position:0% different activity in the human brain. 09:49.773 --> 09:51.844 align:start position:0% different activity in the human brain. Neuroscientist<00:11:20.240> Judson<00:11:20.720> Brewer<00:11:21.200> has<00:11:21.440> shown 09:51.844 --> 09:51.854 align:start position:0% Neuroscientist Judson Brewer has shown 09:51.854 --> 09:53.604 align:start position:0% Neuroscientist Judson Brewer has shown that<00:11:21.760> when<00:11:22.000> people<00:11:22.240> train<00:11:22.560> themselves<00:11:23.120> to 09:53.604 --> 09:53.614 align:start position:0% that when people train themselves to 09:53.614 --> 09:55.203 align:start position:0% that when people train themselves to focus<00:11:23.680> on<00:11:23.839> the<00:11:24.000> present<00:11:24.320> moment<00:11:24.720> through 09:55.203 --> 09:55.213 align:start position:0% focus on the present moment through 09:55.213 --> 09:57.444 align:start position:0% focus on the present moment through meditation,<00:11:26.000> activity<00:11:26.399> in<00:11:26.640> the<00:11:26.800> brain's 09:57.444 --> 09:57.454 align:start position:0% meditation, activity in the brain's 09:57.454 --> 09:59.604 align:start position:0% meditation, activity in the brain's default<00:11:27.680> mode<00:11:28.079> network,<00:11:28.800> the<00:11:29.040> system 09:59.604 --> 09:59.614 align:start position:0% default mode network, the system 09:59.614 --> 10:01.364 align:start position:0% default mode network, the system responsible<00:11:29.920> for<00:11:30.160> rumination<00:11:30.880> and 10:01.364 --> 10:01.374 align:start position:0% responsible for rumination and 10:01.374 --> 10:03.523 align:start position:0% responsible for rumination and self-reerential<00:11:32.079> thought,<00:11:32.800> drops 10:03.523 --> 10:03.533 align:start position:0% self-reerential thought, drops 10:03.533 --> 10:06.083 align:start position:0% self-reerential thought, drops significantly.<00:11:34.720> It's<00:11:35.040> tempting<00:11:35.360> to<00:11:35.519> wonder 10:06.083 --> 10:06.093 align:start position:0% significantly. It's tempting to wonder 10:06.093 --> 10:08.804 align:start position:0% significantly. It's tempting to wonder if<00:11:36.160> for<00:11:36.399> our<00:11:36.640> ancestors,<00:11:37.440> a<00:11:37.600> quieter<00:11:38.160> default 10:08.804 --> 10:08.814 align:start position:0% if for our ancestors, a quieter default 10:08.814 --> 10:11.364 align:start position:0% if for our ancestors, a quieter default mode<00:11:38.880> network<00:11:39.600> was<00:11:39.839> simply<00:11:40.160> the<00:11:40.399> norm. 10:11.364 --> 10:11.374 align:start position:0% mode network was simply the norm. 10:11.374 --> 10:13.203 align:start position:0% mode network was simply the norm. Without<00:11:41.519> the<00:11:41.760> complex<00:11:42.160> challenges<00:11:42.560> of<00:11:42.800> the 10:13.203 --> 10:13.213 align:start position:0% Without the complex challenges of the 10:13.213 --> 10:15.444 align:start position:0% Without the complex challenges of the modern<00:11:43.360> world,<00:11:43.920> their<00:11:44.160> lived<00:11:44.480> experience 10:15.444 --> 10:15.454 align:start position:0% modern world, their lived experience 10:15.454 --> 10:23.203 align:start position:0% modern world, their lived experience would<00:11:45.519> certainly<00:11:46.079> be<00:11:46.240> a<00:11:46.480> very<00:11:46.640> different<00:11:46.959> one. 10:23.203 --> 10:23.213 align:start position:0% 10:23.213 --> 10:25.284 align:start position:0% And<00:11:53.200> so<00:11:53.760> these<00:11:54.000> were<00:11:54.160> the<00:11:54.320> huntergatherer 10:25.284 --> 10:25.294 align:start position:0% And so these were the huntergatherer 10:25.294 --> 10:27.364 align:start position:0% And so these were the huntergatherer lives<00:11:55.360> our<00:11:55.600> ancestors<00:11:56.079> lived<00:11:56.320> a<00:11:56.560> version<00:11:56.800> of 10:27.364 --> 10:27.374 align:start position:0% lives our ancestors lived a version of 10:27.374 --> 10:30.244 align:start position:0% lives our ancestors lived a version of for<00:11:57.360> over<00:11:57.600> a<00:11:57.839> million<00:11:58.240> years.<00:11:59.360> Culture<00:11:59.760> did 10:30.244 --> 10:30.254 align:start position:0% for over a million years. Culture did 10:30.254 --> 10:32.404 align:start position:0% for over a million years. Culture did evolve<00:12:00.399> over<00:12:00.720> time,<00:12:01.120> but<00:12:01.360> huge<00:12:01.600> aspects<00:12:02.000> of 10:32.404 --> 10:32.414 align:start position:0% evolve over time, but huge aspects of 10:32.414 --> 10:35.124 align:start position:0% evolve over time, but huge aspects of their<00:12:02.399> daily<00:12:02.800> lives<00:12:03.200> kept<00:12:03.600> similarities<00:12:04.560> and 10:35.124 --> 10:35.134 align:start position:0% their daily lives kept similarities and 10:35.134 --> 10:37.284 align:start position:0% their daily lives kept similarities and contrasts<00:12:05.440> with<00:12:05.680> the<00:12:05.839> lifestyles<00:12:06.480> most<00:12:06.720> of<00:12:06.880> us 10:37.284 --> 10:37.294 align:start position:0% contrasts with the lifestyles most of us 10:37.294 --> 10:40.964 align:start position:0% contrasts with the lifestyles most of us live<00:12:07.360> today.<00:12:08.240> But<00:12:08.399> around<00:12:08.800> 12,000<00:12:09.519> years<00:12:09.760> ago, 10:40.964 --> 10:40.974 align:start position:0% live today. But around 12,000 years ago, 10:40.974 --> 10:44.164 align:start position:0% live today. But around 12,000 years ago, something<00:12:11.519> changed.<00:12:12.720> For<00:12:12.959> the<00:12:13.200> first<00:12:13.440> time<00:12:13.680> in 10:44.164 --> 10:44.174 align:start position:0% something changed. For the first time in 10:44.174 --> 10:46.244 align:start position:0% something changed. For the first time in the<00:12:14.079> long<00:12:14.399> history<00:12:14.639> of<00:12:14.880> our<00:12:15.040> genus,<00:12:15.760> people 10:46.244 --> 10:46.254 align:start position:0% the long history of our genus, people 10:46.254 --> 10:48.564 align:start position:0% the long history of our genus, people began<00:12:16.320> to<00:12:16.480> farm<00:12:16.800> the<00:12:17.040> land<00:12:17.360> and<00:12:17.680> settle<00:12:18.000> in 10:48.564 --> 10:48.574 align:start position:0% began to farm the land and settle in 10:48.574 --> 10:51.523 align:start position:0% began to farm the land and settle in permanent<00:12:18.800> homes.<00:12:19.839> The<00:12:20.079> cultivation<00:12:20.639> of<00:12:20.880> wild 10:51.523 --> 10:51.533 align:start position:0% permanent homes. The cultivation of wild 10:51.533 --> 10:53.364 align:start position:0% permanent homes. The cultivation of wild plants<00:12:21.920> gradually<00:12:22.399> became<00:12:22.800> true 10:53.364 --> 10:53.374 align:start position:0% plants gradually became true 10:53.374 --> 10:55.284 align:start position:0% plants gradually became true domestication<00:12:23.920> as<00:12:24.240> humans<00:12:24.639> became 10:55.284 --> 10:55.294 align:start position:0% domestication as humans became 10:55.294 --> 10:57.763 align:start position:0% domestication as humans became increasingly<00:12:25.680> dependent<00:12:26.160> on<00:12:26.560> cereals<00:12:27.200> and 10:57.763 --> 10:57.773 align:start position:0% increasingly dependent on cereals and 10:57.773 --> 11:01.124 align:start position:0% increasingly dependent on cereals and grains.<00:12:28.720> And<00:12:28.959> this<00:12:29.360> Neolithic<00:12:30.079> revolution 11:01.124 --> 11:01.134 align:start position:0% grains. And this Neolithic revolution 11:01.134 --> 11:03.523 align:start position:0% grains. And this Neolithic revolution would<00:12:31.120> not<00:12:31.360> only<00:12:31.519> change<00:12:31.839> our<00:12:32.079> behavior<00:12:32.959> but 11:03.523 --> 11:03.533 align:start position:0% would not only change our behavior but 11:03.533 --> 11:07.284 align:start position:0% would not only change our behavior but even<00:12:33.760> our<00:12:34.160> very<00:12:34.639> DNA.<00:12:36.079> In<00:12:36.240> a<00:12:36.399> paper<00:12:36.720> published 11:07.284 --> 11:07.294 align:start position:0% even our very DNA. In a paper published 11:07.294 --> 11:10.323 align:start position:0% even our very DNA. In a paper published in<00:12:37.279> Nature<00:12:37.680> in<00:12:37.920> April<00:12:38.320> 2026,<00:12:39.519> researchers 11:10.323 --> 11:10.333 align:start position:0% in Nature in April 2026, researchers 11:10.333 --> 11:12.564 align:start position:0% in Nature in April 2026, researchers found<00:12:40.240> that<00:12:40.399> many<00:12:40.720> alals,<00:12:41.680> variants<00:12:42.079> of<00:12:42.160> a 11:12.564 --> 11:12.574 align:start position:0% found that many alals, variants of a 11:12.574 --> 11:14.244 align:start position:0% found that many alals, variants of a gene<00:12:42.560> that<00:12:42.800> produces<00:12:43.200> different<00:12:43.440> traits<00:12:43.680> in 11:14.244 --> 11:14.254 align:start position:0% gene that produces different traits in 11:14.254 --> 11:16.564 align:start position:0% gene that produces different traits in different<00:12:44.240> individuals,<00:12:45.279> changed<00:12:45.920> after 11:16.564 --> 11:16.574 align:start position:0% different individuals, changed after 11:16.574 --> 11:19.284 align:start position:0% different individuals, changed after farming<00:12:46.800> began.<00:12:48.000> The<00:12:48.240> strongest<00:12:48.560> signals 11:19.284 --> 11:19.294 align:start position:0% farming began. The strongest signals 11:19.294 --> 11:21.844 align:start position:0% farming began. The strongest signals involve<00:12:49.440> immunereated<00:12:50.399> regions,<00:12:51.200> likely 11:21.844 --> 11:21.854 align:start position:0% involve immunereated regions, likely 11:21.854 --> 11:23.523 align:start position:0% involve immunereated regions, likely influenced<00:12:52.079> by<00:12:52.240> the<00:12:52.399> increased<00:12:52.800> spread<00:12:53.040> of 11:23.523 --> 11:23.533 align:start position:0% influenced by the increased spread of 11:23.533 --> 11:25.444 align:start position:0% influenced by the increased spread of disease<00:12:53.600> within<00:12:54.000> more<00:12:54.160> densely<00:12:54.639> populated 11:25.444 --> 11:25.454 align:start position:0% disease within more densely populated 11:25.454 --> 11:28.323 align:start position:0% disease within more densely populated towns<00:12:55.519> and<00:12:55.839> cities.<00:12:56.880> Others<00:12:57.279> include<00:12:57.680> traits 11:28.323 --> 11:28.333 align:start position:0% towns and cities. Others include traits 11:28.333 --> 11:30.724 align:start position:0% towns and cities. Others include traits linked<00:12:58.240> to<00:12:58.399> metabolism.<00:12:59.519> One<00:12:59.760> gene<00:13:00.000> led<00:13:00.240> to<00:13:00.320> a 11:30.724 --> 11:30.734 align:start position:0% linked to metabolism. One gene led to a 11:30.734 --> 11:32.564 align:start position:0% linked to metabolism. One gene led to a lowering<00:13:00.800> of<00:13:01.040> body<00:13:01.279> mass<00:13:01.600> in<00:13:01.760> more<00:13:02.000> recent 11:32.564 --> 11:32.574 align:start position:0% lowering of body mass in more recent 11:32.574 --> 11:34.964 align:start position:0% lowering of body mass in more recent generations,<00:13:03.440> probably<00:13:03.839> due<00:13:04.079> to<00:13:04.160> the<00:13:04.320> surplus 11:34.964 --> 11:34.974 align:start position:0% generations, probably due to the surplus 11:34.974 --> 11:36.883 align:start position:0% generations, probably due to the surplus of<00:13:04.959> calories<00:13:05.519> associated<00:13:06.079> with<00:13:06.320> crop 11:36.883 --> 11:36.893 align:start position:0% of calories associated with crop 11:36.893 --> 11:38.804 align:start position:0% of calories associated with crop domestication.<00:13:07.760> And<00:13:07.920> so<00:13:08.079> the<00:13:08.240> ancient 11:38.804 --> 11:38.814 align:start position:0% domestication. And so the ancient 11:38.814 --> 11:40.804 align:start position:0% domestication. And so the ancient huntergatherer<00:13:09.279> lifestyle,<00:13:10.079> what<00:13:10.240> we<00:13:10.399> can 11:40.804 --> 11:40.814 align:start position:0% huntergatherer lifestyle, what we can 11:40.814 --> 11:43.203 align:start position:0% huntergatherer lifestyle, what we can see<00:13:10.720> pieces<00:13:11.120> of<00:13:11.360> from<00:13:11.600> Kooififor<00:13:12.399> to<00:13:12.639> White 11:43.203 --> 11:43.213 align:start position:0% see pieces of from Kooififor to White 11:43.213 --> 11:54.643 align:start position:0% see pieces of from Kooififor to White Sands,<00:13:13.760> would<00:13:14.000> come<00:13:14.160> to<00:13:14.320> an<00:13:14.560> end. 11:54.643 --> 11:54.653 align:start position:0% 11:54.653 --> 11:56.564 align:start position:0% And<00:13:24.639> so<00:13:24.880> this<00:13:25.040> is<00:13:25.200> the<00:13:25.440> world<00:13:25.680> our<00:13:26.000> ancient 11:56.564 --> 11:56.574 align:start position:0% And so this is the world our ancient 11:56.574 --> 11:59.444 align:start position:0% And so this is the world our ancient human<00:13:26.639> ancestors<00:13:27.440> from<00:13:27.760> 100,000<00:13:28.560> years<00:13:28.720> ago 11:59.444 --> 11:59.454 align:start position:0% human ancestors from 100,000 years ago 11:59.454 --> 12:00.964 align:start position:0% human ancestors from 100,000 years ago would<00:13:29.440> have<00:13:29.600> lived<00:13:29.760> in.<00:13:30.240> They<00:13:30.399> would<00:13:30.560> have 12:00.964 --> 12:00.974 align:start position:0% would have lived in. They would have 12:00.974 --> 12:02.564 align:start position:0% would have lived in. They would have lived<00:13:30.880> their<00:13:31.120> whole<00:13:31.360> life<00:13:31.600> by<00:13:31.839> the<00:13:32.000> light<00:13:32.240> of 12:02.564 --> 12:02.574 align:start position:0% lived their whole life by the light of 12:02.574 --> 12:05.604 align:start position:0% lived their whole life by the light of the<00:13:32.560> sun,<00:13:33.120> moon,<00:13:33.680> stars,<00:13:34.160> or<00:13:34.480> fire.<00:13:35.120> They 12:05.604 --> 12:05.614 align:start position:0% the sun, moon, stars, or fire. They 12:05.614 --> 12:07.763 align:start position:0% the sun, moon, stars, or fire. They would<00:13:35.440> have<00:13:35.600> lived<00:13:35.920> in<00:13:36.160> small,<00:13:36.720> tight-knit 12:07.763 --> 12:07.773 align:start position:0% would have lived in small, tight-knit 12:07.773 --> 12:09.844 align:start position:0% would have lived in small, tight-knit social<00:13:37.920> groups.<00:13:38.800> They<00:13:38.959> would<00:13:39.120> have<00:13:39.200> had<00:13:39.360> few 12:09.844 --> 12:09.854 align:start position:0% social groups. They would have had few 12:09.854 --> 12:12.083 align:start position:0% social groups. They would have had few possessions<00:13:40.399> and<00:13:40.560> likely<00:13:40.959> experience<00:13:41.519> the 12:12.083 --> 12:12.093 align:start position:0% possessions and likely experience the 12:12.093 --> 12:14.323 align:start position:0% possessions and likely experience the world<00:13:42.079> without<00:13:42.480> an<00:13:42.720> overactive<00:13:43.360> default<00:13:43.760> mode 12:14.323 --> 12:14.333 align:start position:0% world without an overactive default mode 12:14.333 --> 12:16.964 align:start position:0% world without an overactive default mode network<00:13:44.560> in<00:13:44.880> his<00:13:45.120> mind.<00:13:46.000> And<00:13:46.160> so<00:13:46.240> if<00:13:46.399> we<00:13:46.560> want 12:16.964 --> 12:16.974 align:start position:0% network in his mind. And so if we want 12:16.974 --> 12:19.124 align:start position:0% network in his mind. And so if we want to<00:13:46.880> transport<00:13:47.600> one<00:13:47.839> of<00:13:47.920> these<00:13:48.160> prehistoric 12:19.124 --> 12:19.134 align:start position:0% to transport one of these prehistoric 12:19.134 --> 12:22.244 align:start position:0% to transport one of these prehistoric humans<00:13:49.440> 90,000<00:13:50.240> years<00:13:50.639> into<00:13:50.959> his<00:13:51.200> future, 12:22.244 --> 12:22.254 align:start position:0% humans 90,000 years into his future, 12:22.254 --> 12:24.323 align:start position:0% humans 90,000 years into his future, straight<00:13:52.399> into<00:13:52.639> the<00:13:52.800> Neolithic<00:13:53.360> Revolution, 12:24.323 --> 12:24.333 align:start position:0% straight into the Neolithic Revolution, 12:24.333 --> 12:25.924 align:start position:0% straight into the Neolithic Revolution, his<00:13:54.320> new<00:13:54.560> surroundings<00:13:55.120> would<00:13:55.360> offer<00:13:55.600> a 12:25.924 --> 12:25.934 align:start position:0% his new surroundings would offer a 12:25.934 --> 12:28.323 align:start position:0% his new surroundings would offer a mixture<00:13:56.000> of<00:13:56.240> challenges<00:13:56.800> to<00:13:57.040> adapt<00:13:57.440> to.<00:13:57.839> An 12:28.323 --> 12:28.333 align:start position:0% mixture of challenges to adapt to. An 12:28.333 --> 12:30.484 align:start position:0% mixture of challenges to adapt to. An abundance<00:13:58.480> of<00:13:58.720> food<00:13:58.959> stores,<00:13:59.440> yes,<00:14:00.000> but 12:30.484 --> 12:30.494 align:start position:0% abundance of food stores, yes, but 12:30.494 --> 12:32.484 align:start position:0% abundance of food stores, yes, but greater<00:14:00.639> risk<00:14:00.880> of<00:14:01.040> disease<00:14:01.760> and<00:14:02.000> the 12:32.484 --> 12:32.494 align:start position:0% greater risk of disease and the 12:32.494 --> 12:35.284 align:start position:0% greater risk of disease and the beginning<00:14:02.560> of<00:14:02.720> a<00:14:03.040> whole<00:14:03.279> new<00:14:04.000> sedentary<00:14:04.800> way 12:35.284 --> 12:35.294 align:start position:0% beginning of a whole new sedentary way 12:35.294 --> 12:38.244 align:start position:0% beginning of a whole new sedentary way of<00:14:05.279> life.<00:14:06.399> But<00:14:06.560> of<00:14:06.800> course,<00:14:07.199> we<00:14:07.440> know<00:14:07.680> that 12:38.244 --> 12:38.254 align:start position:0% of life. But of course, we know that 12:38.254 --> 12:40.964 align:start position:0% of life. But of course, we know that generations<00:14:08.639> of<00:14:08.880> real<00:14:09.199> humans<00:14:09.760> did<00:14:10.079> adapt<00:14:10.480> to 12:40.964 --> 12:40.974 align:start position:0% generations of real humans did adapt to 12:40.974 --> 12:43.284 align:start position:0% generations of real humans did adapt to this<00:14:10.959> shift,<00:14:11.680> changing<00:14:12.079> their<00:14:12.320> very<00:14:12.560> genetic 12:43.284 --> 12:43.294 align:start position:0% this shift, changing their very genetic 12:43.294 --> 12:45.203 align:start position:0% this shift, changing their very genetic makeup<00:14:13.440> over<00:14:13.680> the<00:14:13.920> following<00:14:14.320> thousands<00:14:14.720> of 12:45.203 --> 12:45.213 align:start position:0% makeup over the following thousands of 12:45.213 --> 12:47.684 align:start position:0% makeup over the following thousands of years.<00:14:15.760> Perhaps<00:14:16.160> this<00:14:16.399> ancient<00:14:16.720> human<00:14:17.120> would 12:47.684 --> 12:47.694 align:start position:0% years. Perhaps this ancient human would 12:47.694 --> 12:51.044 align:start position:0% years. Perhaps this ancient human would cope.<00:14:18.320> Perhaps<00:14:18.880> not.<00:14:19.760> But<00:14:19.920> of<00:14:20.160> course,<00:14:20.480> a<00:14:20.720> lot 12:51.044 --> 12:51.054 align:start position:0% cope. Perhaps not. But of course, a lot 12:51.054 --> 12:53.284 align:start position:0% cope. Perhaps not. But of course, a lot has<00:14:21.040> happened<00:14:21.440> since<00:14:21.760> then,<00:14:22.240> and<00:14:22.560> taking<00:14:22.800> him 12:53.284 --> 12:53.294 align:start position:0% has happened since then, and taking him 12:53.294 --> 12:55.604 align:start position:0% has happened since then, and taking him a<00:14:23.199> 100,000<00:14:23.839> years<00:14:24.079> into<00:14:24.320> the<00:14:24.480> future,<00:14:25.040> into 12:55.604 --> 12:55.614 align:start position:0% a 100,000 years into the future, into 12:55.614 --> 12:58.564 align:start position:0% a 100,000 years into the future, into our<00:14:25.680> time,<00:14:26.240> would<00:14:26.560> be<00:14:26.639> very<00:14:26.959> different.<00:14:28.160> And 12:58.564 --> 12:58.574 align:start position:0% our time, would be very different. And 12:58.574 --> 13:01.364 align:start position:0% our time, would be very different. And so,<00:14:28.560> his<00:14:28.880> journey<00:14:29.360> will<00:14:29.600> be<00:14:29.760> like<00:14:30.000> our<00:14:30.240> own. 13:01.364 --> 13:01.374 align:start position:0% so, his journey will be like our own. 13:01.374 --> 13:02.883 align:start position:0% so, his journey will be like our own. Not<00:14:31.360> stopping<00:14:31.680> at<00:14:31.920> the<00:14:32.000> Neolithic 13:02.883 --> 13:02.893 align:start position:0% Not stopping at the Neolithic 13:02.893 --> 13:05.203 align:start position:0% Not stopping at the Neolithic Revolution,<00:14:33.279> but<00:14:33.600> continuing<00:14:34.160> to<00:14:34.399> push<00:14:34.639> on 13:05.203 --> 13:05.213 align:start position:0% Revolution, but continuing to push on 13:05.213 --> 13:06.964 align:start position:0% Revolution, but continuing to push on through<00:14:35.440> eras<00:14:35.760> of<00:14:35.920> ever<00:14:36.240> advancing 13:06.964 --> 13:06.974 align:start position:0% through eras of ever advancing 13:06.974 --> 13:09.924 align:start position:0% through eras of ever advancing technology,<00:14:37.760> societies,<00:14:38.639> and<00:14:38.959> ways<00:14:39.199> of<00:14:39.360> life 13:09.924 --> 13:09.934 align:start position:0% technology, societies, and ways of life 13:09.934 --> 13:12.164 align:start position:0% technology, societies, and ways of life that<00:14:40.000> get<00:14:40.240> further<00:14:40.560> and<00:14:40.800> further<00:14:41.440> from<00:14:41.680> the 13:12.164 --> 13:12.174 align:start position:0% that get further and further from the 13:12.174 --> 13:22.643 align:start position:0% that get further and further from the ones<00:14:42.399> he<00:14:42.639> evolved<00:14:43.120> for. 13:22.643 --> 13:22.653 align:start position:0% 13:22.653 --> 13:25.604 align:start position:0% In<00:14:52.639> the<00:14:52.800> 1980s,<00:14:53.839> children<00:14:54.320> play<00:14:54.560> on<00:14:54.720> a<00:14:54.959> roof 13:25.604 --> 13:25.614 align:start position:0% In the 1980s, children play on a roof 13:25.614 --> 13:28.244 align:start position:0% In the 1980s, children play on a roof that<00:14:55.600> is<00:14:55.920> 14<00:14:56.399> stories<00:14:56.800> high,<00:14:57.360> for<00:14:57.600> it<00:14:57.680> is<00:14:57.839> one 13:28.244 --> 13:28.254 align:start position:0% that is 14 stories high, for it is one 13:28.254 --> 13:30.804 align:start position:0% that is 14 stories high, for it is one of the<00:14:58.240> only<00:14:58.480> sunny<00:14:58.880> places<00:14:59.519> in<00:14:59.839> Cowoon 13:30.804 --> 13:30.814 align:start position:0% of the only sunny places in Cowoon 13:30.814 --> 13:33.924 align:start position:0% of the only sunny places in Cowoon Walled<00:15:00.959> City.<00:15:01.920> Below<00:15:02.320> them,<00:15:02.720> people<00:15:03.120> walk<00:15:03.440> the 13:33.924 --> 13:33.934 align:start position:0% Walled City. Below them, people walk the 13:33.934 --> 13:36.164 align:start position:0% Walled City. Below them, people walk the tunnel-like<00:15:04.240> alleyways.<00:15:05.360> Many<00:15:05.600> of<00:15:05.680> them 13:36.164 --> 13:36.174 align:start position:0% tunnel-like alleyways. Many of them 13:36.174 --> 13:38.244 align:start position:0% tunnel-like alleyways. Many of them clutch<00:15:06.399> umbrellas<00:15:06.720> in<00:15:06.959> the<00:15:07.040> darkness,<00:15:07.680> not<00:15:07.839> to 13:38.244 --> 13:38.254 align:start position:0% clutch umbrellas in the darkness, not to 13:38.254 --> 13:40.164 align:start position:0% clutch umbrellas in the darkness, not to protect<00:15:08.240> from<00:15:08.480> rain,<00:15:08.959> but<00:15:09.199> from<00:15:09.360> the<00:15:09.519> dripping 13:40.164 --> 13:40.174 align:start position:0% protect from rain, but from the dripping 13:40.174 --> 13:43.203 align:start position:0% protect from rain, but from the dripping of<00:15:10.160> thousands<00:15:10.639> of<00:15:10.800> corroded<00:15:11.360> pipes.<00:15:12.480> The<00:15:12.720> city 13:43.203 --> 13:43.213 align:start position:0% of thousands of corroded pipes. The city 13:43.213 --> 13:45.684 align:start position:0% of thousands of corroded pipes. The city is<00:15:13.120> a<00:15:13.360> knotted<00:15:13.760> maze<00:15:14.160> of<00:15:14.320> iron<00:15:14.639> and<00:15:14.880> concrete 13:45.684 --> 13:45.694 align:start position:0% is a knotted maze of iron and concrete 13:45.694 --> 13:47.924 align:start position:0% is a knotted maze of iron and concrete with<00:15:15.680> some<00:15:15.839> of<00:15:16.000> its<00:15:16.240> streets<00:15:16.720> formed<00:15:17.120> by<00:15:17.360> vast 13:47.924 --> 13:47.934 align:start position:0% with some of its streets formed by vast 13:47.934 --> 13:50.083 align:start position:0% with some of its streets formed by vast amounts<00:15:18.000> of<00:15:18.160> rubbish<00:15:18.800> caught<00:15:19.040> in<00:15:19.199> nets<00:15:19.600> and 13:50.083 --> 13:50.093 align:start position:0% amounts of rubbish caught in nets and 13:50.093 --> 13:52.083 align:start position:0% amounts of rubbish caught in nets and trodden<00:15:20.320> into<00:15:20.560> a<00:15:20.720> new<00:15:20.959> walkway<00:15:21.440> between 13:52.083 --> 13:52.093 align:start position:0% trodden into a new walkway between 13:52.093 --> 13:54.724 align:start position:0% trodden into a new walkway between buildings.<00:15:22.959> A<00:15:23.120> single<00:15:23.360> postman<00:15:23.920> covers<00:15:24.240> this 13:54.724 --> 13:54.734 align:start position:0% buildings. A single postman covers this 13:54.734 --> 13:56.883 align:start position:0% buildings. A single postman covers this entire<00:15:24.880> city.<00:15:25.440> There's<00:15:25.680> not<00:15:25.839> that<00:15:26.000> far<00:15:26.160> to<00:15:26.399> go 13:56.883 --> 13:56.893 align:start position:0% entire city. There's not that far to go 13:56.893 --> 13:58.564 align:start position:0% entire city. There's not that far to go as<00:15:26.800> it's<00:15:27.040> only<00:15:27.199> a<00:15:27.279> hundth<00:15:27.600> of<00:15:27.680> a<00:15:27.839> square<00:15:28.079> mile 13:58.564 --> 13:58.574 align:start position:0% as it's only a hundth of a square mile 13:58.574 --> 14:01.523 align:start position:0% as it's only a hundth of a square mile in<00:15:28.639> size.<00:15:29.440> But<00:15:29.600> within<00:15:30.000> that<00:15:30.240> tiny<00:15:30.639> footprint 14:01.523 --> 14:01.533 align:start position:0% in size. But within that tiny footprint 14:01.533 --> 14:04.083 align:start position:0% in size. But within that tiny footprint or<00:15:31.440> over<00:15:31.680> 8,000<00:15:32.240> premises,<00:15:33.120> 10,000 14:04.083 --> 14:04.093 align:start position:0% or over 8,000 premises, 10,000 14:04.093 --> 14:07.924 align:start position:0% or over 8,000 premises, 10,000 households,<00:15:34.800> and<00:15:35.199> 30,000<00:15:36.000> people.<00:15:37.360> Beginning 14:07.924 --> 14:07.934 align:start position:0% households, and 30,000 people. Beginning 14:07.934 --> 14:10.404 align:start position:0% households, and 30,000 people. Beginning as<00:15:37.839> an<00:15:38.000> abandoned<00:15:38.480> military<00:15:38.880> fort,<00:15:39.600> Cowoon 14:10.404 --> 14:10.414 align:start position:0% as an abandoned military fort, Cowoon 14:10.414 --> 14:12.564 align:start position:0% as an abandoned military fort, Cowoon grew<00:15:40.399> organically<00:15:41.040> into<00:15:41.360> a<00:15:41.519> truly<00:15:41.839> unique 14:12.564 --> 14:12.574 align:start position:0% grew organically into a truly unique 14:12.574 --> 14:14.564 align:start position:0% grew organically into a truly unique city<00:15:42.720> that<00:15:42.959> would<00:15:43.199> eventually<00:15:43.600> be<00:15:43.839> demolished 14:14.564 --> 14:14.574 align:start position:0% city that would eventually be demolished 14:14.574 --> 14:16.484 align:start position:0% city that would eventually be demolished in<00:15:44.639> 1993. 14:16.484 --> 14:16.494 align:start position:0% in 1993. 14:16.494 --> 14:19.203 align:start position:0% in 1993. And<00:15:46.399> indeed,<00:15:46.880> before<00:15:47.120> its<00:15:47.360> demise,<00:15:48.320> Cowoon 14:19.203 --> 14:19.213 align:start position:0% And indeed, before its demise, Cowoon 14:19.213 --> 14:22.003 align:start position:0% And indeed, before its demise, Cowoon Wald<00:15:49.279> City<00:15:49.759> was<00:15:50.000> known<00:15:50.480> as<00:15:50.720> the<00:15:50.959> densest<00:15:51.519> place 14:22.003 --> 14:22.013 align:start position:0% Wald City was known as the densest place 14:22.013 --> 14:29.364 align:start position:0% Wald City was known as the densest place on<00:15:52.000> Earth. 14:29.364 --> 14:29.374 align:start position:0% 14:29.374 --> 14:31.523 align:start position:0% In<00:15:59.360> the<00:15:59.519> modern<00:15:59.839> world,<00:16:00.240> censuses<00:16:00.959> tell<00:16:01.120> us 14:31.523 --> 14:31.533 align:start position:0% In the modern world, censuses tell us 14:31.533 --> 14:34.003 align:start position:0% In the modern world, censuses tell us that<00:16:01.440> half<00:16:01.680> of<00:16:01.839> all<00:16:02.000> humans<00:16:02.399> live<00:16:02.639> in<00:16:02.880> cities. 14:34.003 --> 14:34.013 align:start position:0% that half of all humans live in cities. 14:34.013 --> 14:36.003 align:start position:0% that half of all humans live in cities. What's<00:16:04.079> more,<00:16:04.639> surveys<00:16:05.120> show<00:16:05.360> that<00:16:05.600> the 14:36.003 --> 14:36.013 align:start position:0% What's more, surveys show that the 14:36.013 --> 14:37.604 align:start position:0% What's more, surveys show that the average<00:16:06.000> person<00:16:06.240> in<00:16:06.480> developed<00:16:06.800> nations<00:16:07.199> like 14:37.604 --> 14:37.614 align:start position:0% average person in developed nations like 14:37.614 --> 14:40.643 align:start position:0% average person in developed nations like the<00:16:07.600> US<00:16:07.839> and<00:16:08.000> the<00:16:08.240> UK<00:16:08.720> spend<00:16:09.040> around<00:16:09.360> 87%<00:16:10.240> of 14:40.643 --> 14:40.653 align:start position:0% the US and the UK spend around 87% of 14:40.653 --> 14:44.484 align:start position:0% the US and the UK spend around 87% of their<00:16:10.639> time<00:16:11.040> indoors<00:16:12.000> and<00:16:12.240> 6%<00:16:12.880> in<00:16:13.199> vehicles. 14:44.484 --> 14:44.494 align:start position:0% their time indoors and 6% in vehicles. 14:44.494 --> 14:47.044 align:start position:0% their time indoors and 6% in vehicles. That<00:16:14.480> means<00:16:14.880> we<00:16:15.120> spend<00:16:15.360> only<00:16:15.680> 7%<00:16:16.399> of<00:16:16.560> our 14:47.044 --> 14:47.054 align:start position:0% That means we spend only 7% of our 14:47.054 --> 14:50.083 align:start position:0% That means we spend only 7% of our entire<00:16:17.279> lives<00:16:17.920> outside.<00:16:19.120> Most<00:16:19.360> of<00:16:19.440> our<00:16:19.680> time 14:50.083 --> 14:50.093 align:start position:0% entire lives outside. Most of our time 14:50.093 --> 14:52.964 align:start position:0% entire lives outside. Most of our time is<00:16:20.079> spent<00:16:20.399> inside<00:16:20.959> climate<00:16:21.440> controlled<00:16:22.000> boxes 14:52.964 --> 14:52.974 align:start position:0% is spent inside climate controlled boxes 14:52.974 --> 14:54.964 align:start position:0% is spent inside climate controlled boxes in<00:16:22.880> a<00:16:23.040> sense<00:16:23.360> disconnected<00:16:24.000> from<00:16:24.320> natural 14:54.964 --> 14:54.974 align:start position:0% in a sense disconnected from natural 14:54.974 --> 14:56.883 align:start position:0% in a sense disconnected from natural rhythms<00:16:25.120> of<00:16:25.279> daylight,<00:16:25.920> weather,<00:16:26.399> and 14:56.883 --> 14:56.893 align:start position:0% rhythms of daylight, weather, and 14:56.893 --> 14:59.443 align:start position:0% rhythms of daylight, weather, and terrain.<00:16:27.600> And<00:16:27.839> this<00:16:28.079> mismatch<00:16:28.720> between<00:16:28.959> the 14:59.443 --> 14:59.453 align:start position:0% terrain. And this mismatch between the 14:59.453 --> 15:01.523 align:start position:0% terrain. And this mismatch between the lives<00:16:29.440> we<00:16:29.680> evolved<00:16:30.160> for<00:16:30.480> and<00:16:30.639> the<00:16:30.800> way<00:16:30.959> we<00:16:31.120> live 15:01.523 --> 15:01.533 align:start position:0% lives we evolved for and the way we live 15:01.533 --> 15:03.284 align:start position:0% lives we evolved for and the way we live in<00:16:31.440> the<00:16:31.600> modern<00:16:31.839> world<00:16:32.240> has<00:16:32.480> been<00:16:32.639> developing 15:03.284 --> 15:03.294 align:start position:0% in the modern world has been developing 15:03.294 --> 15:05.924 align:start position:0% in the modern world has been developing for<00:16:33.279> thousands<00:16:33.600> of<00:16:33.839> years.<00:16:34.720> In<00:16:34.959> evolutionary 15:05.924 --> 15:05.934 align:start position:0% for thousands of years. In evolutionary 15:05.934 --> 15:08.564 align:start position:0% for thousands of years. In evolutionary psychology,<00:16:36.639> a<00:16:36.880> mismatch<00:16:37.680> refers<00:16:38.000> to<00:16:38.160> the 15:08.564 --> 15:08.574 align:start position:0% psychology, a mismatch refers to the 15:08.574 --> 15:09.844 align:start position:0% psychology, a mismatch refers to the difference<00:16:38.560> between<00:16:38.880> the<00:16:39.040> selective 15:09.844 --> 15:09.854 align:start position:0% difference between the selective 15:09.854 --> 15:11.924 align:start position:0% difference between the selective pressures<00:16:40.000> that<00:16:40.240> shaped<00:16:40.639> humankind<00:16:41.279> over 15:11.924 --> 15:11.934 align:start position:0% pressures that shaped humankind over 15:11.934 --> 15:13.844 align:start position:0% pressures that shaped humankind over millions<00:16:42.000> of<00:16:42.240> years<00:16:42.720> and<00:16:42.959> the<00:16:43.120> novel 15:13.844 --> 15:13.854 align:start position:0% millions of years and the novel 15:13.854 --> 15:16.003 align:start position:0% millions of years and the novel conditions<00:16:44.079> of<00:16:44.399> modern<00:16:44.800> environments 15:16.003 --> 15:16.013 align:start position:0% conditions of modern environments 15:16.013 --> 15:17.763 align:start position:0% conditions of modern environments leading<00:16:46.079> to<00:16:46.320> potentially<00:16:46.800> suboptimal 15:17.763 --> 15:17.773 align:start position:0% leading to potentially suboptimal 15:17.773 --> 15:20.323 align:start position:0% leading to potentially suboptimal outcomes<00:16:48.240> like<00:16:48.480> disease,<00:16:49.360> stress,<00:16:49.839> and 15:20.323 --> 15:20.333 align:start position:0% outcomes like disease, stress, and 15:20.333 --> 15:23.044 align:start position:0% outcomes like disease, stress, and maladaptive<00:16:50.880> behaviors. 15:23.044 --> 15:23.054 align:start position:0% maladaptive behaviors. 15:23.054 --> 15:25.364 align:start position:0% maladaptive behaviors. Today<00:16:53.360> the<00:16:53.600> average<00:16:53.920> working<00:16:54.320> week<00:16:54.639> globally 15:25.364 --> 15:25.374 align:start position:0% Today the average working week globally 15:25.374 --> 15:27.924 align:start position:0% Today the average working week globally is<00:16:55.360> around<00:16:55.680> 33<00:16:56.320> hours<00:16:56.880> with<00:16:57.120> some<00:16:57.360> regions 15:27.924 --> 15:27.934 align:start position:0% is around 33 hours with some regions 15:27.934 --> 15:30.724 align:start position:0% is around 33 hours with some regions hitting<00:16:58.079> 50<00:16:58.320> or<00:16:58.639> 60.<00:16:59.440> But<00:16:59.600> some<00:16:59.839> ethnographic 15:30.724 --> 15:30.734 align:start position:0% hitting 50 or 60. But some ethnographic 15:30.734 --> 15:32.323 align:start position:0% hitting 50 or 60. But some ethnographic studies<00:17:00.880> of<00:17:01.120> people<00:17:01.279> living<00:17:01.519> in<00:17:01.680> extent 15:32.323 --> 15:32.333 align:start position:0% studies of people living in extent 15:32.333 --> 15:34.884 align:start position:0% studies of people living in extent foraging<00:17:02.639> communities<00:17:03.360> like<00:17:03.600> the<00:17:03.759> Kungan<00:17:04.480> of 15:34.884 --> 15:34.894 align:start position:0% foraging communities like the Kungan of 15:34.894 --> 15:36.484 align:start position:0% foraging communities like the Kungan of South<00:17:04.880> Africa<00:17:05.439> show<00:17:05.600> that<00:17:05.839> the<00:17:06.000> average 15:36.484 --> 15:36.494 align:start position:0% South Africa show that the average 15:36.494 --> 15:38.964 align:start position:0% South Africa show that the average hunter<00:17:06.640> gatherer<00:17:07.120> works<00:17:07.439> only<00:17:07.839> 15<00:17:08.240> hours<00:17:08.480> a 15:38.964 --> 15:38.974 align:start position:0% hunter gatherer works only 15 hours a 15:38.974 --> 15:41.124 align:start position:0% hunter gatherer works only 15 hours a week.<00:17:09.360> This<00:17:09.600> equates<00:17:09.919> to<00:17:10.079> just<00:17:10.240> a<00:17:10.480> few<00:17:10.559> hours 15:41.124 --> 15:41.134 align:start position:0% week. This equates to just a few hours 15:41.134 --> 15:43.604 align:start position:0% week. This equates to just a few hours every<00:17:11.199> day<00:17:11.520> hunting,<00:17:12.160> fishing,<00:17:12.720> gathering, 15:43.604 --> 15:43.614 align:start position:0% every day hunting, fishing, gathering, 15:43.614 --> 15:45.923 align:start position:0% every day hunting, fishing, gathering, making<00:17:13.839> or<00:17:14.160> mending.<00:17:14.959> The<00:17:15.199> rest<00:17:15.280> of<00:17:15.439> their 15:45.923 --> 15:45.933 align:start position:0% making or mending. The rest of their 15:45.933 --> 15:47.844 align:start position:0% making or mending. The rest of their time<00:17:15.919> is<00:17:16.160> theirs<00:17:16.400> to<00:17:16.559> do<00:17:16.720> with<00:17:17.120> as<00:17:17.360> they 15:47.844 --> 15:47.854 align:start position:0% time is theirs to do with as they 15:47.854 --> 15:50.884 align:start position:0% time is theirs to do with as they please.<00:17:18.720> And<00:17:18.880> indeed,<00:17:19.280> for<00:17:19.439> more<00:17:19.600> than<00:17:19.839> 90%<00:17:20.480> of 15:50.884 --> 15:50.894 align:start position:0% please. And indeed, for more than 90% of 15:50.894 --> 15:53.203 align:start position:0% please. And indeed, for more than 90% of our<00:17:20.880> species<00:17:21.360> history,<00:17:21.919> humans<00:17:22.319> likely<00:17:22.720> lived 15:53.203 --> 15:53.213 align:start position:0% our species history, humans likely lived 15:53.213 --> 15:55.764 align:start position:0% our species history, humans likely lived in<00:17:23.120> a<00:17:23.360> very<00:17:23.600> similar<00:17:24.000> way.<00:17:24.959> But<00:17:25.120> the<00:17:25.280> change 15:55.764 --> 15:55.774 align:start position:0% in a very similar way. But the change 15:55.774 --> 15:58.083 align:start position:0% in a very similar way. But the change away<00:17:25.839> from<00:17:26.079> this<00:17:26.480> truly<00:17:26.880> accelerated<00:17:27.520> in<00:17:27.679> the 15:58.083 --> 15:58.093 align:start position:0% away from this truly accelerated in the 15:58.093 --> 16:00.324 align:start position:0% away from this truly accelerated in the industrial<00:17:28.480> revolution<00:17:29.360> when<00:17:29.679> rural 16:00.324 --> 16:00.334 align:start position:0% industrial revolution when rural 16:00.334 --> 16:02.404 align:start position:0% industrial revolution when rural farmlands<00:17:30.799> gave<00:17:31.039> way<00:17:31.280> to<00:17:31.440> factories<00:17:31.919> and 16:02.404 --> 16:02.414 align:start position:0% farmlands gave way to factories and 16:02.414 --> 16:04.964 align:start position:0% farmlands gave way to factories and tenement<00:17:32.720> slums,<00:17:33.440> turning<00:17:33.760> settled<00:17:34.240> villages 16:04.964 --> 16:04.974 align:start position:0% tenement slums, turning settled villages 16:04.974 --> 16:07.364 align:start position:0% tenement slums, turning settled villages into<00:17:35.039> crowded<00:17:35.520> mega<00:17:35.840> cities<00:17:36.400> and<00:17:36.640> cementing 16:07.364 --> 16:07.374 align:start position:0% into crowded mega cities and cementing 16:07.374 --> 16:10.004 align:start position:0% into crowded mega cities and cementing our<00:17:37.360> separation<00:17:38.080> from<00:17:38.320> the<00:17:38.559> wild<00:17:39.200> physical 16:10.004 --> 16:10.014 align:start position:0% our separation from the wild physical 16:10.014 --> 16:17.043 align:start position:0% our separation from the wild physical world<00:17:40.240> that<00:17:40.559> shaped<00:17:40.880> us. 16:17.043 --> 16:17.053 align:start position:0% 16:17.053 --> 16:19.043 align:start position:0% And<00:17:47.039> it<00:17:47.200> was<00:17:47.360> during<00:17:47.679> this<00:17:47.919> time<00:17:48.160> that<00:17:48.480> French 16:19.043 --> 16:19.053 align:start position:0% And it was during this time that French 16:19.053 --> 16:21.444 align:start position:0% And it was during this time that French sociologist<00:17:49.520> Emil<00:17:49.919> Durkheim<00:17:50.640> observed 16:21.444 --> 16:21.454 align:start position:0% sociologist Emil Durkheim observed 16:21.454 --> 16:23.684 align:start position:0% sociologist Emil Durkheim observed something<00:17:51.600> about<00:17:52.000> society.<00:17:53.120> The<00:17:53.280> more 16:23.684 --> 16:23.694 align:start position:0% something about society. The more 16:23.694 --> 16:26.084 align:start position:0% something about society. The more industrialized<00:17:54.400> a<00:17:54.559> life<00:17:54.880> became,<00:17:55.520> the<00:17:55.679> more 16:26.084 --> 16:26.094 align:start position:0% industrialized a life became, the more 16:26.094 --> 16:29.043 align:start position:0% industrialized a life became, the more it<00:17:56.080> seemed<00:17:56.240> to<00:17:56.400> come<00:17:56.559> apart<00:17:57.360> at<00:17:57.600> the<00:17:57.760> seams. 16:29.043 --> 16:29.053 align:start position:0% it seemed to come apart at the seams. 16:29.053 --> 16:31.283 align:start position:0% it seemed to come apart at the seams. Durkheim<00:17:59.440> noticed<00:17:59.840> that<00:18:00.080> as<00:18:00.400> people<00:18:00.640> left 16:31.283 --> 16:31.293 align:start position:0% Durkheim noticed that as people left 16:31.293 --> 16:33.764 align:start position:0% Durkheim noticed that as people left their<00:18:01.360> small,<00:18:01.760> tightlyknit<00:18:02.480> communities<00:18:03.200> for 16:33.764 --> 16:33.774 align:start position:0% their small, tightlyknit communities for 16:33.774 --> 16:35.764 align:start position:0% their small, tightlyknit communities for anonymous<00:18:04.080> city<00:18:04.480> streets<00:18:04.799> and<00:18:05.039> factory 16:35.764 --> 16:35.774 align:start position:0% anonymous city streets and factory 16:35.774 --> 16:37.923 align:start position:0% anonymous city streets and factory floors,<00:18:06.160> they<00:18:06.400> lost<00:18:06.640> their<00:18:06.880> sense<00:18:07.120> of<00:18:07.360> shared 16:37.923 --> 16:37.933 align:start position:0% floors, they lost their sense of shared 16:37.933 --> 16:41.124 align:start position:0% floors, they lost their sense of shared rules,<00:18:08.400> expectations,<00:18:09.360> and<00:18:09.600> obligations. 16:41.124 --> 16:41.134 align:start position:0% rules, expectations, and obligations. 16:41.134 --> 16:44.163 align:start position:0% rules, expectations, and obligations. Durkheim<00:18:11.440> called<00:18:11.679> this<00:18:11.840> phenomenon<00:18:12.799> anomy. 16:44.163 --> 16:44.173 align:start position:0% Durkheim called this phenomenon anomy. 16:44.173 --> 16:46.724 align:start position:0% Durkheim called this phenomenon anomy. Anomy<00:18:14.320> is<00:18:14.480> a<00:18:14.720> sense<00:18:14.880> of<00:18:15.120> normlessness.<00:18:16.240> It's 16:46.724 --> 16:46.734 align:start position:0% Anomy is a sense of normlessness. It's 16:46.734 --> 16:48.484 align:start position:0% Anomy is a sense of normlessness. It's what<00:18:16.640> you<00:18:16.880> feel<00:18:17.120> when<00:18:17.440> the<00:18:17.600> rules<00:18:17.840> that<00:18:18.080> tell 16:48.484 --> 16:48.494 align:start position:0% what you feel when the rules that tell 16:48.494 --> 16:50.564 align:start position:0% what you feel when the rules that tell you<00:18:18.400> what<00:18:18.559> to<00:18:18.720> hope<00:18:18.960> for,<00:18:19.360> how<00:18:19.520> much<00:18:19.760> to<00:18:20.000> want, 16:50.564 --> 16:50.574 align:start position:0% you what to hope for, how much to want, 16:50.574 --> 16:52.724 align:start position:0% you what to hope for, how much to want, and<00:18:20.480> how<00:18:20.720> to<00:18:20.880> behave<00:18:21.440> no<00:18:21.760> longer<00:18:22.000> seem<00:18:22.320> to 16:52.724 --> 16:52.734 align:start position:0% and how to behave no longer seem to 16:52.734 --> 16:55.444 align:start position:0% and how to behave no longer seem to apply.<00:18:23.440> In<00:18:23.600> a<00:18:23.840> period<00:18:24.080> of<00:18:24.240> rapid<00:18:24.640> change,<00:18:25.039> like 16:55.444 --> 16:55.454 align:start position:0% apply. In a period of rapid change, like 16:55.454 --> 16:57.204 align:start position:0% apply. In a period of rapid change, like the<00:18:25.440> industrial<00:18:25.919> revolution,<00:18:26.720> old 16:57.204 --> 16:57.214 align:start position:0% the industrial revolution, old 16:57.214 --> 16:59.604 align:start position:0% the industrial revolution, old traditions<00:18:27.679> quickly<00:18:28.000> crumbled<00:18:28.480> and<00:18:28.720> new<00:18:28.960> ones 16:59.604 --> 16:59.614 align:start position:0% traditions quickly crumbled and new ones 16:59.614 --> 17:02.163 align:start position:0% traditions quickly crumbled and new ones didn't<00:18:29.600> have<00:18:29.840> time<00:18:30.000> to<00:18:30.240> form.<00:18:31.280> Durkheim<00:18:31.760> was 17:02.163 --> 17:02.173 align:start position:0% didn't have time to form. Durkheim was 17:02.173 --> 17:03.604 align:start position:0% didn't have time to form. Durkheim was especially<00:18:32.400> struck<00:18:32.720> by<00:18:32.880> the<00:18:33.039> way<00:18:33.200> this 17:03.604 --> 17:03.614 align:start position:0% especially struck by the way this 17:03.614 --> 17:05.684 align:start position:0% especially struck by the way this normlessness<00:18:34.080> showed<00:18:34.320> up<00:18:34.480> in<00:18:34.640> the<00:18:34.880> statistics 17:05.684 --> 17:05.694 align:start position:0% normlessness showed up in the statistics 17:05.694 --> 17:08.324 align:start position:0% normlessness showed up in the statistics of<00:18:35.600> his<00:18:35.919> time.<00:18:36.559> For<00:18:36.720> his<00:18:36.960> railways,<00:18:37.760> stock 17:08.324 --> 17:08.334 align:start position:0% of his time. For his railways, stock 17:08.334 --> 17:10.163 align:start position:0% of his time. For his railways, stock markets<00:18:38.400> and<00:18:38.720> factories<00:18:39.360> spread<00:18:39.600> across 17:10.163 --> 17:10.173 align:start position:0% markets and factories spread across 17:10.173 --> 17:12.644 align:start position:0% markets and factories spread across European<00:18:40.400> nations<00:18:40.720> and<00:18:40.960> beyond,<00:18:41.840> suicide 17:12.644 --> 17:12.654 align:start position:0% European nations and beyond, suicide 17:12.654 --> 17:15.844 align:start position:0% European nations and beyond, suicide rates<00:18:43.200> climbed.<00:18:44.240> For<00:18:44.480> Durkheim,<00:18:45.200> the<00:18:45.360> problem 17:15.844 --> 17:15.854 align:start position:0% rates climbed. For Durkheim, the problem 17:15.854 --> 17:18.163 align:start position:0% rates climbed. For Durkheim, the problem was<00:18:45.760> not<00:18:46.000> just<00:18:46.160> poverty<00:18:46.559> or<00:18:46.880> hardship,<00:18:47.440> but<00:18:47.679> a 17:18.163 --> 17:18.173 align:start position:0% was not just poverty or hardship, but a 17:18.173 --> 17:20.404 align:start position:0% was not just poverty or hardship, but a deep<00:18:48.160> mismatch<00:18:48.799> between<00:18:49.200> human<00:18:49.520> minds<00:18:49.919> and 17:20.404 --> 17:20.414 align:start position:0% deep mismatch between human minds and 17:20.414 --> 17:22.484 align:start position:0% deep mismatch between human minds and the<00:18:50.320> rapidly<00:18:50.799> changing<00:18:51.280> social<00:18:51.679> world<00:18:52.000> they 17:22.484 --> 17:22.494 align:start position:0% the rapidly changing social world they 17:22.494 --> 17:27.364 align:start position:0% the rapidly changing social world they were<00:18:52.400> being<00:18:52.640> thrust<00:18:53.039> into. 17:27.364 --> 17:27.374 align:start position:0% 17:27.374 --> 17:29.364 align:start position:0% Industrialization,<00:18:58.240> therefore,<00:18:58.720> was<00:18:58.960> a 17:29.364 --> 17:29.374 align:start position:0% Industrialization, therefore, was a 17:29.374 --> 17:31.124 align:start position:0% Industrialization, therefore, was a significant<00:18:59.600> driver<00:19:00.000> of<00:19:00.160> evolutionary 17:31.124 --> 17:31.134 align:start position:0% significant driver of evolutionary 17:31.134 --> 17:33.604 align:start position:0% significant driver of evolutionary mismatch,<00:19:01.760> but<00:19:02.000> it<00:19:02.160> wasn't<00:19:02.400> the<00:19:02.559> sole<00:19:02.880> cause 17:33.604 --> 17:33.614 align:start position:0% mismatch, but it wasn't the sole cause 17:33.614 --> 17:36.244 align:start position:0% mismatch, but it wasn't the sole cause in<00:19:03.600> modern<00:19:04.000> life. 17:36.244 --> 17:36.254 align:start position:0% in modern life. 17:36.254 --> 17:38.564 align:start position:0% in modern life. Today,<00:19:06.559> many<00:19:06.880> mammals<00:19:07.280> are<00:19:07.440> nocturnal<00:19:08.080> or 17:38.564 --> 17:38.574 align:start position:0% Today, many mammals are nocturnal or 17:38.574 --> 17:40.404 align:start position:0% Today, many mammals are nocturnal or kpuscular,<00:19:09.200> meaning<00:19:09.440> that<00:19:09.600> they<00:19:09.760> are<00:19:09.919> most 17:40.404 --> 17:40.414 align:start position:0% kpuscular, meaning that they are most 17:40.414 --> 17:42.803 align:start position:0% kpuscular, meaning that they are most active<00:19:10.480> after<00:19:10.799> the<00:19:11.039> sun<00:19:11.280> has<00:19:11.520> set.<00:19:12.320> When 17:42.803 --> 17:42.813 align:start position:0% active after the sun has set. When 17:42.813 --> 17:44.324 align:start position:0% active after the sun has set. When mammals<00:19:12.960> first<00:19:13.200> evolved<00:19:13.679> during<00:19:13.919> the 17:44.324 --> 17:44.334 align:start position:0% mammals first evolved during the 17:44.334 --> 17:46.404 align:start position:0% mammals first evolved during the triacic,<00:19:14.880> they<00:19:15.120> shared<00:19:15.440> the<00:19:15.679> world<00:19:15.840> with 17:46.404 --> 17:46.414 align:start position:0% triacic, they shared the world with 17:46.414 --> 17:48.884 align:start position:0% triacic, they shared the world with dinosaurs,<00:19:17.120> many<00:19:17.360> of<00:19:17.440> which<00:19:17.679> were<00:19:17.840> dal<00:19:18.480> or 17:48.884 --> 17:48.894 align:start position:0% dinosaurs, many of which were dal or 17:48.894 --> 17:51.283 align:start position:0% dinosaurs, many of which were dal or most<00:19:18.880> active<00:19:19.280> during<00:19:19.520> the<00:19:19.760> day.<00:19:20.480> By<00:19:20.720> sleeping 17:51.283 --> 17:51.293 align:start position:0% most active during the day. By sleeping 17:51.293 --> 17:53.283 align:start position:0% most active during the day. By sleeping in<00:19:21.200> the<00:19:21.360> day<00:19:21.520> and<00:19:21.760> waking<00:19:22.080> at<00:19:22.320> night,<00:19:22.720> early 17:53.283 --> 17:53.293 align:start position:0% in the day and waking at night, early 17:53.293 --> 17:55.364 align:start position:0% in the day and waking at night, early mammals<00:19:23.440> could<00:19:23.520> avoid<00:19:23.840> predation<00:19:24.559> and<00:19:24.799> other 17:55.364 --> 17:55.374 align:start position:0% mammals could avoid predation and other 17:55.374 --> 17:58.163 align:start position:0% mammals could avoid predation and other dinosaur<00:19:25.760> related<00:19:26.160> dangers.<00:19:27.280> But<00:19:27.600> after 17:58.163 --> 17:58.173 align:start position:0% dinosaur related dangers. But after 17:58.173 --> 18:00.564 align:start position:0% dinosaur related dangers. But after non-avian<00:19:28.640> dinosaurs<00:19:29.200> went<00:19:29.440> extinct<00:19:29.919> around 18:00.564 --> 18:00.574 align:start position:0% non-avian dinosaurs went extinct around 18:00.574 --> 18:03.524 align:start position:0% non-avian dinosaurs went extinct around 66<00:19:30.799> million<00:19:31.200> years<00:19:31.360> ago,<00:19:32.000> mammals<00:19:32.640> started<00:19:33.039> to 18:03.524 --> 18:03.534 align:start position:0% 66 million years ago, mammals started to 18:03.534 --> 18:05.923 align:start position:0% 66 million years ago, mammals started to diversify.<00:19:34.640> Since<00:19:34.880> there<00:19:35.120> were<00:19:35.200> very<00:19:35.440> few 18:05.923 --> 18:05.933 align:start position:0% diversify. Since there were very few 18:05.933 --> 18:07.283 align:start position:0% diversify. Since there were very few large<00:19:36.000> predators<00:19:36.400> left<00:19:36.720> after<00:19:36.880> the 18:07.283 --> 18:07.293 align:start position:0% large predators left after the 18:07.293 --> 18:09.124 align:start position:0% large predators left after the Cretaceous<00:19:37.520> mass<00:19:37.840> extinction,<00:19:38.559> several 18:09.124 --> 18:09.134 align:start position:0% Cretaceous mass extinction, several 18:09.134 --> 18:11.124 align:start position:0% Cretaceous mass extinction, several mammal<00:19:39.280> families<00:19:39.679> began<00:19:39.919> to<00:19:40.160> shift<00:19:40.400> towards 18:11.124 --> 18:11.134 align:start position:0% mammal families began to shift towards 18:11.134 --> 18:14.004 align:start position:0% mammal families began to shift towards dal<00:19:41.600> lifestyles.<00:19:42.720> They<00:19:42.960> evolved<00:19:43.280> sharper 18:14.004 --> 18:14.014 align:start position:0% dal lifestyles. They evolved sharper 18:14.014 --> 18:16.244 align:start position:0% dal lifestyles. They evolved sharper daytime<00:19:44.240> vision<00:19:44.640> and<00:19:44.880> internal<00:19:45.360> circadian 18:16.244 --> 18:16.254 align:start position:0% daytime vision and internal circadian 18:16.254 --> 18:18.564 align:start position:0% daytime vision and internal circadian clocks<00:19:46.720> fine-tuned<00:19:47.520> to<00:19:47.760> bright<00:19:48.080> light 18:18.564 --> 18:18.574 align:start position:0% clocks fine-tuned to bright light 18:18.574 --> 18:20.884 align:start position:0% clocks fine-tuned to bright light wavelengths.<00:19:49.520> One<00:19:49.679> of<00:19:49.840> these<00:19:50.000> families<00:19:50.400> were 18:20.884 --> 18:20.894 align:start position:0% wavelengths. One of these families were 18:20.894 --> 18:23.043 align:start position:0% wavelengths. One of these families were the<00:19:50.799> ancestors<00:19:51.200> of<00:19:51.360> modern<00:19:51.679> monkeys,<00:19:52.240> apes, 18:23.043 --> 18:23.053 align:start position:0% the ancestors of modern monkeys, apes, 18:23.053 --> 18:25.444 align:start position:0% the ancestors of modern monkeys, apes, and<00:19:53.039> humans.<00:19:53.919> And<00:19:54.080> so<00:19:54.240> our<00:19:54.400> lineage<00:19:54.799> evolved 18:25.444 --> 18:25.454 align:start position:0% and humans. And so our lineage evolved 18:25.454 --> 18:27.684 align:start position:0% and humans. And so our lineage evolved to<00:19:55.280> be<00:19:55.440> awake<00:19:55.760> during<00:19:56.000> the<00:19:56.240> day<00:19:56.559> and<00:19:56.880> asleep 18:27.684 --> 18:27.694 align:start position:0% to be awake during the day and asleep 18:27.694 --> 18:30.244 align:start position:0% to be awake during the day and asleep during<00:19:57.760> the<00:19:58.000> night.<00:19:58.799> But<00:19:58.960> once<00:19:59.360> electricity 18:30.244 --> 18:30.254 align:start position:0% during the night. But once electricity 18:30.254 --> 18:32.484 align:start position:0% during the night. But once electricity became<00:20:00.320> available,<00:20:00.960> our<00:20:01.280> days<00:20:01.520> no<00:20:01.760> longer<00:20:02.000> had 18:32.484 --> 18:32.494 align:start position:0% became available, our days no longer had 18:32.494 --> 18:34.564 align:start position:0% became available, our days no longer had to<00:20:02.400> stop<00:20:02.640> when<00:20:02.799> it<00:20:03.039> got<00:20:03.280> dark<00:20:03.600> or<00:20:03.840> when<00:20:04.080> the 18:34.564 --> 18:34.574 align:start position:0% to stop when it got dark or when the 18:34.574 --> 18:36.803 align:start position:0% to stop when it got dark or when the weather<00:20:04.640> turned.<00:20:05.520> Factories<00:20:05.919> and<00:20:06.160> offices 18:36.803 --> 18:36.813 align:start position:0% weather turned. Factories and offices 18:36.813 --> 18:38.964 align:start position:0% weather turned. Factories and offices could<00:20:06.799> run<00:20:06.960> longer<00:20:07.360> hours,<00:20:08.000> and<00:20:08.240> later, 18:38.964 --> 18:38.974 align:start position:0% could run longer hours, and later, 18:38.974 --> 18:40.484 align:start position:0% could run longer hours, and later, computers<00:20:09.120> and<00:20:09.280> the<00:20:09.440> internet<00:20:09.840> made<00:20:10.000> it 18:40.484 --> 18:40.494 align:start position:0% computers and the internet made it 18:40.494 --> 18:42.564 align:start position:0% computers and the internet made it possible<00:20:10.480> to<00:20:10.640> work<00:20:10.880> at<00:20:11.120> almost<00:20:11.520> any<00:20:11.840> given 18:42.564 --> 18:42.574 align:start position:0% possible to work at almost any given 18:42.574 --> 18:48.163 align:start position:0% possible to work at almost any given time. 18:48.163 --> 18:48.173 align:start position:0% 18:48.173 --> 18:50.404 align:start position:0% From<00:20:18.160> an<00:20:18.320> evolutionary<00:20:19.039> standpoint,<00:20:19.840> humans 18:50.404 --> 18:50.414 align:start position:0% From an evolutionary standpoint, humans 18:50.414 --> 18:52.004 align:start position:0% From an evolutionary standpoint, humans are<00:20:20.320> built<00:20:20.480> for<00:20:20.640> bursts<00:20:21.039> of<00:20:21.200> effort 18:52.004 --> 18:52.014 align:start position:0% are built for bursts of effort 18:52.014 --> 18:54.803 align:start position:0% are built for bursts of effort punctuated<00:20:22.400> by<00:20:22.640> genuine<00:20:23.200> downtime,<00:20:24.080> not<00:20:24.320> for 18:54.803 --> 18:54.813 align:start position:0% punctuated by genuine downtime, not for 18:54.813 --> 18:57.124 align:start position:0% punctuated by genuine downtime, not for continuous<00:20:25.039> engagement<00:20:25.520> with<00:20:25.840> tasks<00:20:26.480> around 18:57.124 --> 18:57.134 align:start position:0% continuous engagement with tasks around 18:57.134 --> 18:59.764 align:start position:0% continuous engagement with tasks around the<00:20:27.120> clock.<00:20:28.159> And<00:20:28.320> so<00:20:28.480> while<00:20:28.720> our<00:20:28.880> ancestors 18:59.764 --> 18:59.774 align:start position:0% the clock. And so while our ancestors 18:59.774 --> 19:01.844 align:start position:0% the clock. And so while our ancestors expended<00:20:30.000> energy<00:20:30.400> in<00:20:30.720> targeted<00:20:31.200> physical 19:01.844 --> 19:01.854 align:start position:0% expended energy in targeted physical 19:01.854 --> 19:04.324 align:start position:0% expended energy in targeted physical bursts<00:20:32.240> followed<00:20:32.559> by<00:20:32.720> rest<00:20:33.039> around<00:20:33.280> the<00:20:33.520> fire, 19:04.324 --> 19:04.334 align:start position:0% bursts followed by rest around the fire, 19:04.334 --> 19:07.204 align:start position:0% bursts followed by rest around the fire, today<00:20:34.559> we<00:20:34.799> sit<00:20:35.039> for<00:20:35.200> 8<00:20:35.360> to<00:20:35.600> 12<00:20:35.840> hours<00:20:36.159> at<00:20:36.400> desks, 19:07.204 --> 19:07.214 align:start position:0% today we sit for 8 to 12 hours at desks, 19:07.214 --> 19:10.403 align:start position:0% today we sit for 8 to 12 hours at desks, in<00:20:37.280> cars,<00:20:37.679> or<00:20:37.919> on<00:20:38.240> couches.<00:20:39.280> Constant<00:20:39.840> access 19:10.403 --> 19:10.413 align:start position:0% in cars, or on couches. Constant access 19:10.413 --> 19:12.964 align:start position:0% in cars, or on couches. Constant access to<00:20:40.400> power<00:20:40.799> has<00:20:41.120> created<00:20:41.520> constant<00:20:42.000> demands<00:20:42.480> on 19:12.964 --> 19:12.974 align:start position:0% to power has created constant demands on 19:12.974 --> 19:15.604 align:start position:0% to power has created constant demands on attention,<00:20:43.520> erasing<00:20:43.919> the<00:20:44.240> line<00:20:44.559> between<00:20:44.880> on 19:15.604 --> 19:15.614 align:start position:0% attention, erasing the line between on 19:15.614 --> 19:18.084 align:start position:0% attention, erasing the line between on and<00:20:45.679> off.<00:20:46.400> The<00:20:46.720> result<00:20:46.960> has<00:20:47.200> been<00:20:47.360> chronic 19:18.084 --> 19:18.094 align:start position:0% and off. The result has been chronic 19:18.094 --> 19:20.803 align:start position:0% and off. The result has been chronic stress,<00:20:48.480> low<00:20:48.799> energy,<00:20:49.440> and<00:20:49.679> less<00:20:50.000> time<00:20:50.320> or 19:20.803 --> 19:20.813 align:start position:0% stress, low energy, and less time or 19:20.813 --> 19:27.844 align:start position:0% stress, low energy, and less time or motivation<00:20:51.200> to<00:20:51.440> cook,<00:20:52.080> move,<00:20:52.480> and<00:20:52.720> recover. 19:27.844 --> 19:27.854 align:start position:0% 19:27.854 --> 19:30.324 align:start position:0% In<00:20:57.840> the<00:20:58.000> midentth<00:20:58.640> century,<00:20:59.120> endocrinologist 19:30.324 --> 19:30.334 align:start position:0% In the midentth century, endocrinologist 19:30.334 --> 19:33.124 align:start position:0% In the midentth century, endocrinologist Hanselier<00:21:01.039> noticed<00:21:01.520> this<00:21:01.840> mismatch<00:21:02.400> becoming 19:33.124 --> 19:33.134 align:start position:0% Hanselier noticed this mismatch becoming 19:33.134 --> 19:35.764 align:start position:0% Hanselier noticed this mismatch becoming more<00:21:03.039> prevalent<00:21:03.440> in<00:21:03.760> society<00:21:04.720> and<00:21:04.960> he<00:21:05.200> came<00:21:05.360> up 19:35.764 --> 19:35.774 align:start position:0% more prevalent in society and he came up 19:35.774 --> 19:38.084 align:start position:0% more prevalent in society and he came up with<00:21:05.679> something<00:21:06.240> called<00:21:06.640> general<00:21:07.039> adaptation 19:38.084 --> 19:38.094 align:start position:0% with something called general adaptation 19:38.094 --> 19:40.724 align:start position:0% with something called general adaptation syndrome<00:21:08.400> to<00:21:08.640> describe<00:21:09.120> how<00:21:09.440> animals<00:21:10.000> respond 19:40.724 --> 19:40.734 align:start position:0% syndrome to describe how animals respond 19:40.734 --> 19:44.163 align:start position:0% syndrome to describe how animals respond to<00:21:10.799> prolonged<00:21:11.520> strain.<00:21:12.720> This<00:21:13.039> syndrome<00:21:13.520> is<00:21:13.679> a 19:44.163 --> 19:44.173 align:start position:0% to prolonged strain. This syndrome is a 19:44.173 --> 19:46.324 align:start position:0% to prolonged strain. This syndrome is a byproduct<00:21:14.400> of<00:21:14.559> the<00:21:14.799> natural<00:21:15.360> three-stage 19:46.324 --> 19:46.334 align:start position:0% byproduct of the natural three-stage 19:46.334 --> 19:49.364 align:start position:0% byproduct of the natural three-stage response<00:21:16.559> to<00:21:16.880> stress.<00:21:17.919> The<00:21:18.080> first<00:21:18.320> stage 19:49.364 --> 19:49.374 align:start position:0% response to stress. The first stage 19:49.374 --> 19:51.124 align:start position:0% response to stress. The first stage alarm<00:21:19.760> triggers<00:21:20.080> the<00:21:20.320> classic<00:21:20.640> fight 19:51.124 --> 19:51.134 align:start position:0% alarm triggers the classic fight 19:51.134 --> 19:53.604 align:start position:0% alarm triggers the classic fight orflight<00:21:21.440> reaction<00:21:22.320> flooding<00:21:22.720> the<00:21:22.960> body<00:21:23.120> with 19:53.604 --> 19:53.614 align:start position:0% orflight reaction flooding the body with 19:53.614 --> 19:56.403 align:start position:0% orflight reaction flooding the body with adrenaline<00:21:23.919> and<00:21:24.159> cortisol.<00:21:25.360> The<00:21:25.600> second 19:56.403 --> 19:56.413 align:start position:0% adrenaline and cortisol. The second 19:56.413 --> 19:58.964 align:start position:0% adrenaline and cortisol. The second resistance<00:21:27.120> engages<00:21:27.600> coping<00:21:28.000> mechanisms<00:21:28.480> to 19:58.964 --> 19:58.974 align:start position:0% resistance engages coping mechanisms to 19:58.974 --> 20:02.084 align:start position:0% resistance engages coping mechanisms to maintain<00:21:29.120> balance<00:21:29.600> despite<00:21:30.080> ongoing<00:21:30.720> stress. 20:02.084 --> 20:02.094 align:start position:0% maintain balance despite ongoing stress. 20:02.094 --> 20:04.403 align:start position:0% maintain balance despite ongoing stress. Afterwards,<00:21:32.400> the<00:21:32.640> third<00:21:32.880> stage,<00:21:33.520> exhaustion 20:04.403 --> 20:04.413 align:start position:0% Afterwards, the third stage, exhaustion 20:04.413 --> 20:06.244 align:start position:0% Afterwards, the third stage, exhaustion sets<00:21:34.480> in,<00:21:34.799> leading<00:21:35.120> to<00:21:35.280> breakdown, 20:06.244 --> 20:06.254 align:start position:0% sets in, leading to breakdown, 20:06.254 --> 20:13.524 align:start position:0% sets in, leading to breakdown, vulnerability,<00:21:36.960> and<00:21:37.280> burnout. 20:13.524 --> 20:13.534 align:start position:0% 20:13.534 --> 20:15.764 align:start position:0% Imagine<00:21:43.600> an<00:21:43.840> oustropythecus<00:21:45.120> like<00:21:45.280> the 20:15.764 --> 20:15.774 align:start position:0% Imagine an oustropythecus like the 20:15.774 --> 20:18.724 align:start position:0% Imagine an oustropythecus like the famous<00:21:45.919> Lucy<00:21:46.559> living<00:21:46.880> somewhere<00:21:47.280> around<00:21:47.760> 3.2 20:18.724 --> 20:18.734 align:start position:0% famous Lucy living somewhere around 3.2 20:18.734 --> 20:20.484 align:start position:0% famous Lucy living somewhere around 3.2 million<00:21:48.880> years<00:21:49.120> ago<00:21:49.520> in<00:21:49.679> the<00:21:49.840> wooded 20:20.484 --> 20:20.494 align:start position:0% million years ago in the wooded 20:20.494 --> 20:22.644 align:start position:0% million years ago in the wooded grasslands<00:21:50.880> of<00:21:51.039> what<00:21:51.280> is<00:21:51.440> now<00:21:51.679> Ethiopia. 20:22.644 --> 20:22.654 align:start position:0% grasslands of what is now Ethiopia. 20:22.654 --> 20:24.724 align:start position:0% grasslands of what is now Ethiopia. Picture<00:21:52.960> her<00:21:53.120> group<00:21:53.440> facing<00:21:53.840> a<00:21:54.080> sudden 20:24.724 --> 20:24.734 align:start position:0% Picture her group facing a sudden 20:24.734 --> 20:27.124 align:start position:0% Picture her group facing a sudden crisis.<00:21:55.360> Her<00:21:55.520> leopard<00:21:55.919> ambush<00:21:56.400> near<00:21:56.640> their 20:27.124 --> 20:27.134 align:start position:0% crisis. Her leopard ambush near their 20:27.134 --> 20:30.884 align:start position:0% crisis. Her leopard ambush near their leafy<00:21:57.280> home.<00:21:58.240> Her<00:21:58.559> body<00:21:59.039> reacts<00:21:59.679> perfectly. 20:30.884 --> 20:30.894 align:start position:0% leafy home. Her body reacts perfectly. 20:30.894 --> 20:33.204 align:start position:0% leafy home. Her body reacts perfectly. Her<00:22:00.880> heart<00:22:01.120> races.<00:22:01.760> Adrenaline<00:22:02.320> and<00:22:02.480> cortisol 20:33.204 --> 20:33.214 align:start position:0% Her heart races. Adrenaline and cortisol 20:33.214 --> 20:35.524 align:start position:0% Her heart races. Adrenaline and cortisol floods<00:22:03.360> her<00:22:03.520> system<00:22:03.919> and<00:22:04.159> her<00:22:04.320> muscles<00:22:04.799> tense 20:35.524 --> 20:35.534 align:start position:0% floods her system and her muscles tense 20:35.534 --> 20:37.524 align:start position:0% floods her system and her muscles tense for<00:22:05.520> a<00:22:05.679> desperate<00:22:06.080> climb<00:22:06.320> into<00:22:06.640> the<00:22:06.799> branches 20:37.524 --> 20:37.534 align:start position:0% for a desperate climb into the branches 20:37.534 --> 20:40.163 align:start position:0% for a desperate climb into the branches or<00:22:07.440> a<00:22:07.679> sprint<00:22:08.080> across<00:22:08.400> the<00:22:08.640> savannah.<00:22:09.520> She<00:22:09.679> and 20:40.163 --> 20:40.173 align:start position:0% or a sprint across the savannah. She and 20:40.173 --> 20:41.923 align:start position:0% or a sprint across the savannah. She and her<00:22:10.080> group<00:22:10.320> make<00:22:10.480> it<00:22:10.640> to<00:22:10.880> safety<00:22:11.280> and<00:22:11.520> their 20:41.923 --> 20:41.933 align:start position:0% her group make it to safety and their 20:41.933 --> 20:44.964 align:start position:0% her group make it to safety and their brief<00:22:12.000> period<00:22:12.320> of<00:22:12.480> alarm<00:22:13.120> fades.<00:22:14.159> The<00:22:14.400> stress 20:44.964 --> 20:44.974 align:start position:0% brief period of alarm fades. The stress 20:44.974 --> 20:47.923 align:start position:0% brief period of alarm fades. The stress system<00:22:15.360> resets,<00:22:16.480> conserving<00:22:17.039> energy<00:22:17.360> for<00:22:17.520> the 20:47.923 --> 20:47.933 align:start position:0% system resets, conserving energy for the 20:47.933 --> 20:50.004 align:start position:0% system resets, conserving energy for the next<00:22:17.840> day's<00:22:18.240> foraging.<00:22:18.880> And<00:22:19.120> so<00:22:19.280> Lucy's 20:50.004 --> 20:50.014 align:start position:0% next day's foraging. And so Lucy's 20:50.014 --> 20:52.324 align:start position:0% next day's foraging. And so Lucy's system<00:22:20.080> is<00:22:20.320> perfectly<00:22:20.799> matched<00:22:21.280> to<00:22:21.600> brief 20:52.324 --> 20:52.334 align:start position:0% system is perfectly matched to brief 20:52.334 --> 20:55.283 align:start position:0% system is perfectly matched to brief life<00:22:22.400> or<00:22:22.640> death<00:22:22.880> pulses<00:22:23.520> in<00:22:23.760> a<00:22:24.000> dangerous<00:22:24.640> but 20:55.283 --> 20:55.293 align:start position:0% life or death pulses in a dangerous but 20:55.293 --> 20:58.564 align:start position:0% life or death pulses in a dangerous but episodic<00:22:26.000> world.<00:22:27.039> Fast<00:22:27.280> forward<00:22:27.520> to<00:22:27.760> today, 20:58.564 --> 20:58.574 align:start position:0% episodic world. Fast forward to today, 20:58.574 --> 21:01.124 align:start position:0% episodic world. Fast forward to today, that<00:22:28.640> same<00:22:28.960> ancient<00:22:29.440> machinery<00:22:30.159> grinds 21:01.124 --> 21:01.134 align:start position:0% that same ancient machinery grinds 21:01.134 --> 21:04.084 align:start position:0% that same ancient machinery grinds without<00:22:31.360> release.<00:22:32.480> In<00:22:32.720> the<00:22:32.880> constant<00:22:33.280> hum<00:22:33.679> of 21:04.084 --> 21:04.094 align:start position:0% without release. In the constant hum of 21:04.094 --> 21:06.484 align:start position:0% without release. In the constant hum of modern<00:22:34.240> life,<00:22:34.720> it<00:22:34.960> can<00:22:35.120> become<00:22:35.360> a<00:22:35.520> slow<00:22:35.919> but 21:06.484 --> 21:06.494 align:start position:0% modern life, it can become a slow but 21:06.494 --> 21:09.604 align:start position:0% modern life, it can become a slow but steady<00:22:36.640> source<00:22:37.039> of<00:22:37.280> mental<00:22:37.679> exhaustion.<00:22:39.120> And 21:09.604 --> 21:09.614 align:start position:0% steady source of mental exhaustion. And 21:09.614 --> 21:12.084 align:start position:0% steady source of mental exhaustion. And a<00:22:39.600> century<00:22:40.000> or<00:22:40.159> so<00:22:40.320> of<00:22:40.559> industrialized<00:22:41.440> living 21:12.084 --> 21:12.094 align:start position:0% a century or so of industrialized living 21:12.094 --> 21:14.484 align:start position:0% a century or so of industrialized living has<00:22:42.080> not<00:22:42.320> only<00:22:42.480> assaulted<00:22:42.960> our<00:22:43.280> mental<00:22:43.600> state, 21:14.484 --> 21:14.494 align:start position:0% has not only assaulted our mental state, 21:14.494 --> 21:20.803 align:start position:0% has not only assaulted our mental state, but<00:22:44.480> our<00:22:44.799> physical<00:22:45.200> state,<00:22:45.919> too. 21:20.803 --> 21:20.813 align:start position:0% 21:20.813 --> 21:23.043 align:start position:0% During<00:22:50.960> the<00:22:51.120> early<00:22:51.360> 20th<00:22:51.760> century,<00:22:52.320> developed 21:23.043 --> 21:23.053 align:start position:0% During the early 20th century, developed 21:23.053 --> 21:24.964 align:start position:0% During the early 20th century, developed nations<00:22:53.200> began<00:22:53.440> to<00:22:53.600> face<00:22:53.840> what<00:22:54.080> physicians 21:24.964 --> 21:24.974 align:start position:0% nations began to face what physicians 21:24.974 --> 21:27.923 align:start position:0% nations began to face what physicians called<00:22:55.280> diseases<00:22:55.919> of<00:22:56.159> civilization.<00:22:57.520> For 21:27.923 --> 21:27.933 align:start position:0% called diseases of civilization. For 21:27.933 --> 21:29.764 align:start position:0% called diseases of civilization. For most<00:22:57.919> of<00:22:58.080> human<00:22:58.320> history,<00:22:58.720> the<00:22:58.960> main<00:22:59.200> threats 21:29.764 --> 21:29.774 align:start position:0% most of human history, the main threats 21:29.774 --> 21:32.484 align:start position:0% most of human history, the main threats to<00:22:59.679> life<00:23:00.000> were<00:23:00.320> infections,<00:23:01.200> injuries,<00:23:01.919> and 21:32.484 --> 21:32.494 align:start position:0% to life were infections, injuries, and 21:32.494 --> 21:35.043 align:start position:0% to life were infections, injuries, and famine.<00:23:03.039> In<00:23:03.280> small<00:23:03.679> mobile<00:23:04.080> bands<00:23:04.400> of<00:23:04.480> hunter 21:35.043 --> 21:35.053 align:start position:0% famine. In small mobile bands of hunter 21:35.053 --> 21:36.964 align:start position:0% famine. In small mobile bands of hunter gatherers,<00:23:05.360> people<00:23:05.600> faced<00:23:06.000> parasites, 21:36.964 --> 21:36.974 align:start position:0% gatherers, people faced parasites, 21:36.974 --> 21:39.043 align:start position:0% gatherers, people faced parasites, dangerous<00:23:07.120> animals,<00:23:07.600> wounds,<00:23:08.159> and<00:23:08.320> the<00:23:08.480> risks 21:39.043 --> 21:39.053 align:start position:0% dangerous animals, wounds, and the risks 21:39.053 --> 21:41.684 align:start position:0% dangerous animals, wounds, and the risks of<00:23:08.960> childbirth.<00:23:10.080> Early<00:23:10.480> farmers<00:23:10.880> added<00:23:11.200> new 21:41.684 --> 21:41.694 align:start position:0% of childbirth. Early farmers added new 21:41.694 --> 21:43.444 align:start position:0% of childbirth. Early farmers added new problems<00:23:11.919> like<00:23:12.240> close<00:23:12.559> contact<00:23:12.880> with 21:43.444 --> 21:43.454 align:start position:0% problems like close contact with 21:43.454 --> 21:45.364 align:start position:0% problems like close contact with livestock<00:23:13.600> and<00:23:13.760> poor<00:23:14.000> sanitation<00:23:14.720> which<00:23:14.960> made 21:45.364 --> 21:45.374 align:start position:0% livestock and poor sanitation which made 21:45.374 --> 21:47.524 align:start position:0% livestock and poor sanitation which made diseases<00:23:15.600> like<00:23:15.840> small<00:23:16.159> pox,<00:23:16.480> tuberculosis 21:47.524 --> 21:47.534 align:start position:0% diseases like small pox, tuberculosis 21:47.534 --> 21:50.403 align:start position:0% diseases like small pox, tuberculosis and<00:23:17.520> measles<00:23:18.000> part<00:23:18.240> of<00:23:18.400> everyday<00:23:18.880> life.<00:23:19.919> Over 21:50.403 --> 21:50.413 align:start position:0% and measles part of everyday life. Over 21:50.413 --> 21:52.324 align:start position:0% and measles part of everyday life. Over the<00:23:20.400> 20th<00:23:20.799> century,<00:23:21.360> things<00:23:21.679> seemed<00:23:21.919> to 21:52.324 --> 21:52.334 align:start position:0% the 20th century, things seemed to 21:52.334 --> 21:54.324 align:start position:0% the 20th century, things seemed to improve<00:23:22.400> dramatically.<00:23:23.440> Clean<00:23:23.760> drinking 21:54.324 --> 21:54.334 align:start position:0% improve dramatically. Clean drinking 21:54.334 --> 21:56.403 align:start position:0% improve dramatically. Clean drinking water,<00:23:24.559> sewer<00:23:24.880> systems,<00:23:25.440> vaccination, 21:56.403 --> 21:56.413 align:start position:0% water, sewer systems, vaccination, 21:56.413 --> 21:59.043 align:start position:0% water, sewer systems, vaccination, antibiotics,<00:23:27.200> and<00:23:27.360> safer<00:23:27.760> childirth<00:23:28.480> drove 21:59.043 --> 21:59.053 align:start position:0% antibiotics, and safer childirth drove 21:59.053 --> 22:01.283 align:start position:0% antibiotics, and safer childirth drove infectious<00:23:29.360> disease<00:23:29.760> and<00:23:29.919> infant<00:23:30.320> mortality 22:01.283 --> 22:01.293 align:start position:0% infectious disease and infant mortality 22:01.293 --> 22:03.524 align:start position:0% infectious disease and infant mortality down<00:23:31.280> to<00:23:31.600> historic<00:23:32.000> lows<00:23:32.400> in<00:23:32.640> many<00:23:32.799> developed 22:03.524 --> 22:03.534 align:start position:0% down to historic lows in many developed 22:03.534 --> 22:06.004 align:start position:0% down to historic lows in many developed countries.<00:23:33.919> While<00:23:34.159> average<00:23:34.480> life<00:23:34.799> expectancy 22:06.004 --> 22:06.014 align:start position:0% countries. While average life expectancy 22:06.014 --> 22:08.644 align:start position:0% countries. While average life expectancy shot<00:23:36.080> up.<00:23:37.039> But<00:23:37.440> as<00:23:37.679> the<00:23:37.840> old<00:23:38.000> killers 22:08.644 --> 22:08.654 align:start position:0% shot up. But as the old killers 22:08.654 --> 22:11.684 align:start position:0% shot up. But as the old killers retreated,<00:23:39.200> new<00:23:39.440> ones<00:23:39.919> took<00:23:40.159> their<00:23:40.400> place. 22:11.684 --> 22:11.694 align:start position:0% retreated, new ones took their place. 22:11.694 --> 22:13.684 align:start position:0% retreated, new ones took their place. Today,<00:23:41.840> in<00:23:42.159> highincome<00:23:42.720> nations,<00:23:43.200> the 22:13.684 --> 22:13.694 align:start position:0% Today, in highincome nations, the 22:13.694 --> 22:15.124 align:start position:0% Today, in highincome nations, the leading<00:23:43.760> causes<00:23:44.080> of<00:23:44.240> death<00:23:44.480> are<00:23:44.640> not 22:15.124 --> 22:15.134 align:start position:0% leading causes of death are not 22:15.134 --> 22:18.004 align:start position:0% leading causes of death are not infections,<00:23:45.840> but<00:23:46.159> chronic<00:23:46.880> non-communicable 22:18.004 --> 22:18.014 align:start position:0% infections, but chronic non-communicable 22:18.014 --> 22:20.564 align:start position:0% infections, but chronic non-communicable diseases<00:23:48.400> like<00:23:48.720> heart<00:23:48.960> attacks<00:23:49.280> and<00:23:49.520> strokes, 22:20.564 --> 22:20.574 align:start position:0% diseases like heart attacks and strokes, 22:20.574 --> 22:23.204 align:start position:0% diseases like heart attacks and strokes, clogged<00:23:50.720> arteries,<00:23:51.360> type<00:23:51.760> 2<00:23:51.919> diabetes, 22:23.204 --> 22:23.214 align:start position:0% clogged arteries, type 2 diabetes, 22:23.214 --> 22:25.364 align:start position:0% clogged arteries, type 2 diabetes, obesity<00:23:53.600> related<00:23:54.000> conditions,<00:23:54.640> and<00:23:54.880> many 22:25.364 --> 22:25.374 align:start position:0% obesity related conditions, and many 22:25.374 --> 22:27.844 align:start position:0% obesity related conditions, and many forms<00:23:55.440> of<00:23:55.679> cancer.<00:23:56.480> And<00:23:56.640> so,<00:23:56.799> why<00:23:57.039> do<00:23:57.200> humans 22:27.844 --> 22:27.854 align:start position:0% forms of cancer. And so, why do humans 22:27.854 --> 22:30.163 align:start position:0% forms of cancer. And so, why do humans living<00:23:57.840> in<00:23:58.080> modern<00:23:58.559> urban<00:23:58.880> settings<00:23:59.600> fall 22:30.163 --> 22:30.173 align:start position:0% living in modern urban settings fall 22:30.173 --> 22:32.324 align:start position:0% living in modern urban settings fall victim<00:24:00.559> to<00:24:00.799> these<00:24:01.120> diseases<00:24:01.840> of 22:32.324 --> 22:32.334 align:start position:0% victim to these diseases of 22:32.334 --> 22:38.163 align:start position:0% victim to these diseases of civilization? 22:38.163 --> 22:38.173 align:start position:0% 22:38.173 --> 22:41.523 align:start position:0% In<00:24:08.159> 1962,<00:24:09.200> geneticist<00:24:09.919> James<00:24:10.320> Neil<00:24:10.799> proposed 22:41.523 --> 22:41.533 align:start position:0% In 1962, geneticist James Neil proposed 22:41.533 --> 22:44.324 align:start position:0% In 1962, geneticist James Neil proposed the<00:24:11.440> idea<00:24:12.000> of<00:24:12.159> a<00:24:12.400> thrifty<00:24:12.960> genotype.<00:24:13.840> He 22:44.324 --> 22:44.334 align:start position:0% the idea of a thrifty genotype. He 22:44.334 --> 22:46.004 align:start position:0% the idea of a thrifty genotype. He suggested<00:24:14.559> that<00:24:14.799> our<00:24:15.039> huntergatherer 22:46.004 --> 22:46.014 align:start position:0% suggested that our huntergatherer 22:46.014 --> 22:48.163 align:start position:0% suggested that our huntergatherer ancestors<00:24:16.400> evolved<00:24:16.960> genes<00:24:17.279> that<00:24:17.520> made<00:24:17.679> their 22:48.163 --> 22:48.173 align:start position:0% ancestors evolved genes that made their 22:48.173 --> 22:50.324 align:start position:0% ancestors evolved genes that made their bodies<00:24:18.400> exceptionally<00:24:19.120> efficient<00:24:19.760> at 22:50.324 --> 22:50.334 align:start position:0% bodies exceptionally efficient at 22:50.334 --> 22:53.444 align:start position:0% bodies exceptionally efficient at storing<00:24:20.640> energy.<00:24:21.760> This<00:24:22.080> thrifty<00:24:22.559> adaptation 22:53.444 --> 22:53.454 align:start position:0% storing energy. This thrifty adaptation 22:53.454 --> 22:54.964 align:start position:0% storing energy. This thrifty adaptation would<00:24:23.360> have<00:24:23.440> been<00:24:23.600> put<00:24:23.760> to<00:24:23.919> the<00:24:24.080> test<00:24:24.400> during 22:54.964 --> 22:54.974 align:start position:0% would have been put to the test during 22:54.974 --> 22:57.283 align:start position:0% would have been put to the test during the<00:24:24.960> last<00:24:25.279> glacial<00:24:25.760> maximum,<00:24:26.480> the<00:24:26.640> height<00:24:26.880> of 22:57.283 --> 22:57.293 align:start position:0% the last glacial maximum, the height of 22:57.293 --> 23:00.084 align:start position:0% the last glacial maximum, the height of which<00:24:27.279> occurred<00:24:27.679> around<00:24:28.080> 27<00:24:28.640> to<00:24:28.960> 20,000<00:24:29.600> years 23:00.084 --> 23:00.094 align:start position:0% which occurred around 27 to 20,000 years 23:00.094 --> 23:02.403 align:start position:0% which occurred around 27 to 20,000 years ago.<00:24:30.400> This<00:24:30.640> was<00:24:30.799> a<00:24:31.039> time<00:24:31.200> when<00:24:31.520> massive<00:24:31.919> ice 23:02.403 --> 23:02.413 align:start position:0% ago. This was a time when massive ice 23:02.413 --> 23:03.764 align:start position:0% ago. This was a time when massive ice sheets<00:24:32.559> covered<00:24:32.799> most<00:24:32.960> of<00:24:33.120> the<00:24:33.200> northern 23:03.764 --> 23:03.774 align:start position:0% sheets covered most of the northern 23:03.774 --> 23:05.764 align:start position:0% sheets covered most of the northern hemisphere<00:24:34.159> and<00:24:34.480> food<00:24:34.799> scarcity<00:24:35.279> would 23:05.764 --> 23:05.774 align:start position:0% hemisphere and food scarcity would 23:05.774 --> 23:08.484 align:start position:0% hemisphere and food scarcity would likely<00:24:35.840> have<00:24:36.000> hit<00:24:36.320> brutal<00:24:36.880> extremes.<00:24:38.000> This 23:08.484 --> 23:08.494 align:start position:0% likely have hit brutal extremes. This 23:08.494 --> 23:10.084 align:start position:0% likely have hit brutal extremes. This meant<00:24:38.400> that<00:24:38.559> humans<00:24:38.960> that<00:24:39.200> could<00:24:39.360> rapidly 23:10.084 --> 23:10.094 align:start position:0% meant that humans that could rapidly 23:10.094 --> 23:12.484 align:start position:0% meant that humans that could rapidly store<00:24:40.159> fat<00:24:40.480> from<00:24:40.720> rare<00:24:41.039> kills,<00:24:41.600> then<00:24:41.840> ration 23:12.484 --> 23:12.494 align:start position:0% store fat from rare kills, then ration 23:12.494 --> 23:14.324 align:start position:0% store fat from rare kills, then ration it<00:24:42.400> through<00:24:42.640> famine,<00:24:43.200> were<00:24:43.440> far<00:24:43.600> more<00:24:43.840> likely 23:14.324 --> 23:14.334 align:start position:0% it through famine, were far more likely 23:14.334 --> 23:16.403 align:start position:0% it through famine, were far more likely to<00:24:44.320> survive<00:24:44.799> these<00:24:45.120> periods<00:24:45.440> of<00:24:45.679> extreme 23:16.403 --> 23:16.413 align:start position:0% to survive these periods of extreme 23:16.413 --> 23:18.244 align:start position:0% to survive these periods of extreme scarcity.<00:24:47.039> But<00:24:47.200> those<00:24:47.360> same<00:24:47.600> genetic 23:18.244 --> 23:18.254 align:start position:0% scarcity. But those same genetic 23:18.254 --> 23:20.004 align:start position:0% scarcity. But those same genetic tendencies<00:24:48.559> that<00:24:48.799> once<00:24:49.120> protected<00:24:49.600> people 23:20.004 --> 23:20.014 align:start position:0% tendencies that once protected people 23:20.014 --> 23:22.324 align:start position:0% tendencies that once protected people from<00:24:50.000> starvation<00:24:50.960> now<00:24:51.279> leave<00:24:51.520> many<00:24:51.760> of<00:24:51.840> us 23:22.324 --> 23:22.334 align:start position:0% from starvation now leave many of us 23:22.334 --> 23:25.124 align:start position:0% from starvation now leave many of us vulnerable<00:24:52.799> to<00:24:53.120> abundance.<00:24:54.400> Indeed,<00:24:54.720> in 23:25.124 --> 23:25.134 align:start position:0% vulnerable to abundance. Indeed, in 23:25.134 --> 23:26.724 align:start position:0% vulnerable to abundance. Indeed, in modern<00:24:55.200> developed<00:24:55.520> nations,<00:24:56.080> we<00:24:56.320> have 23:26.724 --> 23:26.734 align:start position:0% modern developed nations, we have 23:26.734 --> 23:29.043 align:start position:0% modern developed nations, we have constant<00:24:57.039> access<00:24:57.360> to<00:24:57.600> food.<00:24:58.159> Much<00:24:58.400> of<00:24:58.480> it<00:24:58.640> is 23:29.043 --> 23:29.053 align:start position:0% constant access to food. Much of it is 23:29.053 --> 23:30.564 align:start position:0% constant access to food. Much of it is cheap,<00:24:59.200> high<00:24:59.440> in<00:24:59.600> calories,<00:25:00.000> and 23:30.564 --> 23:30.574 align:start position:0% cheap, high in calories, and 23:30.574 --> 23:33.283 align:start position:0% cheap, high in calories, and ultrarocessed.<00:25:01.679> However,<00:25:02.159> the<00:25:02.400> human<00:25:02.720> body 23:33.283 --> 23:33.293 align:start position:0% ultrarocessed. However, the human body 23:33.293 --> 23:35.364 align:start position:0% ultrarocessed. However, the human body still<00:25:03.279> behaves<00:25:03.679> as<00:25:03.840> though<00:25:04.080> scarcity<00:25:04.640> is<00:25:04.880> just 23:35.364 --> 23:35.374 align:start position:0% still behaves as though scarcity is just 23:35.374 --> 23:38.004 align:start position:0% still behaves as though scarcity is just around<00:25:05.360> the<00:25:05.600> corner,<00:25:06.400> storing<00:25:06.880> excess<00:25:07.279> energy 23:38.004 --> 23:38.014 align:start position:0% around the corner, storing excess energy 23:38.014 --> 23:40.244 align:start position:0% around the corner, storing excess energy rather<00:25:08.000> than<00:25:08.240> burning<00:25:08.559> it<00:25:08.720> off.<00:25:09.360> Combine<00:25:09.840> this 23:40.244 --> 23:40.254 align:start position:0% rather than burning it off. Combine this 23:40.254 --> 23:42.484 align:start position:0% rather than burning it off. Combine this with<00:25:10.240> sedentary<00:25:10.799> lifestyles<00:25:11.360> and<00:25:11.600> long<00:25:11.919> hours 23:42.484 --> 23:42.494 align:start position:0% with sedentary lifestyles and long hours 23:42.494 --> 23:44.564 align:start position:0% with sedentary lifestyles and long hours spent<00:25:12.559> under<00:25:12.799> artificial<00:25:13.360> light,<00:25:13.919> and<00:25:14.080> the 23:44.564 --> 23:44.574 align:start position:0% spent under artificial light, and the 23:44.574 --> 23:46.724 align:start position:0% spent under artificial light, and the result<00:25:14.559> is<00:25:14.799> a<00:25:14.960> physiological<00:25:15.840> mismatch 23:46.724 --> 23:46.734 align:start position:0% result is a physiological mismatch 23:46.734 --> 23:48.884 align:start position:0% result is a physiological mismatch between<00:25:16.799> an<00:25:17.039> ancient<00:25:17.440> metabolism<00:25:18.240> and<00:25:18.400> a 23:48.884 --> 23:48.894 align:start position:0% between an ancient metabolism and a 23:48.894 --> 23:52.484 align:start position:0% between an ancient metabolism and a modern<00:25:18.960> environment<00:25:19.760> designed<00:25:20.240> for<00:25:20.559> excess. 23:52.484 --> 23:52.494 align:start position:0% modern environment designed for excess. 23:52.494 --> 23:54.244 align:start position:0% modern environment designed for excess. And<00:25:22.480> yet,<00:25:22.720> even<00:25:22.960> though<00:25:23.200> we<00:25:23.440> are<00:25:23.520> surrounded 23:54.244 --> 23:54.254 align:start position:0% And yet, even though we are surrounded 23:54.254 --> 23:56.964 align:start position:0% And yet, even though we are surrounded on<00:25:24.240> all<00:25:24.480> sides<00:25:24.880> by<00:25:25.200> abundance,<00:25:26.159> abundant 23:56.964 --> 23:56.974 align:start position:0% on all sides by abundance, abundant 23:56.974 --> 23:59.523 align:start position:0% on all sides by abundance, abundant food,<00:25:27.279> abundant<00:25:27.760> stimulation,<00:25:28.640> abundant 23:59.523 --> 23:59.533 align:start position:0% food, abundant stimulation, abundant 23:59.533 --> 24:02.004 align:start position:0% food, abundant stimulation, abundant people,<00:25:30.240> in<00:25:30.480> many<00:25:30.799> ways,<00:25:31.120> we<00:25:31.360> are<00:25:31.440> becoming 24:02.004 --> 24:02.014 align:start position:0% people, in many ways, we are becoming 24:02.014 --> 24:04.803 align:start position:0% people, in many ways, we are becoming more<00:25:32.000> isolated<00:25:32.720> than<00:25:32.960> our<00:25:33.200> distant<00:25:33.520> ancestors 24:04.803 --> 24:04.813 align:start position:0% more isolated than our distant ancestors 24:04.813 --> 24:10.484 align:start position:0% more isolated than our distant ancestors ever<00:25:34.880> were. 24:10.484 --> 24:10.494 align:start position:0% 24:10.494 --> 24:12.724 align:start position:0% When<00:25:40.480> Mitiko<00:25:41.039> Kamayyama<00:25:41.760> shut<00:25:41.919> the<00:25:42.159> apartment 24:12.724 --> 24:12.734 align:start position:0% When Mitiko Kamayyama shut the apartment 24:12.734 --> 24:15.124 align:start position:0% When Mitiko Kamayyama shut the apartment door<00:25:42.720> behind<00:25:43.039> her,<00:25:43.600> she<00:25:43.919> thought<00:25:44.400> she<00:25:44.720> was 24:15.124 --> 24:15.134 align:start position:0% door behind her, she thought she was 24:15.134 --> 24:17.523 align:start position:0% door behind her, she thought she was making<00:25:45.120> the<00:25:45.360> right<00:25:45.600> choice.<00:25:46.799> She<00:25:46.960> had<00:25:47.120> told 24:17.523 --> 24:17.533 align:start position:0% making the right choice. She had told 24:17.533 --> 24:19.523 align:start position:0% making the right choice. She had told her<00:25:47.440> 8-year-old<00:25:47.919> daughter,<00:25:48.400> Julianne,<00:25:49.120> that 24:19.523 --> 24:19.533 align:start position:0% her 8-year-old daughter, Julianne, that 24:19.533 --> 24:21.124 align:start position:0% her 8-year-old daughter, Julianne, that she<00:25:49.440> was<00:25:49.600> going<00:25:49.760> out<00:25:49.919> for<00:25:50.080> a<00:25:50.240> while<00:25:50.559> and 24:21.124 --> 24:21.134 align:start position:0% she was going out for a while and 24:21.134 --> 24:22.724 align:start position:0% she was going out for a while and reminded<00:25:51.200> her<00:25:51.440> not<00:25:51.600> to<00:25:51.760> open<00:25:51.919> the<00:25:52.080> door<00:25:52.240> for 24:22.724 --> 24:22.734 align:start position:0% reminded her not to open the door for 24:22.734 --> 24:25.043 align:start position:0% reminded her not to open the door for anyone.<00:25:53.200> Kamiyama<00:25:53.919> had<00:25:54.080> come<00:25:54.159> to<00:25:54.320> the<00:25:54.480> United 24:25.043 --> 24:25.053 align:start position:0% anyone. Kamiyama had come to the United 24:25.053 --> 24:27.604 align:start position:0% anyone. Kamiyama had come to the United States<00:25:55.279> years<00:25:55.679> before<00:25:56.000> with<00:25:56.320> her<00:25:56.559> husband, 24:27.604 --> 24:27.614 align:start position:0% States years before with her husband, 24:27.614 --> 24:30.084 align:start position:0% States years before with her husband, but<00:25:57.679> then<00:25:57.919> he<00:25:58.159> had<00:25:58.400> died,<00:25:58.960> leaving<00:25:59.200> her<00:25:59.440> alone 24:30.084 --> 24:30.094 align:start position:0% but then he had died, leaving her alone 24:30.094 --> 24:33.043 align:start position:0% but then he had died, leaving her alone with<00:26:00.080> a<00:26:00.240> small<00:26:00.559> child<00:26:01.039> in<00:26:01.279> a<00:26:01.440> foreign<00:26:01.919> country, 24:33.043 --> 24:33.053 align:start position:0% with a small child in a foreign country, 24:33.053 --> 24:34.724 align:start position:0% with a small child in a foreign country, and<00:26:03.039> so<00:26:03.200> she<00:26:03.440> did<00:26:03.600> what<00:26:03.840> she<00:26:04.080> could<00:26:04.240> to 24:34.724 --> 24:34.734 align:start position:0% and so she did what she could to 24:34.734 --> 24:36.884 align:start position:0% and so she did what she could to survive,<00:26:05.200> including<00:26:05.600> working<00:26:05.919> long<00:26:06.159> hours<00:26:06.480> as 24:36.884 --> 24:36.894 align:start position:0% survive, including working long hours as 24:36.894 --> 24:39.283 align:start position:0% survive, including working long hours as a<00:26:06.880> waitress.<00:26:07.760> However,<00:26:08.080> it<00:26:08.320> wasn't<00:26:08.559> enough<00:26:08.880> to 24:39.283 --> 24:39.293 align:start position:0% a waitress. However, it wasn't enough to 24:39.293 --> 24:42.004 align:start position:0% a waitress. However, it wasn't enough to pay<00:26:09.200> the<00:26:09.360> bills<00:26:09.679> in<00:26:09.840> 1990s<00:26:10.640> California.<00:26:11.520> And 24:42.004 --> 24:42.014 align:start position:0% pay the bills in 1990s California. And 24:42.014 --> 24:43.923 align:start position:0% pay the bills in 1990s California. And feeling<00:26:12.080> the<00:26:12.320> pressure,<00:26:12.799> she<00:26:13.039> applied<00:26:13.360> for<00:26:13.440> a 24:43.923 --> 24:43.933 align:start position:0% feeling the pressure, she applied for a 24:43.933 --> 24:46.403 align:start position:0% feeling the pressure, she applied for a second<00:26:13.919> job<00:26:14.159> as<00:26:14.320> a<00:26:14.480> singer<00:26:14.799> in<00:26:15.039> a<00:26:15.200> lounge<00:26:15.520> bar. 24:46.403 --> 24:46.413 align:start position:0% second job as a singer in a lounge bar. 24:46.413 --> 24:48.564 align:start position:0% second job as a singer in a lounge bar. Unable<00:26:16.559> to<00:26:16.640> find<00:26:16.799> a<00:26:17.039> babysitter,<00:26:17.679> Kami<00:26:18.080> Arma 24:48.564 --> 24:48.574 align:start position:0% Unable to find a babysitter, Kami Arma 24:48.574 --> 24:50.484 align:start position:0% Unable to find a babysitter, Kami Arma went<00:26:18.480> for<00:26:18.559> an<00:26:18.720> audition<00:26:19.120> and<00:26:19.440> left<00:26:19.679> Julianne 24:50.484 --> 24:50.494 align:start position:0% went for an audition and left Julianne 24:50.494 --> 24:53.283 align:start position:0% went for an audition and left Julianne alone<00:26:20.559> in<00:26:20.799> their<00:26:21.039> apartment.<00:26:22.400> But<00:26:22.799> her 24:53.283 --> 24:53.293 align:start position:0% alone in their apartment. But her 24:53.293 --> 24:54.964 align:start position:0% alone in their apartment. But her daughter<00:26:23.360> was<00:26:23.520> alone<00:26:23.760> for<00:26:23.919> a<00:26:24.080> total<00:26:24.400> of<00:26:24.559> half 24:54.964 --> 24:54.974 align:start position:0% daughter was alone for a total of half 24:54.974 --> 24:57.283 align:start position:0% daughter was alone for a total of half an<00:26:24.960> hour<00:26:25.279> before<00:26:25.600> Camama<00:26:26.320> got<00:26:26.480> a<00:26:26.640> call<00:26:26.799> from 24:57.283 --> 24:57.293 align:start position:0% an hour before Camama got a call from 24:57.293 --> 24:59.364 align:start position:0% an hour before Camama got a call from the<00:26:27.279> police.<00:26:28.159> A<00:26:28.400> neighbor<00:26:28.640> had<00:26:28.799> heard<00:26:28.960> the 24:59.364 --> 24:59.374 align:start position:0% the police. A neighbor had heard the 24:59.374 --> 25:01.844 align:start position:0% the police. A neighbor had heard the girl<00:26:29.360> crying<00:26:29.679> and<00:26:29.919> alerted<00:26:30.320> the<00:26:30.559> authorities. 25:01.844 --> 25:01.854 align:start position:0% girl crying and alerted the authorities. 25:01.854 --> 25:04.244 align:start position:0% girl crying and alerted the authorities. Camama<00:26:32.240> rushed<00:26:32.559> home,<00:26:32.880> but<00:26:33.200> Julianne<00:26:33.760> had 25:04.244 --> 25:04.254 align:start position:0% Camama rushed home, but Julianne had 25:04.254 --> 25:06.004 align:start position:0% Camama rushed home, but Julianne had already<00:26:34.240> been<00:26:34.400> taken<00:26:34.720> by<00:26:34.960> child<00:26:35.279> protection 25:06.004 --> 25:06.014 align:start position:0% already been taken by child protection 25:06.014 --> 25:08.564 align:start position:0% already been taken by child protection services<00:26:36.400> and<00:26:36.720> Kamyama<00:26:37.440> was<00:26:37.679> arrested<00:26:38.159> and 25:08.564 --> 25:08.574 align:start position:0% services and Kamyama was arrested and 25:08.574 --> 25:19.764 align:start position:0% services and Kamyama was arrested and jailed. 25:19.764 --> 25:19.774 align:start position:0% 25:19.774 --> 25:22.084 align:start position:0% Migo<00:26:50.000> Kamiyama<00:26:50.720> faced<00:26:51.120> choices<00:26:51.520> that<00:26:51.679> would 25:22.084 --> 25:22.094 align:start position:0% Migo Kamiyama faced choices that would 25:22.094 --> 25:24.084 align:start position:0% Migo Kamiyama faced choices that would have<00:26:51.919> been<00:26:52.080> unthinkable<00:26:52.640> for<00:26:52.880> our<00:26:53.120> ancestors, 25:24.084 --> 25:24.094 align:start position:0% have been unthinkable for our ancestors, 25:24.094 --> 25:25.923 align:start position:0% have been unthinkable for our ancestors, and<00:26:54.000> she<00:26:54.240> was<00:26:54.400> far<00:26:54.559> from<00:26:54.799> alone<00:26:55.120> in<00:26:55.360> facing 25:25.923 --> 25:25.933 align:start position:0% and she was far from alone in facing 25:25.933 --> 25:28.564 align:start position:0% and she was far from alone in facing this<00:26:55.840> kind<00:26:56.000> of<00:26:56.159> strain<00:26:56.640> in<00:26:56.880> modern<00:26:57.279> times.<00:26:58.080> For 25:28.564 --> 25:28.574 align:start position:0% this kind of strain in modern times. For 25:28.574 --> 25:30.084 align:start position:0% this kind of strain in modern times. For most<00:26:58.559> living<00:26:58.799> huntergatherer<00:26:59.520> groups, 25:30.084 --> 25:30.094 align:start position:0% most living huntergatherer groups, 25:30.094 --> 25:32.403 align:start position:0% most living huntergatherer groups, however,<00:27:00.240> infants<00:27:00.720> receive<00:27:01.039> hours<00:27:01.440> of<00:27:01.679> close, 25:32.403 --> 25:32.413 align:start position:0% however, infants receive hours of close, 25:32.413 --> 25:34.964 align:start position:0% however, infants receive hours of close, responsive<00:27:02.720> contact<00:27:03.200> each<00:27:03.600> day<00:27:03.919> from<00:27:04.240> dozens 25:34.964 --> 25:34.974 align:start position:0% responsive contact each day from dozens 25:34.974 --> 25:37.604 align:start position:0% responsive contact each day from dozens of<00:27:04.880> caregivers.<00:27:05.919> Everyone<00:27:06.320> chips<00:27:06.640> including 25:37.604 --> 25:37.614 align:start position:0% of caregivers. Everyone chips including 25:37.614 --> 25:39.844 align:start position:0% of caregivers. Everyone chips including all<00:27:07.520> the<00:27:07.679> siblings,<00:27:08.400> grandparents,<00:27:09.120> aunts, 25:39.844 --> 25:39.854 align:start position:0% all the siblings, grandparents, aunts, 25:39.854 --> 25:42.004 align:start position:0% all the siblings, grandparents, aunts, uncles,<00:27:10.159> and<00:27:10.400> even<00:27:10.720> neighbors. 25:42.004 --> 25:42.014 align:start position:0% uncles, and even neighbors. 25:42.014 --> 25:44.803 align:start position:0% uncles, and even neighbors. Anthropologists<00:27:12.799> call<00:27:13.039> this<00:27:13.440> alo<00:27:13.919> parenting 25:44.803 --> 25:44.813 align:start position:0% Anthropologists call this alo parenting 25:44.813 --> 25:46.884 align:start position:0% Anthropologists call this alo parenting and<00:27:14.799> it<00:27:15.039> appears<00:27:15.360> to<00:27:15.600> be<00:27:15.760> a<00:27:15.919> core<00:27:16.240> human 25:46.884 --> 25:46.894 align:start position:0% and it appears to be a core human 25:46.894 --> 25:51.204 align:start position:0% and it appears to be a core human adaptation. 25:51.204 --> 25:51.214 align:start position:0% 25:51.214 --> 25:53.124 align:start position:0% Caring<00:27:21.279> for<00:27:21.440> another<00:27:21.760> parents<00:27:22.159> offspring<00:27:22.640> is 25:53.124 --> 25:53.134 align:start position:0% Caring for another parents offspring is 25:53.134 --> 25:55.444 align:start position:0% Caring for another parents offspring is rare<00:27:23.200> in<00:27:23.440> the<00:27:23.600> animal<00:27:23.919> kingdom,<00:27:24.640> found<00:27:24.960> in 25:55.444 --> 25:55.454 align:start position:0% rare in the animal kingdom, found in 25:55.454 --> 25:58.484 align:start position:0% rare in the animal kingdom, found in only<00:27:25.440> 9%<00:27:25.919> of<00:27:26.080> bird<00:27:26.400> species<00:27:26.960> and<00:27:27.279> about<00:27:27.520> 3%<00:27:28.000> of 25:58.484 --> 25:58.494 align:start position:0% only 9% of bird species and about 3% of 25:58.494 --> 26:00.724 align:start position:0% only 9% of bird species and about 3% of mammal<00:27:28.640> species.<00:27:29.679> Indeed,<00:27:30.080> within<00:27:30.320> the 26:00.724 --> 26:00.734 align:start position:0% mammal species. Indeed, within the 26:00.734 --> 26:03.043 align:start position:0% mammal species. Indeed, within the primate<00:27:30.880> lineage,<00:27:31.440> other<00:27:31.760> than<00:27:31.840> in<00:27:32.080> humans, 26:03.043 --> 26:03.053 align:start position:0% primate lineage, other than in humans, 26:03.053 --> 26:05.204 align:start position:0% primate lineage, other than in humans, alo<00:27:33.200> parenting<00:27:33.600> is<00:27:33.840> only<00:27:34.000> truly<00:27:34.400> found<00:27:34.640> within 26:05.204 --> 26:05.214 align:start position:0% alo parenting is only truly found within 26:05.214 --> 26:07.283 align:start position:0% alo parenting is only truly found within our<00:27:35.120> distant<00:27:35.440> relatives<00:27:35.840> of<00:27:36.080> marmicetses<00:27:36.799> and 26:07.283 --> 26:07.293 align:start position:0% our distant relatives of marmicetses and 26:07.293 --> 26:10.244 align:start position:0% our distant relatives of marmicetses and tamarind.<00:27:38.320> But<00:27:38.480> despite<00:27:38.960> this,<00:27:39.600> American 26:10.244 --> 26:10.254 align:start position:0% tamarind. But despite this, American 26:10.254 --> 26:12.324 align:start position:0% tamarind. But despite this, American anthropologist<00:27:40.720> and<00:27:40.960> primatologist<00:27:41.760> Sarah 26:12.324 --> 26:12.334 align:start position:0% anthropologist and primatologist Sarah 26:12.334 --> 26:14.644 align:start position:0% anthropologist and primatologist Sarah Herdy<00:27:42.640> believes<00:27:43.039> that<00:27:43.279> our<00:27:43.600> ancestors<00:27:44.159> began 26:14.644 --> 26:14.654 align:start position:0% Herdy believes that our ancestors began 26:14.654 --> 26:17.043 align:start position:0% Herdy believes that our ancestors began to<00:27:44.559> alo<00:27:44.960> parent<00:27:45.279> over<00:27:45.520> a<00:27:45.760> million<00:27:46.080> years<00:27:46.320> ago 26:17.043 --> 26:17.053 align:start position:0% to alo parent over a million years ago 26:17.053 --> 26:20.084 align:start position:0% to alo parent over a million years ago in<00:27:47.039> the<00:27:47.200> time<00:27:47.360> of<00:27:47.600> Homo<00:27:48.000> erectus.<00:27:49.360> As<00:27:49.600> well<00:27:49.679> as 26:20.084 --> 26:20.094 align:start position:0% in the time of Homo erectus. As well as 26:20.094 --> 26:22.244 align:start position:0% in the time of Homo erectus. As well as allowing<00:27:50.320> skilled<00:27:50.799> parents<00:27:51.200> time<00:27:51.440> to<00:27:51.679> conduct 26:22.244 --> 26:22.254 align:start position:0% allowing skilled parents time to conduct 26:22.254 --> 26:24.803 align:start position:0% allowing skilled parents time to conduct tasks<00:27:52.400> for<00:27:52.640> the<00:27:52.799> group,<00:27:53.360> Herdy<00:27:53.840> also<00:27:54.159> believes 26:24.803 --> 26:24.813 align:start position:0% tasks for the group, Herdy also believes 26:24.813 --> 26:26.564 align:start position:0% tasks for the group, Herdy also believes this<00:27:54.799> variety<00:27:55.279> of<00:27:55.440> care<00:27:55.760> gave<00:27:56.080> young 26:26.564 --> 26:26.574 align:start position:0% this variety of care gave young 26:26.574 --> 26:28.564 align:start position:0% this variety of care gave young homminins<00:27:56.960> challenges<00:27:57.520> unlike<00:27:57.919> any<00:27:58.159> other 26:28.564 --> 26:28.574 align:start position:0% homminins challenges unlike any other 26:28.574 --> 26:31.043 align:start position:0% homminins challenges unlike any other rape.<00:27:58.960> creating<00:27:59.360> a<00:27:59.679> selection<00:28:00.159> pressure<00:28:00.559> for 26:31.043 --> 26:31.053 align:start position:0% rape. creating a selection pressure for 26:31.053 --> 26:33.523 align:start position:0% rape. creating a selection pressure for heightened<00:28:01.279> social<00:28:01.679> ability.<00:28:02.880> Today, 26:33.523 --> 26:33.533 align:start position:0% heightened social ability. Today, 26:33.533 --> 26:35.523 align:start position:0% heightened social ability. Today, however,<00:28:03.840> much<00:28:04.159> more<00:28:04.399> common<00:28:04.640> than<00:28:04.880> alo 26:35.523 --> 26:35.533 align:start position:0% however, much more common than alo 26:35.533 --> 26:37.923 align:start position:0% however, much more common than alo parenting<00:28:05.919> are<00:28:06.159> sole<00:28:06.559> caregivers<00:28:07.279> that<00:28:07.520> are 26:37.923 --> 26:37.933 align:start position:0% parenting are sole caregivers that are 26:37.933 --> 26:40.564 align:start position:0% parenting are sole caregivers that are also<00:28:08.000> in<00:28:08.240> full-time<00:28:08.799> employment.<00:28:09.919> In<00:28:10.159> fact, 26:40.564 --> 26:40.574 align:start position:0% also in full-time employment. In fact, 26:40.574 --> 26:42.803 align:start position:0% also in full-time employment. In fact, across<00:28:10.640> many<00:28:10.880> wealthy<00:28:11.360> countries,<00:28:12.000> surveys 26:42.803 --> 26:42.813 align:start position:0% across many wealthy countries, surveys 26:42.813 --> 26:44.324 align:start position:0% across many wealthy countries, surveys show<00:28:12.799> that<00:28:13.039> a<00:28:13.200> significant<00:28:13.679> number<00:28:13.840> of 26:44.324 --> 26:44.334 align:start position:0% show that a significant number of 26:44.334 --> 26:46.964 align:start position:0% show that a significant number of employed<00:28:14.399> adults<00:28:14.880> work<00:28:15.279> multiple<00:28:15.760> jobs.<00:28:16.480> In 26:46.964 --> 26:46.974 align:start position:0% employed adults work multiple jobs. In 26:46.974 --> 26:48.964 align:start position:0% employed adults work multiple jobs. In the<00:28:16.880> United<00:28:17.200> States,<00:28:17.600> labor<00:28:18.000> statistics<00:28:18.559> show 26:48.964 --> 26:48.974 align:start position:0% the United States, labor statistics show 26:48.974 --> 26:51.444 align:start position:0% the United States, labor statistics show that<00:28:18.960> roughly<00:28:19.279> 8<00:28:19.600> or<00:28:19.840> 9<00:28:20.159> million<00:28:20.559> people<00:28:20.880> hold 26:51.444 --> 26:51.454 align:start position:0% that roughly 8 or 9 million people hold 26:51.454 --> 26:53.923 align:start position:0% that roughly 8 or 9 million people hold more<00:28:21.360> than<00:28:21.600> one<00:28:21.840> job<00:28:22.080> at<00:28:22.320> the<00:28:22.559> same<00:28:22.799> time,<00:28:23.440> with 26:53.923 --> 26:53.933 align:start position:0% more than one job at the same time, with 26:53.933 --> 26:55.844 align:start position:0% more than one job at the same time, with women<00:28:24.000> and<00:28:24.240> young<00:28:24.480> adults<00:28:24.799> the<00:28:25.039> most<00:28:25.279> likely 26:55.844 --> 26:55.854 align:start position:0% women and young adults the most likely 26:55.854 --> 26:58.564 align:start position:0% women and young adults the most likely to<00:28:25.760> be<00:28:26.000> moonlighting.<00:28:27.200> And<00:28:27.440> global<00:28:27.840> surveys 26:58.564 --> 26:58.574 align:start position:0% to be moonlighting. And global surveys 26:58.574 --> 27:01.523 align:start position:0% to be moonlighting. And global surveys paint<00:28:28.559> an<00:28:28.799> even<00:28:29.120> starker<00:28:29.679> picture.<00:28:30.240> A<00:28:30.480> 2025 27:01.523 --> 27:01.533 align:start position:0% paint an even starker picture. A 2025 27:01.533 --> 27:04.324 align:start position:0% paint an even starker picture. A 2025 workforce<00:28:31.919> report<00:28:32.399> found<00:28:32.640> that<00:28:32.960> 23%<00:28:33.840> of 27:04.324 --> 27:04.334 align:start position:0% workforce report found that 23% of 27:04.334 --> 27:07.604 align:start position:0% workforce report found that 23% of workers<00:28:34.480> worldwide<00:28:35.360> held<00:28:35.679> two<00:28:36.000> or<00:28:36.240> more<00:28:36.559> jobs. 27:07.604 --> 27:07.614 align:start position:0% workers worldwide held two or more jobs. 27:07.614 --> 27:09.124 align:start position:0% workers worldwide held two or more jobs. And<00:28:37.520> as<00:28:37.679> well<00:28:37.840> as<00:28:38.000> this,<00:28:38.399> most<00:28:38.559> of<00:28:38.720> them 27:09.124 --> 27:09.134 align:start position:0% And as well as this, most of them 27:09.134 --> 27:11.043 align:start position:0% And as well as this, most of them reported<00:28:39.360> living<00:28:39.600> paycheck<00:28:40.080> to<00:28:40.240> paycheck 27:11.043 --> 27:11.053 align:start position:0% reported living paycheck to paycheck 27:11.053 --> 27:14.244 align:start position:0% reported living paycheck to paycheck despite<00:28:41.360> the<00:28:41.679> extra<00:28:42.080> work.<00:28:43.279> Of<00:28:43.520> course,<00:28:43.679> these 27:14.244 --> 27:14.254 align:start position:0% despite the extra work. Of course, these 27:14.254 --> 27:16.163 align:start position:0% despite the extra work. Of course, these problems<00:28:44.320> and<00:28:44.559> resulting<00:28:45.039> behaviors<00:28:45.679> would 27:16.163 --> 27:16.173 align:start position:0% problems and resulting behaviors would 27:16.173 --> 27:18.244 align:start position:0% problems and resulting behaviors would be<00:28:46.000> truly<00:28:46.399> alien<00:28:46.880> for<00:28:47.120> anyone<00:28:47.360> who<00:28:47.520> had<00:28:47.760> always 27:18.244 --> 27:18.254 align:start position:0% be truly alien for anyone who had always 27:18.254 --> 27:26.084 align:start position:0% be truly alien for anyone who had always lived<00:28:48.240> a<00:28:48.480> hunter<00:28:48.960> gatherer<00:28:49.440> lifestyle. 27:26.084 --> 27:26.094 align:start position:0% 27:26.094 --> 27:27.923 align:start position:0% Indeed,<00:28:56.240> for<00:28:56.399> many<00:28:56.640> living<00:28:56.960> huntergatherer 27:27.923 --> 27:27.933 align:start position:0% Indeed, for many living huntergatherer 27:27.933 --> 27:29.844 align:start position:0% Indeed, for many living huntergatherer groups<00:28:58.080> who<00:28:58.320> live<00:28:58.480> the<00:28:58.720> kind<00:28:58.880> of<00:28:59.039> lives<00:28:59.279> our 27:29.844 --> 27:29.854 align:start position:0% groups who live the kind of lives our 27:29.854 --> 27:32.084 align:start position:0% groups who live the kind of lives our species<00:29:00.000> is<00:29:00.240> more<00:29:00.399> adapted<00:29:00.799> for,<00:29:01.279> daily<00:29:01.600> life 27:32.084 --> 27:32.094 align:start position:0% species is more adapted for, daily life 27:32.094 --> 27:34.244 align:start position:0% species is more adapted for, daily life is<00:29:02.080> organized<00:29:02.640> around<00:29:02.960> strong<00:29:03.440> community 27:34.244 --> 27:34.254 align:start position:0% is organized around strong community 27:34.254 --> 27:37.043 align:start position:0% is organized around strong community ties,<00:29:04.960> resource<00:29:05.440> sharing,<00:29:05.919> and<00:29:06.159> an<00:29:06.399> active 27:37.043 --> 27:37.053 align:start position:0% ties, resource sharing, and an active 27:37.053 --> 27:39.043 align:start position:0% ties, resource sharing, and an active resistance<00:29:07.360> to<00:29:07.600> steep<00:29:07.919> hierarchies<00:29:08.559> and 27:39.043 --> 27:39.053 align:start position:0% resistance to steep hierarchies and 27:39.053 --> 27:41.523 align:start position:0% resistance to steep hierarchies and wealth<00:29:09.039> inequality.<00:29:10.320> Among<00:29:10.559> the<00:29:10.720> Hadza<00:29:11.200> in 27:41.523 --> 27:41.533 align:start position:0% wealth inequality. Among the Hadza in 27:41.533 --> 27:43.764 align:start position:0% wealth inequality. Among the Hadza in Tanzania<00:29:11.840> and<00:29:12.080> the<00:29:12.240> Kung<00:29:12.480> in<00:29:12.640> the<00:29:12.720> Kalahari, 27:43.764 --> 27:43.774 align:start position:0% Tanzania and the Kung in the Kalahari, 27:43.774 --> 27:45.923 align:start position:0% Tanzania and the Kung in the Kalahari, successful<00:29:14.080> hunters<00:29:14.480> do<00:29:14.640> not<00:29:14.799> gain<00:29:15.120> prestige 27:45.923 --> 27:45.933 align:start position:0% successful hunters do not gain prestige 27:45.933 --> 27:48.484 align:start position:0% successful hunters do not gain prestige by<00:29:15.919> hoarding<00:29:16.320> meat<00:29:16.640> all<00:29:16.880> for<00:29:17.039> themselves. 27:48.484 --> 27:48.494 align:start position:0% by hoarding meat all for themselves. 27:48.494 --> 27:51.043 align:start position:0% by hoarding meat all for themselves. They<00:29:18.480> earn<00:29:18.720> it<00:29:19.039> by<00:29:19.360> sharing<00:29:19.840> it<00:29:20.240> and<00:29:20.559> being 27:51.043 --> 27:51.053 align:start position:0% They earn it by sharing it and being 27:51.053 --> 27:53.364 align:start position:0% They earn it by sharing it and being humble<00:29:21.200> about<00:29:21.440> their<00:29:21.679> achievements.<00:29:22.880> In 27:53.364 --> 27:53.374 align:start position:0% humble about their achievements. In 27:53.374 --> 27:55.204 align:start position:0% humble about their achievements. In these<00:29:23.360> communities,<00:29:24.159> people<00:29:24.399> are<00:29:24.559> expected 27:55.204 --> 27:55.214 align:start position:0% these communities, people are expected 27:55.214 --> 27:57.364 align:start position:0% these communities, people are expected to<00:29:25.200> share<00:29:25.600> food<00:29:25.840> and<00:29:26.080> other<00:29:26.399> resources<00:29:26.799> with 27:57.364 --> 27:57.374 align:start position:0% to share food and other resources with 27:57.374 --> 27:59.364 align:start position:0% to share food and other resources with everyone<00:29:27.520> else.<00:29:28.159> Anyone<00:29:28.480> who<00:29:28.640> tries<00:29:28.799> to<00:29:28.960> keep 27:59.364 --> 27:59.374 align:start position:0% everyone else. Anyone who tries to keep 27:59.374 --> 28:01.444 align:start position:0% everyone else. Anyone who tries to keep too<00:29:29.279> much<00:29:29.440> for<00:29:29.600> themselves<00:29:30.159> is<00:29:30.559> teased, 28:01.444 --> 28:01.454 align:start position:0% too much for themselves is teased, 28:01.454 --> 28:04.324 align:start position:0% too much for themselves is teased, gossiped<00:29:31.679> about,<00:29:32.080> and<00:29:32.399> openly<00:29:32.880> criticized. 28:04.324 --> 28:04.334 align:start position:0% gossiped about, and openly criticized. 28:04.334 --> 28:06.643 align:start position:0% gossiped about, and openly criticized. Personal<00:29:34.480> property<00:29:34.880> does<00:29:35.200> exist,<00:29:36.000> especially 28:06.643 --> 28:06.653 align:start position:0% Personal property does exist, especially 28:06.653 --> 28:08.564 align:start position:0% Personal property does exist, especially for<00:29:36.640> things<00:29:36.799> like<00:29:37.039> tools<00:29:37.360> and<00:29:37.600> weapons,<00:29:38.080> but 28:08.564 --> 28:08.574 align:start position:0% for things like tools and weapons, but 28:08.574 --> 28:10.643 align:start position:0% for things like tools and weapons, but there<00:29:38.480> is<00:29:38.640> very<00:29:38.880> little<00:29:39.279> accumulation<00:29:40.080> of 28:10.643 --> 28:10.653 align:start position:0% there is very little accumulation of 28:10.653 --> 28:13.444 align:start position:0% there is very little accumulation of durable<00:29:40.960> wealth.<00:29:42.080> Anthropologists 28:13.444 --> 28:13.454 align:start position:0% durable wealth. Anthropologists 28:13.454 --> 28:15.444 align:start position:0% durable wealth. Anthropologists sometimes<00:29:43.679> describe<00:29:44.159> these<00:29:44.399> groups<00:29:44.799> as 28:15.444 --> 28:15.454 align:start position:0% sometimes describe these groups as 28:15.454 --> 28:17.844 align:start position:0% sometimes describe these groups as egalitarian<00:29:46.240> or<00:29:46.480> immediate<00:29:47.039> return 28:17.844 --> 28:17.854 align:start position:0% egalitarian or immediate return 28:17.854 --> 28:21.124 align:start position:0% egalitarian or immediate return societies.<00:29:48.799> They<00:29:49.039> do<00:29:49.279> not<00:29:49.520> store<00:29:49.919> resources, 28:21.124 --> 28:21.134 align:start position:0% societies. They do not store resources, 28:21.134 --> 28:23.283 align:start position:0% societies. They do not store resources, so<00:29:51.120> one<00:29:51.360> person<00:29:51.760> can't<00:29:52.159> have<00:29:52.399> much<00:29:52.640> more<00:29:52.799> than 28:23.283 --> 28:23.293 align:start position:0% so one person can't have much more than 28:23.293 --> 28:25.844 align:start position:0% so one person can't have much more than anyone<00:29:53.440> else.<00:29:54.320> There<00:29:54.480> is<00:29:54.640> still<00:29:54.960> conflict<00:29:55.360> now 28:25.844 --> 28:25.854 align:start position:0% anyone else. There is still conflict now 28:25.854 --> 28:28.084 align:start position:0% anyone else. There is still conflict now and<00:29:55.840> then,<00:29:56.159> but<00:29:56.399> in<00:29:56.559> a<00:29:56.720> very<00:29:56.960> real<00:29:57.279> sense, 28:28.084 --> 28:28.094 align:start position:0% and then, but in a very real sense, 28:28.094 --> 28:30.163 align:start position:0% and then, but in a very real sense, these<00:29:58.159> huntergatherer<00:29:58.960> societies<00:29:59.679> with 28:30.163 --> 28:30.173 align:start position:0% these huntergatherer societies with 28:30.173 --> 28:31.604 align:start position:0% these huntergatherer societies with their<00:30:00.080> small<00:30:00.399> groups<00:30:00.720> and<00:30:01.039> clear 28:31.604 --> 28:31.614 align:start position:0% their small groups and clear 28:31.614 --> 28:34.163 align:start position:0% their small groups and clear expectations<00:30:02.399> are<00:30:02.640> much<00:30:02.880> closer<00:30:03.360> to<00:30:03.520> what<00:30:03.679> our 28:34.163 --> 28:34.173 align:start position:0% expectations are much closer to what our 28:34.173 --> 28:39.523 align:start position:0% expectations are much closer to what our minds<00:30:04.240> evolved<00:30:04.720> for. 28:39.523 --> 28:39.533 align:start position:0% 28:39.533 --> 28:41.923 align:start position:0% And<00:30:09.520> indeed,<00:30:10.080> as<00:30:10.320> the<00:30:10.480> 20th<00:30:10.960> century<00:30:11.360> became 28:41.923 --> 28:41.933 align:start position:0% And indeed, as the 20th century became 28:41.933 --> 28:44.964 align:start position:0% And indeed, as the 20th century became the<00:30:11.919> 21st,<00:30:13.360> small<00:30:13.679> groups<00:30:14.000> and<00:30:14.320> clear 28:44.964 --> 28:44.974 align:start position:0% the 21st, small groups and clear 28:44.974 --> 28:47.204 align:start position:0% the 21st, small groups and clear expectations<00:30:15.840> would<00:30:16.080> become<00:30:16.399> more<00:30:16.559> and<00:30:16.720> more 28:47.204 --> 28:47.214 align:start position:0% expectations would become more and more 28:47.214 --> 28:51.124 align:start position:0% expectations would become more and more alien<00:30:17.600> to<00:30:17.840> our<00:30:18.000> day-to-day<00:30:18.559> lives. 28:51.124 --> 28:51.134 align:start position:0% alien to our day-to-day lives. 28:51.134 --> 28:53.364 align:start position:0% alien to our day-to-day lives. Imagine<00:30:21.200> a<00:30:21.440> teenager<00:30:22.080> posting<00:30:22.399> a<00:30:22.640> short<00:30:22.880> video 28:53.364 --> 28:53.374 align:start position:0% Imagine a teenager posting a short video 28:53.374 --> 28:55.684 align:start position:0% Imagine a teenager posting a short video to<00:30:23.440> social<00:30:23.760> media.<00:30:24.480> It's<00:30:24.799> nothing<00:30:25.039> special, 28:55.684 --> 28:55.694 align:start position:0% to social media. It's nothing special, 28:55.694 --> 28:57.444 align:start position:0% to social media. It's nothing special, and<00:30:25.679> they<00:30:25.919> don't<00:30:26.080> expect<00:30:26.320> anyone<00:30:26.720> other<00:30:26.960> than 28:57.444 --> 28:57.454 align:start position:0% and they don't expect anyone other than 28:57.454 --> 28:59.923 align:start position:0% and they don't expect anyone other than friends<00:30:27.440> and<00:30:27.600> family<00:30:27.919> to<00:30:28.159> see<00:30:28.320> it.<00:30:29.200> But<00:30:29.360> by 28:59.923 --> 28:59.933 align:start position:0% friends and family to see it. But by 28:59.933 --> 29:03.604 align:start position:0% friends and family to see it. But by morning,<00:30:30.240> the<00:30:30.559> video<00:30:30.799> has<00:30:31.120> 10,000<00:30:32.000> views.<00:30:33.039> The 29:03.604 --> 29:03.614 align:start position:0% morning, the video has 10,000 views. The 29:03.614 --> 29:06.643 align:start position:0% morning, the video has 10,000 views. The following<00:30:33.679> evening,<00:30:34.159> it<00:30:34.399> has<00:30:34.640> a<00:30:34.720> 100,000. 29:06.643 --> 29:06.653 align:start position:0% following evening, it has a 100,000. 29:06.653 --> 29:08.324 align:start position:0% following evening, it has a 100,000. The<00:30:36.640> teenager<00:30:37.039> has<00:30:37.200> unwittingly<00:30:37.840> found 29:08.324 --> 29:08.334 align:start position:0% The teenager has unwittingly found 29:08.334 --> 29:09.923 align:start position:0% The teenager has unwittingly found themselves<00:30:38.480> at<00:30:38.720> the<00:30:38.880> center<00:30:39.120> of<00:30:39.279> a<00:30:39.440> huge 29:09.923 --> 29:09.933 align:start position:0% themselves at the center of a huge 29:09.933 --> 29:11.923 align:start position:0% themselves at the center of a huge amount<00:30:39.919> of<00:30:40.080> attention<00:30:40.799> and<00:30:41.039> they<00:30:41.279> have<00:30:41.440> no 29:11.923 --> 29:11.933 align:start position:0% amount of attention and they have no 29:11.933 --> 29:14.484 align:start position:0% amount of attention and they have no idea<00:30:42.080> what<00:30:42.320> to<00:30:42.480> do<00:30:42.559> about<00:30:42.880> it.<00:30:43.760> The<00:30:44.000> only<00:30:44.159> thing 29:14.484 --> 29:14.494 align:start position:0% idea what to do about it. The only thing 29:14.494 --> 29:16.803 align:start position:0% idea what to do about it. The only thing that<00:30:44.480> seems<00:30:44.720> to<00:30:44.880> make<00:30:45.039> sense<00:30:45.760> is<00:30:46.000> to<00:30:46.240> post 29:16.803 --> 29:16.813 align:start position:0% that seems to make sense is to post 29:16.813 --> 29:20.403 align:start position:0% that seems to make sense is to post again.<00:30:47.919> This<00:30:48.240> is<00:30:48.399> the<00:30:48.720> variable<00:30:49.279> reward<00:30:49.679> cycle 29:20.403 --> 29:20.413 align:start position:0% again. This is the variable reward cycle 29:20.413 --> 29:22.403 align:start position:0% again. This is the variable reward cycle and<00:30:50.320> it<00:30:50.559> is<00:30:50.640> the<00:30:50.880> same<00:30:51.120> mechanism<00:30:51.600> that<00:30:51.919> makes 29:22.403 --> 29:22.413 align:start position:0% and it is the same mechanism that makes 29:22.413 --> 29:24.643 align:start position:0% and it is the same mechanism that makes slot<00:30:52.559> machines<00:30:53.039> so<00:30:53.360> difficult<00:30:53.679> to<00:30:53.919> walk<00:30:54.159> away 29:24.643 --> 29:24.653 align:start position:0% slot machines so difficult to walk away 29:24.653 --> 29:27.684 align:start position:0% slot machines so difficult to walk away from.<00:30:55.279> Each<00:30:55.600> like,<00:30:56.240> flattering<00:30:56.799> comment<00:30:57.120> or 29:27.684 --> 29:27.694 align:start position:0% from. Each like, flattering comment or 29:27.694 --> 29:29.844 align:start position:0% from. Each like, flattering comment or new<00:30:57.760> follower<00:30:58.240> is<00:30:58.559> an<00:30:58.720> unpredictable 29:29.844 --> 29:29.854 align:start position:0% new follower is an unpredictable 29:29.854 --> 29:32.084 align:start position:0% new follower is an unpredictable intermittent<00:31:00.240> hit<00:31:00.480> of<00:31:00.720> positive<00:31:01.200> feedback 29:32.084 --> 29:32.094 align:start position:0% intermittent hit of positive feedback 29:32.094 --> 29:34.643 align:start position:0% intermittent hit of positive feedback that<00:31:02.159> locks<00:31:02.559> social<00:31:02.880> media<00:31:03.279> dependency<00:31:04.080> in 29:34.643 --> 29:34.653 align:start position:0% that locks social media dependency in 29:34.653 --> 29:37.043 align:start position:0% that locks social media dependency in place.<00:31:05.360> But<00:31:05.520> it<00:31:05.679> wasn't<00:31:05.919> the<00:31:06.159> internet<00:31:06.480> that 29:37.043 --> 29:37.053 align:start position:0% place. But it wasn't the internet that 29:37.053 --> 29:38.964 align:start position:0% place. But it wasn't the internet that created<00:31:07.120> our<00:31:07.360> sensitivity<00:31:07.919> to<00:31:08.159> this<00:31:08.399> kind<00:31:08.559> of 29:38.964 --> 29:38.974 align:start position:0% created our sensitivity to this kind of 29:38.974 --> 29:43.043 align:start position:0% created our sensitivity to this kind of feedback.<00:31:09.760> The<00:31:10.000> root<00:31:10.640> is<00:31:10.960> far<00:31:11.279> more<00:31:11.520> ancient. 29:43.043 --> 29:43.053 align:start position:0% feedback. The root is far more ancient. 29:43.053 --> 29:45.043 align:start position:0% feedback. The root is far more ancient. In<00:31:12.960> the<00:31:13.200> small<00:31:13.440> bands<00:31:13.840> our<00:31:14.159> ancestors<00:31:14.640> lived 29:45.043 --> 29:45.053 align:start position:0% In the small bands our ancestors lived 29:45.053 --> 29:46.803 align:start position:0% In the small bands our ancestors lived in,<00:31:15.200> knowing<00:31:15.520> where<00:31:15.679> you<00:31:15.919> stood<00:31:16.159> with<00:31:16.399> the 29:46.803 --> 29:46.813 align:start position:0% in, knowing where you stood with the 29:46.813 --> 29:48.484 align:start position:0% in, knowing where you stood with the people<00:31:16.799> around<00:31:17.039> you<00:31:17.360> was<00:31:17.600> a<00:31:17.760> matter<00:31:18.000> of 29:48.484 --> 29:48.494 align:start position:0% people around you was a matter of 29:48.494 --> 29:50.564 align:start position:0% people around you was a matter of survival.<00:31:19.120> Approval<00:31:19.600> could<00:31:19.760> have<00:31:19.919> meant<00:31:20.080> the 29:50.564 --> 29:50.574 align:start position:0% survival. Approval could have meant the 29:50.574 --> 29:52.564 align:start position:0% survival. Approval could have meant the difference<00:31:20.559> between<00:31:20.960> life<00:31:21.200> and<00:31:21.520> death.<00:31:22.159> And 29:52.564 --> 29:52.574 align:start position:0% difference between life and death. And 29:52.574 --> 29:54.564 align:start position:0% difference between life and death. And so,<00:31:22.559> modern<00:31:22.960> social<00:31:23.279> media<00:31:23.760> simply<00:31:24.080> takes 29:54.564 --> 29:54.574 align:start position:0% so, modern social media simply takes 29:54.574 --> 29:56.484 align:start position:0% so, modern social media simply takes advantage<00:31:24.880> of<00:31:25.120> this<00:31:25.360> ancient<00:31:25.840> human 29:56.484 --> 29:56.494 align:start position:0% advantage of this ancient human 29:56.494 --> 29:59.364 align:start position:0% advantage of this ancient human instinct.<00:31:27.520> Systematic<00:31:28.080> reviews<00:31:28.480> of<00:31:28.799> social 29:59.364 --> 29:59.374 align:start position:0% instinct. Systematic reviews of social 29:59.374 --> 30:01.523 align:start position:0% instinct. Systematic reviews of social media<00:31:29.440> and<00:31:29.600> our<00:31:29.840> psychological<00:31:30.559> well-being 30:01.523 --> 30:01.533 align:start position:0% media and our psychological well-being 30:01.533 --> 30:03.283 align:start position:0% media and our psychological well-being find<00:31:31.520> that<00:31:31.679> the<00:31:31.919> relationship<00:31:32.559> between<00:31:32.799> the 30:03.283 --> 30:03.293 align:start position:0% find that the relationship between the 30:03.293 --> 30:05.684 align:start position:0% find that the relationship between the two<00:31:33.279> are<00:31:33.520> not<00:31:33.760> straightforward.<00:31:34.960> Indeed, 30:05.684 --> 30:05.694 align:start position:0% two are not straightforward. Indeed, 30:05.694 --> 30:07.684 align:start position:0% two are not straightforward. Indeed, social<00:31:35.679> media<00:31:35.919> is<00:31:36.159> not<00:31:36.320> always<00:31:36.640> harmful.<00:31:37.200> For 30:07.684 --> 30:07.694 align:start position:0% social media is not always harmful. For 30:07.694 --> 30:09.844 align:start position:0% social media is not always harmful. For some<00:31:37.600> people,<00:31:37.919> it<00:31:38.159> provides<00:31:38.640> genuine<00:31:39.120> social 30:09.844 --> 30:09.854 align:start position:0% some people, it provides genuine social 30:09.854 --> 30:12.724 align:start position:0% some people, it provides genuine social support<00:31:40.240> and<00:31:40.480> a<00:31:40.720> space<00:31:41.039> to<00:31:41.360> explore<00:31:41.840> personal 30:12.724 --> 30:12.734 align:start position:0% support and a space to explore personal 30:12.734 --> 30:15.043 align:start position:0% support and a space to explore personal identity.<00:31:43.200> But<00:31:43.360> there<00:31:43.519> are<00:31:43.679> also<00:31:44.159> consistent 30:15.043 --> 30:15.053 align:start position:0% identity. But there are also consistent 30:15.053 --> 30:17.043 align:start position:0% identity. But there are also consistent patterns<00:31:45.200> of<00:31:45.440> harm,<00:31:46.080> and<00:31:46.240> they<00:31:46.399> cluster 30:17.043 --> 30:17.053 align:start position:0% patterns of harm, and they cluster 30:17.053 --> 30:19.444 align:start position:0% patterns of harm, and they cluster around<00:31:47.120> two<00:31:47.360> things<00:31:47.679> in<00:31:47.919> particular.<00:31:48.799> How 30:19.444 --> 30:19.454 align:start position:0% around two things in particular. How 30:19.454 --> 30:22.004 align:start position:0% around two things in particular. How social<00:31:49.600> media<00:31:49.919> platforms<00:31:50.399> are<00:31:50.640> used<00:31:51.200> and<00:31:51.440> how 30:22.004 --> 30:22.014 align:start position:0% social media platforms are used and how 30:22.014 --> 30:24.564 align:start position:0% social media platforms are used and how much.<00:31:52.640> When<00:31:52.960> humans<00:31:53.360> endlessly<00:31:53.919> scroll 30:24.564 --> 30:24.574 align:start position:0% much. When humans endlessly scroll 30:24.574 --> 30:26.403 align:start position:0% much. When humans endlessly scroll through<00:31:54.559> curated<00:31:55.120> images<00:31:55.440> of<00:31:55.679> people<00:31:55.919> who 30:26.403 --> 30:26.413 align:start position:0% through curated images of people who 30:26.413 --> 30:28.484 align:start position:0% through curated images of people who seem<00:31:56.559> more<00:31:56.799> attractive,<00:31:57.440> more<00:31:57.679> successful, 30:28.484 --> 30:28.494 align:start position:0% seem more attractive, more successful, 30:28.494 --> 30:30.244 align:start position:0% seem more attractive, more successful, and<00:31:58.480> more<00:31:58.720> fulfilled<00:31:59.120> than<00:31:59.360> we<00:31:59.600> are, 30:30.244 --> 30:30.254 align:start position:0% and more fulfilled than we are, 30:30.254 --> 30:32.324 align:start position:0% and more fulfilled than we are, something<00:32:00.320> in<00:32:00.559> us<00:32:00.880> registers<00:32:01.440> it<00:32:01.679> as<00:32:01.840> a 30:32.324 --> 30:32.334 align:start position:0% something in us registers it as a 30:32.334 --> 30:34.884 align:start position:0% something in us registers it as a deficit.<00:32:03.039> In<00:32:03.279> fact,<00:32:03.519> even<00:32:03.760> the<00:32:04.000> basic<00:32:04.320> premise 30:34.884 --> 30:34.894 align:start position:0% deficit. In fact, even the basic premise 30:34.894 --> 30:36.803 align:start position:0% deficit. In fact, even the basic premise of<00:32:04.880> social<00:32:05.200> media<00:32:05.600> might<00:32:05.840> be<00:32:05.919> one<00:32:06.159> that<00:32:06.320> our 30:36.803 --> 30:36.813 align:start position:0% of social media might be one that our 30:36.813 --> 30:42.643 align:start position:0% of social media might be one that our brains<00:32:06.880> are<00:32:07.120> not<00:32:07.279> built<00:32:07.600> to<00:32:07.760> handle. 30:42.643 --> 30:42.653 align:start position:0% 30:42.653 --> 30:45.444 align:start position:0% In<00:32:12.640> the<00:32:12.799> late<00:32:12.960> 1980s<00:32:13.600> and<00:32:13.840> early<00:32:14.159> 1990s, 30:45.444 --> 30:45.454 align:start position:0% In the late 1980s and early 1990s, 30:45.454 --> 30:47.844 align:start position:0% In the late 1980s and early 1990s, British<00:32:15.519> anthropologist<00:32:16.399> Robin<00:32:16.720> Dunar<00:32:17.360> was 30:47.844 --> 30:47.854 align:start position:0% British anthropologist Robin Dunar was 30:47.854 --> 30:49.684 align:start position:0% British anthropologist Robin Dunar was studying<00:32:18.000> primates<00:32:18.559> when<00:32:18.799> he<00:32:18.960> noticed 30:49.684 --> 30:49.694 align:start position:0% studying primates when he noticed 30:49.694 --> 30:52.163 align:start position:0% studying primates when he noticed something<00:32:20.000> interesting.<00:32:21.120> Across<00:32:21.600> different 30:52.163 --> 30:52.173 align:start position:0% something interesting. Across different 30:52.173 --> 30:53.923 align:start position:0% something interesting. Across different species,<00:32:22.720> there<00:32:22.880> was<00:32:22.960> a<00:32:23.120> remarkably 30:53.923 --> 30:53.933 align:start position:0% species, there was a remarkably 30:53.933 --> 30:56.084 align:start position:0% species, there was a remarkably consistent<00:32:24.240> relationship<00:32:25.039> between<00:32:25.360> the<00:32:25.600> size 30:56.084 --> 30:56.094 align:start position:0% consistent relationship between the size 30:56.094 --> 30:58.403 align:start position:0% consistent relationship between the size of<00:32:25.919> the<00:32:26.080> neoortex<00:32:27.120> and<00:32:27.360> the<00:32:27.600> size<00:32:27.760> of<00:32:27.919> the 30:58.403 --> 30:58.413 align:start position:0% of the neoortex and the size of the 30:58.413 --> 31:00.643 align:start position:0% of the neoortex and the size of the social<00:32:28.480> groups<00:32:29.039> those<00:32:29.360> species<00:32:29.919> typically 31:00.643 --> 31:00.653 align:start position:0% social groups those species typically 31:00.653 --> 31:03.204 align:start position:0% social groups those species typically lived<00:32:30.720> in.<00:32:31.440> The<00:32:31.679> bigger<00:32:31.919> the<00:32:32.080> neoortex 31:03.204 --> 31:03.214 align:start position:0% lived in. The bigger the neoortex 31:03.214 --> 31:05.043 align:start position:0% lived in. The bigger the neoortex relative<00:32:33.279> to<00:32:33.360> the<00:32:33.600> rest<00:32:33.679> of<00:32:33.840> the<00:32:34.000> brain,<00:32:34.559> the 31:05.043 --> 31:05.053 align:start position:0% relative to the rest of the brain, the 31:05.053 --> 31:07.204 align:start position:0% relative to the rest of the brain, the larger<00:32:35.200> and<00:32:35.440> more<00:32:35.679> complex<00:32:36.159> the<00:32:36.480> social<00:32:36.720> group 31:07.204 --> 31:07.214 align:start position:0% larger and more complex the social group 31:07.214 --> 31:09.763 align:start position:0% larger and more complex the social group the<00:32:37.279> animal<00:32:37.600> could<00:32:37.919> manage.<00:32:38.880> Dunar's 31:09.763 --> 31:09.773 align:start position:0% the animal could manage. Dunar's 31:09.773 --> 31:11.763 align:start position:0% the animal could manage. Dunar's argument<00:32:39.919> was<00:32:40.159> that<00:32:40.399> primate<00:32:40.880> brains, 31:11.763 --> 31:11.773 align:start position:0% argument was that primate brains, 31:11.773 --> 31:13.684 align:start position:0% argument was that primate brains, including<00:32:41.919> our<00:32:42.240> own,<00:32:42.640> didn't<00:32:42.880> grow<00:32:43.120> large 31:13.684 --> 31:13.694 align:start position:0% including our own, didn't grow large 31:13.694 --> 31:15.604 align:start position:0% including our own, didn't grow large primarily<00:32:43.919> to<00:32:44.159> solve<00:32:44.399> technical<00:32:44.880> problems 31:15.604 --> 31:15.614 align:start position:0% primarily to solve technical problems 31:15.614 --> 31:17.283 align:start position:0% primarily to solve technical problems like<00:32:45.600> making<00:32:45.919> tools<00:32:46.240> or<00:32:46.480> navigating 31:17.283 --> 31:17.293 align:start position:0% like making tools or navigating 31:17.293 --> 31:20.004 align:start position:0% like making tools or navigating landscapes.<00:32:48.320> He<00:32:48.559> proposed<00:32:49.039> that<00:32:49.279> they<00:32:49.519> grew 31:20.004 --> 31:20.014 align:start position:0% landscapes. He proposed that they grew 31:20.014 --> 31:22.484 align:start position:0% landscapes. He proposed that they grew large,<00:32:50.320> above<00:32:50.720> all,<00:32:51.039> to<00:32:51.279> handle<00:32:51.600> the<00:32:51.760> demands 31:22.484 --> 31:22.494 align:start position:0% large, above all, to handle the demands 31:22.494 --> 31:24.964 align:start position:0% large, above all, to handle the demands of<00:32:52.640> social<00:32:53.039> life.<00:32:53.840> The<00:32:54.080> kind<00:32:54.240> of<00:32:54.399> social 31:24.964 --> 31:24.974 align:start position:0% of social life. The kind of social 31:24.974 --> 31:26.564 align:start position:0% of social life. The kind of social tracking<00:32:55.120> that<00:32:55.360> primates<00:32:55.840> do<00:32:56.080> is 31:26.564 --> 31:26.574 align:start position:0% tracking that primates do is 31:26.574 --> 31:28.964 align:start position:0% tracking that primates do is extraordinarily<00:32:57.120> demanding<00:32:57.600> on<00:32:57.840> cognition. 31:28.964 --> 31:28.974 align:start position:0% extraordinarily demanding on cognition. 31:28.974 --> 31:30.803 align:start position:0% extraordinarily demanding on cognition. So<00:32:58.880> it<00:32:59.120> appears<00:32:59.440> to<00:32:59.600> have<00:32:59.760> been<00:32:59.919> a<00:33:00.080> primary 31:30.803 --> 31:30.813 align:start position:0% So it appears to have been a primary 31:30.813 --> 31:32.724 align:start position:0% So it appears to have been a primary driver<00:33:00.880> of<00:33:01.120> the<00:33:01.279> expansion<00:33:01.679> of<00:33:01.840> the<00:33:02.000> primate 31:32.724 --> 31:32.734 align:start position:0% driver of the expansion of the primate 31:32.734 --> 31:35.364 align:start position:0% driver of the expansion of the primate brain<00:33:02.960> over<00:33:03.279> millions<00:33:03.679> of<00:33:03.919> years.<00:33:04.799> And<00:33:04.960> when 31:35.364 --> 31:35.374 align:start position:0% brain over millions of years. And when 31:35.374 --> 31:37.364 align:start position:0% brain over millions of years. And when Dunar<00:33:05.679> applied<00:33:06.080> this<00:33:06.320> relationship<00:33:06.799> to 31:37.364 --> 31:37.374 align:start position:0% Dunar applied this relationship to 31:37.374 --> 31:39.604 align:start position:0% Dunar applied this relationship to humans,<00:33:07.919> he<00:33:08.159> proposed<00:33:08.720> that<00:33:08.960> there<00:33:09.120> is<00:33:09.200> an 31:39.604 --> 31:39.614 align:start position:0% humans, he proposed that there is an 31:39.614 --> 31:41.923 align:start position:0% humans, he proposed that there is an upper<00:33:09.679> limit<00:33:10.000> to<00:33:10.240> the<00:33:10.480> number<00:33:10.640> of<00:33:10.880> stable 31:41.923 --> 31:41.933 align:start position:0% upper limit to the number of stable 31:41.933 --> 31:44.084 align:start position:0% upper limit to the number of stable meaningful<00:33:12.320> social<00:33:12.720> relationships<00:33:13.360> that<00:33:13.600> the 31:44.084 --> 31:44.094 align:start position:0% meaningful social relationships that the 31:44.094 --> 31:46.403 align:start position:0% meaningful social relationships that the human<00:33:14.159> brain<00:33:14.559> can<00:33:14.720> realistically<00:33:15.440> maintain 31:46.403 --> 31:46.413 align:start position:0% human brain can realistically maintain 31:46.413 --> 31:49.763 align:start position:0% human brain can realistically maintain at<00:33:16.399> one<00:33:16.720> time.<00:33:18.000> This<00:33:18.320> has<00:33:18.480> since<00:33:18.720> become<00:33:19.039> known 31:49.763 --> 31:49.773 align:start position:0% at one time. This has since become known 31:49.773 --> 31:52.004 align:start position:0% at one time. This has since become known as<00:33:19.840> Dunar's<00:33:20.559> number,<00:33:20.960> and<00:33:21.200> it<00:33:21.360> seems<00:33:21.519> to 31:52.004 --> 31:52.014 align:start position:0% as Dunar's number, and it seems to 31:52.014 --> 31:54.004 align:start position:0% as Dunar's number, and it seems to correspond<00:33:22.320> surprisingly<00:33:23.039> well<00:33:23.360> to 31:54.004 --> 31:54.014 align:start position:0% correspond surprisingly well to 31:54.014 --> 31:57.043 align:start position:0% correspond surprisingly well to realworld<00:33:24.559> social<00:33:24.960> structures. 31:57.043 --> 31:57.053 align:start position:0% realworld social structures. 31:57.053 --> 31:59.844 align:start position:0% realworld social structures. From 31:59.844 --> 31:59.854 align:start position:0% From 31:59.854 --> 32:01.763 align:start position:0% From hunter<00:33:30.000> gatherer<00:33:30.399> bands<00:33:30.720> and<00:33:30.880> Neolithic 32:01.763 --> 32:01.773 align:start position:0% hunter gatherer bands and Neolithic 32:01.773 --> 32:03.923 align:start position:0% hunter gatherer bands and Neolithic villages<00:33:32.000> to<00:33:32.240> modern<00:33:32.559> offices,<00:33:33.200> factories, 32:03.923 --> 32:03.933 align:start position:0% villages to modern offices, factories, 32:03.933 --> 32:05.763 align:start position:0% villages to modern offices, factories, and<00:33:33.840> military<00:33:34.240> companies,<00:33:34.960> groups<00:33:35.360> of 32:05.763 --> 32:05.773 align:start position:0% and military companies, groups of 32:05.773 --> 32:08.643 align:start position:0% and military companies, groups of roughly<00:33:36.480> 150<00:33:36.880> people<00:33:37.279> appear<00:33:37.679> again<00:33:38.080> and 32:08.643 --> 32:08.653 align:start position:0% roughly 150 people appear again and 32:08.653 --> 32:11.844 align:start position:0% roughly 150 people appear again and again<00:33:38.880> across<00:33:39.360> human<00:33:39.679> history<00:33:40.080> and<00:33:40.399> cultures. 32:11.844 --> 32:11.854 align:start position:0% again across human history and cultures. 32:11.854 --> 32:13.844 align:start position:0% again across human history and cultures. Anything<00:33:42.000> beyond<00:33:42.320> that<00:33:42.640> number,<00:33:43.039> Dunar 32:13.844 --> 32:13.854 align:start position:0% Anything beyond that number, Dunar 32:13.854 --> 32:17.523 align:start position:0% Anything beyond that number, Dunar argues,<00:33:44.559> humans<00:33:45.279> can't<00:33:45.600> cope.<00:33:46.720> And<00:33:46.960> now 32:17.523 --> 32:17.533 align:start position:0% argues, humans can't cope. And now 32:17.533 --> 32:20.163 align:start position:0% argues, humans can't cope. And now consider<00:33:47.919> what<00:33:48.240> social<00:33:48.640> media<00:33:49.279> asks<00:33:49.679> the 32:20.163 --> 32:20.173 align:start position:0% consider what social media asks the 32:20.173 --> 32:23.043 align:start position:0% consider what social media asks the brain<00:33:50.159> to<00:33:50.399> do.<00:33:51.360> Even<00:33:51.600> a<00:33:51.840> relatively<00:33:52.240> modest 32:23.043 --> 32:23.053 align:start position:0% brain to do. Even a relatively modest 32:23.053 --> 32:25.444 align:start position:0% brain to do. Even a relatively modest social<00:33:53.120> media<00:33:53.519> presence<00:33:54.080> routinely<00:33:54.720> exposes 32:25.444 --> 32:25.454 align:start position:0% social media presence routinely exposes 32:25.454 --> 32:28.004 align:start position:0% social media presence routinely exposes a<00:33:55.440> person<00:33:55.600> to<00:33:55.840> more<00:33:56.080> faces,<00:33:56.720> names,<00:33:57.279> opinions, 32:28.004 --> 32:28.014 align:start position:0% a person to more faces, names, opinions, 32:28.014 --> 32:30.244 align:start position:0% a person to more faces, names, opinions, and<00:33:58.080> social<00:33:58.399> signals<00:33:58.720> in<00:33:58.960> a<00:33:59.120> single<00:33:59.519> scrolling 32:30.244 --> 32:30.254 align:start position:0% and social signals in a single scrolling 32:30.254 --> 32:32.004 align:start position:0% and social signals in a single scrolling session<00:34:00.399> than<00:34:00.640> our<00:34:00.880> ancestors<00:34:01.360> would<00:34:01.600> have 32:32.004 --> 32:32.014 align:start position:0% session than our ancestors would have 32:32.014 --> 32:34.643 align:start position:0% session than our ancestors would have encountered<00:34:02.240> in<00:34:02.559> a<00:34:02.720> lifetime.<00:34:03.760> Our<00:34:04.080> brains, 32:34.643 --> 32:34.653 align:start position:0% encountered in a lifetime. Our brains, 32:34.653 --> 32:36.884 align:start position:0% encountered in a lifetime. Our brains, however,<00:34:04.960> don't<00:34:05.200> know<00:34:05.440> the<00:34:05.679> difference.<00:34:06.399> They 32:36.884 --> 32:36.894 align:start position:0% however, don't know the difference. They 32:36.894 --> 32:38.804 align:start position:0% however, don't know the difference. They try<00:34:06.880> to<00:34:07.039> process<00:34:07.440> all<00:34:07.679> this<00:34:07.919> extra<00:34:08.240> social 32:38.804 --> 32:38.814 align:start position:0% try to process all this extra social 32:38.814 --> 32:41.044 align:start position:0% try to process all this extra social information<00:34:09.200> as<00:34:09.440> if<00:34:09.599> every<00:34:09.839> notification<00:34:10.560> is 32:41.044 --> 32:41.054 align:start position:0% information as if every notification is 32:41.054 --> 32:43.684 align:start position:0% information as if every notification is a<00:34:11.040> social<00:34:11.280> event<00:34:11.839> and<00:34:12.079> every<00:34:12.399> comment<00:34:12.960> is<00:34:13.200> a 32:43.684 --> 32:43.694 align:start position:0% a social event and every comment is a 32:43.694 --> 32:45.923 align:start position:0% a social event and every comment is a status<00:34:13.839> symbol.<00:34:14.639> The<00:34:14.879> processing<00:34:15.359> happens 32:45.923 --> 32:45.933 align:start position:0% status symbol. The processing happens 32:45.933 --> 32:48.484 align:start position:0% status symbol. The processing happens automatically,<00:34:16.800> relentlessly,<00:34:17.839> in<00:34:18.079> the 32:48.484 --> 32:48.494 align:start position:0% automatically, relentlessly, in the 32:48.494 --> 32:51.524 align:start position:0% automatically, relentlessly, in the background<00:34:18.560> of<00:34:18.800> everything<00:34:19.200> else<00:34:19.520> we<00:34:19.839> do.<00:34:20.960> And 32:51.524 --> 32:51.534 align:start position:0% background of everything else we do. And 32:51.534 --> 32:54.403 align:start position:0% background of everything else we do. And so<00:34:21.919> where<00:34:22.159> does<00:34:22.320> this<00:34:22.480> all<00:34:22.800> leave<00:34:23.040> us?<00:34:23.839> We<00:34:24.079> are 32:54.403 --> 32:54.413 align:start position:0% so where does this all leave us? We are 32:54.413 --> 32:56.883 align:start position:0% so where does this all leave us? We are a<00:34:24.399> species<00:34:24.960> shaped<00:34:25.359> by<00:34:25.599> millions<00:34:25.919> of<00:34:26.079> years<00:34:26.399> of 32:56.883 --> 32:56.893 align:start position:0% a species shaped by millions of years of 32:56.893 --> 32:59.123 align:start position:0% a species shaped by millions of years of evolution<00:34:27.359> for<00:34:27.599> a<00:34:27.839> world<00:34:28.000> that<00:34:28.320> no<00:34:28.560> longer 32:59.123 --> 32:59.133 align:start position:0% evolution for a world that no longer 32:59.133 --> 33:02.004 align:start position:0% evolution for a world that no longer exists.<00:34:30.159> We<00:34:30.399> are<00:34:30.560> built<00:34:30.800> for<00:34:31.040> small<00:34:31.359> groups 33:02.004 --> 33:02.014 align:start position:0% exists. We are built for small groups 33:02.014 --> 33:03.603 align:start position:0% exists. We are built for small groups and<00:34:32.000> intimate<00:34:32.480> knowledge<00:34:32.800> of<00:34:32.960> the<00:34:33.119> people 33:03.603 --> 33:03.613 align:start position:0% and intimate knowledge of the people 33:03.613 --> 33:06.564 align:start position:0% and intimate knowledge of the people around<00:34:33.679> us.<00:34:34.320> But<00:34:34.399> we<00:34:34.639> live<00:34:35.040> among<00:34:35.440> millions<00:34:36.000> of 33:06.564 --> 33:06.574 align:start position:0% around us. But we live among millions of 33:06.574 --> 33:08.883 align:start position:0% around us. But we live among millions of strangers.<00:34:37.359> We<00:34:37.599> are<00:34:37.760> built<00:34:37.919> for<00:34:38.159> immediate 33:08.883 --> 33:08.893 align:start position:0% strangers. We are built for immediate 33:08.893 --> 33:11.363 align:start position:0% strangers. We are built for immediate return<00:34:39.119> lives<00:34:39.839> where<00:34:40.079> effort<00:34:40.399> and<00:34:40.560> reward<00:34:40.960> are 33:11.363 --> 33:11.373 align:start position:0% return lives where effort and reward are 33:11.373 --> 33:13.363 align:start position:0% return lives where effort and reward are closely<00:34:41.520> linked.<00:34:42.240> But<00:34:42.320> we<00:34:42.480> now<00:34:42.720> inhabit 33:13.363 --> 33:13.373 align:start position:0% closely linked. But we now inhabit 33:13.373 --> 33:15.603 align:start position:0% closely linked. But we now inhabit economies<00:34:43.760> that<00:34:44.000> demand<00:34:44.480> constant<00:34:44.879> striving 33:15.603 --> 33:15.613 align:start position:0% economies that demand constant striving 33:15.613 --> 33:18.083 align:start position:0% economies that demand constant striving towards<00:34:45.839> goals<00:34:46.240> that<00:34:46.480> recede<00:34:46.960> faster<00:34:47.440> than<00:34:47.679> we 33:18.083 --> 33:18.093 align:start position:0% towards goals that recede faster than we 33:18.093 --> 33:20.564 align:start position:0% towards goals that recede faster than we can<00:34:48.000> chase<00:34:48.320> them.<00:34:49.200> And<00:34:49.440> this<00:34:49.679> is<00:34:49.839> the<00:34:50.079> world 33:20.564 --> 33:20.574 align:start position:0% can chase them. And this is the world 33:20.574 --> 33:22.804 align:start position:0% can chase them. And this is the world that<00:34:50.480> our<00:34:50.720> ancient<00:34:51.040> Homo<00:34:51.440> sapiens,<00:34:52.159> taken 33:22.804 --> 33:22.814 align:start position:0% that our ancient Homo sapiens, taken 33:22.814 --> 33:26.083 align:start position:0% that our ancient Homo sapiens, taken from<00:34:52.800> a<00:34:52.960> 100,000<00:34:53.599> years<00:34:53.760> ago,<00:34:54.480> would<00:34:54.720> land<00:34:54.960> in. 33:26.083 --> 33:26.093 align:start position:0% from a 100,000 years ago, would land in. 33:26.093 --> 33:27.684 align:start position:0% from a 100,000 years ago, would land in. Supposing<00:34:56.240> for<00:34:56.399> a<00:34:56.560> moment<00:34:56.800> he<00:34:57.040> could<00:34:57.200> learn 33:27.684 --> 33:27.694 align:start position:0% Supposing for a moment he could learn 33:27.694 --> 33:29.764 align:start position:0% Supposing for a moment he could learn modern<00:34:57.760> language<00:34:58.079> and<00:34:58.320> gestures,<00:34:59.119> could<00:34:59.359> get 33:29.764 --> 33:29.774 align:start position:0% modern language and gestures, could get 33:29.774 --> 33:31.684 align:start position:0% modern language and gestures, could get used<00:34:59.680> to<00:34:59.839> wearing<00:35:00.160> clothes<00:35:00.560> and<00:35:00.800> opening<00:35:01.119> cans 33:31.684 --> 33:31.694 align:start position:0% used to wearing clothes and opening cans 33:31.694 --> 33:34.884 align:start position:0% used to wearing clothes and opening cans and<00:35:01.680> bottles.<00:35:02.720> What<00:35:02.960> then?<00:35:03.839> If<00:35:04.000> we<00:35:04.160> grant<00:35:04.400> him 33:34.884 --> 33:34.894 align:start position:0% and bottles. What then? If we grant him 33:34.894 --> 33:37.363 align:start position:0% and bottles. What then? If we grant him those<00:35:04.960> capabilities,<00:35:05.839> could<00:35:06.079> he<00:35:06.240> adapt<00:35:06.720> to<00:35:06.960> a 33:37.363 --> 33:37.373 align:start position:0% those capabilities, could he adapt to a 33:37.373 --> 33:39.684 align:start position:0% those capabilities, could he adapt to a world<00:35:07.359> of<00:35:07.520> long<00:35:08.000> artificially<00:35:08.800> lit<00:35:09.200> work 33:39.684 --> 33:39.694 align:start position:0% world of long artificially lit work 33:39.694 --> 33:42.404 align:start position:0% world of long artificially lit work days?<00:35:10.160> Or<00:35:10.320> would<00:35:10.480> his<00:35:10.640> ancient<00:35:11.040> mind<00:35:11.520> collapse 33:42.404 --> 33:42.414 align:start position:0% days? Or would his ancient mind collapse 33:42.414 --> 33:45.204 align:start position:0% days? Or would his ancient mind collapse under<00:35:12.480> the<00:35:12.640> new<00:35:12.880> challenges?<00:35:14.240> And<00:35:14.480> indeed 33:45.204 --> 33:45.214 align:start position:0% under the new challenges? And indeed 33:45.214 --> 33:47.764 align:start position:0% under the new challenges? And indeed similarly,<00:35:15.920> are<00:35:16.079> all<00:35:16.400> humans<00:35:16.960> destined<00:35:17.359> to 33:47.764 --> 33:47.774 align:start position:0% similarly, are all humans destined to 33:47.774 --> 33:50.164 align:start position:0% similarly, are all humans destined to feel<00:35:17.760> the<00:35:18.000> strain<00:35:18.320> of<00:35:18.560> evolutionary<00:35:19.280> mismatch 33:50.164 --> 33:50.174 align:start position:0% feel the strain of evolutionary mismatch 33:50.174 --> 33:54.404 align:start position:0% feel the strain of evolutionary mismatch forever?<00:35:21.200> Or<00:35:21.760> could<00:35:22.000> we<00:35:22.240> one<00:35:22.480> day<00:35:22.880> fully<00:35:23.280> adapt 33:54.404 --> 33:54.414 align:start position:0% forever? Or could we one day fully adapt 33:54.414 --> 34:07.444 align:start position:0% forever? Or could we one day fully adapt to<00:35:24.400> this<00:35:24.720> modern<00:35:25.200> world? 34:07.444 --> 34:07.454 align:start position:0% 34:07.454 --> 34:10.244 align:start position:0% In<00:35:37.359> the<00:35:37.520> late<00:35:37.760> 1990s,<00:35:38.800> neuroscientist<00:35:39.680> Dr. 34:10.244 --> 34:10.254 align:start position:0% In the late 1990s, neuroscientist Dr. 34:10.254 --> 34:13.444 align:start position:0% In the late 1990s, neuroscientist Dr. Ellena<00:35:40.400> Maguire<00:35:41.040> climbed<00:35:41.520> into<00:35:41.839> a<00:35:42.000> black<00:35:42.320> cab. 34:13.444 --> 34:13.454 align:start position:0% Ellena Maguire climbed into a black cab. 34:13.454 --> 34:15.124 align:start position:0% Ellena Maguire climbed into a black cab. She<00:35:43.440> was<00:35:43.520> running<00:35:43.760> behind<00:35:44.160> schedule<00:35:44.640> and 34:15.124 --> 34:15.134 align:start position:0% She was running behind schedule and 34:15.134 --> 34:16.724 align:start position:0% She was running behind schedule and asked<00:35:45.119> the<00:35:45.280> driver<00:35:45.520> to<00:35:45.680> go<00:35:45.839> as<00:35:46.000> fast<00:35:46.240> as 34:16.724 --> 34:16.734 align:start position:0% asked the driver to go as fast as 34:16.734 --> 34:19.124 align:start position:0% asked the driver to go as fast as possible.<00:35:47.520> However,<00:35:48.000> 5<00:35:48.240> minutes<00:35:48.480> into<00:35:48.720> the 34:19.124 --> 34:19.134 align:start position:0% possible. However, 5 minutes into the 34:19.134 --> 34:20.884 align:start position:0% possible. However, 5 minutes into the journey,<00:35:49.280> Maguire<00:35:49.839> glanced<00:35:50.160> up<00:35:50.320> from<00:35:50.480> the 34:20.884 --> 34:20.894 align:start position:0% journey, Maguire glanced up from the 34:20.894 --> 34:22.564 align:start position:0% journey, Maguire glanced up from the research<00:35:51.040> notes<00:35:51.359> she<00:35:51.520> was<00:35:51.680> reading<00:35:52.000> and 34:22.564 --> 34:22.574 align:start position:0% research notes she was reading and 34:22.574 --> 34:24.404 align:start position:0% research notes she was reading and spotted<00:35:52.640> a<00:35:52.800> line<00:35:53.040> of<00:35:53.200> cars<00:35:53.520> caught<00:35:53.760> in<00:35:53.920> a 34:24.404 --> 34:24.414 align:start position:0% spotted a line of cars caught in a 34:24.414 --> 34:26.884 align:start position:0% spotted a line of cars caught in a traffic<00:35:54.480> jam.<00:35:55.280> She<00:35:55.520> groaned<00:35:55.839> to<00:35:56.000> herself, 34:26.884 --> 34:26.894 align:start position:0% traffic jam. She groaned to herself, 34:26.894 --> 34:28.404 align:start position:0% traffic jam. She groaned to herself, dreading<00:35:57.040> to<00:35:57.200> think<00:35:57.359> how<00:35:57.520> much<00:35:57.680> longer<00:35:58.000> the 34:28.404 --> 34:28.414 align:start position:0% dreading to think how much longer the 34:28.414 --> 34:30.644 align:start position:0% dreading to think how much longer the congestion<00:35:58.640> was<00:35:58.880> going<00:35:59.040> to<00:35:59.200> set<00:35:59.359> her<00:35:59.599> back. 34:30.644 --> 34:30.654 align:start position:0% congestion was going to set her back. 34:30.654 --> 34:32.724 align:start position:0% congestion was going to set her back. But<00:36:00.560> to<00:36:00.800> her<00:36:00.960> surprise,<00:36:01.680> her<00:36:01.839> cab<00:36:02.160> driver 34:32.724 --> 34:32.734 align:start position:0% But to her surprise, her cab driver 34:32.734 --> 34:34.804 align:start position:0% But to her surprise, her cab driver turned<00:36:02.720> onto<00:36:02.960> a<00:36:03.200> side<00:36:03.440> street,<00:36:04.079> completely 34:34.804 --> 34:34.814 align:start position:0% turned onto a side street, completely 34:34.814 --> 34:37.204 align:start position:0% turned onto a side street, completely bypassing<00:36:05.119> the<00:36:05.359> traffic<00:36:05.680> up<00:36:05.839> ahead.<00:36:06.480> He<00:36:06.800> then 34:37.204 --> 34:37.214 align:start position:0% bypassing the traffic up ahead. He then 34:37.214 --> 34:38.884 align:start position:0% bypassing the traffic up ahead. He then took<00:36:07.200> them<00:36:07.359> down<00:36:07.520> a<00:36:07.680> network<00:36:08.000> of<00:36:08.160> back<00:36:08.320> roads 34:38.884 --> 34:38.894 align:start position:0% took them down a network of back roads 34:38.894 --> 34:41.204 align:start position:0% took them down a network of back roads and<00:36:08.800> cobbled<00:36:09.200> lanes<00:36:09.599> that<00:36:09.920> Maguire<00:36:10.480> had<00:36:10.720> never 34:41.204 --> 34:41.214 align:start position:0% and cobbled lanes that Maguire had never 34:41.214 --> 34:43.124 align:start position:0% and cobbled lanes that Maguire had never seen<00:36:11.280> before,<00:36:11.760> despite<00:36:12.160> having<00:36:12.400> lived<00:36:12.640> in 34:43.124 --> 34:43.134 align:start position:0% seen before, despite having lived in 34:43.134 --> 34:45.204 align:start position:0% seen before, despite having lived in London<00:36:13.200> for<00:36:13.520> several<00:36:13.920> years.<00:36:14.640> But<00:36:14.800> what 34:45.204 --> 34:45.214 align:start position:0% London for several years. But what 34:45.214 --> 34:47.444 align:start position:0% London for several years. But what impressed<00:36:15.359> her<00:36:15.599> most<00:36:16.160> was<00:36:16.400> that<00:36:16.560> her<00:36:16.800> driver 34:47.444 --> 34:47.454 align:start position:0% impressed her most was that her driver 34:47.454 --> 34:50.644 align:start position:0% impressed her most was that her driver never<00:36:17.440> once<00:36:18.160> needed<00:36:18.480> to<00:36:18.640> look<00:36:18.960> at<00:36:19.119> a<00:36:19.440> map.<00:36:20.240> And 34:50.644 --> 34:50.654 align:start position:0% never once needed to look at a map. And 34:50.654 --> 34:52.644 align:start position:0% never once needed to look at a map. And so<00:36:20.720> Magguire<00:36:21.200> asked<00:36:21.359> the<00:36:21.520> driver<00:36:21.839> how<00:36:22.000> he<00:36:22.240> knew 34:52.644 --> 34:52.654 align:start position:0% so Magguire asked the driver how he knew 34:52.654 --> 34:54.804 align:start position:0% so Magguire asked the driver how he knew where<00:36:22.640> to<00:36:22.880> go.<00:36:23.359> And<00:36:23.520> he<00:36:23.760> told<00:36:23.920> her<00:36:24.079> about<00:36:24.320> the 34:54.804 --> 34:54.814 align:start position:0% where to go. And he told her about the 34:54.814 --> 34:56.964 align:start position:0% where to go. And he told her about the vast<00:36:24.960> mental<00:36:25.359> map<00:36:25.680> he<00:36:25.839> had<00:36:26.000> built<00:36:26.240> up<00:36:26.400> during 34:56.964 --> 34:56.974 align:start position:0% vast mental map he had built up during 34:56.974 --> 34:59.603 align:start position:0% vast mental map he had built up during his<00:36:26.960> years<00:36:27.280> as<00:36:27.520> a<00:36:27.680> London<00:36:28.160> cab.<00:36:29.040> As<00:36:29.200> a 34:59.603 --> 34:59.613 align:start position:0% his years as a London cab. As a 34:59.613 --> 35:01.284 align:start position:0% his years as a London cab. As a neuroscientist<00:36:30.160> researching<00:36:30.640> spatial 35:01.284 --> 35:01.294 align:start position:0% neuroscientist researching spatial 35:01.294 --> 35:03.603 align:start position:0% neuroscientist researching spatial memory,<00:36:31.599> Dr.<00:36:32.000> Maguire<00:36:32.560> immediately<00:36:33.119> started 35:03.603 --> 35:03.613 align:start position:0% memory, Dr. Maguire immediately started 35:03.613 --> 35:06.644 align:start position:0% memory, Dr. Maguire immediately started to<00:36:33.599> wonder<00:36:34.079> how<00:36:34.400> exactly<00:36:35.040> these<00:36:35.440> mental<00:36:35.839> maps 35:06.644 --> 35:06.654 align:start position:0% to wonder how exactly these mental maps 35:06.654 --> 35:09.603 align:start position:0% to wonder how exactly these mental maps worked. 35:09.603 --> 35:09.613 align:start position:0% worked. 35:09.613 --> 35:11.124 align:start position:0% worked. And<00:36:39.599> a<00:36:39.839> couple<00:36:39.920> of<00:36:40.079> years<00:36:40.400> after<00:36:40.640> that 35:11.124 --> 35:11.134 align:start position:0% And a couple of years after that 35:11.134 --> 35:13.684 align:start position:0% And a couple of years after that journey,<00:36:41.440> in<00:36:41.599> the<00:36:41.680> year<00:36:41.920> 2000,<00:36:42.720> she<00:36:43.040> published 35:13.684 --> 35:13.694 align:start position:0% journey, in the year 2000, she published 35:13.694 --> 35:17.363 align:start position:0% journey, in the year 2000, she published a<00:36:43.680> groundbreaking<00:36:44.560> study. 35:17.363 --> 35:17.373 align:start position:0% a groundbreaking study. 35:17.373 --> 35:19.524 align:start position:0% a groundbreaking study. In<00:36:47.359> it,<00:36:47.599> she<00:36:47.920> scanned<00:36:48.240> the<00:36:48.480> brains<00:36:48.880> of<00:36:49.040> a<00:36:49.200> group 35:19.524 --> 35:19.534 align:start position:0% In it, she scanned the brains of a group 35:19.534 --> 35:21.603 align:start position:0% In it, she scanned the brains of a group of<00:36:49.440> London<00:36:49.839> cab<00:36:50.160> drivers<00:36:50.560> and<00:36:50.880> compared<00:36:51.200> them 35:21.603 --> 35:21.613 align:start position:0% of London cab drivers and compared them 35:21.613 --> 35:24.323 align:start position:0% of London cab drivers and compared them to<00:36:51.599> scans<00:36:51.920> of<00:36:52.079> a<00:36:52.240> control<00:36:52.560> group.<00:36:53.520> The<00:36:53.760> control 35:24.323 --> 35:24.333 align:start position:0% to scans of a control group. The control 35:24.333 --> 35:26.083 align:start position:0% to scans of a control group. The control group<00:36:54.320> were<00:36:54.480> ordinary<00:36:54.960> people<00:36:55.119> of<00:36:55.440> equivalent 35:26.083 --> 35:26.093 align:start position:0% group were ordinary people of equivalent 35:26.093 --> 35:28.004 align:start position:0% group were ordinary people of equivalent health<00:36:56.079> and<00:36:56.320> intelligence.<00:36:57.200> But<00:36:57.359> the<00:36:57.520> key 35:28.004 --> 35:28.014 align:start position:0% health and intelligence. But the key 35:28.014 --> 35:30.564 align:start position:0% health and intelligence. But the key difference<00:36:58.240> was<00:36:58.480> that<00:36:58.640> they<00:36:58.880> did<00:36:59.119> not<00:36:59.599> drive 35:30.564 --> 35:30.574 align:start position:0% difference was that they did not drive 35:30.574 --> 35:33.524 align:start position:0% difference was that they did not drive cabs<00:37:01.359> and<00:37:01.599> Maguire<00:37:02.240> found<00:37:02.480> a<00:37:02.720> striking 35:33.524 --> 35:33.534 align:start position:0% cabs and Maguire found a striking 35:33.534 --> 35:35.684 align:start position:0% cabs and Maguire found a striking difference<00:37:03.680> between<00:37:03.920> the<00:37:04.160> two<00:37:04.400> groups.<00:37:05.280> The 35:35.684 --> 35:35.694 align:start position:0% difference between the two groups. The 35:35.694 --> 35:37.843 align:start position:0% difference between the two groups. The cab<00:37:05.760> drivers<00:37:06.240> had<00:37:06.400> a<00:37:06.560> significantly<00:37:07.119> larger 35:37.843 --> 35:37.853 align:start position:0% cab drivers had a significantly larger 35:37.853 --> 35:39.684 align:start position:0% cab drivers had a significantly larger posterior<00:37:08.240> hippocampus<00:37:09.040> than<00:37:09.200> the 35:39.684 --> 35:39.694 align:start position:0% posterior hippocampus than the 35:39.694 --> 35:42.164 align:start position:0% posterior hippocampus than the non-drivers.<00:37:10.800> This<00:37:11.040> part<00:37:11.200> of<00:37:11.280> the<00:37:11.440> brain<00:37:11.680> is 35:42.164 --> 35:42.174 align:start position:0% non-drivers. This part of the brain is 35:42.174 --> 35:44.323 align:start position:0% non-drivers. This part of the brain is used<00:37:12.079> in<00:37:12.320> navigation<00:37:12.880> and<00:37:13.200> spatial<00:37:13.680> memory 35:44.323 --> 35:44.333 align:start position:0% used in navigation and spatial memory 35:44.333 --> 35:45.684 align:start position:0% used in navigation and spatial memory and<00:37:14.320> the<00:37:14.480> size<00:37:14.720> of<00:37:14.800> the<00:37:14.960> posterior 35:45.684 --> 35:45.694 align:start position:0% and the size of the posterior 35:45.694 --> 35:47.924 align:start position:0% and the size of the posterior hippocampus<00:37:16.079> in<00:37:16.240> the<00:37:16.320> cab<00:37:16.640> drivers<00:37:17.119> grew 35:47.924 --> 35:47.934 align:start position:0% hippocampus in the cab drivers grew 35:47.934 --> 35:50.804 align:start position:0% hippocampus in the cab drivers grew relative<00:37:18.000> to<00:37:18.160> their<00:37:18.400> years<00:37:18.640> on<00:37:18.880> the<00:37:19.040> job.<00:37:20.160> This 35:50.804 --> 35:50.814 align:start position:0% relative to their years on the job. This 35:50.814 --> 35:53.044 align:start position:0% relative to their years on the job. This graded<00:37:21.119> relationship<00:37:21.839> demonstrated<00:37:22.480> an 35:53.044 --> 35:53.054 align:start position:0% graded relationship demonstrated an 35:53.054 --> 35:55.603 align:start position:0% graded relationship demonstrated an experience<00:37:23.520> dependent<00:37:24.079> effect.<00:37:24.960> It<00:37:25.200> wasn't 35:55.603 --> 35:55.613 align:start position:0% experience dependent effect. It wasn't 35:55.613 --> 35:57.124 align:start position:0% experience dependent effect. It wasn't that<00:37:25.599> people<00:37:25.760> with<00:37:26.000> naturally<00:37:26.480> enlarged 35:57.124 --> 35:57.134 align:start position:0% that people with naturally enlarged 35:57.134 --> 35:59.524 align:start position:0% that people with naturally enlarged hippocampi<00:37:27.680> became<00:37:28.000> cab<00:37:28.320> drivers.<00:37:28.960> It<00:37:29.119> was 35:59.524 --> 35:59.534 align:start position:0% hippocampi became cab drivers. It was 35:59.534 --> 36:01.684 align:start position:0% hippocampi became cab drivers. It was the<00:37:29.520> process<00:37:29.920> of<00:37:30.160> navigating<00:37:30.640> a<00:37:30.880> city<00:37:31.200> from 36:01.684 --> 36:01.694 align:start position:0% the process of navigating a city from 36:01.694 --> 36:04.884 align:start position:0% the process of navigating a city from memory<00:37:32.000> that<00:37:32.320> reshaped<00:37:33.040> their<00:37:33.280> brains.<00:37:34.480> And 36:04.884 --> 36:04.894 align:start position:0% memory that reshaped their brains. And 36:04.894 --> 36:06.964 align:start position:0% memory that reshaped their brains. And as<00:37:34.880> well<00:37:35.040> as<00:37:35.200> this,<00:37:35.680> the<00:37:36.000> front<00:37:36.240> part<00:37:36.400> of<00:37:36.560> the 36:06.964 --> 36:06.974 align:start position:0% as well as this, the front part of the 36:06.974 --> 36:08.804 align:start position:0% as well as this, the front part of the hippocampus<00:37:37.359> in<00:37:37.440> the<00:37:37.599> cab<00:37:37.839> drivers<00:37:38.320> was 36:08.804 --> 36:08.814 align:start position:0% hippocampus in the cab drivers was 36:08.814 --> 36:10.564 align:start position:0% hippocampus in the cab drivers was slightly<00:37:38.960> smaller<00:37:39.359> than<00:37:39.599> in<00:37:39.839> the<00:37:40.000> control 36:10.564 --> 36:10.574 align:start position:0% slightly smaller than in the control 36:10.574 --> 36:12.804 align:start position:0% slightly smaller than in the control group,<00:37:41.119> suggesting<00:37:41.680> that<00:37:41.839> the<00:37:42.079> enlarged 36:12.804 --> 36:12.814 align:start position:0% group, suggesting that the enlarged 36:12.814 --> 36:15.044 align:start position:0% group, suggesting that the enlarged posterior<00:37:43.119> hippocampus<00:37:44.160> came<00:37:44.400> with<00:37:44.560> a 36:15.044 --> 36:15.054 align:start position:0% posterior hippocampus came with a 36:15.054 --> 36:17.843 align:start position:0% posterior hippocampus came with a trade-off.<00:37:45.920> In<00:37:46.160> a<00:37:46.320> follow-up<00:37:46.720> study,<00:37:47.119> Maguire 36:17.843 --> 36:17.853 align:start position:0% trade-off. In a follow-up study, Maguire 36:17.853 --> 36:19.363 align:start position:0% trade-off. In a follow-up study, Maguire and<00:37:47.680> her<00:37:47.920> colleagues<00:37:48.320> compared<00:37:48.720> the<00:37:48.880> cab 36:19.363 --> 36:19.373 align:start position:0% and her colleagues compared the cab 36:19.373 --> 36:22.164 align:start position:0% and her colleagues compared the cab drivers<00:37:49.599> with<00:37:49.920> London<00:37:50.400> bus<00:37:50.720> drivers.<00:37:51.680> Both 36:22.164 --> 36:22.174 align:start position:0% drivers with London bus drivers. Both 36:22.174 --> 36:24.244 align:start position:0% drivers with London bus drivers. Both had<00:37:52.160> to<00:37:52.240> navigate<00:37:52.560> a<00:37:52.800> large<00:37:53.040> metropolis,<00:37:53.839> but 36:24.244 --> 36:24.254 align:start position:0% had to navigate a large metropolis, but 36:24.254 --> 36:26.484 align:start position:0% had to navigate a large metropolis, but the<00:37:54.240> bus<00:37:54.480> drivers<00:37:54.960> followed<00:37:55.359> the<00:37:55.599> same<00:37:55.839> route 36:26.484 --> 36:26.494 align:start position:0% the bus drivers followed the same route 36:26.494 --> 36:29.044 align:start position:0% the bus drivers followed the same route every<00:37:56.640> day.<00:37:57.599> The<00:37:57.839> researchers<00:37:58.320> gave<00:37:58.560> both 36:29.044 --> 36:29.054 align:start position:0% every day. The researchers gave both 36:29.054 --> 36:31.684 align:start position:0% every day. The researchers gave both groups<00:37:59.119> a<00:37:59.440> series<00:37:59.680> of<00:37:59.920> cognitive<00:38:00.560> tests, 36:31.684 --> 36:31.694 align:start position:0% groups a series of cognitive tests, 36:31.694 --> 36:33.363 align:start position:0% groups a series of cognitive tests, including<00:38:01.839> tasks<00:38:02.240> that<00:38:02.480> measured<00:38:02.880> different 36:33.363 --> 36:33.373 align:start position:0% including tasks that measured different 36:33.373 --> 36:36.004 align:start position:0% including tasks that measured different kinds<00:38:03.440> of<00:38:03.599> memory.<00:38:04.400> On<00:38:04.640> tests<00:38:05.040> that<00:38:05.359> required 36:36.004 --> 36:36.014 align:start position:0% kinds of memory. On tests that required 36:36.014 --> 36:38.083 align:start position:0% kinds of memory. On tests that required navigating<00:38:06.240> around<00:38:06.480> a<00:38:06.720> virtual<00:38:07.119> London<00:38:07.520> or 36:38.083 --> 36:38.093 align:start position:0% navigating around a virtual London or 36:38.093 --> 36:40.323 align:start position:0% navigating around a virtual London or recalling<00:38:08.240> the<00:38:08.560> layout<00:38:08.720> of<00:38:08.960> routes,<00:38:09.599> the<00:38:09.760> cab 36:40.323 --> 36:40.333 align:start position:0% recalling the layout of routes, the cab 36:40.333 --> 36:42.564 align:start position:0% recalling the layout of routes, the cab drivers<00:38:10.480> outperformed<00:38:11.040> the<00:38:11.280> bus<00:38:11.520> drivers. 36:42.564 --> 36:42.574 align:start position:0% drivers outperformed the bus drivers. 36:42.574 --> 36:45.204 align:start position:0% drivers outperformed the bus drivers. But<00:38:12.480> on<00:38:12.720> other<00:38:12.960> tasks,<00:38:13.760> they<00:38:14.079> actually<00:38:14.560> did 36:45.204 --> 36:45.214 align:start position:0% But on other tasks, they actually did 36:45.214 --> 36:47.684 align:start position:0% But on other tasks, they actually did worse.<00:38:16.079> When<00:38:16.240> the<00:38:16.480> researchers<00:38:16.880> tested<00:38:17.200> their 36:47.684 --> 36:47.694 align:start position:0% worse. When the researchers tested their 36:47.694 --> 36:49.843 align:start position:0% worse. When the researchers tested their ability<00:38:17.760> to<00:38:17.920> form<00:38:18.240> new<00:38:18.480> associations<00:38:19.280> or 36:49.843 --> 36:49.853 align:start position:0% ability to form new associations or 36:49.853 --> 36:52.004 align:start position:0% ability to form new associations or remember<00:38:19.920> lists<00:38:20.240> of<00:38:20.400> unrelated<00:38:20.960> information, 36:52.004 --> 36:52.014 align:start position:0% remember lists of unrelated information, 36:52.014 --> 36:54.244 align:start position:0% remember lists of unrelated information, the<00:38:21.920> cab<00:38:22.240> drivers<00:38:22.720> underperformed<00:38:23.680> compared 36:54.244 --> 36:54.254 align:start position:0% the cab drivers underperformed compared 36:54.254 --> 36:56.804 align:start position:0% the cab drivers underperformed compared to<00:38:24.160> the<00:38:24.320> bus<00:38:24.560> drivers.<00:38:25.440> The<00:38:25.680> very<00:38:25.920> patterns<00:38:26.320> of 36:56.804 --> 36:56.814 align:start position:0% to the bus drivers. The very patterns of 36:56.814 --> 36:58.564 align:start position:0% to the bus drivers. The very patterns of brain<00:38:26.880> restructuring<00:38:27.520> that<00:38:27.760> boosted<00:38:28.160> their 36:58.564 --> 36:58.574 align:start position:0% brain restructuring that boosted their 36:58.574 --> 37:00.724 align:start position:0% brain restructuring that boosted their navigational<00:38:29.040> skills<00:38:29.680> appeared<00:38:30.160> to<00:38:30.400> come 37:00.724 --> 37:00.734 align:start position:0% navigational skills appeared to come 37:00.734 --> 37:03.204 align:start position:0% navigational skills appeared to come with<00:38:30.720> subtle<00:38:31.119> costs<00:38:31.760> to<00:38:32.079> other<00:38:32.320> forms<00:38:32.720> of 37:03.204 --> 37:03.214 align:start position:0% with subtle costs to other forms of 37:03.214 --> 37:10.964 align:start position:0% with subtle costs to other forms of memory. 37:10.964 --> 37:10.974 align:start position:0% 37:10.974 --> 37:13.524 align:start position:0% The<00:38:40.960> human<00:38:41.280> brain<00:38:41.839> is<00:38:42.160> flexible<00:38:42.960> and 37:13.524 --> 37:13.534 align:start position:0% The human brain is flexible and 37:13.534 --> 37:15.764 align:start position:0% The human brain is flexible and scientists<00:38:43.920> call<00:38:44.079> this<00:38:44.320> flexibility 37:15.764 --> 37:15.774 align:start position:0% scientists call this flexibility 37:15.774 --> 37:17.363 align:start position:0% scientists call this flexibility neuroplasticity. 37:17.363 --> 37:17.373 align:start position:0% neuroplasticity. 37:17.373 --> 37:19.444 align:start position:0% neuroplasticity. Neuroplasticity<00:38:48.160> is<00:38:48.400> the<00:38:48.560> brain's<00:38:48.960> ability 37:19.444 --> 37:19.454 align:start position:0% Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability 37:19.454 --> 37:22.884 align:start position:0% Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to<00:38:49.520> grow,<00:38:50.240> change,<00:38:50.880> and<00:38:51.119> adapt.<00:38:52.000> Unlike<00:38:52.400> most 37:22.884 --> 37:22.894 align:start position:0% to grow, change, and adapt. Unlike most 37:22.894 --> 37:24.804 align:start position:0% to grow, change, and adapt. Unlike most other<00:38:52.800> organs,<00:38:53.359> the<00:38:53.520> brain<00:38:53.760> can<00:38:54.000> reorganize 37:24.804 --> 37:24.814 align:start position:0% other organs, the brain can reorganize 37:24.814 --> 37:26.804 align:start position:0% other organs, the brain can reorganize and<00:38:54.880> rewire<00:38:55.359> itself<00:38:55.760> in<00:38:56.000> response<00:38:56.320> to 37:26.804 --> 37:26.814 align:start position:0% and rewire itself in response to 37:26.814 --> 37:29.124 align:start position:0% and rewire itself in response to environmental<00:38:57.280> changes,<00:38:58.000> injuries, 37:29.124 --> 37:29.134 align:start position:0% environmental changes, injuries, 37:29.134 --> 37:31.363 align:start position:0% environmental changes, injuries, illnesses,<00:38:59.359> or<00:38:59.680> disorders,<00:39:00.560> or<00:39:00.880> more 37:31.363 --> 37:31.373 align:start position:0% illnesses, or disorders, or more 37:31.373 --> 37:34.404 align:start position:0% illnesses, or disorders, or more positively,<00:39:02.000> learning<00:39:02.400> new<00:39:02.720> things.<00:39:03.760> For<00:39:04.000> a 37:34.404 --> 37:34.414 align:start position:0% positively, learning new things. For a 37:34.414 --> 37:36.004 align:start position:0% positively, learning new things. For a long<00:39:04.320> time,<00:39:04.640> scientists<00:39:05.119> have<00:39:05.359> believed<00:39:05.599> that 37:36.004 --> 37:36.014 align:start position:0% long time, scientists have believed that 37:36.014 --> 37:37.843 align:start position:0% long time, scientists have believed that this<00:39:06.000> flexibility<00:39:06.800> belonged<00:39:07.280> almost 37:37.843 --> 37:37.853 align:start position:0% this flexibility belonged almost 37:37.853 --> 37:40.004 align:start position:0% this flexibility belonged almost entirely<00:39:08.079> to<00:39:08.400> childhood.<00:39:09.119> And<00:39:09.280> once<00:39:09.520> the 37:40.004 --> 37:40.014 align:start position:0% entirely to childhood. And once the 37:40.014 --> 37:42.323 align:start position:0% entirely to childhood. And once the brain<00:39:10.160> set<00:39:10.480> in<00:39:10.800> adulthood,<00:39:11.440> it<00:39:11.599> became<00:39:11.920> more 37:42.323 --> 37:42.333 align:start position:0% brain set in adulthood, it became more 37:42.333 --> 37:44.964 align:start position:0% brain set in adulthood, it became more or<00:39:12.320> less<00:39:12.640> fixed.<00:39:13.520> We<00:39:13.760> now<00:39:14.000> know,<00:39:14.240> however, 37:44.964 --> 37:44.974 align:start position:0% or less fixed. We now know, however, 37:44.974 --> 37:48.004 align:start position:0% or less fixed. We now know, however, that<00:39:14.960> this<00:39:15.280> just<00:39:15.520> isn't<00:39:16.000> true.<00:39:16.960> Adult<00:39:17.359> brains 37:48.004 --> 37:48.014 align:start position:0% that this just isn't true. Adult brains 37:48.014 --> 37:50.644 align:start position:0% that this just isn't true. Adult brains remain<00:39:18.240> plastic,<00:39:18.880> too,<00:39:19.520> just<00:39:19.680> in<00:39:19.920> a<00:39:20.079> different 37:50.644 --> 37:50.654 align:start position:0% remain plastic, too, just in a different 37:50.654 --> 37:52.484 align:start position:0% remain plastic, too, just in a different way.<00:39:21.119> They<00:39:21.359> can<00:39:21.520> still<00:39:21.760> form<00:39:22.000> new 37:52.484 --> 37:52.494 align:start position:0% way. They can still form new 37:52.494 --> 37:54.804 align:start position:0% way. They can still form new connections,<00:39:23.119> strengthen<00:39:23.599> or<00:39:23.839> weaken<00:39:24.240> old 37:54.804 --> 37:54.814 align:start position:0% connections, strengthen or weaken old 37:54.814 --> 37:57.204 align:start position:0% connections, strengthen or weaken old ones,<00:39:25.119> and<00:39:25.359> even<00:39:25.680> shift<00:39:26.079> functions<00:39:26.480> to<00:39:26.720> new 37:57.204 --> 37:57.214 align:start position:0% ones, and even shift functions to new 37:57.214 --> 38:00.004 align:start position:0% ones, and even shift functions to new regions<00:39:27.520> when<00:39:27.920> circumstances<00:39:28.720> demand<00:39:29.119> it. 38:00.004 --> 38:00.014 align:start position:0% regions when circumstances demand it. 38:00.014 --> 38:01.764 align:start position:0% regions when circumstances demand it. Indeed,<00:39:30.240> every<00:39:30.400> time<00:39:30.560> you<00:39:30.720> learn<00:39:30.880> a<00:39:31.119> new<00:39:31.280> skill 38:01.764 --> 38:01.774 align:start position:0% Indeed, every time you learn a new skill 38:01.774 --> 38:04.164 align:start position:0% Indeed, every time you learn a new skill at<00:39:31.760> work,<00:39:32.240> recover<00:39:32.640> after<00:39:32.960> an<00:39:33.119> injury,<00:39:33.680> or 38:04.164 --> 38:04.174 align:start position:0% at work, recover after an injury, or 38:04.174 --> 38:06.323 align:start position:0% at work, recover after an injury, or slowly<00:39:34.320> get<00:39:34.480> used<00:39:34.640> to<00:39:34.800> a<00:39:35.040> new<00:39:35.200> environment<00:39:35.760> or 38:06.323 --> 38:06.333 align:start position:0% slowly get used to a new environment or 38:06.333 --> 38:09.924 align:start position:0% slowly get used to a new environment or routine,<00:39:36.880> your<00:39:37.200> brain<00:39:37.599> is<00:39:38.000> reshaping<00:39:38.640> itself. 38:09.924 --> 38:09.934 align:start position:0% routine, your brain is reshaping itself. 38:09.934 --> 38:11.843 align:start position:0% routine, your brain is reshaping itself. This<00:39:39.920> ability<00:39:40.240> to<00:39:40.400> adapt<00:39:40.720> is<00:39:40.880> an<00:39:41.119> essential 38:11.843 --> 38:11.853 align:start position:0% This ability to adapt is an essential 38:11.853 --> 38:14.564 align:start position:0% This ability to adapt is an essential part<00:39:41.839> of<00:39:42.079> being<00:39:42.400> human.<00:39:43.119> And<00:39:43.359> it's<00:39:43.680> why<00:39:44.000> small 38:14.564 --> 38:14.574 align:start position:0% part of being human. And it's why small 38:14.574 --> 38:16.484 align:start position:0% part of being human. And it's why small bands<00:39:44.720> of<00:39:44.880> Homo<00:39:45.200> sapiens<00:39:45.760> could<00:39:46.000> leave 38:16.484 --> 38:16.494 align:start position:0% bands of Homo sapiens could leave 38:16.494 --> 38:19.124 align:start position:0% bands of Homo sapiens could leave Africa,<00:39:46.880> cross<00:39:47.200> deserts<00:39:47.599> and<00:39:48.000> icy<00:39:48.240> tundra, 38:19.124 --> 38:19.134 align:start position:0% Africa, cross deserts and icy tundra, 38:19.134 --> 38:25.843 align:start position:0% Africa, cross deserts and icy tundra, and<00:39:49.119> still<00:39:49.680> find<00:39:50.000> ways<00:39:50.240> to<00:39:50.480> live. 38:25.843 --> 38:25.853 align:start position:0% 38:25.853 --> 38:27.924 align:start position:0% Throughout<00:39:56.000> the<00:39:56.240> history<00:39:56.480> of<00:39:56.640> our<00:39:56.960> species, 38:27.924 --> 38:27.934 align:start position:0% Throughout the history of our species, 38:27.934 --> 38:30.323 align:start position:0% Throughout the history of our species, homo<00:39:58.079> sapiens<00:39:58.640> have<00:39:58.880> experienced<00:39:59.440> several 38:30.323 --> 38:30.333 align:start position:0% homo sapiens have experienced several 38:30.333 --> 38:33.204 align:start position:0% homo sapiens have experienced several severe<00:40:00.640> population<00:40:01.280> bottlenecks,<00:40:02.560> driving 38:33.204 --> 38:33.214 align:start position:0% severe population bottlenecks, driving 38:33.214 --> 38:36.004 align:start position:0% severe population bottlenecks, driving us<00:40:03.280> perilously<00:40:03.920> close<00:40:04.240> to<00:40:04.560> extinction.<00:40:05.599> But 38:36.004 --> 38:36.014 align:start position:0% us perilously close to extinction. But 38:36.014 --> 38:37.603 align:start position:0% us perilously close to extinction. But no<00:40:05.839> matter<00:40:06.160> the<00:40:06.320> cause<00:40:06.560> of<00:40:06.720> these<00:40:06.960> sudden 38:37.603 --> 38:37.613 align:start position:0% no matter the cause of these sudden 38:37.613 --> 38:39.524 align:start position:0% no matter the cause of these sudden plummets<00:40:07.760> in<00:40:08.000> population<00:40:08.480> numbers,<00:40:09.040> whether 38:39.524 --> 38:39.534 align:start position:0% plummets in population numbers, whether 38:39.534 --> 38:41.603 align:start position:0% plummets in population numbers, whether it<00:40:09.440> be<00:40:09.599> rapid<00:40:09.920> climate<00:40:10.240> change,<00:40:10.880> competition 38:41.603 --> 38:41.613 align:start position:0% it be rapid climate change, competition 38:41.613 --> 38:43.444 align:start position:0% it be rapid climate change, competition with<00:40:11.599> other<00:40:11.760> homminin<00:40:12.320> species,<00:40:12.720> or<00:40:12.960> even 38:43.444 --> 38:43.454 align:start position:0% with other homminin species, or even 38:43.454 --> 38:46.244 align:start position:0% with other homminin species, or even natural<00:40:13.680> disasters,<00:40:14.560> Homo<00:40:14.880> sapiens<00:40:15.680> has 38:46.244 --> 38:46.254 align:start position:0% natural disasters, Homo sapiens has 38:46.254 --> 38:49.124 align:start position:0% natural disasters, Homo sapiens has always<00:40:16.560> bounced<00:40:17.040> back.<00:40:18.079> And<00:40:18.240> if<00:40:18.480> anything, 38:49.124 --> 38:49.134 align:start position:0% always bounced back. And if anything, 38:49.134 --> 38:50.804 align:start position:0% always bounced back. And if anything, these<00:40:19.119> brushes<00:40:19.520> with<00:40:19.680> extinction<00:40:20.160> have<00:40:20.400> made 38:50.804 --> 38:50.814 align:start position:0% these brushes with extinction have made 38:50.814 --> 38:53.044 align:start position:0% these brushes with extinction have made our<00:40:20.800> species<00:40:21.440> stronger<00:40:21.920> than<00:40:22.160> ever.<00:40:22.480> Because 38:53.044 --> 38:53.054 align:start position:0% our species stronger than ever. Because 38:53.054 --> 38:55.044 align:start position:0% our species stronger than ever. Because natural<00:40:23.280> selection<00:40:23.760> favored<00:40:24.240> individuals 38:55.044 --> 38:55.054 align:start position:0% natural selection favored individuals 38:55.054 --> 38:57.603 align:start position:0% natural selection favored individuals who<00:40:25.040> could<00:40:25.280> learn<00:40:25.520> quickly,<00:40:26.240> improvise,<00:40:27.040> and 38:57.603 --> 38:57.613 align:start position:0% who could learn quickly, improvise, and 38:57.613 --> 38:59.684 align:start position:0% who could learn quickly, improvise, and switch<00:40:27.680> strategies<00:40:28.480> when<00:40:28.800> environments 38:59.684 --> 38:59.694 align:start position:0% switch strategies when environments 38:59.694 --> 39:02.404 align:start position:0% switch strategies when environments shifted.<00:40:30.640> Some<00:40:30.880> researchers<00:40:31.359> even<00:40:31.680> think<00:40:31.920> the 39:02.404 --> 39:02.414 align:start position:0% shifted. Some researchers even think the 39:02.414 --> 39:04.244 align:start position:0% shifted. Some researchers even think the differences<00:40:32.560> in<00:40:32.720> how<00:40:32.960> flexible<00:40:33.440> our<00:40:33.680> learning 39:04.244 --> 39:04.254 align:start position:0% differences in how flexible our learning 39:04.254 --> 39:06.164 align:start position:0% differences in how flexible our learning and<00:40:34.240> social<00:40:34.560> networks<00:40:35.040> were<00:40:35.440> may<00:40:35.599> have<00:40:35.760> been 39:06.164 --> 39:06.174 align:start position:0% and social networks were may have been 39:06.174 --> 39:08.164 align:start position:0% and social networks were may have been the<00:40:36.160> thing<00:40:36.320> that<00:40:36.560> tilted<00:40:36.960> the<00:40:37.119> balance<00:40:37.440> in<00:40:37.680> our 39:08.164 --> 39:08.174 align:start position:0% the thing that tilted the balance in our 39:08.174 --> 39:10.724 align:start position:0% the thing that tilted the balance in our species<00:40:38.480> favor.<00:40:39.280> Archaeological<00:40:40.000> evidence 39:10.724 --> 39:10.734 align:start position:0% species favor. Archaeological evidence 39:10.734 --> 39:12.724 align:start position:0% species favor. Archaeological evidence continuously<00:40:41.119> shows<00:40:41.440> us<00:40:41.599> that<00:40:41.839> our<00:40:42.079> closest 39:12.724 --> 39:12.734 align:start position:0% continuously shows us that our closest 39:12.734 --> 39:14.644 align:start position:0% continuously shows us that our closest human<00:40:42.800> relatives,<00:40:43.440> the<00:40:43.680> Neanderals<00:40:44.320> and 39:14.644 --> 39:14.654 align:start position:0% human relatives, the Neanderals and 39:14.654 --> 39:17.444 align:start position:0% human relatives, the Neanderals and Dennis<00:40:45.359> were<00:40:45.680> probably<00:40:46.000> not<00:40:46.240> inferior<00:40:46.800> to<00:40:46.960> us 39:17.444 --> 39:17.454 align:start position:0% Dennis were probably not inferior to us 39:17.454 --> 39:19.764 align:start position:0% Dennis were probably not inferior to us in<00:40:47.440> terms<00:40:47.680> of<00:40:47.760> their<00:40:48.079> intelligence.<00:40:49.200> And<00:40:49.359> this 39:19.764 --> 39:19.774 align:start position:0% in terms of their intelligence. And this 39:19.774 --> 39:21.284 align:start position:0% in terms of their intelligence. And this is<00:40:49.680> reflected<00:40:50.000> in<00:40:50.160> the<00:40:50.320> material<00:40:50.720> culture 39:21.284 --> 39:21.294 align:start position:0% is reflected in the material culture 39:21.294 --> 39:23.843 align:start position:0% is reflected in the material culture they<00:40:51.280> left<00:40:51.520> behind<00:40:52.079> in<00:40:52.400> complex<00:40:52.800> tools,<00:40:53.280> cave 39:23.843 --> 39:23.853 align:start position:0% they left behind in complex tools, cave 39:23.853 --> 39:25.924 align:start position:0% they left behind in complex tools, cave paintings,<00:40:54.079> and<00:40:54.400> jewelry.<00:40:55.119> But<00:40:55.280> the<00:40:55.440> key 39:25.924 --> 39:25.934 align:start position:0% paintings, and jewelry. But the key 39:25.934 --> 39:28.004 align:start position:0% paintings, and jewelry. But the key difference<00:40:56.079> between<00:40:56.400> our<00:40:56.720> species<00:40:57.359> may<00:40:57.599> have 39:28.004 --> 39:28.014 align:start position:0% difference between our species may have 39:28.014 --> 39:31.044 align:start position:0% difference between our species may have been<00:40:57.920> in<00:40:58.160> how<00:40:58.400> plastic<00:40:59.200> or<00:40:59.520> moldable<00:41:00.319> our 39:31.044 --> 39:31.054 align:start position:0% been in how plastic or moldable our 39:31.054 --> 39:33.764 align:start position:0% been in how plastic or moldable our brains<00:41:01.200> were.<00:41:02.079> Homo<00:41:02.480> sapiens<00:41:03.040> may<00:41:03.280> simply 39:33.764 --> 39:33.774 align:start position:0% brains were. Homo sapiens may simply 39:33.774 --> 39:35.684 align:start position:0% brains were. Homo sapiens may simply have<00:41:03.680> had<00:41:03.839> greater<00:41:04.240> capacity<00:41:04.720> for<00:41:05.040> learning 39:35.684 --> 39:35.694 align:start position:0% have had greater capacity for learning 39:35.694 --> 39:38.083 align:start position:0% have had greater capacity for learning and<00:41:05.680> behavioral<00:41:06.319> flexibility,<00:41:07.359> meaning<00:41:07.599> that 39:38.083 --> 39:38.093 align:start position:0% and behavioral flexibility, meaning that 39:38.093 --> 39:40.164 align:start position:0% and behavioral flexibility, meaning that our<00:41:08.079> ancestors<00:41:08.640> could<00:41:08.880> adapt<00:41:09.200> to<00:41:09.440> a<00:41:09.599> wider 39:40.164 --> 39:40.174 align:start position:0% our ancestors could adapt to a wider 39:40.174 --> 39:42.563 align:start position:0% our ancestors could adapt to a wider range<00:41:10.160> of<00:41:10.319> situations.<00:41:11.599> And<00:41:11.760> so,<00:41:12.000> human 39:42.563 --> 39:42.573 align:start position:0% range of situations. And so, human 39:42.573 --> 39:45.124 align:start position:0% range of situations. And so, human neuroplasticity<00:41:13.440> likely<00:41:13.839> evolved<00:41:14.400> hundreds 39:45.124 --> 39:45.134 align:start position:0% neuroplasticity likely evolved hundreds 39:45.134 --> 39:47.363 align:start position:0% neuroplasticity likely evolved hundreds of<00:41:15.040> thousands<00:41:15.440> of<00:41:15.680> years<00:41:15.920> ago.<00:41:16.560> And<00:41:16.800> we<00:41:16.960> can 39:47.363 --> 39:47.373 align:start position:0% of thousands of years ago. And we can 39:47.373 --> 39:48.884 align:start position:0% of thousands of years ago. And we can see<00:41:17.200> it<00:41:17.440> helping<00:41:17.680> us<00:41:17.839> adapt<00:41:18.160> to<00:41:18.319> modern 39:48.884 --> 39:48.894 align:start position:0% see it helping us adapt to modern 39:48.894 --> 39:51.684 align:start position:0% see it helping us adapt to modern challenges<00:41:19.440> today.<00:41:20.480> And<00:41:20.720> not<00:41:20.960> just<00:41:21.119> in<00:41:21.359> the 39:51.684 --> 39:51.694 align:start position:0% challenges today. And not just in the 39:51.694 --> 39:58.404 align:start position:0% challenges today. And not just in the mental<00:41:21.760> maps<00:41:22.160> of<00:41:22.319> cab<00:41:22.720> drivers. 39:58.404 --> 39:58.414 align:start position:0% 39:58.414 --> 40:00.323 align:start position:0% Although<00:41:28.560> rare<00:41:28.800> in<00:41:29.040> prehistory,<00:41:29.839> there 40:00.323 --> 40:00.333 align:start position:0% Although rare in prehistory, there 40:00.333 --> 40:02.004 align:start position:0% Although rare in prehistory, there probably<00:41:30.400> were<00:41:30.640> still<00:41:30.880> some<00:41:31.119> instances<00:41:31.520> of 40:02.004 --> 40:02.014 align:start position:0% probably were still some instances of 40:02.014 --> 40:04.244 align:start position:0% probably were still some instances of language<00:41:32.240> learning<00:41:32.560> for<00:41:32.800> our<00:41:33.040> ancestors. 40:04.244 --> 40:04.254 align:start position:0% language learning for our ancestors. 40:04.254 --> 40:06.404 align:start position:0% language learning for our ancestors. When<00:41:34.240> homo<00:41:34.640> sapiens<00:41:35.119> migrated<00:41:35.520> out<00:41:35.680> of<00:41:35.839> Africa 40:06.404 --> 40:06.414 align:start position:0% When homo sapiens migrated out of Africa 40:06.414 --> 40:08.004 align:start position:0% When homo sapiens migrated out of Africa into<00:41:36.480> Europe<00:41:36.720> and<00:41:36.960> Asia,<00:41:37.280> they<00:41:37.520> would<00:41:37.599> have 40:08.004 --> 40:08.014 align:start position:0% into Europe and Asia, they would have 40:08.014 --> 40:10.323 align:start position:0% into Europe and Asia, they would have encountered<00:41:38.160> Neanderals<00:41:38.880> and<00:41:39.040> Dennis<00:41:39.440> so 40:10.323 --> 40:10.333 align:start position:0% encountered Neanderals and Dennis so 40:10.333 --> 40:12.323 align:start position:0% encountered Neanderals and Dennis so these<00:41:40.400> species<00:41:40.960> were<00:41:41.119> closely<00:41:41.599> related<00:41:41.920> to 40:12.323 --> 40:12.333 align:start position:0% these species were closely related to 40:12.333 --> 40:13.924 align:start position:0% these species were closely related to our<00:41:42.319> own,<00:41:42.560> but<00:41:42.800> they<00:41:42.960> had<00:41:43.119> evolved<00:41:43.440> in 40:13.924 --> 40:13.934 align:start position:0% our own, but they had evolved in 40:13.934 --> 40:16.323 align:start position:0% our own, but they had evolved in isolation<00:41:44.319> for<00:41:44.640> thousands<00:41:45.040> of<00:41:45.280> years<00:41:45.839> and 40:16.323 --> 40:16.333 align:start position:0% isolation for thousands of years and 40:16.333 --> 40:17.843 align:start position:0% isolation for thousands of years and surely<00:41:46.400> would<00:41:46.560> have<00:41:46.640> had<00:41:46.800> their<00:41:46.960> own<00:41:47.119> ways<00:41:47.359> to 40:17.843 --> 40:17.853 align:start position:0% surely would have had their own ways to 40:17.853 --> 40:20.724 align:start position:0% surely would have had their own ways to communicate.<00:41:48.720> Our<00:41:48.960> homo<00:41:49.359> sapiens<00:41:49.839> ancestors 40:20.724 --> 40:20.734 align:start position:0% communicate. Our homo sapiens ancestors 40:20.734 --> 40:22.484 align:start position:0% communicate. Our homo sapiens ancestors therefore<00:41:50.960> would<00:41:51.200> have<00:41:51.359> needed<00:41:51.599> to<00:41:51.839> learn<00:41:52.000> how 40:22.484 --> 40:22.494 align:start position:0% therefore would have needed to learn how 40:22.494 --> 40:25.124 align:start position:0% therefore would have needed to learn how to<00:41:52.400> speak<00:41:52.560> with<00:41:52.800> them<00:41:53.200> and<00:41:53.520> vice<00:41:53.839> versa.<00:41:54.720> But 40:25.124 --> 40:25.134 align:start position:0% to speak with them and vice versa. But 40:25.134 --> 40:26.164 align:start position:0% to speak with them and vice versa. But of<00:41:55.040> course,<00:41:55.200> this<00:41:55.359> wouldn't<00:41:55.599> have<00:41:55.760> been 40:26.164 --> 40:26.174 align:start position:0% of course, this wouldn't have been 40:26.174 --> 40:27.363 align:start position:0% of course, this wouldn't have been anything<00:41:56.240> like<00:41:56.480> the<00:41:56.640> demand<00:41:56.880> for 40:27.363 --> 40:27.373 align:start position:0% anything like the demand for 40:27.373 --> 40:30.083 align:start position:0% anything like the demand for bilingualism<00:41:58.000> or<00:41:58.400> multilingualism<00:41:59.359> that<00:41:59.680> the 40:30.083 --> 40:30.093 align:start position:0% bilingualism or multilingualism that the 40:30.093 --> 40:33.444 align:start position:0% bilingualism or multilingualism that the modern<00:42:00.240> world<00:42:00.640> demands.<00:42:02.079> Our<00:42:02.319> societies<00:42:02.960> are 40:33.444 --> 40:33.454 align:start position:0% modern world demands. Our societies are 40:33.454 --> 40:35.284 align:start position:0% modern world demands. Our societies are increasingly<00:42:03.920> global,<00:42:04.400> and<00:42:04.640> switching 40:35.284 --> 40:35.294 align:start position:0% increasingly global, and switching 40:35.294 --> 40:37.044 align:start position:0% increasingly global, and switching between<00:42:05.280> languages<00:42:05.760> is<00:42:06.000> a<00:42:06.160> part<00:42:06.240> of<00:42:06.400> daily 40:37.044 --> 40:37.054 align:start position:0% between languages is a part of daily 40:37.054 --> 40:39.044 align:start position:0% between languages is a part of daily life<00:42:07.040> for<00:42:07.359> more<00:42:07.520> and<00:42:07.839> more<00:42:08.079> people.<00:42:08.640> And 40:39.044 --> 40:39.054 align:start position:0% life for more and more people. And 40:39.054 --> 40:41.124 align:start position:0% life for more and more people. And indeed,<00:42:09.200> neuroscientists<00:42:10.160> have<00:42:10.400> started<00:42:10.720> to 40:41.124 --> 40:41.134 align:start position:0% indeed, neuroscientists have started to 40:41.134 --> 40:43.444 align:start position:0% indeed, neuroscientists have started to see<00:42:11.040> the<00:42:11.280> effects<00:42:11.599> of<00:42:11.760> this<00:42:12.160> in<00:42:12.400> the<00:42:12.640> brains<00:42:12.960> of 40:43.444 --> 40:43.454 align:start position:0% see the effects of this in the brains of 40:43.454 --> 40:45.764 align:start position:0% see the effects of this in the brains of children.<00:42:14.079> When<00:42:14.319> researchers<00:42:14.960> scan<00:42:15.280> the 40:45.764 --> 40:45.774 align:start position:0% children. When researchers scan the 40:45.774 --> 40:47.284 align:start position:0% children. When researchers scan the brains<00:42:15.760> of<00:42:16.000> children<00:42:16.240> who<00:42:16.480> speak<00:42:16.720> more<00:42:16.880> than 40:47.284 --> 40:47.294 align:start position:0% brains of children who speak more than 40:47.294 --> 40:49.044 align:start position:0% brains of children who speak more than one<00:42:17.280> language,<00:42:17.920> they<00:42:18.079> often<00:42:18.400> find<00:42:18.560> that 40:49.044 --> 40:49.054 align:start position:0% one language, they often find that 40:49.054 --> 40:51.204 align:start position:0% one language, they often find that certain<00:42:19.200> regions<00:42:19.760> show<00:42:20.079> greater<00:42:20.400> gray<00:42:20.720> matter 40:51.204 --> 40:51.214 align:start position:0% certain regions show greater gray matter 40:51.214 --> 40:53.124 align:start position:0% certain regions show greater gray matter density<00:42:21.520> than<00:42:21.760> in<00:42:21.920> children<00:42:22.240> who<00:42:22.560> grow<00:42:22.720> up 40:53.124 --> 40:53.134 align:start position:0% density than in children who grow up 40:53.134 --> 40:55.924 align:start position:0% density than in children who grow up with<00:42:23.119> only<00:42:23.440> one<00:42:23.680> language.<00:42:24.880> Gray<00:42:25.200> matter<00:42:25.520> is 40:55.924 --> 40:55.934 align:start position:0% with only one language. Gray matter is 40:55.934 --> 40:57.764 align:start position:0% with only one language. Gray matter is where<00:42:25.839> the<00:42:26.000> brain's<00:42:26.400> processing<00:42:26.960> power<00:42:27.200> is 40:57.764 --> 40:57.774 align:start position:0% where the brain's processing power is 40:57.774 --> 41:00.004 align:start position:0% where the brain's processing power is concentrated.<00:42:28.480> It's<00:42:28.720> made<00:42:28.880> up<00:42:29.119> of<00:42:29.280> densely 41:00.004 --> 41:00.014 align:start position:0% concentrated. It's made up of densely 41:00.014 --> 41:02.004 align:start position:0% concentrated. It's made up of densely packed<00:42:30.079> cells<00:42:30.560> that<00:42:30.800> do<00:42:30.960> the<00:42:31.119> hard<00:42:31.359> work<00:42:31.520> of 41:02.004 --> 41:02.014 align:start position:0% packed cells that do the hard work of 41:02.014 --> 41:04.804 align:start position:0% packed cells that do the hard work of thinking,<00:42:32.400> deciding,<00:42:33.119> and<00:42:33.440> remembering.<00:42:34.400> In 41:04.804 --> 41:04.814 align:start position:0% thinking, deciding, and remembering. In 41:04.814 --> 41:06.724 align:start position:0% thinking, deciding, and remembering. In bilingual<00:42:35.200> children,<00:42:35.599> this<00:42:35.839> gray<00:42:36.160> matter 41:06.724 --> 41:06.734 align:start position:0% bilingual children, this gray matter 41:06.734 --> 41:09.044 align:start position:0% bilingual children, this gray matter appears<00:42:36.800> thicker<00:42:37.200> or<00:42:37.440> more<00:42:37.760> developed.<00:42:38.640> It's 41:09.044 --> 41:09.054 align:start position:0% appears thicker or more developed. It's 41:09.054 --> 41:10.964 align:start position:0% appears thicker or more developed. It's as<00:42:38.960> if<00:42:39.119> the<00:42:39.280> daily<00:42:39.680> effort<00:42:40.000> of<00:42:40.160> choosing<00:42:40.480> the 41:10.964 --> 41:10.974 align:start position:0% as if the daily effort of choosing the 41:10.974 --> 41:12.964 align:start position:0% as if the daily effort of choosing the right<00:42:40.880> language<00:42:41.280> at<00:42:41.440> the<00:42:41.599> right<00:42:41.839> time<00:42:42.319> nudges 41:12.964 --> 41:12.974 align:start position:0% right language at the right time nudges 41:12.974 --> 41:15.363 align:start position:0% right language at the right time nudges these<00:42:43.040> regions<00:42:43.440> to<00:42:43.680> grow<00:42:43.920> a<00:42:44.160> little<00:42:44.319> more,<00:42:44.880> to 41:15.363 --> 41:15.373 align:start position:0% these regions to grow a little more, to 41:15.373 --> 41:23.363 align:start position:0% these regions to grow a little more, to wire<00:42:45.440> up<00:42:45.680> a<00:42:45.920> little<00:42:46.079> more<00:42:46.400> efficiently. 41:23.363 --> 41:23.373 align:start position:0% 41:23.373 --> 41:25.843 align:start position:0% And<00:42:53.359> brain<00:42:53.680> plasticity<00:42:54.560> also<00:42:54.880> helps<00:42:55.119> us<00:42:55.359> with 41:25.843 --> 41:25.853 align:start position:0% And brain plasticity also helps us with 41:25.853 --> 41:26.884 align:start position:0% And brain plasticity also helps us with something<00:42:55.760> that<00:42:56.000> would<00:42:56.160> have<00:42:56.319> probably 41:26.884 --> 41:26.894 align:start position:0% something that would have probably 41:26.894 --> 41:30.323 align:start position:0% something that would have probably baffled<00:42:57.200> our<00:42:57.520> very<00:42:57.839> early<00:42:58.079> ancestors. 41:30.323 --> 41:30.333 align:start position:0% baffled our very early ancestors. 41:30.333 --> 41:32.323 align:start position:0% baffled our very early ancestors. For<00:43:00.319> most<00:43:00.480> of<00:43:00.640> human<00:43:00.880> history,<00:43:01.359> nobody<00:43:01.839> read 41:32.323 --> 41:32.333 align:start position:0% For most of human history, nobody read 41:32.333 --> 41:34.964 align:start position:0% For most of human history, nobody read books,<00:43:02.720> scanned<00:43:03.119> text<00:43:03.359> on<00:43:03.599> signs,<00:43:04.240> typed<00:43:04.560> on 41:34.964 --> 41:34.974 align:start position:0% books, scanned text on signs, typed on 41:34.974 --> 41:37.764 align:start position:0% books, scanned text on signs, typed on keyboards,<00:43:05.280> or<00:43:05.520> scribbled<00:43:06.000> down<00:43:06.319> notes.<00:43:07.359> Like 41:37.764 --> 41:37.774 align:start position:0% keyboards, or scribbled down notes. Like 41:37.774 --> 41:39.524 align:start position:0% keyboards, or scribbled down notes. Like in<00:43:07.680> many<00:43:07.920> indigenous<00:43:08.400> populations<00:43:08.960> around 41:39.524 --> 41:39.534 align:start position:0% in many indigenous populations around 41:39.534 --> 41:41.524 align:start position:0% in many indigenous populations around the<00:43:09.440> world,<00:43:10.079> stories<00:43:10.400> and<00:43:10.640> knowledge<00:43:11.040> were 41:41.524 --> 41:41.534 align:start position:0% the world, stories and knowledge were 41:41.534 --> 41:43.684 align:start position:0% the world, stories and knowledge were carried<00:43:11.599> in<00:43:11.839> voices,<00:43:12.560> gestures,<00:43:13.119> and 41:43.684 --> 41:43.694 align:start position:0% carried in voices, gestures, and 41:43.694 --> 41:47.124 align:start position:0% carried in voices, gestures, and memories,<00:43:14.480> not<00:43:14.800> in<00:43:15.040> lines<00:43:15.359> of<00:43:15.440> ink.<00:43:16.400> And<00:43:16.560> so 41:47.124 --> 41:47.134 align:start position:0% memories, not in lines of ink. And so 41:47.134 --> 41:49.044 align:start position:0% memories, not in lines of ink. And so literacy<00:43:17.440> is<00:43:17.680> a<00:43:17.839> remarkably<00:43:18.480> recent 41:49.044 --> 41:49.054 align:start position:0% literacy is a remarkably recent 41:49.054 --> 41:51.603 align:start position:0% literacy is a remarkably recent invention<00:43:19.359> in<00:43:19.599> evolutionary<00:43:20.400> terms.<00:43:21.200> The 41:51.603 --> 41:51.613 align:start position:0% invention in evolutionary terms. The 41:51.613 --> 41:53.524 align:start position:0% invention in evolutionary terms. The oldest<00:43:21.680> known<00:43:21.839> written<00:43:22.160> document<00:43:22.560> ever<00:43:22.880> found 41:53.524 --> 41:53.534 align:start position:0% oldest known written document ever found 41:53.534 --> 41:55.524 align:start position:0% oldest known written document ever found was<00:43:23.520> recovered<00:43:23.920> from<00:43:24.079> the<00:43:24.240> Sumerian<00:43:24.880> city<00:43:25.119> of 41:55.524 --> 41:55.534 align:start position:0% was recovered from the Sumerian city of 41:55.534 --> 41:58.083 align:start position:0% was recovered from the Sumerian city of Kish<00:43:25.760> in<00:43:26.000> modernday<00:43:26.400> Iraq,<00:43:27.200> dating<00:43:27.520> to<00:43:27.680> the 41:58.083 --> 41:58.093 align:start position:0% Kish in modernday Iraq, dating to the 41:58.093 --> 42:01.204 align:start position:0% Kish in modernday Iraq, dating to the 4th<00:43:28.160> millennium<00:43:28.720> B.CE.<00:43:30.079> And<00:43:30.319> yet<00:43:30.560> in<00:43:30.800> the 42:01.204 --> 42:01.214 align:start position:0% 4th millennium B.CE. And yet in the 42:01.214 --> 42:03.444 align:start position:0% 4th millennium B.CE. And yet in the modern<00:43:31.359> world,<00:43:31.839> literacy<00:43:32.400> is<00:43:32.640> almost<00:43:32.880> as 42:03.444 --> 42:03.454 align:start position:0% modern world, literacy is almost as 42:03.454 --> 42:05.444 align:start position:0% modern world, literacy is almost as essential<00:43:33.440> as<00:43:33.680> knowing<00:43:33.920> how<00:43:34.079> to<00:43:34.240> find<00:43:34.560> food<00:43:34.880> or 42:05.444 --> 42:05.454 align:start position:0% essential as knowing how to find food or 42:05.454 --> 42:08.323 align:start position:0% essential as knowing how to find food or shelter<00:43:35.680> once<00:43:36.079> was.<00:43:36.960> The<00:43:37.200> written<00:43:37.440> word<00:43:37.760> is 42:08.323 --> 42:08.333 align:start position:0% shelter once was. The written word is 42:08.333 --> 42:10.644 align:start position:0% shelter once was. The written word is everywhere<00:43:38.720> and<00:43:38.960> our<00:43:39.200> neuroplasticity<00:43:40.160> has 42:10.644 --> 42:10.654 align:start position:0% everywhere and our neuroplasticity has 42:10.654 --> 42:12.804 align:start position:0% everywhere and our neuroplasticity has let<00:43:40.560> us<00:43:40.720> adapt<00:43:41.280> the<00:43:41.440> same<00:43:41.680> neural<00:43:42.079> machinery 42:12.804 --> 42:12.814 align:start position:0% let us adapt the same neural machinery 42:12.814 --> 42:14.323 align:start position:0% let us adapt the same neural machinery that<00:43:42.800> once<00:43:43.040> helped<00:43:43.280> our<00:43:43.440> huntergatherer 42:14.323 --> 42:14.333 align:start position:0% that once helped our huntergatherer 42:14.333 --> 42:17.924 align:start position:0% that once helped our huntergatherer ancestors<00:43:44.640> survive<00:43:45.520> to<00:43:45.760> read<00:43:46.000> it.<00:43:47.440> When 42:17.924 --> 42:17.934 align:start position:0% ancestors survive to read it. When 42:17.934 --> 42:19.924 align:start position:0% ancestors survive to read it. When neuroscientists<00:43:48.640> compare<00:43:48.960> the<00:43:49.200> brains<00:43:49.440> of 42:19.924 --> 42:19.934 align:start position:0% neuroscientists compare the brains of 42:19.934 --> 42:22.083 align:start position:0% neuroscientists compare the brains of literate<00:43:50.079> and<00:43:50.400> illiterate<00:43:50.880> adults,<00:43:51.440> they<00:43:51.680> can 42:22.083 --> 42:22.093 align:start position:0% literate and illiterate adults, they can 42:22.093 --> 42:24.083 align:start position:0% literate and illiterate adults, they can see<00:43:52.160> clear<00:43:52.480> traces<00:43:52.960> of<00:43:53.119> what<00:43:53.280> it<00:43:53.520> takes<00:43:53.680> to 42:24.083 --> 42:24.093 align:start position:0% see clear traces of what it takes to 42:24.093 --> 42:27.284 align:start position:0% see clear traces of what it takes to bolt<00:43:54.240> this<00:43:54.480> new<00:43:54.720> skill<00:43:55.200> onto<00:43:55.599> an<00:43:55.839> old<00:43:56.160> brain. 42:27.284 --> 42:27.294 align:start position:0% bolt this new skill onto an old brain. 42:27.294 --> 42:29.524 align:start position:0% bolt this new skill onto an old brain. For<00:43:57.280> it<00:43:57.440> turns<00:43:57.680> out<00:43:58.160> learning<00:43:58.560> to<00:43:58.720> read 42:29.524 --> 42:29.534 align:start position:0% For it turns out learning to read 42:29.534 --> 42:32.164 align:start position:0% For it turns out learning to read systematically<00:44:00.079> reshapes<00:44:00.880> regions<00:44:01.520> in<00:44:01.760> the 42:32.164 --> 42:32.174 align:start position:0% systematically reshapes regions in the 42:32.174 --> 42:35.603 align:start position:0% systematically reshapes regions in the vententral<00:44:02.560> visual<00:44:02.960> temporal<00:44:03.520> cortex.<00:44:04.960> As<00:44:05.119> we 42:35.603 --> 42:35.613 align:start position:0% vententral visual temporal cortex. As we 42:35.613 --> 42:37.684 align:start position:0% vententral visual temporal cortex. As we practice<00:44:05.839> turning<00:44:06.160> marks<00:44:06.480> on<00:44:06.640> a<00:44:06.800> page<00:44:07.119> into 42:37.684 --> 42:37.694 align:start position:0% practice turning marks on a page into 42:37.694 --> 42:39.843 align:start position:0% practice turning marks on a page into sounds<00:44:07.760> and<00:44:07.920> meanings,<00:44:08.560> these<00:44:08.960> regions 42:39.843 --> 42:39.853 align:start position:0% sounds and meanings, these regions 42:39.853 --> 42:42.244 align:start position:0% sounds and meanings, these regions become<00:44:09.920> finely<00:44:10.400> tuned<00:44:10.720> to<00:44:11.040> letter<00:44:11.359> shapes<00:44:11.680> and 42:42.244 --> 42:42.254 align:start position:0% become finely tuned to letter shapes and 42:42.254 --> 42:44.484 align:start position:0% become finely tuned to letter shapes and word<00:44:12.240> forms,<00:44:13.119> and<00:44:13.280> their<00:44:13.520> connections<00:44:13.920> with 42:44.484 --> 42:44.494 align:start position:0% word forms, and their connections with 42:44.494 --> 42:46.083 align:start position:0% word forms, and their connections with language<00:44:14.640> areas<00:44:14.960> in<00:44:15.119> the<00:44:15.280> temporal<00:44:15.599> and 42:46.083 --> 42:46.093 align:start position:0% language areas in the temporal and 42:46.093 --> 42:48.484 align:start position:0% language areas in the temporal and frontal<00:44:16.160> loes<00:44:16.800> grow<00:44:17.119> stronger<00:44:17.599> and<00:44:17.920> more 42:48.484 --> 42:48.494 align:start position:0% frontal loes grow stronger and more 42:48.494 --> 42:55.444 align:start position:0% frontal loes grow stronger and more efficient. 42:55.444 --> 42:55.454 align:start position:0% 42:55.454 --> 42:57.684 align:start position:0% And<00:44:25.440> so<00:44:25.839> when<00:44:26.000> we<00:44:26.160> look<00:44:26.319> at<00:44:26.480> mental<00:44:26.800> maps, 42:57.684 --> 42:57.694 align:start position:0% And so when we look at mental maps, 42:57.694 --> 43:00.164 align:start position:0% And so when we look at mental maps, written<00:44:27.839> and<00:44:28.079> spoken<00:44:28.560> language,<00:44:29.280> we<00:44:29.520> can<00:44:29.680> see 43:00.164 --> 43:00.174 align:start position:0% written and spoken language, we can see 43:00.174 --> 43:02.004 align:start position:0% written and spoken language, we can see the<00:44:30.160> plasticity<00:44:30.720> of<00:44:30.800> the<00:44:31.040> human<00:44:31.359> brain 43:02.004 --> 43:02.014 align:start position:0% the plasticity of the human brain 43:02.014 --> 43:04.884 align:start position:0% the plasticity of the human brain helping<00:44:32.079> us<00:44:32.240> adapt<00:44:32.720> to<00:44:32.960> the<00:44:33.119> modern<00:44:33.520> world. 43:04.884 --> 43:04.894 align:start position:0% helping us adapt to the modern world. 43:04.894 --> 43:06.724 align:start position:0% helping us adapt to the modern world. And<00:44:34.800> when<00:44:34.960> it<00:44:35.119> comes<00:44:35.200> to<00:44:35.359> other<00:44:35.599> challenges 43:06.724 --> 43:06.734 align:start position:0% And when it comes to other challenges 43:06.734 --> 43:08.724 align:start position:0% And when it comes to other challenges such<00:44:36.640> as<00:44:36.880> facing<00:44:37.280> the<00:44:37.520> general<00:44:37.920> adaptation 43:08.724 --> 43:08.734 align:start position:0% such as facing the general adaptation 43:08.734 --> 43:10.884 align:start position:0% such as facing the general adaptation syndrome<00:44:38.960> of<00:44:39.119> prolonged<00:44:39.599> strain<00:44:40.160> or<00:44:40.400> dealing 43:10.884 --> 43:10.894 align:start position:0% syndrome of prolonged strain or dealing 43:10.894 --> 43:12.724 align:start position:0% syndrome of prolonged strain or dealing with<00:44:40.880> social<00:44:41.119> groups<00:44:41.520> far<00:44:41.760> above<00:44:42.000> the<00:44:42.160> size<00:44:42.319> of 43:12.724 --> 43:12.734 align:start position:0% with social groups far above the size of 43:12.734 --> 43:15.124 align:start position:0% with social groups far above the size of Dunar's<00:44:43.119> number,<00:44:43.680> there<00:44:43.839> is<00:44:44.000> every<00:44:44.240> chance<00:44:44.640> it 43:15.124 --> 43:15.134 align:start position:0% Dunar's number, there is every chance it 43:15.134 --> 43:18.004 align:start position:0% Dunar's number, there is every chance it is<00:44:45.040> helping<00:44:45.359> us<00:44:45.520> there<00:44:46.160> as<00:44:46.480> well.<00:44:47.359> But<00:44:47.520> no 43:18.004 --> 43:18.014 align:start position:0% is helping us there as well. But no 43:18.014 --> 43:19.603 align:start position:0% is helping us there as well. But no studies<00:44:48.079> have<00:44:48.240> yet<00:44:48.400> been<00:44:48.560> undertaken<00:44:49.040> on<00:44:49.200> the 43:19.603 --> 43:19.613 align:start position:0% studies have yet been undertaken on the 43:19.613 --> 43:21.524 align:start position:0% studies have yet been undertaken on the brains<00:44:49.680> of<00:44:49.839> parents<00:44:50.160> that<00:44:50.400> work<00:44:50.720> long<00:44:50.960> hours 43:21.524 --> 43:21.534 align:start position:0% brains of parents that work long hours 43:21.534 --> 43:23.924 align:start position:0% brains of parents that work long hours at<00:44:51.520> multiple<00:44:52.079> jobs.<00:44:52.880> But<00:44:53.040> from<00:44:53.280> what<00:44:53.440> we<00:44:53.520> have 43:23.924 --> 43:23.934 align:start position:0% at multiple jobs. But from what we have 43:23.934 --> 43:25.444 align:start position:0% at multiple jobs. But from what we have seen,<00:44:54.160> it<00:44:54.400> seems<00:44:54.640> likely<00:44:55.040> that 43:25.444 --> 43:25.454 align:start position:0% seen, it seems likely that 43:25.454 --> 43:27.524 align:start position:0% seen, it seems likely that neuroplasticity<00:44:56.240> would<00:44:56.480> be<00:44:56.560> at<00:44:56.800> work<00:44:57.040> in 43:27.524 --> 43:27.534 align:start position:0% neuroplasticity would be at work in 43:27.534 --> 43:30.404 align:start position:0% neuroplasticity would be at work in situations<00:44:57.839> like<00:44:58.079> these<00:44:58.560> also.<00:44:59.680> To<00:44:59.920> some 43:30.404 --> 43:30.414 align:start position:0% situations like these also. To some 43:30.414 --> 43:32.484 align:start position:0% situations like these also. To some degree,<00:45:00.640> our<00:45:00.960> brain's<00:45:01.359> plasticity<00:45:02.000> is 43:32.484 --> 43:32.494 align:start position:0% degree, our brain's plasticity is 43:32.494 --> 43:34.884 align:start position:0% degree, our brain's plasticity is helping<00:45:02.560> us<00:45:02.720> all<00:45:03.040> adapt<00:45:03.440> to<00:45:03.599> the<00:45:03.760> changes<00:45:04.400> of 43:34.884 --> 43:34.894 align:start position:0% helping us all adapt to the changes of 43:34.894 --> 43:37.124 align:start position:0% helping us all adapt to the changes of the<00:45:04.880> modern<00:45:05.280> world.<00:45:06.319> But<00:45:06.480> of<00:45:06.640> course,<00:45:06.720> we 43:37.124 --> 43:37.134 align:start position:0% the modern world. But of course, we 43:37.134 --> 43:39.204 align:start position:0% the modern world. But of course, we shouldn't<00:45:07.200> forget<00:45:07.839> the<00:45:08.079> modern<00:45:08.400> world<00:45:08.720> has 43:39.204 --> 43:39.214 align:start position:0% shouldn't forget the modern world has 43:39.214 --> 43:42.164 align:start position:0% shouldn't forget the modern world has also<00:45:09.280> come<00:45:09.599> with<00:45:09.760> a<00:45:10.000> great<00:45:10.240> many<00:45:10.720> benefits. 43:42.164 --> 43:42.174 align:start position:0% also come with a great many benefits. 43:42.174 --> 43:44.404 align:start position:0% also come with a great many benefits. Average<00:45:12.240> life<00:45:12.560> expectancy<00:45:13.040> has<00:45:13.280> rocketed<00:45:13.839> and 43:44.404 --> 43:44.414 align:start position:0% Average life expectancy has rocketed and 43:44.414 --> 43:46.724 align:start position:0% Average life expectancy has rocketed and infant<00:45:14.560> mortality<00:45:15.200> has<00:45:15.520> cratered<00:45:16.079> and<00:45:16.319> all 43:46.724 --> 43:46.734 align:start position:0% infant mortality has cratered and all 43:46.734 --> 43:48.404 align:start position:0% infant mortality has cratered and all this<00:45:16.640> has<00:45:16.880> been<00:45:17.040> achieved<00:45:17.520> even<00:45:17.760> with<00:45:17.920> the 43:48.404 --> 43:48.414 align:start position:0% this has been achieved even with the 43:48.414 --> 43:50.004 align:start position:0% this has been achieved even with the looming<00:45:18.560> threat<00:45:18.880> of<00:45:19.040> evolutionary 43:50.004 --> 43:50.014 align:start position:0% looming threat of evolutionary 43:50.014 --> 43:51.843 align:start position:0% looming threat of evolutionary mismatches<00:45:20.560> like<00:45:20.880> diseases<00:45:21.359> of 43:51.843 --> 43:51.853 align:start position:0% mismatches like diseases of 43:51.853 --> 43:53.363 align:start position:0% mismatches like diseases of civilization. 43:53.363 --> 43:53.373 align:start position:0% civilization. 43:53.373 --> 43:55.284 align:start position:0% civilization. Indeed,<00:45:23.599> despite<00:45:23.839> the<00:45:24.079> strain<00:45:24.480> some<00:45:24.720> modern 43:55.284 --> 43:55.294 align:start position:0% Indeed, despite the strain some modern 43:55.294 --> 43:58.004 align:start position:0% Indeed, despite the strain some modern inventions<00:45:25.599> can<00:45:25.920> cause,<00:45:26.560> they<00:45:26.800> are<00:45:26.960> at<00:45:27.280> heart 43:58.004 --> 43:58.014 align:start position:0% inventions can cause, they are at heart 43:58.014 --> 44:00.404 align:start position:0% inventions can cause, they are at heart useful<00:45:28.240> situations<00:45:28.880> to<00:45:29.200> problems.<00:45:29.920> An 44:00.404 --> 44:00.414 align:start position:0% useful situations to problems. An 44:00.414 --> 44:02.724 align:start position:0% useful situations to problems. An extension<00:45:30.560> of<00:45:30.800> the<00:45:30.960> very<00:45:31.280> first<00:45:31.839> chopping, 44:02.724 --> 44:02.734 align:start position:0% extension of the very first chopping, 44:02.734 --> 44:05.124 align:start position:0% extension of the very first chopping, scraping,<00:45:32.960> and<00:45:33.119> pounding<00:45:33.680> stone<00:45:34.000> tools<00:45:34.560> made 44:05.124 --> 44:05.134 align:start position:0% scraping, and pounding stone tools made 44:05.134 --> 44:07.284 align:start position:0% scraping, and pounding stone tools made millions<00:45:35.280> of<00:45:35.440> years<00:45:35.599> ago.<00:45:36.560> Despite<00:45:36.880> the 44:07.284 --> 44:07.294 align:start position:0% millions of years ago. Despite the 44:07.294 --> 44:09.684 align:start position:0% millions of years ago. Despite the mismatches<00:45:37.680> social<00:45:37.920> media<00:45:38.400> can<00:45:38.720> cause,<00:45:39.200> the 44:09.684 --> 44:09.694 align:start position:0% mismatches social media can cause, the 44:09.694 --> 44:11.764 align:start position:0% mismatches social media can cause, the ability<00:45:39.839> to<00:45:40.079> find<00:45:40.480> community<00:45:40.960> with<00:45:41.200> the<00:45:41.359> press 44:11.764 --> 44:11.774 align:start position:0% ability to find community with the press 44:11.774 --> 44:13.924 align:start position:0% ability to find community with the press of<00:45:41.680> a<00:45:41.839> button<00:45:42.240> can<00:45:42.560> help<00:45:42.720> us<00:45:42.880> fill<00:45:43.119> a<00:45:43.359> social 44:13.924 --> 44:13.934 align:start position:0% of a button can help us fill a social 44:13.934 --> 44:15.924 align:start position:0% of a button can help us fill a social need<00:45:44.079> that<00:45:44.319> has<00:45:44.480> existed<00:45:44.880> for<00:45:45.119> hundreds<00:45:45.520> of 44:15.924 --> 44:15.934 align:start position:0% need that has existed for hundreds of 44:15.934 --> 44:18.884 align:start position:0% need that has existed for hundreds of thousands<00:45:46.079> of<00:45:46.319> years.<00:45:47.520> And<00:45:47.760> so<00:45:47.920> in<00:45:48.079> this<00:45:48.240> sense 44:18.884 --> 44:18.894 align:start position:0% thousands of years. And so in this sense 44:18.894 --> 44:21.044 align:start position:0% thousands of years. And so in this sense there<00:45:48.800> is<00:45:48.960> a<00:45:49.119> complex<00:45:49.520> interplay<00:45:50.240> between<00:45:50.560> the 44:21.044 --> 44:21.054 align:start position:0% there is a complex interplay between the 44:21.054 --> 44:23.284 align:start position:0% there is a complex interplay between the technology<00:45:51.359> we<00:45:51.680> create<00:45:52.160> and<00:45:52.400> the<00:45:52.560> benefits 44:23.284 --> 44:23.294 align:start position:0% technology we create and the benefits 44:23.294 --> 44:26.164 align:start position:0% technology we create and the benefits and<00:45:53.280> mismatches<00:45:53.920> it<00:45:54.240> presents<00:45:54.560> us.<00:45:55.440> The<00:45:55.599> human 44:26.164 --> 44:26.174 align:start position:0% and mismatches it presents us. The human 44:26.174 --> 44:28.244 align:start position:0% and mismatches it presents us. The human story<00:45:56.319> has<00:45:56.560> been<00:45:56.640> unfolding<00:45:57.200> for<00:45:57.440> millions<00:45:57.760> of 44:28.244 --> 44:28.254 align:start position:0% story has been unfolding for millions of 44:28.254 --> 44:31.124 align:start position:0% story has been unfolding for millions of years.<00:45:58.640> A<00:45:58.880> tale<00:45:59.119> of<00:45:59.359> behavioral<00:45:59.920> flexibility 44:31.124 --> 44:31.134 align:start position:0% years. A tale of behavioral flexibility 44:31.134 --> 44:33.444 align:start position:0% years. A tale of behavioral flexibility and<00:46:01.119> invention<00:46:01.680> so<00:46:02.000> unique<00:46:02.480> it<00:46:02.720> would<00:46:02.880> come<00:46:03.040> to 44:33.444 --> 44:33.454 align:start position:0% and invention so unique it would come to 44:33.454 --> 44:35.444 align:start position:0% and invention so unique it would come to test<00:46:03.440> to<00:46:03.599> the<00:46:03.760> very<00:46:04.000> flexibility<00:46:04.720> that<00:46:05.040> made 44:35.444 --> 44:35.454 align:start position:0% test to the very flexibility that made 44:35.454 --> 44:40.724 align:start position:0% test to the very flexibility that made it<00:46:05.359> all<00:46:05.599> possible. 44:40.724 --> 44:40.734 align:start position:0% 44:40.734 --> 44:42.884 align:start position:0% And<00:46:10.720> so<00:46:10.960> then<00:46:11.359> how<00:46:11.520> would<00:46:11.680> our<00:46:11.839> ancient<00:46:12.240> homo 44:42.884 --> 44:42.894 align:start position:0% And so then how would our ancient homo 44:42.894 --> 44:45.363 align:start position:0% And so then how would our ancient homo sapiens<00:46:13.200> fare<00:46:13.680> trying<00:46:14.000> to<00:46:14.160> adapt<00:46:14.560> to<00:46:14.800> our 44:45.363 --> 44:45.373 align:start position:0% sapiens fare trying to adapt to our 44:45.373 --> 44:47.764 align:start position:0% sapiens fare trying to adapt to our modern<00:46:15.599> world?<00:46:16.720> It<00:46:16.960> would<00:46:17.040> obviously<00:46:17.359> be 44:47.764 --> 44:47.774 align:start position:0% modern world? It would obviously be 44:47.774 --> 44:49.924 align:start position:0% modern world? It would obviously be quite<00:46:17.680> a<00:46:17.920> shock<00:46:18.400> both<00:46:18.720> physically<00:46:19.359> and 44:49.924 --> 44:49.934 align:start position:0% quite a shock both physically and 44:49.934 --> 44:52.563 align:start position:0% quite a shock both physically and culturally.<00:46:20.880> But<00:46:21.040> what<00:46:21.200> we<00:46:21.359> do<00:46:21.520> know<00:46:21.760> for<00:46:22.000> sure 44:52.563 --> 44:52.573 align:start position:0% culturally. But what we do know for sure 44:52.573 --> 44:54.884 align:start position:0% culturally. But what we do know for sure is<00:46:22.560> that<00:46:22.720> his<00:46:22.960> brain<00:46:23.280> would<00:46:23.520> make<00:46:23.760> some<00:46:24.160> steps 44:54.884 --> 44:54.894 align:start position:0% is that his brain would make some steps 44:54.894 --> 44:57.843 align:start position:0% is that his brain would make some steps in<00:46:24.960> trying<00:46:25.119> to<00:46:25.280> adapt<00:46:25.760> to<00:46:26.000> the<00:46:26.160> new<00:46:26.400> tasks,<00:46:27.280> new 44:57.843 --> 44:57.853 align:start position:0% in trying to adapt to the new tasks, new 44:57.853 --> 45:01.124 align:start position:0% in trying to adapt to the new tasks, new ways<00:46:27.839> of<00:46:28.079> thinking.<00:46:29.200> His<00:46:29.520> brain,<00:46:30.000> like<00:46:30.319> ours, 45:01.124 --> 45:01.134 align:start position:0% ways of thinking. His brain, like ours, 45:01.134 --> 45:03.444 align:start position:0% ways of thinking. His brain, like ours, would<00:46:31.119> still<00:46:31.359> have<00:46:31.520> plasticity.<00:46:32.720> It<00:46:32.880> wouldn't 45:03.444 --> 45:03.454 align:start position:0% would still have plasticity. It wouldn't 45:03.454 --> 45:05.924 align:start position:0% would still have plasticity. It wouldn't remain<00:46:33.680> the<00:46:34.000> same<00:46:34.240> brain<00:46:34.560> that<00:46:34.880> it<00:46:35.040> existed 45:05.924 --> 45:05.934 align:start position:0% remain the same brain that it existed 45:05.934 --> 45:09.044 align:start position:0% remain the same brain that it existed 100,000<00:46:36.480> years<00:46:36.720> ago.<00:46:37.599> A<00:46:37.839> few<00:46:38.000> years<00:46:38.319> of<00:46:38.480> new 45:09.044 --> 45:09.054 align:start position:0% 100,000 years ago. A few years of new 45:09.054 --> 45:10.964 align:start position:0% 100,000 years ago. A few years of new experiences,<00:46:39.599> and<00:46:39.760> it<00:46:40.000> would<00:46:40.079> be<00:46:40.240> physically 45:10.964 --> 45:10.974 align:start position:0% experiences, and it would be physically 45:10.974 --> 45:13.524 align:start position:0% experiences, and it would be physically changed<00:46:41.119> forever.<00:46:42.319> But<00:46:42.480> what<00:46:42.720> would<00:46:42.880> happen 45:13.524 --> 45:13.534 align:start position:0% changed forever. But what would happen 45:13.534 --> 45:17.124 align:start position:0% changed forever. But what would happen if<00:46:43.520> he<00:46:43.760> then<00:46:44.000> returned?<00:46:44.960> Could<00:46:45.680> those<00:46:46.000> changes 45:17.124 --> 45:17.134 align:start position:0% if he then returned? Could those changes 45:17.134 --> 45:18.884 align:start position:0% if he then returned? Could those changes be<00:46:47.119> undone? 45:18.884 --> 45:18.894 align:start position:0% be undone? 45:18.894 --> 45:21.044 align:start position:0% be undone? In<00:46:48.800> the<00:46:48.960> 21st<00:46:49.520> century,<00:46:50.000> we<00:46:50.240> find<00:46:50.400> ourselves 45:21.044 --> 45:21.054 align:start position:0% In the 21st century, we find ourselves 45:21.054 --> 45:23.044 align:start position:0% In the 21st century, we find ourselves adapting<00:46:51.280> and<00:46:51.520> surviving<00:46:52.000> in<00:46:52.240> a<00:46:52.400> world<00:46:52.560> that 45:23.044 --> 45:23.054 align:start position:0% adapting and surviving in a world that 45:23.054 --> 45:25.124 align:start position:0% adapting and surviving in a world that feels<00:46:53.040> as<00:46:53.200> if<00:46:53.359> technology<00:46:54.000> is<00:46:54.240> rapidly 45:25.124 --> 45:25.134 align:start position:0% feels as if technology is rapidly 45:25.134 --> 45:27.924 align:start position:0% feels as if technology is rapidly accelerating<00:46:55.680> all<00:46:55.920> around<00:46:56.240> us.<00:46:57.119> Is<00:46:57.359> there<00:46:57.520> any 45:27.924 --> 45:27.934 align:start position:0% accelerating all around us. Is there any 45:27.934 --> 45:30.563 align:start position:0% accelerating all around us. Is there any way<00:46:57.920> that<00:46:58.160> we<00:46:58.319> could<00:46:58.560> go<00:46:58.720> back<00:46:59.440> to<00:46:59.680> a<00:46:59.839> simpler 45:30.563 --> 45:30.573 align:start position:0% way that we could go back to a simpler 45:30.573 --> 45:45.603 align:start position:0% way that we could go back to a simpler time? 45:45.603 --> 45:45.613 align:start position:0% 45:45.613 --> 45:47.924 align:start position:0% In<00:47:15.680> 2022,<00:47:16.560> a<00:47:16.800> group<00:47:16.960> of<00:47:17.119> Australian 45:47.924 --> 45:47.934 align:start position:0% In 2022, a group of Australian 45:47.934 --> 45:50.484 align:start position:0% In 2022, a group of Australian researchers<00:47:18.480> grew<00:47:18.720> a<00:47:18.960> brain<00:47:19.440> in<00:47:19.680> a<00:47:19.839> petri 45:50.484 --> 45:50.494 align:start position:0% researchers grew a brain in a petri 45:50.494 --> 45:53.524 align:start position:0% researchers grew a brain in a petri dish.<00:47:21.200> Affectionately<00:47:21.839> called<00:47:22.319> dish<00:47:22.800> brain. 45:53.524 --> 45:53.534 align:start position:0% dish. Affectionately called dish brain. 45:53.534 --> 45:55.524 align:start position:0% dish. Affectionately called dish brain. It<00:47:23.520> was<00:47:23.599> grown<00:47:23.920> from<00:47:24.079> a<00:47:24.240> cluster<00:47:24.480> of<00:47:24.640> human<00:47:24.960> and 45:55.524 --> 45:55.534 align:start position:0% It was grown from a cluster of human and 45:55.534 --> 45:57.764 align:start position:0% It was grown from a cluster of human and mouse<00:47:25.680> brain<00:47:26.000> cells.<00:47:26.800> The<00:47:26.960> researchers 45:57.764 --> 45:57.774 align:start position:0% mouse brain cells. The researchers 45:57.774 --> 45:59.204 align:start position:0% mouse brain cells. The researchers wanted<00:47:27.760> to<00:47:27.920> see<00:47:28.079> if<00:47:28.240> it<00:47:28.400> could<00:47:28.480> react<00:47:28.800> to 45:59.204 --> 45:59.214 align:start position:0% wanted to see if it could react to 45:59.214 --> 46:01.524 align:start position:0% wanted to see if it could react to external<00:47:29.440> stimulation<00:47:30.240> and<00:47:30.480> modify<00:47:30.960> its 46:01.524 --> 46:01.534 align:start position:0% external stimulation and modify its 46:01.534 --> 46:04.083 align:start position:0% external stimulation and modify its behavior.<00:47:32.000> And<00:47:32.160> to<00:47:32.400> do<00:47:32.560> this,<00:47:32.960> the<00:47:33.280> team<00:47:33.599> came 46:04.083 --> 46:04.093 align:start position:0% behavior. And to do this, the team came 46:04.093 --> 46:07.603 align:start position:0% behavior. And to do this, the team came up<00:47:34.240> with<00:47:34.480> a<00:47:34.800> test.<00:47:35.760> They<00:47:36.000> taught<00:47:36.319> it<00:47:36.720> to<00:47:36.960> play<00:47:37.119> a 46:07.603 --> 46:07.613 align:start position:0% up with a test. They taught it to play a 46:07.613 --> 46:10.404 align:start position:0% up with a test. They taught it to play a computer<00:47:37.680> game.<00:47:38.960> By<00:47:39.200> wiring<00:47:39.520> up<00:47:39.680> the<00:47:39.839> petri 46:10.404 --> 46:10.414 align:start position:0% computer game. By wiring up the petri 46:10.414 --> 46:13.044 align:start position:0% computer game. By wiring up the petri dish<00:47:40.480> to<00:47:40.560> the<00:47:40.720> game<00:47:41.040> Pong,<00:47:41.599> a<00:47:41.760> 2D<00:47:42.160> tennis-like 46:13.044 --> 46:13.054 align:start position:0% dish to the game Pong, a 2D tennis-like 46:13.054 --> 46:15.044 align:start position:0% dish to the game Pong, a 2D tennis-like game,<00:47:43.200> the<00:47:43.359> researchers<00:47:43.839> taught<00:47:44.160> Dishbrain 46:15.044 --> 46:15.054 align:start position:0% game, the researchers taught Dishbrain 46:15.054 --> 46:17.124 align:start position:0% game, the researchers taught Dishbrain where<00:47:45.040> the<00:47:45.200> ball<00:47:45.440> was<00:47:45.839> and<00:47:46.079> rewarded<00:47:46.480> it<00:47:46.640> with 46:17.124 --> 46:17.134 align:start position:0% where the ball was and rewarded it with 46:17.134 --> 46:19.044 align:start position:0% where the ball was and rewarded it with electrical<00:47:47.359> stimulation<00:47:48.000> every<00:47:48.319> time<00:47:48.560> the 46:19.044 --> 46:19.054 align:start position:0% electrical stimulation every time the 46:19.054 --> 46:21.684 align:start position:0% electrical stimulation every time the ball<00:47:49.040> was<00:47:49.359> hit.<00:47:50.240> Remarkably,<00:47:50.880> it<00:47:51.040> took<00:47:51.200> less 46:21.684 --> 46:21.694 align:start position:0% ball was hit. Remarkably, it took less 46:21.694 --> 46:23.524 align:start position:0% ball was hit. Remarkably, it took less than<00:47:51.599> 5<00:47:51.920> minutes<00:47:52.240> for<00:47:52.400> the<00:47:52.560> brain<00:47:52.800> cells<00:47:53.119> to 46:23.524 --> 46:23.534 align:start position:0% than 5 minutes for the brain cells to 46:23.534 --> 46:25.204 align:start position:0% than 5 minutes for the brain cells to learn<00:47:53.440> what<00:47:53.680> they<00:47:53.839> needed<00:47:54.079> to<00:47:54.319> do.<00:47:54.800> And 46:25.204 --> 46:25.214 align:start position:0% learn what they needed to do. And 46:25.214 --> 46:27.363 align:start position:0% learn what they needed to do. And Dishbrain<00:47:55.599> quickly<00:47:55.920> began<00:47:56.160> to<00:47:56.319> play<00:47:56.480> the<00:47:56.720> game 46:27.363 --> 46:27.373 align:start position:0% Dishbrain quickly began to play the game 46:27.373 --> 46:30.404 align:start position:0% Dishbrain quickly began to play the game on<00:47:57.359> its<00:47:57.599> own.<00:47:58.640> Of<00:47:58.880> course,<00:47:59.119> Dishbrain<00:47:59.839> wasn't 46:30.404 --> 46:30.414 align:start position:0% on its own. Of course, Dishbrain wasn't 46:30.414 --> 46:32.644 align:start position:0% on its own. Of course, Dishbrain wasn't a<00:48:00.319> full<00:48:00.640> brain.<00:48:01.359> It<00:48:01.520> was<00:48:01.599> a<00:48:01.760> cluster<00:48:02.079> of<00:48:02.240> about 46:32.644 --> 46:32.654 align:start position:0% a full brain. It was a cluster of about 46:32.654 --> 46:34.724 align:start position:0% a full brain. It was a cluster of about a<00:48:02.640> million<00:48:02.880> living<00:48:03.200> neurons<00:48:03.680> on<00:48:03.839> a<00:48:04.000> silicon 46:34.724 --> 46:34.734 align:start position:0% a million living neurons on a silicon 46:34.734 --> 46:36.804 align:start position:0% a million living neurons on a silicon electrode<00:48:04.960> array<00:48:05.280> the<00:48:05.599> size<00:48:05.760> of<00:48:05.839> a<00:48:06.079> postage 46:36.804 --> 46:36.814 align:start position:0% electrode array the size of a postage 46:36.814 --> 46:39.284 align:start position:0% electrode array the size of a postage stamp.<00:48:07.359> But<00:48:07.599> just<00:48:07.839> two<00:48:08.079> centuries<00:48:08.560> after<00:48:08.880> the 46:39.284 --> 46:39.294 align:start position:0% stamp. But just two centuries after the 46:39.294 --> 46:41.124 align:start position:0% stamp. But just two centuries after the industrial<00:48:09.599> revolution,<00:48:10.240> a<00:48:10.480> blink<00:48:10.640> of<00:48:10.800> the 46:41.124 --> 46:41.134 align:start position:0% industrial revolution, a blink of the 46:41.134 --> 46:43.764 align:start position:0% industrial revolution, a blink of the eye<00:48:11.119> in<00:48:11.359> evolutionary<00:48:12.079> terms,<00:48:12.800> such<00:48:13.119> wild 46:43.764 --> 46:43.774 align:start position:0% eye in evolutionary terms, such wild 46:43.774 --> 46:51.764 align:start position:0% eye in evolutionary terms, such wild possibilities<00:48:14.480> are<00:48:14.720> becoming<00:48:15.119> reality. 46:51.764 --> 46:51.774 align:start position:0% 46:51.774 --> 46:53.843 align:start position:0% Ancient<00:48:21.920> inventions<00:48:22.480> like<00:48:22.720> the<00:48:22.880> handax<00:48:23.440> or 46:53.843 --> 46:53.853 align:start position:0% Ancient inventions like the handax or 46:53.853 --> 46:55.924 align:start position:0% Ancient inventions like the handax or the<00:48:23.760> spearthrower<00:48:24.480> took<00:48:24.800> thousands<00:48:25.200> of<00:48:25.359> years 46:55.924 --> 46:55.934 align:start position:0% the spearthrower took thousands of years 46:55.934 --> 46:58.164 align:start position:0% the spearthrower took thousands of years to<00:48:25.920> appear<00:48:26.160> in<00:48:26.319> the<00:48:26.480> archaeological<00:48:27.200> record 46:58.164 --> 46:58.174 align:start position:0% to appear in the archaeological record 46:58.174 --> 47:00.244 align:start position:0% to appear in the archaeological record and<00:48:28.160> then<00:48:28.559> thousands<00:48:29.040> more<00:48:29.280> years<00:48:29.680> to<00:48:29.839> be 47:00.244 --> 47:00.254 align:start position:0% and then thousands more years to be 47:00.254 --> 47:03.044 align:start position:0% and then thousands more years to be replaced<00:48:30.400> by<00:48:30.640> new<00:48:31.040> improved<00:48:31.599> technologies. 47:03.044 --> 47:03.054 align:start position:0% replaced by new improved technologies. 47:03.054 --> 47:04.964 align:start position:0% replaced by new improved technologies. Handaxes<00:48:33.440> especially<00:48:34.000> were<00:48:34.240> around<00:48:34.480> for 47:04.964 --> 47:04.974 align:start position:0% Handaxes especially were around for 47:04.974 --> 47:06.964 align:start position:0% Handaxes especially were around for almost<00:48:35.040> 2<00:48:35.359> million<00:48:35.680> years<00:48:36.079> before<00:48:36.319> they<00:48:36.559> were 47:06.964 --> 47:06.974 align:start position:0% almost 2 million years before they were 47:06.974 --> 47:08.803 align:start position:0% almost 2 million years before they were eventually<00:48:37.119> replaced<00:48:37.599> by<00:48:37.839> new<00:48:38.079> kinds<00:48:38.400> of 47:08.803 --> 47:08.813 align:start position:0% eventually replaced by new kinds of 47:08.813 --> 47:11.444 align:start position:0% eventually replaced by new kinds of tools.<00:48:39.680> Modern<00:48:40.079> technologies,<00:48:40.720> however, 47:11.444 --> 47:11.454 align:start position:0% tools. Modern technologies, however, 47:11.454 --> 47:14.004 align:start position:0% tools. Modern technologies, however, change<00:48:41.440> at<00:48:41.599> breakneck<00:48:42.240> pace<00:48:42.640> by<00:48:42.880> comparison. 47:14.004 --> 47:14.014 align:start position:0% change at breakneck pace by comparison. 47:14.014 --> 47:15.843 align:start position:0% change at breakneck pace by comparison. Indeed,<00:48:44.079> in<00:48:44.240> less<00:48:44.480> than<00:48:44.640> 100<00:48:44.960> years, 47:15.843 --> 47:15.853 align:start position:0% Indeed, in less than 100 years, 47:15.853 --> 47:17.924 align:start position:0% Indeed, in less than 100 years, computers<00:48:46.079> have<00:48:46.319> gone<00:48:46.480> from<00:48:46.720> huge,<00:48:47.200> costly 47:17.924 --> 47:17.934 align:start position:0% computers have gone from huge, costly 47:17.934 --> 47:19.684 align:start position:0% computers have gone from huge, costly machines<00:48:48.079> that<00:48:48.319> would<00:48:48.559> fill<00:48:48.720> a<00:48:48.880> room<00:48:49.200> to 47:19.684 --> 47:19.694 align:start position:0% machines that would fill a room to 47:19.694 --> 47:21.444 align:start position:0% machines that would fill a room to devices<00:48:49.839> that<00:48:50.079> nearly<00:48:50.480> everyone<00:48:50.800> in<00:48:51.040> the 47:21.444 --> 47:21.454 align:start position:0% devices that nearly everyone in the 47:21.454 --> 47:23.444 align:start position:0% devices that nearly everyone in the modern<00:48:51.520> world<00:48:51.920> carries<00:48:52.240> around<00:48:52.480> with<00:48:52.720> them<00:48:52.960> in 47:23.444 --> 47:23.454 align:start position:0% modern world carries around with them in 47:23.454 --> 47:25.843 align:start position:0% modern world carries around with them in their<00:48:53.440> pockets.<00:48:54.480> And<00:48:54.640> so,<00:48:54.800> why<00:48:55.040> does<00:48:55.200> the<00:48:55.359> path 47:25.843 --> 47:25.853 align:start position:0% their pockets. And so, why does the path 47:25.853 --> 47:28.563 align:start position:0% their pockets. And so, why does the path of<00:48:55.760> our<00:48:56.000> invention<00:48:56.640> follow<00:48:57.040> this<00:48:57.440> exponential 47:28.563 --> 47:28.573 align:start position:0% of our invention follow this exponential 47:28.573 --> 47:30.644 align:start position:0% of our invention follow this exponential shape? 47:30.644 --> 47:30.654 align:start position:0% shape? 47:30.654 --> 47:34.164 align:start position:0% shape? Human 47:34.164 --> 47:34.174 align:start position:0% 47:34.174 --> 47:37.044 align:start position:0% evolution<00:49:04.559> has<00:49:04.720> a<00:49:04.960> very<00:49:05.119> peculiar<00:49:05.839> quirk. 47:37.044 --> 47:37.054 align:start position:0% evolution has a very peculiar quirk. 47:37.054 --> 47:38.563 align:start position:0% evolution has a very peculiar quirk. Like<00:49:07.040> other<00:49:07.280> organisms,<00:49:07.839> we<00:49:08.000> evolve 47:38.563 --> 47:38.573 align:start position:0% Like other organisms, we evolve 47:38.573 --> 47:40.404 align:start position:0% Like other organisms, we evolve biologically<00:49:09.040> through<00:49:09.280> the<00:49:09.440> gradual<00:49:09.839> process 47:40.404 --> 47:40.414 align:start position:0% biologically through the gradual process 47:40.414 --> 47:43.124 align:start position:0% biologically through the gradual process of<00:49:10.400> natural<00:49:10.800> selection.<00:49:11.680> But<00:49:11.839> we<00:49:12.079> also<00:49:12.480> have<00:49:12.640> a 47:43.124 --> 47:43.134 align:start position:0% of natural selection. But we also have a 47:43.134 --> 47:45.924 align:start position:0% of natural selection. But we also have a second<00:49:13.200> kind<00:49:13.440> of<00:49:13.599> evolution,<00:49:14.480> the<00:49:14.800> evolution 47:45.924 --> 47:45.934 align:start position:0% second kind of evolution, the evolution 47:45.934 --> 47:48.884 align:start position:0% second kind of evolution, the evolution of<00:49:16.079> culture.<00:49:17.200> Very<00:49:17.520> few<00:49:17.760> other<00:49:18.000> animals<00:49:18.400> show 47:48.884 --> 47:48.894 align:start position:0% of culture. Very few other animals show 47:48.894 --> 47:50.724 align:start position:0% of culture. Very few other animals show anything<00:49:19.040> similar,<00:49:19.520> and<00:49:19.680> none<00:49:19.920> do<00:49:20.160> on<00:49:20.319> the 47:50.724 --> 47:50.734 align:start position:0% anything similar, and none do on the 47:50.734 --> 47:52.644 align:start position:0% anything similar, and none do on the same<00:49:20.720> scale<00:49:21.040> or<00:49:21.280> with<00:49:21.440> the<00:49:21.599> same<00:49:21.760> complexity 47:52.644 --> 47:52.654 align:start position:0% same scale or with the same complexity 47:52.654 --> 47:56.083 align:start position:0% same scale or with the same complexity as<00:49:22.720> humans.<00:49:23.839> Chimpanzees,<00:49:24.880> whales,<00:49:25.280> and<00:49:25.599> some 47:56.083 --> 47:56.093 align:start position:0% as humans. Chimpanzees, whales, and some 47:56.093 --> 47:58.164 align:start position:0% as humans. Chimpanzees, whales, and some birds<00:49:26.240> pass<00:49:26.480> on<00:49:26.720> local<00:49:27.040> traditions,<00:49:27.680> but 47:58.164 --> 47:58.174 align:start position:0% birds pass on local traditions, but 47:58.174 --> 48:00.323 align:start position:0% birds pass on local traditions, but their<00:49:28.160> toolkits<00:49:28.720> and<00:49:28.960> behaviors<00:49:29.520> change<00:49:29.760> at<00:49:29.920> a 48:00.323 --> 48:00.333 align:start position:0% their toolkits and behaviors change at a 48:00.333 --> 48:03.363 align:start position:0% their toolkits and behaviors change at a glacial<00:49:30.559> pace<00:49:31.040> compared<00:49:31.440> with<00:49:31.760> ours.<00:49:32.720> Human 48:03.363 --> 48:03.373 align:start position:0% glacial pace compared with ours. Human 48:03.373 --> 48:05.444 align:start position:0% glacial pace compared with ours. Human cultural<00:49:33.520> evolution,<00:49:34.079> by<00:49:34.319> contrast,<00:49:34.880> can 48:05.444 --> 48:05.454 align:start position:0% cultural evolution, by contrast, can 48:05.454 --> 48:07.204 align:start position:0% cultural evolution, by contrast, can transform<00:49:35.680> how<00:49:35.839> we<00:49:36.079> live<00:49:36.319> within<00:49:36.559> as<00:49:36.800> little 48:07.204 --> 48:07.214 align:start position:0% transform how we live within as little 48:07.214 --> 48:09.284 align:start position:0% transform how we live within as little as<00:49:37.119> a<00:49:37.359> generation.<00:49:38.240> New<00:49:38.480> ways<00:49:38.640> of<00:49:38.800> doing 48:09.284 --> 48:09.294 align:start position:0% as a generation. New ways of doing 48:09.294 --> 48:11.124 align:start position:0% as a generation. New ways of doing things<00:49:39.359> can<00:49:39.520> spread<00:49:39.760> across<00:49:40.160> continents<00:49:40.640> in 48:11.124 --> 48:11.134 align:start position:0% things can spread across continents in 48:11.134 --> 48:13.044 align:start position:0% things can spread across continents in years<00:49:41.359> rather<00:49:41.599> than<00:49:41.839> millennia,<00:49:42.400> and<00:49:42.640> our 48:13.044 --> 48:13.054 align:start position:0% years rather than millennia, and our 48:13.054 --> 48:15.363 align:start position:0% years rather than millennia, and our descendants<00:49:43.359> inherit<00:49:43.839> not<00:49:44.000> just<00:49:44.160> our<00:49:44.400> genes, 48:15.363 --> 48:15.373 align:start position:0% descendants inherit not just our genes, 48:15.373 --> 48:17.924 align:start position:0% descendants inherit not just our genes, but<00:49:45.440> our<00:49:45.680> languages,<00:49:46.400> technologies,<00:49:47.359> and 48:17.924 --> 48:17.934 align:start position:0% but our languages, technologies, and 48:17.934 --> 48:19.684 align:start position:0% but our languages, technologies, and institutions. 48:19.684 --> 48:19.694 align:start position:0% institutions. 48:19.694 --> 48:21.603 align:start position:0% institutions. For<00:49:49.680> decades,<00:49:50.240> researchers<00:49:50.800> puzzled<00:49:51.200> over 48:21.603 --> 48:21.613 align:start position:0% For decades, researchers puzzled over 48:21.613 --> 48:23.843 align:start position:0% For decades, researchers puzzled over the<00:49:51.599> question<00:49:51.839> of<00:49:52.079> why<00:49:52.640> human<00:49:52.960> culture<00:49:53.359> seems 48:23.843 --> 48:23.853 align:start position:0% the question of why human culture seems 48:23.853 --> 48:26.323 align:start position:0% the question of why human culture seems to<00:49:53.760> accumulate<00:49:54.319> and<00:49:54.640> accelerate<00:49:55.520> rather<00:49:55.839> than 48:26.323 --> 48:26.333 align:start position:0% to accumulate and accelerate rather than 48:26.333 --> 48:28.644 align:start position:0% to accumulate and accelerate rather than simply<00:49:56.559> drifting.<00:49:57.520> And<00:49:57.680> psychologist 48:28.644 --> 48:28.654 align:start position:0% simply drifting. And psychologist 48:28.654 --> 48:30.964 align:start position:0% simply drifting. And psychologist Michael<00:49:58.720> Thomas<00:49:59.520> proposed<00:49:59.839> a<00:50:00.000> neat<00:50:00.240> answer 48:30.964 --> 48:30.974 align:start position:0% Michael Thomas proposed a neat answer 48:30.974 --> 48:38.404 align:start position:0% Michael Thomas proposed a neat answer using<00:50:00.960> an<00:50:01.200> idea<00:50:01.680> borrowed<00:50:02.240> from<00:50:02.640> economics. 48:38.404 --> 48:38.414 align:start position:0% 48:38.414 --> 48:40.563 align:start position:0% Back<00:50:08.319> in<00:50:08.480> the<00:50:08.720> 1960s,<00:50:09.680> two<00:50:09.920> British 48:40.563 --> 48:40.573 align:start position:0% Back in the 1960s, two British 48:40.573 --> 48:42.884 align:start position:0% Back in the 1960s, two British economists<00:50:11.119> coined<00:50:11.440> the<00:50:11.599> term<00:50:12.160> ratchet 48:42.884 --> 48:42.894 align:start position:0% economists coined the term ratchet 48:42.894 --> 48:45.284 align:start position:0% economists coined the term ratchet effect<00:50:13.200> to<00:50:13.440> describe<00:50:13.760> how<00:50:14.079> public<00:50:14.480> spending 48:45.284 --> 48:45.294 align:start position:0% effect to describe how public spending 48:45.294 --> 48:48.323 align:start position:0% effect to describe how public spending tended<00:50:15.359> to<00:50:15.599> work<00:50:16.000> after<00:50:16.319> a<00:50:16.640> crisis.<00:50:17.760> They 48:48.323 --> 48:48.333 align:start position:0% tended to work after a crisis. They 48:48.333 --> 48:50.404 align:start position:0% tended to work after a crisis. They observed<00:50:18.480> that<00:50:18.800> budgets<00:50:19.280> would<00:50:19.440> rise<00:50:19.760> to<00:50:19.920> meet 48:50.404 --> 48:50.414 align:start position:0% observed that budgets would rise to meet 48:50.414 --> 48:53.044 align:start position:0% observed that budgets would rise to meet the<00:50:20.319> emergency<00:50:21.119> and<00:50:21.440> afterwards<00:50:22.160> they<00:50:22.400> rarely 48:53.044 --> 48:53.054 align:start position:0% the emergency and afterwards they rarely 48:53.054 --> 48:55.444 align:start position:0% the emergency and afterwards they rarely fell<00:50:23.119> all<00:50:23.359> the<00:50:23.520> way<00:50:23.680> back<00:50:24.000> down.<00:50:24.800> Like<00:50:25.040> a 48:55.444 --> 48:55.454 align:start position:0% fell all the way back down. Like a 48:55.454 --> 48:57.684 align:start position:0% fell all the way back down. Like a mechanical<00:50:25.760> ratchet,<00:50:26.559> they<00:50:26.800> clicked<00:50:27.119> up<00:50:27.280> a 48:57.684 --> 48:57.694 align:start position:0% mechanical ratchet, they clicked up a 48:57.694 --> 49:00.563 align:start position:0% mechanical ratchet, they clicked up a new<00:50:27.599> level<00:50:28.240> and<00:50:28.640> stayed<00:50:28.960> there.<00:50:29.839> And<00:50:30.000> so<00:50:30.160> in 49:00.563 --> 49:00.573 align:start position:0% new level and stayed there. And so in 49:00.573 --> 49:03.044 align:start position:0% new level and stayed there. And so in the<00:50:30.480> 1990s,<00:50:31.280> Thomas<00:50:31.680> Cello<00:50:32.079> suggested<00:50:32.480> that<00:50:32.640> a 49:03.044 --> 49:03.054 align:start position:0% the 1990s, Thomas Cello suggested that a 49:03.054 --> 49:05.204 align:start position:0% the 1990s, Thomas Cello suggested that a similar<00:50:33.119> ratchet<00:50:33.599> is<00:50:33.760> at<00:50:34.000> work<00:50:34.160> in<00:50:34.559> human 49:05.204 --> 49:05.214 align:start position:0% similar ratchet is at work in human 49:05.214 --> 49:07.764 align:start position:0% similar ratchet is at work in human culture.<00:50:35.839> When<00:50:36.079> people<00:50:36.240> invent<00:50:36.640> a<00:50:36.800> new<00:50:36.960> tool, 49:07.764 --> 49:07.774 align:start position:0% culture. When people invent a new tool, 49:07.774 --> 49:10.083 align:start position:0% culture. When people invent a new tool, technique,<00:50:38.000> or<00:50:38.240> an<00:50:38.480> idea,<00:50:39.119> it<00:50:39.359> doesn't<00:50:39.520> simply 49:10.083 --> 49:10.093 align:start position:0% technique, or an idea, it doesn't simply 49:10.093 --> 49:12.644 align:start position:0% technique, or an idea, it doesn't simply vanish<00:50:40.240> when<00:50:40.480> they<00:50:40.720> die.<00:50:41.440> Others<00:50:41.760> copy<00:50:42.000> it, 49:12.644 --> 49:12.654 align:start position:0% vanish when they die. Others copy it, 49:12.654 --> 49:14.404 align:start position:0% vanish when they die. Others copy it, improve<00:50:42.720> it,<00:50:42.880> and<00:50:43.119> combine<00:50:43.440> it<00:50:43.680> with<00:50:43.839> other 49:14.404 --> 49:14.414 align:start position:0% improve it, and combine it with other 49:14.414 --> 49:16.803 align:start position:0% improve it, and combine it with other different<00:50:44.480> innovations.<00:50:45.760> Indeed,<00:50:46.160> once<00:50:46.319> a 49:16.803 --> 49:16.813 align:start position:0% different innovations. Indeed, once a 49:16.813 --> 49:18.404 align:start position:0% different innovations. Indeed, once a community<00:50:46.880> has<00:50:47.040> mastered<00:50:47.520> something<00:50:47.839> like 49:18.404 --> 49:18.414 align:start position:0% community has mastered something like 49:18.414 --> 49:20.884 align:start position:0% community has mastered something like fire<00:50:48.480> making<00:50:48.960> or<00:50:49.280> bronze<00:50:49.599> smelting<00:50:50.079> or<00:50:50.400> the 49:20.884 --> 49:20.894 align:start position:0% fire making or bronze smelting or the 49:20.894 --> 49:23.124 align:start position:0% fire making or bronze smelting or the motor<00:50:50.960> engine,<00:50:51.520> it<00:50:51.680> is<00:50:51.839> very<00:50:52.160> unlikely<00:50:52.640> to 49:23.124 --> 49:23.134 align:start position:0% motor engine, it is very unlikely to 49:23.134 --> 49:25.204 align:start position:0% motor engine, it is very unlikely to revert<00:50:53.359> permanently<00:50:53.839> to<00:50:54.079> a<00:50:54.240> state<00:50:54.480> where<00:50:54.720> that 49:25.204 --> 49:25.214 align:start position:0% revert permanently to a state where that 49:25.214 --> 49:27.924 align:start position:0% revert permanently to a state where that knowledge<00:50:55.440> never<00:50:55.839> existed.<00:50:56.960> This<00:50:57.200> means<00:50:57.440> that 49:27.924 --> 49:27.934 align:start position:0% knowledge never existed. This means that 49:27.934 --> 49:29.684 align:start position:0% knowledge never existed. This means that each<00:50:58.000> generation<00:50:58.800> starts<00:50:59.119> from<00:50:59.280> the 49:29.684 --> 49:29.694 align:start position:0% each generation starts from the 49:29.694 --> 49:31.603 align:start position:0% each generation starts from the accumulated<00:51:00.079> achievements<00:51:00.559> of<00:51:00.800> the<00:51:00.960> previous 49:31.603 --> 49:31.613 align:start position:0% accumulated achievements of the previous 49:31.613 --> 49:35.044 align:start position:0% accumulated achievements of the previous ones<00:51:02.000> and<00:51:02.240> pushes<00:51:02.640> them<00:51:03.040> a<00:51:03.359> little<00:51:03.520> further. 49:35.044 --> 49:35.054 align:start position:0% ones and pushes them a little further. 49:35.054 --> 49:37.284 align:start position:0% ones and pushes them a little further. This<00:51:05.119> works<00:51:05.599> because<00:51:06.000> human<00:51:06.319> cultures<00:51:06.800> are 49:37.284 --> 49:37.294 align:start position:0% This works because human cultures are 49:37.294 --> 49:39.603 align:start position:0% This works because human cultures are shared<00:51:07.599> and<00:51:07.920> cumulative.<00:51:08.800> We<00:51:09.040> don't<00:51:09.200> just 49:39.603 --> 49:39.613 align:start position:0% shared and cumulative. We don't just 49:39.613 --> 49:42.323 align:start position:0% shared and cumulative. We don't just learn<00:51:09.680> by<00:51:09.920> trial<00:51:10.240> and<00:51:10.559> error<00:51:10.800> on<00:51:11.040> our<00:51:11.280> own.<00:51:11.839> We 49:42.323 --> 49:42.333 align:start position:0% learn by trial and error on our own. We 49:42.333 --> 49:44.803 align:start position:0% learn by trial and error on our own. We watch,<00:51:12.640> imitate,<00:51:13.359> teach,<00:51:13.680> and<00:51:13.920> correct<00:51:14.319> each 49:44.803 --> 49:44.813 align:start position:0% watch, imitate, teach, and correct each 49:44.813 --> 49:47.204 align:start position:0% watch, imitate, teach, and correct each other.<00:51:15.119> Knowledge<00:51:15.520> is<00:51:15.760> stored<00:51:16.000> in<00:51:16.240> stories, 49:47.204 --> 49:47.214 align:start position:0% other. Knowledge is stored in stories, 49:47.214 --> 49:50.323 align:start position:0% other. Knowledge is stored in stories, rituals,<00:51:17.680> recipes,<00:51:18.319> blueprints,<00:51:19.119> and<00:51:19.359> now<00:51:19.839> in 49:50.323 --> 49:50.333 align:start position:0% rituals, recipes, blueprints, and now in 49:50.333 --> 49:53.363 align:start position:0% rituals, recipes, blueprints, and now in vast<00:51:20.720> digital<00:51:21.200> archives.<00:51:22.480> As<00:51:22.720> long<00:51:22.800> as<00:51:22.880> a 49:53.363 --> 49:53.373 align:start position:0% vast digital archives. As long as a 49:53.373 --> 49:54.964 align:start position:0% vast digital archives. As long as a community<00:51:23.520> remains<00:51:23.920> connected<00:51:24.240> enough<00:51:24.480> to 49:54.964 --> 49:54.974 align:start position:0% community remains connected enough to 49:54.974 --> 49:57.044 align:start position:0% community remains connected enough to pass<00:51:24.960> these<00:51:25.280> things<00:51:25.440> on,<00:51:26.000> culture<00:51:26.400> clicks 49:57.044 --> 49:57.054 align:start position:0% pass these things on, culture clicks 49:57.054 --> 49:59.204 align:start position:0% pass these things on, culture clicks forward<00:51:27.200> like<00:51:27.440> a<00:51:27.599> ratchet,<00:51:28.319> making<00:51:28.559> it<00:51:28.800> hard 49:59.204 --> 49:59.214 align:start position:0% forward like a ratchet, making it hard 49:59.214 --> 50:00.884 align:start position:0% forward like a ratchet, making it hard for<00:51:29.119> our<00:51:29.359> collective<00:51:29.680> knowhow<00:51:30.079> to<00:51:30.240> slip<00:51:30.559> all 50:00.884 --> 50:00.894 align:start position:0% for our collective knowhow to slip all 50:00.894 --> 50:04.884 align:start position:0% for our collective knowhow to slip all the<00:51:30.800> way<00:51:30.960> back<00:51:31.119> to<00:51:31.359> zero. 50:04.884 --> 50:04.894 align:start position:0% 50:04.894 --> 50:07.444 align:start position:0% And<00:51:35.200> some<00:51:35.520> clicks<00:51:35.839> of<00:51:35.920> the<00:51:36.079> ratchet<00:51:36.720> have<00:51:36.960> been 50:07.444 --> 50:07.454 align:start position:0% And some clicks of the ratchet have been 50:07.454 --> 50:10.404 align:start position:0% And some clicks of the ratchet have been larger<00:51:37.839> than<00:51:38.160> others. 50:10.404 --> 50:10.414 align:start position:0% larger than others. 50:10.414 --> 50:12.244 align:start position:0% larger than others. In<00:51:40.400> the<00:51:40.559> late<00:51:40.720> 19th<00:51:41.040> century,<00:51:41.599> people<00:51:41.760> like 50:12.244 --> 50:12.254 align:start position:0% In the late 19th century, people like 50:12.254 --> 50:13.764 align:start position:0% In the late 19th century, people like Thomas<00:51:42.319> Edison<00:51:42.800> were<00:51:43.040> learning<00:51:43.280> how<00:51:43.359> to 50:13.764 --> 50:13.774 align:start position:0% Thomas Edison were learning how to 50:13.774 --> 50:15.684 align:start position:0% Thomas Edison were learning how to harness<00:51:43.920> the<00:51:44.079> power<00:51:44.319> of<00:51:44.559> electricity<00:51:45.200> to 50:15.684 --> 50:15.694 align:start position:0% harness the power of electricity to 50:15.694 --> 50:18.244 align:start position:0% harness the power of electricity to improve<00:51:45.920> everyday<00:51:46.480> life.<00:51:47.200> And<00:51:47.359> within<00:51:47.680> a<00:51:47.839> few 50:18.244 --> 50:18.254 align:start position:0% improve everyday life. And within a few 50:18.254 --> 50:20.803 align:start position:0% improve everyday life. And within a few decades,<00:51:48.720> that<00:51:49.040> mastery<00:51:49.440> of<00:51:49.680> electrons<00:51:50.400> set 50:20.803 --> 50:20.813 align:start position:0% decades, that mastery of electrons set 50:20.813 --> 50:24.004 align:start position:0% decades, that mastery of electrons set the<00:51:50.800> stage<00:51:51.119> for<00:51:51.359> something<00:51:51.920> new.<00:51:52.800> Electronic 50:24.004 --> 50:24.014 align:start position:0% the stage for something new. Electronic 50:24.014 --> 50:25.524 align:start position:0% the stage for something new. Electronic computation. 50:25.524 --> 50:25.534 align:start position:0% computation. 50:25.534 --> 50:28.323 align:start position:0% computation. Early<00:51:55.680> machines<00:51:56.079> like<00:51:56.240> Eniac<00:51:56.800> in<00:51:56.960> the<00:51:57.119> 1940s 50:28.323 --> 50:28.333 align:start position:0% Early machines like Eniac in the 1940s 50:28.333 --> 50:30.244 align:start position:0% Early machines like Eniac in the 1940s filled<00:51:58.480> whole<00:51:58.800> rooms<00:51:59.200> and<00:51:59.440> could<00:51:59.680> only<00:51:59.839> be 50:30.244 --> 50:30.254 align:start position:0% filled whole rooms and could only be 50:30.254 --> 50:32.244 align:start position:0% filled whole rooms and could only be used<00:52:00.160> by<00:52:00.319> teams<00:52:00.640> of<00:52:00.800> specialists<00:52:01.520> who<00:52:01.760> needed 50:32.244 --> 50:32.254 align:start position:0% used by teams of specialists who needed 50:32.254 --> 50:34.964 align:start position:0% used by teams of specialists who needed to<00:52:02.160> rewire<00:52:02.640> computer<00:52:03.040> panels<00:52:03.520> by<00:52:03.760> hand.<00:52:04.480> These 50:34.964 --> 50:34.974 align:start position:0% to rewire computer panels by hand. These 50:34.974 --> 50:36.884 align:start position:0% to rewire computer panels by hand. These behemoths<00:52:05.520> were<00:52:05.680> essentially<00:52:06.160> giant 50:36.884 --> 50:36.894 align:start position:0% behemoths were essentially giant 50:36.894 --> 50:40.004 align:start position:0% behemoths were essentially giant calculators<00:52:07.599> built<00:52:07.920> for<00:52:08.240> specific<00:52:08.960> heavyduty 50:40.004 --> 50:40.014 align:start position:0% calculators built for specific heavyduty 50:40.014 --> 50:42.244 align:start position:0% calculators built for specific heavyduty numberc<00:52:10.160> crunching<00:52:10.559> tasks.<00:52:11.359> They<00:52:11.599> were<00:52:11.680> also 50:42.244 --> 50:42.254 align:start position:0% numberc crunching tasks. They were also 50:42.254 --> 50:44.884 align:start position:0% numberc crunching tasks. They were also surprisingly<00:52:12.640> fragile<00:52:13.359> and<00:52:13.680> eyewateringly 50:44.884 --> 50:44.894 align:start position:0% surprisingly fragile and eyewateringly 50:44.894 --> 50:47.044 align:start position:0% surprisingly fragile and eyewateringly expensive.<00:52:15.760> And<00:52:15.920> yet<00:52:16.079> once<00:52:16.319> they<00:52:16.480> had<00:52:16.640> been 50:47.044 --> 50:47.054 align:start position:0% expensive. And yet once they had been 50:47.054 --> 50:49.124 align:start position:0% expensive. And yet once they had been brought<00:52:17.040> into<00:52:17.359> existence,<00:52:18.319> there<00:52:18.480> was<00:52:18.640> no 50:49.124 --> 50:49.134 align:start position:0% brought into existence, there was no 50:49.134 --> 50:51.363 align:start position:0% brought into existence, there was no going<00:52:19.200> back.<00:52:20.160> Just<00:52:20.400> like<00:52:20.559> our<00:52:20.800> ancient 50:51.363 --> 50:51.373 align:start position:0% going back. Just like our ancient 50:51.373 --> 50:53.363 align:start position:0% going back. Just like our ancient ancestors,<00:52:21.760> learning<00:52:22.000> how<00:52:22.160> to<00:52:22.319> make<00:52:22.559> fire<00:52:22.880> or 50:53.363 --> 50:53.373 align:start position:0% ancestors, learning how to make fire or 50:53.373 --> 50:55.603 align:start position:0% ancestors, learning how to make fire or inventing<00:52:23.520> a<00:52:23.680> new<00:52:23.839> kind<00:52:24.000> of<00:52:24.240> stone<00:52:24.559> tool,<00:52:25.119> the 50:55.603 --> 50:55.613 align:start position:0% inventing a new kind of stone tool, the 50:55.613 --> 50:58.004 align:start position:0% inventing a new kind of stone tool, the ratchet<00:52:25.760> effect<00:52:26.160> took<00:52:26.400> hold<00:52:27.040> and<00:52:27.359> drove 50:58.004 --> 50:58.014 align:start position:0% ratchet effect took hold and drove 50:58.014 --> 51:01.524 align:start position:0% ratchet effect took hold and drove upward<00:52:28.160> progress. 51:01.524 --> 51:01.534 align:start position:0% 51:01.534 --> 51:05.764 align:start position:0% Of 51:05.764 --> 51:05.774 align:start position:0% 51:05.774 --> 51:07.363 align:start position:0% course,<00:52:35.760> it<00:52:35.920> also<00:52:36.160> helps<00:52:36.400> that<00:52:36.640> the<00:52:36.800> modern 51:07.363 --> 51:07.373 align:start position:0% course, it also helps that the modern 51:07.373 --> 51:09.204 align:start position:0% course, it also helps that the modern world<00:52:37.359> has<00:52:37.520> an<00:52:37.680> order<00:52:37.920> of<00:52:38.079> magnitude<00:52:38.640> more 51:09.204 --> 51:09.214 align:start position:0% world has an order of magnitude more 51:09.214 --> 51:12.083 align:start position:0% world has an order of magnitude more people<00:52:39.200> in<00:52:39.440> it<00:52:39.839> than<00:52:40.000> the<00:52:40.160> Paleolithic<00:52:40.960> world. 51:12.083 --> 51:12.093 align:start position:0% people in it than the Paleolithic world. 51:12.093 --> 51:14.404 align:start position:0% people in it than the Paleolithic world. Back<00:52:42.079> then,<00:52:42.400> the<00:52:42.640> entire<00:52:43.040> population<00:52:43.520> of<00:52:43.760> Homo 51:14.404 --> 51:14.414 align:start position:0% Back then, the entire population of Homo 51:14.414 --> 51:16.323 align:start position:0% Back then, the entire population of Homo sapiens<00:52:44.800> probably<00:52:45.200> numbered<00:52:45.599> only<00:52:45.839> in<00:52:46.000> the 51:16.323 --> 51:16.333 align:start position:0% sapiens probably numbered only in the 51:16.333 --> 51:19.044 align:start position:0% sapiens probably numbered only in the low<00:52:46.400> millions<00:52:47.119> at<00:52:47.440> most.<00:52:48.160> For<00:52:48.400> much<00:52:48.559> of<00:52:48.640> the 51:19.044 --> 51:19.054 align:start position:0% low millions at most. For much of the 51:19.054 --> 51:21.204 align:start position:0% low millions at most. For much of the place,<00:52:49.599> it<00:52:49.760> may<00:52:49.920> have<00:52:50.000> been<00:52:50.160> closer<00:52:50.480> to<00:52:50.640> a<00:52:50.880> few 51:21.204 --> 51:21.214 align:start position:0% place, it may have been closer to a few 51:21.214 --> 51:23.524 align:start position:0% place, it may have been closer to a few hundred<00:52:51.280> thousand.<00:52:52.240> Yet<00:52:52.480> today,<00:52:52.960> there<00:52:53.119> are 51:23.524 --> 51:23.534 align:start position:0% hundred thousand. Yet today, there are 51:23.534 --> 51:25.764 align:start position:0% hundred thousand. Yet today, there are over<00:52:53.599> 8<00:52:53.839> billion<00:52:54.160> of<00:52:54.319> us,<00:52:54.640> and<00:52:54.880> that<00:52:55.119> number<00:52:55.280> is 51:25.764 --> 51:25.774 align:start position:0% over 8 billion of us, and that number is 51:25.774 --> 51:27.524 align:start position:0% over 8 billion of us, and that number is set<00:52:55.599> to<00:52:55.839> increase<00:52:56.079> to<00:52:56.319> 10<00:52:56.559> billion<00:52:56.880> in<00:52:57.119> the 51:27.524 --> 51:27.534 align:start position:0% set to increase to 10 billion in the 51:27.534 --> 51:29.684 align:start position:0% set to increase to 10 billion in the next<00:52:57.440> few<00:52:57.599> decades.<00:52:58.480> This<00:52:58.720> means<00:52:59.040> there<00:52:59.200> will 51:29.684 --> 51:29.694 align:start position:0% next few decades. This means there will 51:29.694 --> 51:31.843 align:start position:0% next few decades. This means there will not<00:52:59.599> only<00:52:59.839> be<00:53:00.000> more<00:53:00.240> minds<00:53:00.720> available<00:53:01.119> to<00:53:01.280> form 51:31.843 --> 51:31.853 align:start position:0% not only be more minds available to form 51:31.853 --> 51:34.323 align:start position:0% not only be more minds available to form new<00:53:01.839> ideas,<00:53:02.480> but<00:53:02.720> vastly<00:53:03.200> more<00:53:03.520> chances<00:53:03.839> for 51:34.323 --> 51:34.333 align:start position:0% new ideas, but vastly more chances for 51:34.333 --> 51:36.244 align:start position:0% new ideas, but vastly more chances for those<00:53:04.319> ideas<00:53:04.640> to<00:53:04.880> be<00:53:04.960> developed<00:53:05.599> and 51:36.244 --> 51:36.254 align:start position:0% those ideas to be developed and 51:36.254 --> 51:38.964 align:start position:0% those ideas to be developed and improved.<00:53:07.119> In<00:53:07.359> this<00:53:07.520> sense,<00:53:08.079> human<00:53:08.400> culture 51:38.964 --> 51:38.974 align:start position:0% improved. In this sense, human culture 51:38.974 --> 51:41.124 align:start position:0% improved. In this sense, human culture has<00:53:08.960> more<00:53:09.119> hands<00:53:09.359> on<00:53:09.520> it<00:53:09.680> than<00:53:09.920> ever<00:53:10.160> before. 51:41.124 --> 51:41.134 align:start position:0% has more hands on it than ever before. 51:41.134 --> 51:42.484 align:start position:0% has more hands on it than ever before. So<00:53:11.040> there's<00:53:11.280> no<00:53:11.440> reason<00:53:11.680> to<00:53:11.920> expect 51:42.484 --> 51:42.494 align:start position:0% So there's no reason to expect 51:42.494 --> 51:44.404 align:start position:0% So there's no reason to expect technology<00:53:12.720> will<00:53:12.960> do<00:53:13.119> anything<00:53:13.440> but<00:53:13.760> continue 51:44.404 --> 51:44.414 align:start position:0% technology will do anything but continue 51:44.414 --> 51:47.124 align:start position:0% technology will do anything but continue to<00:53:14.319> accelerate.<00:53:15.520> The<00:53:15.760> future<00:53:16.079> of<00:53:16.240> humankind, 51:47.124 --> 51:47.134 align:start position:0% to accelerate. The future of humankind, 51:47.134 --> 51:49.124 align:start position:0% to accelerate. The future of humankind, therefore,<00:53:17.440> will<00:53:17.599> likely<00:53:17.920> be<00:53:18.079> defined<00:53:18.559> by 51:49.124 --> 51:49.134 align:start position:0% therefore, will likely be defined by 51:49.134 --> 51:51.603 align:start position:0% therefore, will likely be defined by accelerating,<00:53:19.760> irreversible<00:53:20.559> dependence<00:53:21.040> on 51:51.603 --> 51:51.613 align:start position:0% accelerating, irreversible dependence on 51:51.613 --> 51:53.524 align:start position:0% accelerating, irreversible dependence on increasingly<00:53:22.000> complex<00:53:22.480> interconnected 51:53.524 --> 51:53.534 align:start position:0% increasingly complex interconnected 51:53.534 --> 51:56.964 align:start position:0% increasingly complex interconnected systems.<00:53:24.400> And<00:53:24.720> so<00:53:25.200> as<00:53:25.440> human<00:53:25.760> society<00:53:26.400> becomes 51:56.964 --> 51:56.974 align:start position:0% systems. And so as human society becomes 51:56.974 --> 51:58.644 align:start position:0% systems. And so as human society becomes more<00:53:26.880> and<00:53:27.119> more<00:53:27.280> dependent<00:53:27.680> on<00:53:27.920> complex 51:58.644 --> 51:58.654 align:start position:0% more and more dependent on complex 51:58.654 --> 52:00.884 align:start position:0% more and more dependent on complex technology,<00:53:29.200> the<00:53:29.440> mismatch<00:53:30.079> between<00:53:30.400> the 52:00.884 --> 52:00.894 align:start position:0% technology, the mismatch between the 52:00.894 --> 52:03.204 align:start position:0% technology, the mismatch between the stable<00:53:31.280> small<00:53:31.680> band<00:53:31.920> huntergatherer<00:53:32.640> lives 52:03.204 --> 52:03.214 align:start position:0% stable small band huntergatherer lives 52:03.214 --> 52:05.363 align:start position:0% stable small band huntergatherer lives we<00:53:33.200> evolved<00:53:33.599> for<00:53:33.920> and<00:53:34.240> the<00:53:34.400> accelerating 52:05.363 --> 52:05.373 align:start position:0% we evolved for and the accelerating 52:05.373 --> 52:07.603 align:start position:0% we evolved for and the accelerating churn<00:53:35.520> of<00:53:35.680> modern<00:53:36.000> existence<00:53:36.880> could<00:53:37.119> grow 52:07.603 --> 52:07.613 align:start position:0% churn of modern existence could grow 52:07.613 --> 52:14.644 align:start position:0% churn of modern existence could grow much<00:53:37.599> wider<00:53:38.160> in<00:53:38.319> the<00:53:38.480> near<00:53:38.720> future. 52:14.644 --> 52:14.654 align:start position:0% 52:14.654 --> 52:16.724 align:start position:0% As<00:53:44.640> the<00:53:44.800> ancient<00:53:45.119> homo<00:53:45.520> sapiens<00:53:46.160> brought 52:16.724 --> 52:16.734 align:start position:0% As the ancient homo sapiens brought 52:16.734 --> 52:19.524 align:start position:0% As the ancient homo sapiens brought forward<00:53:46.800> from<00:53:47.040> a<00:53:47.119> 100,000<00:53:47.839> years<00:53:48.000> ago<00:53:48.480> ages<00:53:49.040> in 52:19.524 --> 52:19.534 align:start position:0% forward from a 100,000 years ago ages in 52:19.534 --> 52:22.484 align:start position:0% forward from a 100,000 years ago ages in our<00:53:49.520> world,<00:53:50.400> he<00:53:51.040> like<00:53:51.280> us<00:53:51.839> would<00:53:52.079> be 52:22.484 --> 52:22.494 align:start position:0% our world, he like us would be 52:22.494 --> 52:24.323 align:start position:0% our world, he like us would be confronted<00:53:52.720> with<00:53:53.040> technologies<00:53:53.680> and<00:53:53.839> a 52:24.323 --> 52:24.333 align:start position:0% confronted with technologies and a 52:24.333 --> 52:26.964 align:start position:0% confronted with technologies and a lifestyle<00:53:54.720> that<00:53:55.040> rapidly<00:53:55.599> changes<00:53:56.319> every 52:26.964 --> 52:26.974 align:start position:0% lifestyle that rapidly changes every 52:26.974 --> 52:29.284 align:start position:0% lifestyle that rapidly changes every decade.<00:53:57.599> And<00:53:57.760> even<00:53:58.000> if<00:53:58.160> he<00:53:58.319> had<00:53:58.559> managed<00:53:58.880> to 52:29.284 --> 52:29.294 align:start position:0% decade. And even if he had managed to 52:29.294 --> 52:31.363 align:start position:0% decade. And even if he had managed to partially<00:53:59.520> adapt,<00:54:00.240> there<00:54:00.400> would<00:54:00.559> come<00:54:00.640> a<00:54:00.880> time 52:31.363 --> 52:31.373 align:start position:0% partially adapt, there would come a time 52:31.373 --> 52:33.444 align:start position:0% partially adapt, there would come a time when<00:54:01.440> his<00:54:01.680> children<00:54:02.240> would<00:54:02.480> be<00:54:02.640> more<00:54:02.880> suited 52:33.444 --> 52:33.454 align:start position:0% when his children would be more suited 52:33.454 --> 52:35.843 align:start position:0% when his children would be more suited to<00:54:03.359> the<00:54:03.599> world.<00:54:04.400> raised<00:54:04.880> around<00:54:05.200> newer 52:35.843 --> 52:35.853 align:start position:0% to the world. raised around newer 52:35.853 --> 52:37.684 align:start position:0% to the world. raised around newer technologies,<00:54:06.480> using<00:54:06.800> them<00:54:06.960> when<00:54:07.200> their 52:37.684 --> 52:37.694 align:start position:0% technologies, using them when their 52:37.694 --> 52:39.603 align:start position:0% technologies, using them when their brains<00:54:07.680> are<00:54:07.839> at<00:54:08.000> their<00:54:08.160> most<00:54:08.400> plastic.<00:54:09.200> They 52:39.603 --> 52:39.613 align:start position:0% brains are at their most plastic. They 52:39.613 --> 52:41.843 align:start position:0% brains are at their most plastic. They would<00:54:09.599> certainly<00:54:10.079> be<00:54:10.319> better<00:54:10.640> placed<00:54:11.040> to<00:54:11.280> live 52:41.843 --> 52:41.853 align:start position:0% would certainly be better placed to live 52:41.853 --> 52:45.924 align:start position:0% would certainly be better placed to live and<00:54:11.920> innovate<00:54:12.400> in<00:54:13.040> our<00:54:13.359> modern<00:54:13.760> times. 52:45.924 --> 52:45.934 align:start position:0% and innovate in our modern times. 52:45.934 --> 52:48.323 align:start position:0% and innovate in our modern times. As<00:54:15.920> digital<00:54:16.400> technology<00:54:16.960> advances,<00:54:17.760> the 52:48.323 --> 52:48.333 align:start position:0% As digital technology advances, the 52:48.333 --> 52:50.083 align:start position:0% As digital technology advances, the stage<00:54:18.319> is<00:54:18.559> now<00:54:18.800> set<00:54:19.200> for<00:54:19.440> the<00:54:19.599> next 52:50.083 --> 52:50.093 align:start position:0% stage is now set for the next 52:50.093 --> 52:52.323 align:start position:0% stage is now set for the next generations<00:54:20.400> of<00:54:20.559> inventive<00:54:21.040> human<00:54:21.359> minds<00:54:21.839> to 52:52.323 --> 52:52.333 align:start position:0% generations of inventive human minds to 52:52.333 --> 52:54.803 align:start position:0% generations of inventive human minds to decide<00:54:22.400> the<00:54:22.640> course<00:54:22.880> of<00:54:23.040> our<00:54:23.280> future.<00:54:24.160> How<00:54:24.400> it 52:54.803 --> 52:54.813 align:start position:0% decide the course of our future. How it 52:54.813 --> 52:57.124 align:start position:0% decide the course of our future. How it will<00:54:24.720> look<00:54:25.040> is<00:54:25.359> uncertain,<00:54:26.160> but<00:54:26.400> its<00:54:26.640> shape 52:57.124 --> 52:57.134 align:start position:0% will look is uncertain, but its shape 52:57.134 --> 52:59.124 align:start position:0% will look is uncertain, but its shape will<00:54:27.119> be<00:54:27.280> decided<00:54:27.760> by<00:54:28.000> the<00:54:28.160> cumulative<00:54:28.720> work 52:59.124 --> 52:59.134 align:start position:0% will be decided by the cumulative work 52:59.134 --> 53:01.843 align:start position:0% will be decided by the cumulative work of<00:54:29.040> our<00:54:29.280> species.<00:54:30.240> And<00:54:30.480> this<00:54:30.640> species,<00:54:31.200> Homo 53:01.843 --> 53:01.853 align:start position:0% of our species. And this species, Homo 53:01.853 --> 53:04.644 align:start position:0% of our species. And this species, Homo sapiens,<00:54:32.400> has<00:54:32.640> so<00:54:32.880> far<00:54:33.280> manage<00:54:33.680> to<00:54:33.839> adapt<00:54:34.240> to 53:04.644 --> 53:04.654 align:start position:0% sapiens, has so far manage to adapt to 53:04.654 --> 53:18.004 align:start position:0% sapiens, has so far manage to adapt to anything<00:54:35.200> it<00:54:35.440> has<00:54:35.599> ever<00:54:35.839> faced. 53:18.004 --> 53:18.014 align:start position:0% 53:18.014 --> 53:19.524 align:start position:0% You've<00:54:48.000> been<00:54:48.160> watching<00:54:48.400> the<00:54:48.640> entire<00:54:49.040> history 53:19.524 --> 53:19.534 align:start position:0% You've been watching the entire history 53:19.534 --> 53:21.843 align:start position:0% You've been watching the entire history of<00:54:49.520> humankind.<00:54:50.559> Don't<00:54:50.720> forget<00:54:50.960> to<00:54:51.119> like<00:54:51.359> and 53:21.843 --> 53:21.853 align:start position:0% of humankind. Don't forget to like and 53:21.853 --> 53:23.284 align:start position:0% of humankind. Don't forget to like and subscribe<00:54:51.920> and<00:54:52.160> leave<00:54:52.319> us<00:54:52.400> a<00:54:52.559> comment<00:54:52.800> to<00:54:52.960> tell 53:23.284 --> 53:23.294 align:start position:0% subscribe and leave us a comment to tell 53:23.294 --> 53:26.004 align:start position:0% subscribe and leave us a comment to tell us<00:54:53.200> what<00:54:53.440> you<00:54:53.599> think.<00:54:54.640> Thanks<00:54:54.960> for<00:54:55.119> watching 53:26.004 --> 53:26.014 align:start position:0% us what you think. Thanks for watching 53:26.014 --> 53:30.694 align:start position:0% us what you think. Thanks for watching and<00:54:56.000> we'll<00:54:56.240> see<00:54:56.400> you<00:54:57.200> next<00:54:57.440> time.