WEBVTT

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Sirens<00:00:01.199><c> ring</c><00:00:01.520><c> out.</c><00:00:02.080><c> The</c><00:00:02.320><c> spacecraft</c><00:00:02.960><c> crashes</c>

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Sirens ring out. The spacecraft crashes
 

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Sirens ring out. The spacecraft crashes
into<00:00:03.679><c> the</c><00:00:03.840><c> planet</c><00:00:04.240><c> and</c><00:00:04.400><c> the</c><00:00:04.640><c> engine</c><00:00:05.120><c> slowly</c>

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into the planet and the engine slowly
 

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into the planet and the engine slowly
wors<00:00:06.000><c> into</c><00:00:06.319><c> silence.</c><00:00:07.440><c> You</c><00:00:07.680><c> undo</c><00:00:08.000><c> your</c><00:00:08.160><c> harness</c>

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wors into silence. You undo your harness
 

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wors into silence. You undo your harness
and<00:00:08.800><c> fall</c><00:00:09.040><c> out</c><00:00:09.120><c> of</c><00:00:09.280><c> the</c><00:00:09.440><c> vessel.</c><00:00:10.400><c> And</c><00:00:10.559><c> then</c><00:00:10.800><c> you</c>

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and fall out of the vessel. And then you
 

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and fall out of the vessel. And then you
realize<00:00:11.840><c> you</c><00:00:12.080><c> are</c><00:00:12.240><c> not</c><00:00:12.400><c> alone.</c>

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realize you are not alone.
 

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realize you are not alone.
You<00:00:14.320><c> are</c><00:00:14.480><c> surrounded</c><00:00:15.120><c> by</c><00:00:15.519><c> strangelooking</c>

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You are surrounded by strangelooking
 

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You are surrounded by strangelooking
creatures<00:00:17.440><c> shorter</c><00:00:17.920><c> than</c><00:00:18.080><c> you</c><00:00:18.320><c> are</c><00:00:18.640><c> with</c><00:00:18.960><c> arms</c>

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creatures shorter than you are with arms
 

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creatures shorter than you are with arms
longer<00:00:19.760><c> than</c><00:00:19.920><c> their</c><00:00:20.160><c> legs.</c><00:00:21.199><c> In</c><00:00:21.439><c> some</c><00:00:21.600><c> ways</c>

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longer than their legs. In some ways
 

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longer than their legs. In some ways
they<00:00:22.080><c> are</c><00:00:22.240><c> familiar,</c><00:00:22.960><c> reminding</c><00:00:23.359><c> you</c><00:00:23.519><c> of</c>

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they are familiar, reminding you of
 

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they are familiar, reminding you of
humans.<00:00:24.400><c> But</c><00:00:24.640><c> their</c><00:00:24.880><c> stockiness</c><00:00:25.840><c> and</c><00:00:26.080><c> the</c>

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humans. But their stockiness and the
 

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humans. But their stockiness and the
monstrous<00:00:26.800><c> shape</c><00:00:27.039><c> of</c><00:00:27.199><c> their</c><00:00:27.439><c> heads</c><00:00:28.080><c> quickly</c>

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monstrous shape of their heads quickly
 

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monstrous shape of their heads quickly
tells<00:00:28.720><c> you</c><00:00:29.359><c> they</c><00:00:29.599><c> are</c><00:00:29.760><c> not.</c>

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tells you they are not.
 

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tells you they are not.
Beyond<00:00:33.120><c> the</c><00:00:33.360><c> small</c><00:00:33.680><c> crowd</c><00:00:34.000><c> that</c><00:00:34.239><c> is</c><00:00:34.399><c> gathered,</c>

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Beyond the small crowd that is gathered,
 

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Beyond the small crowd that is gathered,
a<00:00:35.200><c> city</c><00:00:35.760><c> sprawled</c><00:00:36.320><c> into</c><00:00:36.559><c> the</c><00:00:36.719><c> distance,</c><00:00:37.600><c> but</c>

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a city sprawled into the distance, but
 

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a city sprawled into the distance, but
it<00:00:37.920><c> is</c><00:00:38.079><c> not</c><00:00:38.320><c> like</c><00:00:38.480><c> any</c><00:00:38.800><c> city</c><00:00:39.040><c> that</c><00:00:39.200><c> you've</c><00:00:39.440><c> seen</c>

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it is not like any city that you've seen
 

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it is not like any city that you've seen
before.<00:00:40.800><c> Tall</c><00:00:41.280><c> buildings</c><00:00:41.920><c> rise</c><00:00:42.320><c> out</c><00:00:42.480><c> of</c><00:00:42.559><c> a</c>

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before. Tall buildings rise out of a
 

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before. Tall buildings rise out of a
thick<00:00:43.280><c> treed</c><00:00:43.760><c> landscape.</c><00:00:44.800><c> These</c><00:00:45.280><c> squat</c>

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thick treed landscape. These squat
 

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thick treed landscape. These squat
creatures<00:00:46.399><c> grip</c><00:00:46.719><c> long</c><00:00:47.039><c> ropes</c><00:00:47.440><c> within</c><00:00:47.840><c> human</c>

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creatures grip long ropes within human
 

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creatures grip long ropes within human
strength,<00:00:48.800><c> hoisting</c><00:00:49.360><c> cargo</c><00:00:49.840><c> to</c><00:00:50.160><c> great</c>

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strength, hoisting cargo to great
 

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strength, hoisting cargo to great
heights<00:00:50.800><c> with</c><00:00:51.120><c> giant</c><00:00:51.600><c> pulleys.</c><00:00:52.960><c> Up</c><00:00:53.280><c> close,</c>

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heights with giant pulleys. Up close,
 

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heights with giant pulleys. Up close,
you<00:00:54.000><c> can</c><00:00:54.160><c> see</c><00:00:54.239><c> that</c><00:00:54.480><c> they</c><00:00:54.640><c> most</c><00:00:54.960><c> certainly</c><00:00:55.440><c> are</c>

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you can see that they most certainly are
 

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you can see that they most certainly are
not<00:00:56.079><c> human,</c><00:00:56.719><c> and</c><00:00:56.960><c> their</c><00:00:57.199><c> clothing</c><00:00:57.520><c> and</c><00:00:57.760><c> makeup</c>

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not human, and their clothing and makeup
 

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not human, and their clothing and makeup
emphasizes<00:00:59.039><c> their</c><00:00:59.280><c> differences.</c><00:01:00.079><c> Bony</c>

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emphasizes their differences. Bony
 

01:00.559 --> 01:02.549 align:start position:0%
emphasizes their differences. Bony
ridges<00:01:01.039><c> run</c><00:01:01.280><c> up</c><00:01:01.440><c> the</c><00:01:01.520><c> back</c><00:01:01.680><c> of</c><00:01:01.840><c> their</c><00:01:02.079><c> skulls,</c>

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ridges run up the back of their skulls,
 

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ridges run up the back of their skulls,
and<00:01:02.719><c> many</c><00:01:02.960><c> of</c><00:01:03.039><c> them</c><00:01:03.199><c> have</c><00:01:03.440><c> painted</c><00:01:03.840><c> their</c>

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and many of them have painted their
 

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and many of them have painted their
skull<00:01:04.400><c> ridges</c><00:01:04.799><c> in</c><00:01:05.119><c> bright</c><00:01:05.360><c> reds,</c><00:01:05.920><c> purples,</c>

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skull ridges in bright reds, purples,
 

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skull ridges in bright reds, purples,
and<00:01:06.640><c> whites.</c><00:01:07.920><c> One</c><00:01:08.240><c> creature</c><00:01:08.640><c> places</c><00:01:08.960><c> an</c>

01:09.109 --> 01:09.119 align:start position:0%
and whites. One creature places an
 

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and whites. One creature places an
enormous<00:01:09.680><c> nut</c><00:01:10.000><c> into</c><00:01:10.240><c> its</c><00:01:10.479><c> mouth</c><00:01:10.960><c> and</c><00:01:11.200><c> crushes</c>

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enormous nut into its mouth and crushes
 

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enormous nut into its mouth and crushes
it<00:01:11.840><c> in</c><00:01:12.080><c> a</c><00:01:12.240><c> single</c><00:01:12.560><c> bite.</c><00:01:13.360><c> The</c><00:01:13.520><c> others</c><00:01:13.920><c> chew</c>

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it in a single bite. The others chew
 

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it in a single bite. The others chew
incessantly,<00:01:15.360><c> their</c><00:01:15.600><c> huge</c><00:01:16.080><c> teeth</c><00:01:16.640><c> grinding</c>

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incessantly, their huge teeth grinding
 

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incessantly, their huge teeth grinding
away<00:01:17.520><c> at</c><00:01:17.759><c> handful</c><00:01:18.159><c> after</c><00:01:18.560><c> handful</c><00:01:19.040><c> of</c><00:01:19.280><c> coarse</c>

01:19.749 --> 01:19.759 align:start position:0%
away at handful after handful of coarse
 

01:19.759 --> 01:22.550 align:start position:0%
away at handful after handful of coarse
grass.<00:01:21.200><c> Eventually,</c><00:01:21.759><c> you</c><00:01:22.000><c> take</c><00:01:22.159><c> out</c><00:01:22.320><c> your</c>

01:22.550 --> 01:22.560 align:start position:0%
grass. Eventually, you take out your
 

01:22.560 --> 01:24.469 align:start position:0%
grass. Eventually, you take out your
scanner<00:01:23.040><c> and</c><00:01:23.360><c> point</c><00:01:23.600><c> it</c><00:01:23.759><c> towards</c><00:01:24.240><c> these</c>

01:24.469 --> 01:24.479 align:start position:0%
scanner and point it towards these
 

01:24.479 --> 01:27.190 align:start position:0%
scanner and point it towards these
creatures.<00:01:25.439><c> A</c><00:01:25.759><c> picture</c><00:01:26.000><c> of</c><00:01:26.240><c> the</c><00:01:26.479><c> strange</c><00:01:26.799><c> ape</c>

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creatures. A picture of the strange ape
 

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creatures. A picture of the strange ape
man<00:01:27.520><c> flashes</c><00:01:28.000><c> on</c><00:01:28.159><c> the</c><00:01:28.400><c> screen.</c><00:01:29.439><c> Species</c>

01:30.070 --> 01:30.080 align:start position:0%
man flashes on the screen. Species
 

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man flashes on the screen. Species
identified.<00:01:31.360><c> Homo</c><00:01:32.400><c> robustus.</c>

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identified. Homo robustus.
 

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identified. Homo robustus.
You've<00:01:34.320><c> never</c><00:01:34.479><c> heard</c><00:01:34.720><c> of</c><00:01:34.960><c> homo</c><00:01:35.439><c> robustus,</c><00:01:36.159><c> but</c>

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You've never heard of homo robustus, but
 

01:36.400 --> 01:38.390 align:start position:0%
You've never heard of homo robustus, but
part<00:01:36.640><c> of</c><00:01:36.720><c> the</c><00:01:36.960><c> name</c><00:01:37.200><c> rings</c><00:01:37.439><c> a</c><00:01:37.680><c> bell.</c><00:01:38.159><c> You</c>

01:38.390 --> 01:38.400 align:start position:0%
part of the name rings a bell. You
 

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part of the name rings a bell. You
search<00:01:38.560><c> on</c><00:01:38.799><c> your</c><00:01:38.960><c> scanner</c><00:01:39.439><c> for</c><00:01:39.680><c> related</c>

01:40.149 --> 01:40.159 align:start position:0%
search on your scanner for related
 

01:40.159 --> 01:44.390 align:start position:0%
search on your scanner for related
species<00:01:40.960><c> and</c><00:01:41.200><c> find</c><00:01:42.000><c> paranthropus</c><00:01:42.960><c> robustus.</c>

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species and find paranthropus robustus.
 

01:44.400 --> 01:46.710 align:start position:0%
species and find paranthropus robustus.
But<00:01:44.560><c> paranthropus</c><00:01:45.360><c> is</c><00:01:45.520><c> a</c><00:01:45.680><c> long</c><00:01:46.000><c> deadad</c><00:01:46.320><c> genus</c>

01:46.710 --> 01:46.720 align:start position:0%
But paranthropus is a long deadad genus
 

01:46.720 --> 01:49.590 align:start position:0%
But paranthropus is a long deadad genus
of<00:01:46.880><c> homminin</c><00:01:47.439><c> that</c><00:01:47.600><c> went</c><00:01:47.840><c> extinct</c><00:01:48.799><c> around</c><00:01:49.280><c> 1</c>

01:49.590 --> 01:49.600 align:start position:0%
of homminin that went extinct around 1
 

01:49.600 --> 01:56.310 align:start position:0%
of homminin that went extinct around 1
million<00:01:50.000><c> years</c><00:01:50.240><c> ago.</c>

01:56.310 --> 01:56.320 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:56.320 --> 01:59.030 align:start position:0%
 
You<00:01:56.640><c> have</c><00:01:56.880><c> crossed</c><00:01:57.360><c> into</c><00:01:57.680><c> another</c><00:01:58.079><c> reality.</c>

01:59.030 --> 01:59.040 align:start position:0%
You have crossed into another reality.
 

01:59.040 --> 02:01.190 align:start position:0%
You have crossed into another reality.
One<00:01:59.280><c> where</c><00:01:59.520><c> our</c><00:01:59.759><c> more</c><00:01:59.920><c> robust</c><00:02:00.479><c> evolutionary</c>

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One where our more robust evolutionary
 

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One where our more robust evolutionary
relatives<00:02:01.840><c> have</c><00:02:02.079><c> survived</c><00:02:02.799><c> until</c><00:02:03.200><c> today.</c>

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relatives have survived until today.
 

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relatives have survived until today.
Though<00:02:04.640><c> alien</c><00:02:05.119><c> to</c><00:02:05.280><c> behold,</c><00:02:06.000><c> they</c><00:02:06.320><c> reflect</c>

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Though alien to behold, they reflect
 

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Though alien to behold, they reflect
what<00:02:06.960><c> the</c><00:02:07.119><c> real</c><00:02:07.439><c> Paranthropus</c><00:02:08.160><c> species</c>

02:09.109 --> 02:09.119 align:start position:0%
what the real Paranthropus species
 

02:09.119 --> 02:11.510 align:start position:0%
what the real Paranthropus species
actually<00:02:09.520><c> look</c><00:02:09.840><c> like.</c><00:02:10.479><c> Their</c><00:02:11.120><c> powerful</c>

02:11.510 --> 02:11.520 align:start position:0%
actually look like. Their powerful
 

02:11.520 --> 02:13.830 align:start position:0%
actually look like. Their powerful
sagittal<00:02:12.080><c> crests</c><00:02:12.640><c> rose</c><00:02:12.879><c> up</c><00:02:13.040><c> over</c><00:02:13.280><c> their</c><00:02:13.520><c> skull</c>

02:13.830 --> 02:13.840 align:start position:0%
sagittal crests rose up over their skull
 

02:13.840 --> 02:16.710 align:start position:0%
sagittal crests rose up over their skull
like<00:02:14.080><c> a</c><00:02:14.319><c> fin.</c><00:02:14.959><c> Their</c><00:02:15.200><c> massive</c><00:02:15.599><c> teeth</c><00:02:16.400><c> four</c>

02:16.710 --> 02:16.720 align:start position:0%
like a fin. Their massive teeth four
 

02:16.720 --> 02:19.030 align:start position:0%
like a fin. Their massive teeth four
times<00:02:17.120><c> the</c><00:02:17.440><c> size</c><00:02:17.599><c> of</c><00:02:17.840><c> ours</c><00:02:18.239><c> filled</c><00:02:18.640><c> strong</c>

02:19.030 --> 02:19.040 align:start position:0%
times the size of ours filled strong
 

02:19.040 --> 02:21.750 align:start position:0%
times the size of ours filled strong
jaws<00:02:19.840><c> whose</c><00:02:20.239><c> muscles</c><00:02:20.720><c> distorted</c><00:02:21.360><c> the</c><00:02:21.599><c> shape</c>

02:21.750 --> 02:21.760 align:start position:0%
jaws whose muscles distorted the shape
 

02:21.760 --> 02:23.990 align:start position:0%
jaws whose muscles distorted the shape
of<00:02:21.920><c> their</c><00:02:22.160><c> faces</c><00:02:22.640><c> and</c><00:02:22.879><c> gave</c><00:02:23.120><c> them</c><00:02:23.280><c> a</c><00:02:23.440><c> bite</c><00:02:23.760><c> as</c>

02:23.990 --> 02:24.000 align:start position:0%
of their faces and gave them a bite as
 

02:24.000 --> 02:26.070 align:start position:0%
of their faces and gave them a bite as
strong<00:02:24.160><c> as</c><00:02:24.319><c> a</c><00:02:24.480><c> hyena.</c><00:02:25.360><c> And</c><00:02:25.520><c> their</c><00:02:25.760><c> grip</c>

02:26.070 --> 02:26.080 align:start position:0%
strong as a hyena. And their grip
 

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strong as a hyena. And their grip
strength<00:02:26.480><c> was</c><00:02:26.640><c> equal</c><00:02:26.879><c> to</c><00:02:27.040><c> that</c><00:02:27.280><c> of</c><00:02:27.360><c> a</c><00:02:27.520><c> gorilla.</c>

02:28.949 --> 02:28.959 align:start position:0%
strength was equal to that of a gorilla.
 

02:28.959 --> 02:30.710 align:start position:0%
strength was equal to that of a gorilla.
These<00:02:29.280><c> remarkable</c><00:02:29.840><c> creatures</c><00:02:30.319><c> lived</c>

02:30.710 --> 02:30.720 align:start position:0%
These remarkable creatures lived
 

02:30.720 --> 02:33.509 align:start position:0%
These remarkable creatures lived
alongside<00:02:31.599><c> many</c><00:02:31.920><c> other</c><00:02:32.160><c> hominins,</c><00:02:33.120><c> including</c>

02:33.509 --> 02:33.519 align:start position:0%
alongside many other hominins, including
 

02:33.519 --> 02:35.750 align:start position:0%
alongside many other hominins, including
some<00:02:33.920><c> which</c><00:02:34.239><c> scientists</c><00:02:34.879><c> think</c><00:02:35.200><c> were</c><00:02:35.440><c> our</c>

02:35.750 --> 02:35.760 align:start position:0%
some which scientists think were our
 

02:35.760 --> 02:38.790 align:start position:0%
some which scientists think were our
early<00:02:36.160><c> ancestors.</c><00:02:37.440><c> And</c><00:02:37.599><c> so</c><00:02:37.760><c> what</c><00:02:38.000><c> exactly</c><00:02:38.400><c> was</c>

02:38.790 --> 02:38.800 align:start position:0%
early ancestors. And so what exactly was
 

02:38.800 --> 02:41.350 align:start position:0%
early ancestors. And so what exactly was
Paranthropus?<00:02:39.920><c> What</c><00:02:40.080><c> did</c><00:02:40.319><c> they</c><00:02:40.480><c> evolve</c><00:02:40.879><c> from?</c>

02:41.350 --> 02:41.360 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus? What did they evolve from?
 

02:41.360 --> 02:43.990 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus? What did they evolve from?
And<00:02:41.519><c> what</c><00:02:41.760><c> relation</c><00:02:42.080><c> are</c><00:02:42.239><c> they</c><00:02:42.480><c> to</c><00:02:42.720><c> us?</c><00:02:43.519><c> And</c><00:02:43.760><c> of</c>

02:43.990 --> 02:44.000 align:start position:0%
And what relation are they to us? And of
 

02:44.000 --> 02:46.710 align:start position:0%
And what relation are they to us? And of
course,<00:02:44.640><c> where</c><00:02:44.879><c> did</c><00:02:45.040><c> they</c><00:02:45.280><c> go?</c><00:02:46.080><c> Why</c><00:02:46.239><c> did</c><00:02:46.480><c> our</c>

02:46.710 --> 02:46.720 align:start position:0%
course, where did they go? Why did our
 

02:46.720 --> 02:49.830 align:start position:0%
course, where did they go? Why did our
branch<00:02:47.040><c> of</c><00:02:47.200><c> ancestors</c><00:02:47.840><c> survive</c><00:02:48.879><c> when</c><00:02:49.120><c> they</c>

02:49.830 --> 02:49.840 align:start position:0%
branch of ancestors survive when they
 

02:49.840 --> 03:06.070 align:start position:0%
branch of ancestors survive when they
did<00:02:50.080><c> not?</c>

02:49.840 --> 02:55.110 align:start position:0%
History of Humankind 10 for a special
discount.

02:54.973 --> 02:54.983 align:start position:0%
 
 

02:54.983 --> 02:58.572 align:start position:0%
 
In<00:04:28.479><c> 1335,</c><00:04:29.759><c> a</c><00:04:30.000><c> strange</c><00:04:30.479><c> skull</c><00:04:30.960><c> was</c><00:04:31.199><c> found</c><00:04:31.440><c> in</c><00:04:31.600><c> a</c>

02:58.572 --> 02:58.582 align:start position:0%
In 1335, a strange skull was found in a
 

02:58.582 --> 03:02.173 align:start position:0%
In 1335, a strange skull was found in a
gravel<00:04:32.080><c> pit</c><00:04:32.479><c> near</c><00:04:32.800><c> Clarenfort</c><00:04:33.840><c> in</c><00:04:34.160><c> Austria.</c>

03:02.173 --> 03:02.183 align:start position:0%
gravel pit near Clarenfort in Austria.
 

03:02.183 --> 03:04.572 align:start position:0%
gravel pit near Clarenfort in Austria.
It<00:04:35.600><c> was</c><00:04:35.759><c> longer</c><00:04:36.080><c> than</c><00:04:36.240><c> a</c><00:04:36.479><c> human</c><00:04:36.800><c> arm</c><00:04:37.120><c> and</c><00:04:37.440><c> ended</c>

03:04.572 --> 03:04.582 align:start position:0%
It was longer than a human arm and ended
 

03:04.582 --> 03:07.613 align:start position:0%
It was longer than a human arm and ended
in<00:04:37.919><c> a</c><00:04:38.080><c> curved</c><00:04:38.479><c> muzzle</c><00:04:39.040><c> like</c><00:04:39.280><c> a</c><00:04:39.440><c> beak.</c><00:04:40.479><c> This</c>

03:07.613 --> 03:07.623 align:start position:0%
in a curved muzzle like a beak. This
 

03:07.623 --> 03:09.773 align:start position:0%
in a curved muzzle like a beak. This
discovery<00:04:41.360><c> confirmed</c><00:04:41.919><c> the</c><00:04:42.240><c> stories</c><00:04:42.720><c> the</c>

03:09.773 --> 03:09.783 align:start position:0%
discovery confirmed the stories the
 

03:09.783 --> 03:11.933 align:start position:0%
discovery confirmed the stories the
villagers<00:04:43.360><c> had</c><00:04:43.520><c> heard</c><00:04:43.759><c> as</c><00:04:44.080><c> children.</c><00:04:44.639><c> A</c><00:04:44.800><c> water</c>

03:11.933 --> 03:11.943 align:start position:0%
villagers had heard as children. A water
 

03:11.943 --> 03:14.572 align:start position:0%
villagers had heard as children. A water
dragon<00:04:45.600><c> had</c><00:04:45.759><c> once</c><00:04:46.080><c> terrorized</c><00:04:46.720><c> their</c><00:04:47.040><c> town.</c>

03:14.572 --> 03:14.582 align:start position:0%
dragon had once terrorized their town.
 

03:14.582 --> 03:16.813 align:start position:0%
dragon had once terrorized their town.
It<00:04:47.919><c> had</c><00:04:48.080><c> hidden</c><00:04:48.400><c> in</c><00:04:48.560><c> the</c><00:04:48.720><c> mists</c><00:04:49.199><c> and</c><00:04:49.360><c> its</c><00:04:49.680><c> blood</c>

03:16.813 --> 03:16.823 align:start position:0%
It had hidden in the mists and its blood
 

03:16.823 --> 03:18.973 align:start position:0%
It had hidden in the mists and its blood
curdling<00:04:50.479><c> roar</c><00:04:50.800><c> had</c><00:04:51.040><c> pierced</c><00:04:51.520><c> the</c><00:04:51.759><c> cold,</c>

03:18.973 --> 03:18.983 align:start position:0%
curdling roar had pierced the cold,
 

03:18.983 --> 03:22.333 align:start position:0%
curdling roar had pierced the cold,
rainy<00:04:52.560><c> nights.</c><00:04:53.360><c> It</c><00:04:53.600><c> had</c><00:04:53.840><c> wre</c><00:04:54.320><c> havoc,</c><00:04:55.120><c> flooding</c>

03:22.333 --> 03:22.343 align:start position:0%
rainy nights. It had wre havoc, flooding
 

03:22.343 --> 03:24.253 align:start position:0%
rainy nights. It had wre havoc, flooding
the<00:04:55.680><c> nearby</c><00:04:56.000><c> river</c><00:04:56.320><c> Glenn,</c><00:04:56.880><c> stalking</c>

03:24.253 --> 03:24.263 align:start position:0%
the nearby river Glenn, stalking
 

03:24.263 --> 03:26.253 align:start position:0%
the nearby river Glenn, stalking
travelers<00:04:57.919><c> and</c><00:04:58.160><c> threatening</c><00:04:58.639><c> all</c><00:04:58.880><c> who</c><00:04:59.120><c> live</c>

03:26.253 --> 03:26.263 align:start position:0%
travelers and threatening all who live
 

03:26.263 --> 03:28.572 align:start position:0%
travelers and threatening all who live
nearby.<00:05:00.240><c> Indeed,</c><00:05:00.560><c> that</c><00:05:00.720><c> was</c><00:05:00.800><c> how</c><00:05:00.960><c> Claron</c><00:05:01.520><c> foot</c>

03:28.572 --> 03:28.582 align:start position:0%
nearby. Indeed, that was how Claron foot
 

03:28.582 --> 03:30.732 align:start position:0%
nearby. Indeed, that was how Claron foot
got<00:05:01.919><c> its</c><00:05:02.160><c> name.</c><00:05:02.720><c> Clar</c><00:05:03.120><c> means</c><00:05:03.360><c> wailing</c><00:05:03.759><c> or</c>

03:30.732 --> 03:30.742 align:start position:0%
got its name. Clar means wailing or
 

03:30.742 --> 03:33.213 align:start position:0%
got its name. Clar means wailing or
lamenting,<00:05:04.560><c> and</c><00:05:04.800><c> foot</c><00:05:05.199><c> is</c><00:05:05.440><c> a</c><00:05:05.600><c> crossing.</c>

03:33.213 --> 03:33.223 align:start position:0%
lamenting, and foot is a crossing.
 

03:33.223 --> 03:35.133 align:start position:0%
lamenting, and foot is a crossing.
Legend<00:05:06.800><c> has</c><00:05:06.960><c> it</c><00:05:07.039><c> that</c><00:05:07.280><c> a</c><00:05:07.440><c> local</c><00:05:07.680><c> juke</c><00:05:08.080><c> offered</c>

03:35.133 --> 03:35.143 align:start position:0%
Legend has it that a local juke offered
 

03:35.143 --> 03:37.292 align:start position:0%
Legend has it that a local juke offered
a<00:05:08.479><c> reward</c><00:05:08.960><c> to</c><00:05:09.199><c> anyone</c><00:05:09.600><c> brave</c><00:05:09.919><c> enough</c><00:05:10.160><c> and</c>

03:37.292 --> 03:37.302 align:start position:0%
a reward to anyone brave enough and
 

03:37.302 --> 03:39.213 align:start position:0%
a reward to anyone brave enough and
skilled<00:05:10.880><c> enough</c><00:05:11.120><c> to</c><00:05:11.360><c> kill</c><00:05:11.600><c> the</c><00:05:11.840><c> ferocious</c>

03:39.213 --> 03:39.223 align:start position:0%
skilled enough to kill the ferocious
 

03:39.223 --> 03:41.373 align:start position:0%
skilled enough to kill the ferocious
beast.<00:05:13.039><c> He'</c><00:05:13.280><c> built</c><00:05:13.520><c> a</c><00:05:13.680><c> tower</c><00:05:14.000><c> and</c><00:05:14.240><c> according</c>

03:41.373 --> 03:41.383 align:start position:0%
beast. He' built a tower and according
 

03:41.383 --> 03:43.452 align:start position:0%
beast. He' built a tower and according
to<00:05:14.720><c> the</c><00:05:14.960><c> story,</c><00:05:15.440><c> a</c><00:05:15.680><c> young</c><00:05:15.840><c> man</c><00:05:16.080><c> had</c><00:05:16.320><c> tied</c><00:05:16.479><c> a</c>

03:43.452 --> 03:43.462 align:start position:0%
to the story, a young man had tied a
 

03:43.462 --> 03:45.773 align:start position:0%
to the story, a young man had tied a
bull<00:05:16.880><c> to</c><00:05:17.039><c> a</c><00:05:17.199><c> chain</c><00:05:17.600><c> and</c><00:05:17.840><c> used</c><00:05:18.080><c> it</c><00:05:18.240><c> as</c><00:05:18.400><c> bait</c><00:05:18.800><c> to</c>

03:45.773 --> 03:45.783 align:start position:0%
bull to a chain and used it as bait to
 

03:45.783 --> 03:48.253 align:start position:0%
bull to a chain and used it as bait to
catch<00:05:19.280><c> the</c><00:05:19.520><c> dragon.</c><00:05:20.240><c> The</c><00:05:20.479><c> lindworm</c><00:05:21.199><c> was</c>

03:48.253 --> 03:48.263 align:start position:0%
catch the dragon. The lindworm was
 

03:48.263 --> 03:51.213 align:start position:0%
catch the dragon. The lindworm was
killed<00:05:21.919><c> and</c><00:05:22.160><c> became</c><00:05:22.479><c> the</c><00:05:22.639><c> stuff</c><00:05:23.039><c> of</c><00:05:23.360><c> myth.</c><00:05:24.240><c> And</c>

03:51.213 --> 03:51.223 align:start position:0%
killed and became the stuff of myth. And
 

03:51.223 --> 03:52.973 align:start position:0%
killed and became the stuff of myth. And
so<00:05:24.560><c> there</c><00:05:24.720><c> wasn't</c><00:05:24.960><c> much</c><00:05:25.280><c> surprise</c><00:05:25.680><c> when</c><00:05:25.919><c> the</c>

03:52.973 --> 03:52.983 align:start position:0%
so there wasn't much surprise when the
 

03:52.983 --> 03:54.653 align:start position:0%
so there wasn't much surprise when the
skull<00:05:26.479><c> of</c><00:05:26.639><c> a</c><00:05:26.800><c> monstrous</c><00:05:27.280><c> dragon</c><00:05:27.600><c> was</c>

03:54.653 --> 03:54.663 align:start position:0%
skull of a monstrous dragon was
 

03:54.663 --> 03:57.933 align:start position:0%
skull of a monstrous dragon was
discovered<00:05:28.320><c> in</c><00:05:28.639><c> 1335.</c><00:05:30.000><c> But</c><00:05:30.240><c> of</c><00:05:30.400><c> course,</c><00:05:30.720><c> as</c><00:05:30.960><c> we</c>

03:57.933 --> 03:57.943 align:start position:0%
discovered in 1335. But of course, as we
 

03:57.943 --> 04:00.012 align:start position:0%
discovered in 1335. But of course, as we
know<00:05:31.360><c> now,</c><00:05:31.759><c> the</c><00:05:32.000><c> skull</c><00:05:32.400><c> didn't</c><00:05:32.800><c> actually</c>

04:00.012 --> 04:00.022 align:start position:0%
know now, the skull didn't actually
 

04:00.022 --> 04:02.813 align:start position:0%
know now, the skull didn't actually
belong<00:05:33.520><c> to</c><00:05:33.680><c> a</c><00:05:33.919><c> dragon.</c><00:05:34.800><c> In</c><00:05:35.039><c> 1840,</c>

04:02.813 --> 04:02.823 align:start position:0%
belong to a dragon. In 1840,
 

04:02.823 --> 04:05.613 align:start position:0%
belong to a dragon. In 1840,
zoologologist<00:05:36.560><c> France</c><00:05:37.520><c> visited</c><00:05:37.919><c> Clugenfort</c>

04:05.613 --> 04:05.623 align:start position:0%
zoologologist France visited Clugenfort
 

04:05.623 --> 04:08.012 align:start position:0%
zoologologist France visited Clugenfort
to<00:05:38.960><c> inspect</c><00:05:39.360><c> the</c><00:05:39.600><c> famous</c><00:05:40.080><c> skull.</c><00:05:40.800><c> At</c><00:05:41.039><c> that</c>

04:08.012 --> 04:08.022 align:start position:0%
to inspect the famous skull. At that
 

04:08.022 --> 04:09.693 align:start position:0%
to inspect the famous skull. At that
point,<00:05:41.360><c> it</c><00:05:41.600><c> hung</c><00:05:41.759><c> from</c><00:05:42.000><c> chains</c><00:05:42.320><c> in</c><00:05:42.479><c> the</c><00:05:42.639><c> town</c>

04:09.693 --> 04:09.703 align:start position:0%
point, it hung from chains in the town
 

04:09.703 --> 04:11.933 align:start position:0%
point, it hung from chains in the town
hall<00:05:43.120><c> archive,</c><00:05:43.600><c> and</c><00:05:43.840><c> it</c><00:05:44.000><c> was</c><00:05:44.160><c> clear</c><00:05:44.320><c> to</c><00:05:44.560><c> Anga</c>

04:11.933 --> 04:11.943 align:start position:0%
hall archive, and it was clear to Anga
 

04:11.943 --> 04:15.053 align:start position:0%
hall archive, and it was clear to Anga
it<00:05:45.360><c> wasn't</c><00:05:45.600><c> a</c><00:05:45.840><c> dragon.</c><00:05:46.880><c> It</c><00:05:47.120><c> was</c><00:05:47.280><c> the</c><00:05:47.520><c> skull</c><00:05:48.080><c> of</c>

04:15.053 --> 04:15.063 align:start position:0%
it wasn't a dragon. It was the skull of
 

04:15.063 --> 04:21.053 align:start position:0%
it wasn't a dragon. It was the skull of
a<00:05:48.400><c> woolly</c><00:05:48.800><c> rhinoceros.</c>

04:21.053 --> 04:21.063 align:start position:0%
 
 

04:21.063 --> 04:23.452 align:start position:0%
 
These<00:05:54.639><c> giant</c><00:05:55.120><c> shaggy</c><00:05:55.680><c> beasts</c><00:05:56.160><c> roamed</c>

04:23.452 --> 04:23.462 align:start position:0%
These giant shaggy beasts roamed
 

04:23.462 --> 04:25.133 align:start position:0%
These giant shaggy beasts roamed
northern<00:05:56.960><c> Eurasia</c><00:05:57.520><c> during</c><00:05:57.759><c> the</c><00:05:57.919><c> freezing</c>

04:25.133 --> 04:25.143 align:start position:0%
northern Eurasia during the freezing
 

04:25.143 --> 04:27.373 align:start position:0%
northern Eurasia during the freezing
plea<00:05:58.800><c> scene</c><00:05:59.120><c> until</c><00:05:59.360><c> they</c><00:05:59.600><c> went</c><00:05:59.759><c> extinct</c><00:06:00.240><c> about</c>

04:27.373 --> 04:27.383 align:start position:0%
plea scene until they went extinct about
 

04:27.383 --> 04:30.093 align:start position:0%
plea scene until they went extinct about
10,000<00:06:01.199><c> years</c><00:06:01.440><c> ago.</c><00:06:02.240><c> And</c><00:06:02.400><c> the</c><00:06:02.560><c> town</c><00:06:02.800><c> elders</c>

04:30.093 --> 04:30.103 align:start position:0%
10,000 years ago. And the town elders
 

04:30.103 --> 04:32.253 align:start position:0%
10,000 years ago. And the town elders
were<00:06:03.440><c> allegedly</c><00:06:04.000><c> so</c><00:06:04.240><c> upset</c><00:06:04.639><c> at</c><00:06:04.880><c> their</c><00:06:05.120><c> local</c>

04:32.253 --> 04:32.263 align:start position:0%
were allegedly so upset at their local
 

04:32.263 --> 04:34.253 align:start position:0%
were allegedly so upset at their local
monsters<00:06:05.919><c> transformation</c><00:06:06.560><c> into</c><00:06:06.800><c> a</c><00:06:07.039><c> rhino</c>

04:34.253 --> 04:34.263 align:start position:0%
monsters transformation into a rhino
 

04:34.263 --> 04:35.773 align:start position:0%
monsters transformation into a rhino
that<00:06:07.680><c> they</c><00:06:07.840><c> sent</c><00:06:08.080><c> its</c><00:06:08.319><c> skull</c><00:06:08.639><c> to</c><00:06:08.800><c> the</c>

04:35.773 --> 04:35.783 align:start position:0%
that they sent its skull to the
 

04:35.783 --> 04:37.693 align:start position:0%
that they sent its skull to the
Corinthian<00:06:09.600><c> State</c><00:06:09.840><c> Museum</c><00:06:10.319><c> when</c><00:06:10.560><c> it</c><00:06:10.720><c> was</c>

04:37.693 --> 04:37.703 align:start position:0%
Corinthian State Museum when it was
 

04:37.703 --> 04:39.613 align:start position:0%
Corinthian State Museum when it was
established<00:06:11.280><c> a</c><00:06:11.520><c> few</c><00:06:11.680><c> years</c><00:06:11.919><c> later.</c><00:06:12.479><c> You</c><00:06:12.720><c> can</c>

04:39.613 --> 04:39.623 align:start position:0%
established a few years later. You can
 

04:39.623 --> 04:42.572 align:start position:0%
established a few years later. You can
still<00:06:13.039><c> see</c><00:06:13.199><c> it</c><00:06:13.360><c> there</c><00:06:13.919><c> today.</c>

04:42.572 --> 04:42.582 align:start position:0%
still see it there today.
 

04:42.582 --> 04:44.253 align:start position:0%
still see it there today.
Imagine<00:06:16.080><c> what</c><00:06:16.240><c> it</c><00:06:16.400><c> would</c><00:06:16.560><c> be</c><00:06:16.639><c> like</c><00:06:16.880><c> to</c><00:06:17.120><c> find</c>

04:44.253 --> 04:44.263 align:start position:0%
Imagine what it would be like to find
 

04:44.263 --> 04:46.973 align:start position:0%
Imagine what it would be like to find
something<00:06:17.840><c> strange</c><00:06:18.479><c> or</c><00:06:18.800><c> monstrous</c><00:06:19.520><c> you</c><00:06:19.840><c> don't</c>

04:46.973 --> 04:46.983 align:start position:0%
something strange or monstrous you don't
 

04:46.983 --> 04:49.213 align:start position:0%
something strange or monstrous you don't
understand.<00:06:21.120><c> Indeed,</c><00:06:21.520><c> when</c><00:06:21.680><c> finding</c><00:06:22.080><c> ancient</c>

04:49.213 --> 04:49.223 align:start position:0%
understand. Indeed, when finding ancient
 

04:49.223 --> 04:51.613 align:start position:0%
understand. Indeed, when finding ancient
fossils,<00:06:23.039><c> it's</c><00:06:23.280><c> rare</c><00:06:23.520><c> to</c><00:06:23.600><c> uncover</c><00:06:24.080><c> an</c><00:06:24.319><c> entire</c>

04:51.613 --> 04:51.623 align:start position:0%
fossils, it's rare to uncover an entire
 

04:51.623 --> 04:53.693 align:start position:0%
fossils, it's rare to uncover an entire
skeleton.<00:06:25.520><c> When</c><00:06:25.680><c> a</c><00:06:25.919><c> discovery</c><00:06:26.400><c> is</c><00:06:26.560><c> first</c>

04:53.693 --> 04:53.703 align:start position:0%
skeleton. When a discovery is first
 

04:53.703 --> 04:55.533 align:start position:0%
skeleton. When a discovery is first
made,<00:06:27.280><c> we</c><00:06:27.520><c> are</c><00:06:27.600><c> generally</c><00:06:28.080><c> presented</c><00:06:28.479><c> with</c>

04:55.533 --> 04:55.543 align:start position:0%
made, we are generally presented with
 

04:55.543 --> 04:57.533 align:start position:0%
made, we are generally presented with
just<00:06:28.960><c> a</c><00:06:29.199><c> single</c><00:06:29.520><c> piece</c><00:06:29.759><c> of</c><00:06:29.840><c> the</c><00:06:30.080><c> puzzle,</c><00:06:30.479><c> and</c>

04:57.533 --> 04:57.543 align:start position:0%
just a single piece of the puzzle, and
 

04:57.543 --> 04:58.813 align:start position:0%
just a single piece of the puzzle, and
the<00:06:30.880><c> rest</c><00:06:31.039><c> of</c><00:06:31.120><c> the</c><00:06:31.280><c> creature</c><00:06:31.600><c> must</c><00:06:31.840><c> be</c>

04:58.813 --> 04:58.823 align:start position:0%
the rest of the creature must be
 

04:58.823 --> 05:00.973 align:start position:0%
the rest of the creature must be
extrapolated<00:06:32.720><c> from</c><00:06:32.960><c> there.</c><00:06:33.759><c> Of</c><00:06:33.919><c> course,</c>

05:00.973 --> 05:00.983 align:start position:0%
extrapolated from there. Of course,
 

05:00.983 --> 05:02.893 align:start position:0%
extrapolated from there. Of course,
today<00:06:34.560><c> we're</c><00:06:34.800><c> much</c><00:06:34.960><c> better</c><00:06:35.199><c> at</c><00:06:35.360><c> extrapolating</c>

05:02.893 --> 05:02.903 align:start position:0%
today we're much better at extrapolating
 

05:02.903 --> 05:05.452 align:start position:0%
today we're much better at extrapolating
than<00:06:36.319><c> in</c><00:06:36.560><c> 1335.</c><00:06:37.919><c> But</c><00:06:38.080><c> that</c><00:06:38.319><c> doesn't</c><00:06:38.479><c> mean</c>

05:05.452 --> 05:05.462 align:start position:0%
than in 1335. But that doesn't mean
 

05:05.462 --> 05:07.773 align:start position:0%
than in 1335. But that doesn't mean
we've<00:06:38.960><c> stopped</c><00:06:39.280><c> finding</c><00:06:39.680><c> fossils</c><00:06:40.319><c> that</c><00:06:40.639><c> shock</c>

05:07.773 --> 05:07.783 align:start position:0%
we've stopped finding fossils that shock
 

05:07.783 --> 05:10.413 align:start position:0%
we've stopped finding fossils that shock
us.<00:06:41.680><c> And</c><00:06:41.919><c> indeed,</c><00:06:42.240><c> in</c><00:06:42.400><c> the</c><00:06:42.560><c> 20th</c><00:06:42.960><c> century,</c>

05:10.413 --> 05:10.423 align:start position:0%
us. And indeed, in the 20th century,
 

05:10.423 --> 05:12.493 align:start position:0%
us. And indeed, in the 20th century,
monstrously<00:06:44.319><c> shaped</c><00:06:44.639><c> skulls</c><00:06:45.120><c> were</c><00:06:45.360><c> found</c>

05:12.493 --> 05:12.503 align:start position:0%
monstrously shaped skulls were found
 

05:12.503 --> 05:15.053 align:start position:0%
monstrously shaped skulls were found
that<00:06:45.919><c> belonged</c><00:06:46.400><c> not</c><00:06:46.639><c> to</c><00:06:46.800><c> mythical</c><00:06:47.280><c> beasts,</c>

05:15.053 --> 05:15.063 align:start position:0%
that belonged not to mythical beasts,
 

05:15.063 --> 05:19.452 align:start position:0%
that belonged not to mythical beasts,
but<00:06:48.479><c> to</c><00:06:48.720><c> very</c><00:06:49.039><c> real</c><00:06:49.440><c> creatures.</c>

05:19.452 --> 05:19.462 align:start position:0%
 
 

05:19.462 --> 05:22.813 align:start position:0%
 
In<00:06:52.960><c> 1938,</c><00:06:54.080><c> South</c><00:06:54.400><c> African</c><00:06:54.800><c> school</c><00:06:55.120><c> boy</c><00:06:55.440><c> Ge</c>

05:22.813 --> 05:22.823 align:start position:0%
In 1938, South African school boy Ge
 

05:22.823 --> 05:25.533 align:start position:0%
In 1938, South African school boy Ge
Blanch<00:06:56.639><c> had</c><00:06:56.960><c> four</c><00:06:57.280><c> of</c><00:06:57.520><c> the</c><00:06:57.680><c> rarest</c><00:06:58.080><c> objects</c><00:06:58.479><c> in</c>

05:25.533 --> 05:25.543 align:start position:0%
Blanch had four of the rarest objects in
 

05:25.543 --> 05:28.893 align:start position:0%
Blanch had four of the rarest objects in
the<00:06:58.880><c> world</c><00:06:59.360><c> in</c><00:06:59.599><c> his</c><00:06:59.759><c> pocket.</c>

05:28.893 --> 05:28.903 align:start position:0%
the world in his pocket.
 

05:28.903 --> 05:30.973 align:start position:0%
the world in his pocket.
Four<00:07:02.479><c> strangely</c><00:07:02.960><c> shaped</c><00:07:03.360><c> rocks</c><00:07:03.680><c> as</c><00:07:03.840><c> big</c><00:07:04.000><c> as</c>

05:30.973 --> 05:30.983 align:start position:0%
Four strangely shaped rocks as big as
 

05:30.983 --> 05:33.292 align:start position:0%
Four strangely shaped rocks as big as
the<00:07:04.319><c> tip</c><00:07:04.479><c> of</c><00:07:04.560><c> an</c><00:07:04.800><c> adult's</c><00:07:05.280><c> thumb.</c><00:07:05.919><c> Some</c><00:07:06.160><c> had</c><00:07:06.319><c> a</c>

05:33.292 --> 05:33.302 align:start position:0%
the tip of an adult's thumb. Some had a
 

05:33.302 --> 05:35.213 align:start position:0%
the tip of an adult's thumb. Some had a
slightly<00:07:06.800><c> bluish</c><00:07:07.199><c> tint,</c><00:07:07.680><c> while</c><00:07:07.919><c> others</c><00:07:08.240><c> had</c>

05:35.213 --> 05:35.223 align:start position:0%
slightly bluish tint, while others had
 

05:35.223 --> 05:37.373 align:start position:0%
slightly bluish tint, while others had
the<00:07:08.560><c> ochre</c><00:07:08.960><c> stain</c><00:07:09.280><c> of</c><00:07:09.440><c> the</c><00:07:09.599><c> soil</c><00:07:10.000><c> where</c><00:07:10.160><c> he</c><00:07:10.319><c> had</c>

05:37.373 --> 05:37.383 align:start position:0%
the ochre stain of the soil where he had
 

05:37.383 --> 05:39.613 align:start position:0%
the ochre stain of the soil where he had
found<00:07:10.800><c> them.</c><00:07:11.680><c> Good</c><00:07:12.000><c> was</c><00:07:12.080><c> on</c><00:07:12.240><c> the</c><00:07:12.400><c> playground</c>

05:39.613 --> 05:39.623 align:start position:0%
found them. Good was on the playground
 

05:39.623 --> 05:41.213 align:start position:0%
found them. Good was on the playground
when<00:07:12.960><c> he</c><00:07:13.120><c> was</c><00:07:13.280><c> called</c><00:07:13.440><c> to</c><00:07:13.599><c> the</c><00:07:13.680><c> headm's</c>

05:41.213 --> 05:41.223 align:start position:0%
when he was called to the headm's
 

05:41.223 --> 05:43.533 align:start position:0%
when he was called to the headm's
office.<00:07:14.880><c> He</c><00:07:15.120><c> wiped</c><00:07:15.440><c> his</c><00:07:15.680><c> sweaty</c><00:07:16.000><c> palms</c><00:07:16.400><c> on</c><00:07:16.560><c> his</c>

05:43.533 --> 05:43.543 align:start position:0%
office. He wiped his sweaty palms on his
 

05:43.543 --> 05:46.412 align:start position:0%
office. He wiped his sweaty palms on his
trousers<00:07:17.280><c> and</c><00:07:17.520><c> knocked</c><00:07:17.840><c> on</c><00:07:18.000><c> the</c><00:07:18.240><c> door.</c><00:07:19.280><c> A</c>

05:46.412 --> 05:46.422 align:start position:0%
trousers and knocked on the door. A
 

05:46.422 --> 05:48.173 align:start position:0%
trousers and knocked on the door. A
stranger<00:07:20.080><c> was</c><00:07:20.319><c> waiting</c><00:07:20.560><c> for</c><00:07:20.720><c> him</c><00:07:21.120><c> and</c>

05:48.173 --> 05:48.183 align:start position:0%
stranger was waiting for him and
 

05:48.183 --> 05:51.053 align:start position:0%
stranger was waiting for him and
introduced<00:07:21.919><c> himself</c><00:07:22.319><c> as</c><00:07:22.720><c> Robert</c><00:07:23.280><c> Broom,</c><00:07:24.000><c> a</c>

05:51.053 --> 05:51.063 align:start position:0%
introduced himself as Robert Broom, a
 

05:51.063 --> 05:53.773 align:start position:0%
introduced himself as Robert Broom, a
scientist<00:07:24.639><c> who</c><00:07:24.880><c> worked</c><00:07:25.039><c> at</c><00:07:25.199><c> a</c><00:07:25.440><c> museum.</c><00:07:26.479><c> Broom</c>

05:53.773 --> 05:53.783 align:start position:0%
scientist who worked at a museum. Broom
 

05:53.783 --> 05:56.093 align:start position:0%
scientist who worked at a museum. Broom
stood<00:07:27.280><c> tall</c><00:07:27.520><c> in</c><00:07:27.759><c> the</c><00:07:27.919><c> room,</c><00:07:28.400><c> taking</c><00:07:28.720><c> up</c><00:07:28.960><c> space</c>

05:56.093 --> 05:56.103 align:start position:0%
stood tall in the room, taking up space
 

05:56.103 --> 05:58.973 align:start position:0%
stood tall in the room, taking up space
in<00:07:29.520><c> his</c><00:07:29.680><c> formal</c><00:07:30.080><c> dark</c><00:07:30.400><c> suit.</c><00:07:30.960><c> He</c><00:07:31.199><c> surveyed</c><00:07:31.759><c> Ge</c>

05:58.973 --> 05:58.983 align:start position:0%
in his formal dark suit. He surveyed Ge
 

05:58.983 --> 06:02.093 align:start position:0%
in his formal dark suit. He surveyed Ge
through<00:07:32.479><c> small</c><00:07:33.039><c> round</c><00:07:33.520><c> glasses.</c><00:07:34.880><c> Broom</c>

06:02.093 --> 06:02.103 align:start position:0%
through small round glasses. Broom
 

06:02.103 --> 06:03.693 align:start position:0%
through small round glasses. Broom
pulled<00:07:35.520><c> a</c><00:07:35.680><c> piece</c><00:07:35.840><c> of</c><00:07:36.000><c> bone</c><00:07:36.319><c> out</c><00:07:36.479><c> of</c><00:07:36.639><c> his</c>

06:03.693 --> 06:03.703 align:start position:0%
pulled a piece of bone out of his
 

06:03.703 --> 06:06.653 align:start position:0%
pulled a piece of bone out of his
pocket.<00:07:37.599><c> It</c><00:07:37.840><c> was</c><00:07:37.919><c> a</c><00:07:38.080><c> modeled</c><00:07:38.560><c> jigsaw</c><00:07:39.199><c> of</c><00:07:39.440><c> black</c>

06:06.653 --> 06:06.663 align:start position:0%
pocket. It was a modeled jigsaw of black
 

06:06.663 --> 06:09.773 align:start position:0%
pocket. It was a modeled jigsaw of black
ochre<00:07:40.240><c> and</c><00:07:40.479><c> cream.</c><00:07:41.680><c> Ge</c><00:07:42.000><c> had</c><00:07:42.160><c> seen</c><00:07:42.400><c> this</c><00:07:42.639><c> bone</c>

06:09.773 --> 06:09.783 align:start position:0%
ochre and cream. Ge had seen this bone
 

06:09.783 --> 06:12.093 align:start position:0%
ochre and cream. Ge had seen this bone
before.<00:07:43.599><c> The</c><00:07:43.840><c> boy</c><00:07:44.080><c> had</c><00:07:44.240><c> sold</c><00:07:44.479><c> it</c><00:07:44.560><c> to</c><00:07:44.720><c> a</c><00:07:44.880><c> quarry</c>

06:12.093 --> 06:12.103 align:start position:0%
before. The boy had sold it to a quarry
 

06:12.103 --> 06:14.572 align:start position:0%
before. The boy had sold it to a quarry
manager.<00:07:45.759><c> Excited</c><00:07:46.319><c> by</c><00:07:46.479><c> its</c><00:07:46.720><c> uniqueness,</c><00:07:47.520><c> this</c>

06:14.572 --> 06:14.582 align:start position:0%
manager. Excited by its uniqueness, this
 

06:14.582 --> 06:16.813 align:start position:0%
manager. Excited by its uniqueness, this
manager,<00:07:48.240><c> a</c><00:07:48.400><c> Mr.</c><00:07:48.720><c> Barlow,</c><00:07:49.360><c> had</c><00:07:49.599><c> shown</c><00:07:49.759><c> it</c><00:07:49.919><c> to</c>

06:16.813 --> 06:16.823 align:start position:0%
manager, a Mr. Barlow, had shown it to
 

06:16.823 --> 06:18.732 align:start position:0%
manager, a Mr. Barlow, had shown it to
Robert<00:07:50.400><c> Broom,</c><00:07:50.880><c> which</c><00:07:51.039><c> had</c><00:07:51.280><c> sent</c><00:07:51.440><c> him</c><00:07:51.680><c> looking</c>

06:18.732 --> 06:18.742 align:start position:0%
Robert Broom, which had sent him looking
 

06:18.742 --> 06:20.973 align:start position:0%
Robert Broom, which had sent him looking
for<00:07:52.080><c> the</c><00:07:52.319><c> boy.</c>

06:20.973 --> 06:20.983 align:start position:0%
for the boy.
 

06:20.983 --> 06:22.493 align:start position:0%
for the boy.
Broom<00:07:54.479><c> was</c><00:07:54.639><c> a</c><00:07:54.800><c> medical</c><00:07:55.120><c> doctor</c><00:07:55.440><c> and</c>

06:22.493 --> 06:22.503 align:start position:0%
Broom was a medical doctor and
 

06:22.503 --> 06:24.253 align:start position:0%
Broom was a medical doctor and
paleontologist<00:07:56.639><c> who'd</c><00:07:56.960><c> been</c><00:07:57.120><c> living</c><00:07:57.280><c> in</c>

06:24.253 --> 06:24.263 align:start position:0%
paleontologist who'd been living in
 

06:24.263 --> 06:26.893 align:start position:0%
paleontologist who'd been living in
South<00:07:57.680><c> Africa</c><00:07:58.080><c> since</c><00:07:58.400><c> 1897.</c><00:07:59.520><c> He's</c><00:07:59.759><c> perhaps</c>

06:26.893 --> 06:26.903 align:start position:0%
South Africa since 1897. He's perhaps
 

06:26.903 --> 06:28.732 align:start position:0%
South Africa since 1897. He's perhaps
best<00:08:00.319><c> remembered</c><00:08:00.639><c> as</c><00:08:00.800><c> a</c><00:08:01.039><c> fossil</c><00:08:01.360><c> hunter</c><00:08:01.759><c> and</c>

06:28.732 --> 06:28.742 align:start position:0%
best remembered as a fossil hunter and
 

06:28.742 --> 06:30.572 align:start position:0%
best remembered as a fossil hunter and
as<00:08:02.160><c> one</c><00:08:02.319><c> of</c><00:08:02.400><c> the</c><00:08:02.560><c> few</c><00:08:02.879><c> early</c><00:08:03.199><c> supporters</c><00:08:03.599><c> of</c>

06:30.572 --> 06:30.582 align:start position:0%
as one of the few early supporters of
 

06:30.582 --> 06:32.893 align:start position:0%
as one of the few early supporters of
the<00:08:04.000><c> idea</c><00:08:04.319><c> that</c><00:08:04.639><c> human</c><00:08:04.960><c> ancestors</c><00:08:05.599><c> had</c><00:08:05.840><c> once</c>

06:32.893 --> 06:32.903 align:start position:0%
the idea that human ancestors had once
 

06:32.903 --> 06:36.493 align:start position:0%
the idea that human ancestors had once
lived<00:08:06.319><c> in</c><00:08:06.560><c> Africa.</c><00:08:07.280><c> And</c><00:08:07.520><c> in</c><00:08:07.759><c> 1938,</c><00:08:08.879><c> when</c><00:08:09.199><c> Broom</c>

06:36.493 --> 06:36.503 align:start position:0%
lived in Africa. And in 1938, when Broom
 

06:36.503 --> 06:38.973 align:start position:0%
lived in Africa. And in 1938, when Broom
visited<00:08:10.080><c> Ge</c><00:08:10.560><c> Blanch's</c><00:08:11.120><c> school,</c><00:08:11.599><c> the</c><00:08:11.759><c> hunt</c><00:08:12.000><c> was</c>

06:38.973 --> 06:38.983 align:start position:0%
visited Ge Blanch's school, the hunt was
 

06:38.983 --> 06:41.132 align:start position:0%
visited Ge Blanch's school, the hunt was
on<00:08:12.479><c> to</c><00:08:12.720><c> find</c><00:08:12.960><c> more</c><00:08:13.199><c> of</c><00:08:13.360><c> the</c><00:08:13.520><c> remains</c><00:08:13.919><c> of</c><00:08:14.160><c> the</c>

06:41.132 --> 06:41.142 align:start position:0%
on to find more of the remains of the
 

06:41.142 --> 06:43.292 align:start position:0%
on to find more of the remains of the
strange<00:08:14.720><c> ape</c><00:08:15.120><c> men</c><00:08:15.520><c> buried</c><00:08:15.919><c> beneath</c><00:08:16.240><c> the</c>

06:43.292 --> 06:43.302 align:start position:0%
strange ape men buried beneath the
 

06:43.302 --> 06:46.333 align:start position:0%
strange ape men buried beneath the
surface<00:08:17.120><c> of</c><00:08:17.360><c> southern</c><00:08:17.759><c> Africa.</c><00:08:18.879><c> By</c><00:08:19.120><c> then,</c><00:08:19.360><c> it</c>

06:46.333 --> 06:46.343 align:start position:0%
surface of southern Africa. By then, it
 

06:46.343 --> 06:48.093 align:start position:0%
surface of southern Africa. By then, it
had<00:08:19.759><c> been</c><00:08:19.840><c> more</c><00:08:20.000><c> than</c><00:08:20.160><c> a</c><00:08:20.319><c> decade</c><00:08:20.720><c> since</c><00:08:21.039><c> the</c>

06:48.093 --> 06:48.103 align:start position:0%
had been more than a decade since the
 

06:48.103 --> 06:49.692 align:start position:0%
had been more than a decade since the
first<00:08:21.520><c> human-like</c><00:08:22.160><c> creature</c><00:08:22.479><c> had</c><00:08:22.720><c> been</c>

06:49.692 --> 06:49.702 align:start position:0%
first human-like creature had been
 

06:49.702 --> 06:52.732 align:start position:0%
first human-like creature had been
blasted<00:08:23.280><c> out</c><00:08:23.440><c> of</c><00:08:23.599><c> the</c><00:08:23.759><c> rock.</c><00:08:24.560><c> In</c><00:08:24.800><c> 1925,</c>

06:52.732 --> 06:52.742 align:start position:0%
blasted out of the rock. In 1925,
 

06:52.742 --> 06:54.813 align:start position:0%
blasted out of the rock. In 1925,
anthropologist<00:08:26.639><c> Raymond</c><00:08:27.120><c> Dart</c><00:08:27.599><c> told</c><00:08:27.840><c> the</c>

06:54.813 --> 06:54.823 align:start position:0%
anthropologist Raymond Dart told the
 

06:54.823 --> 06:56.653 align:start position:0%
anthropologist Raymond Dart told the
world<00:08:28.240><c> he</c><00:08:28.479><c> had</c><00:08:28.639><c> found</c><00:08:28.960><c> the</c><00:08:29.199><c> missing</c><00:08:29.520><c> link</c>

06:56.653 --> 06:56.663 align:start position:0%
world he had found the missing link
 

06:56.663 --> 06:59.053 align:start position:0%
world he had found the missing link
between<00:08:30.240><c> humans</c><00:08:30.560><c> and</c><00:08:30.800><c> apes</c><00:08:31.280><c> in</c><00:08:31.520><c> Africa.</c>

06:59.053 --> 06:59.063 align:start position:0%
between humans and apes in Africa.
 

06:59.063 --> 07:01.453 align:start position:0%
between humans and apes in Africa.
However,<00:08:32.719><c> almost</c><00:08:33.120><c> no</c><00:08:33.360><c> one</c><00:08:33.519><c> believed</c><00:08:33.919><c> him,</c><00:08:34.399><c> but</c>

07:01.453 --> 07:01.463 align:start position:0%
However, almost no one believed him, but
 

07:01.463 --> 07:06.813 align:start position:0%
However, almost no one believed him, but
Broom<00:08:35.279><c> was</c><00:08:35.599><c> one</c><00:08:35.760><c> of</c><00:08:35.839><c> the</c><00:08:36.080><c> few</c><00:08:36.320><c> who</c><00:08:36.719><c> did.</c>

07:06.813 --> 07:06.823 align:start position:0%
 
 

07:06.823 --> 07:09.212 align:start position:0%
 
He<00:08:40.240><c> paid</c><00:08:40.479><c> the</c><00:08:40.640><c> boy</c><00:08:40.800><c> a</c><00:08:41.039><c> shilling</c><00:08:41.440><c> per</c><00:08:41.680><c> tooth</c><00:08:42.159><c> on</c>

07:09.212 --> 07:09.222 align:start position:0%
He paid the boy a shilling per tooth on
 

07:09.222 --> 07:11.212 align:start position:0%
He paid the boy a shilling per tooth on
condition<00:08:42.959><c> that</c><00:08:43.200><c> he'd</c><00:08:43.440><c> take</c><00:08:43.599><c> him</c><00:08:43.760><c> back</c><00:08:44.000><c> to</c><00:08:44.159><c> the</c>

07:11.212 --> 07:11.222 align:start position:0%
condition that he'd take him back to the
 

07:11.222 --> 07:13.613 align:start position:0%
condition that he'd take him back to the
exact<00:08:44.800><c> place</c><00:08:45.120><c> where</c><00:08:45.360><c> he</c><00:08:45.600><c> found</c><00:08:45.839><c> them.</c><00:08:46.399><c> After</c>

07:13.613 --> 07:13.623 align:start position:0%
exact place where he found them. After
 

07:13.623 --> 07:15.613 align:start position:0%
exact place where he found them. After
school<00:08:47.120><c> finished,</c><00:08:47.600><c> Ge</c><00:08:48.000><c> took</c><00:08:48.240><c> Broom</c><00:08:48.560><c> to</c><00:08:48.720><c> a</c>

07:15.613 --> 07:15.623 align:start position:0%
school finished, Ge took Broom to a
 

07:15.623 --> 07:18.573 align:start position:0%
school finished, Ge took Broom to a
hilltop<00:08:49.279><c> on</c><00:08:49.519><c> a</c><00:08:49.680><c> farm</c><00:08:50.000><c> called</c><00:08:50.320><c> Cromry.</c><00:08:51.200><c> CromDry</c>

07:18.573 --> 07:18.583 align:start position:0%
hilltop on a farm called Cromry. CromDry
 

07:18.583 --> 07:20.813 align:start position:0%
hilltop on a farm called Cromry. CromDry
means<00:08:52.000><c> crooked</c><00:08:52.480><c> turn</c><00:08:52.720><c> in</c><00:08:52.880><c> Africans.</c><00:08:53.839><c> And</c>

07:20.813 --> 07:20.823 align:start position:0%
means crooked turn in Africans. And
 

07:20.823 --> 07:23.053 align:start position:0%
means crooked turn in Africans. And
there,<00:08:54.480><c> Broom</c><00:08:54.959><c> found</c><00:08:55.279><c> even</c><00:08:55.600><c> more</c><00:08:55.920><c> bone</c>

07:23.053 --> 07:23.063 align:start position:0%
there, Broom found even more bone
 

07:23.063 --> 07:25.453 align:start position:0%
there, Broom found even more bone
fragments,<00:08:56.959><c> and</c><00:08:57.120><c> paleocientists</c><00:08:58.160><c> have</c><00:08:58.399><c> found</c>

07:25.453 --> 07:25.463 align:start position:0%
fragments, and paleocientists have found
 

07:25.463 --> 07:28.813 align:start position:0%
fragments, and paleocientists have found
yet<00:08:58.959><c> more</c><00:08:59.360><c> in</c><00:08:59.600><c> the</c><00:08:59.760><c> area</c><00:09:00.320><c> over</c><00:09:00.560><c> the</c><00:09:00.800><c> years.</c><00:09:01.839><c> The</c>

07:28.813 --> 07:28.823 align:start position:0%
yet more in the area over the years. The
 

07:28.823 --> 07:31.053 align:start position:0%
yet more in the area over the years. The
teeth<00:09:02.320><c> were</c><00:09:02.480><c> unusual,</c><00:09:03.440><c> different</c><00:09:03.760><c> from</c><00:09:04.000><c> any</c>

07:31.053 --> 07:31.063 align:start position:0%
teeth were unusual, different from any
 

07:31.063 --> 07:33.053 align:start position:0%
teeth were unusual, different from any
Orolopycus<00:09:05.200><c> teeth</c><00:09:05.440><c> that</c><00:09:05.600><c> had</c><00:09:05.839><c> been</c><00:09:06.000><c> found</c>

07:33.053 --> 07:33.063 align:start position:0%
Orolopycus teeth that had been found
 

07:33.063 --> 07:36.092 align:start position:0%
Orolopycus teeth that had been found
before.<00:09:07.279><c> The</c><00:09:07.440><c> preolars</c><00:09:08.240><c> in</c><00:09:08.399><c> particular</c><00:09:08.959><c> were</c>

07:36.092 --> 07:36.102 align:start position:0%
before. The preolars in particular were
 

07:36.102 --> 07:38.413 align:start position:0%
before. The preolars in particular were
massive.<00:09:10.080><c> Indeed,</c><00:09:10.399><c> Broom</c><00:09:10.800><c> described</c><00:09:11.200><c> them</c><00:09:11.360><c> as</c>

07:38.413 --> 07:38.423 align:start position:0%
massive. Indeed, Broom described them as
 

07:38.423 --> 07:40.092 align:start position:0%
massive. Indeed, Broom described them as
about<00:09:11.839><c> half</c><00:09:12.080><c> as</c><00:09:12.320><c> large</c><00:09:12.560><c> again</c><00:09:12.880><c> as</c><00:09:13.120><c> the</c>

07:40.092 --> 07:40.102 align:start position:0%
about half as large again as the
 

07:40.102 --> 07:42.413 align:start position:0%
about half as large again as the
Orolopycus<00:09:14.080><c> teeth</c><00:09:14.320><c> he</c><00:09:14.480><c> had</c><00:09:14.640><c> found</c><00:09:14.880><c> before.</c>

07:42.413 --> 07:42.423 align:start position:0%
Orolopycus teeth he had found before.
 

07:42.423 --> 07:44.173 align:start position:0%
Orolopycus teeth he had found before.
And<00:09:15.760><c> yet,</c><00:09:16.000><c> he</c><00:09:16.160><c> said</c><00:09:16.240><c> the</c><00:09:16.399><c> canines</c><00:09:17.120><c> were</c>

07:44.173 --> 07:44.183 align:start position:0%
And yet, he said the canines were
 

07:44.183 --> 07:47.212 align:start position:0%
And yet, he said the canines were
remarkably<00:09:18.080><c> small.</c><00:09:19.120><c> This</c><00:09:19.440><c> strange</c><00:09:19.920><c> creature</c>

07:47.212 --> 07:47.222 align:start position:0%
remarkably small. This strange creature
 

07:47.222 --> 07:49.373 align:start position:0%
remarkably small. This strange creature
had<00:09:20.560><c> a</c><00:09:20.800><c> bony</c><00:09:21.200><c> ridge</c><00:09:21.519><c> that</c><00:09:21.760><c> ran</c><00:09:22.000><c> up</c><00:09:22.160><c> the</c><00:09:22.240><c> back</c><00:09:22.399><c> of</c>

07:49.373 --> 07:49.383 align:start position:0%
had a bony ridge that ran up the back of
 

07:49.383 --> 07:52.173 align:start position:0%
had a bony ridge that ran up the back of
its<00:09:22.800><c> skull,</c><00:09:23.440><c> a</c><00:09:23.600><c> bit</c><00:09:23.760><c> like</c><00:09:23.920><c> a</c><00:09:24.080><c> fin.</c><00:09:24.959><c> The</c><00:09:25.120><c> juror</c>

07:52.173 --> 07:52.183 align:start position:0%
its skull, a bit like a fin. The juror
 

07:52.183 --> 07:54.013 align:start position:0%
its skull, a bit like a fin. The juror
and<00:09:25.600><c> teeth</c><00:09:25.839><c> that</c><00:09:26.080><c> large</c><00:09:26.480><c> must</c><00:09:26.640><c> have</c><00:09:26.800><c> attached</c>

07:54.013 --> 07:54.023 align:start position:0%
and teeth that large must have attached
 

07:54.023 --> 07:56.332 align:start position:0%
and teeth that large must have attached
to<00:09:27.440><c> strong</c><00:09:27.760><c> jaw</c><00:09:28.080><c> muscles.</c><00:09:28.720><c> And</c><00:09:28.880><c> the</c><00:09:29.120><c> ridge</c>

07:56.332 --> 07:56.342 align:start position:0%
to strong jaw muscles. And the ridge
 

07:56.342 --> 07:58.573 align:start position:0%
to strong jaw muscles. And the ridge
called<00:09:29.760><c> the</c><00:09:29.920><c> sagittal</c><00:09:30.480><c> crest</c><00:09:30.959><c> gave</c><00:09:31.200><c> the</c><00:09:31.360><c> jaw</c>

07:58.573 --> 07:58.583 align:start position:0%
called the sagittal crest gave the jaw
 

07:58.583 --> 08:00.332 align:start position:0%
called the sagittal crest gave the jaw
strength<00:09:32.080><c> to</c><00:09:32.320><c> crush</c><00:09:32.640><c> food</c><00:09:32.880><c> against</c><00:09:33.200><c> those</c>

08:00.332 --> 08:00.342 align:start position:0%
strength to crush food against those
 

08:00.342 --> 08:03.053 align:start position:0%
strength to crush food against those
massive<00:09:33.920><c> teeth.</c><00:09:34.880><c> And</c><00:09:35.120><c> indeed</c><00:09:35.440><c> the</c><00:09:35.680><c> teeth</c><00:09:36.000><c> were</c>

08:03.053 --> 08:03.063 align:start position:0%
massive teeth. And indeed the teeth were
 

08:03.063 --> 08:05.772 align:start position:0%
massive teeth. And indeed the teeth were
absolutely<00:09:36.959><c> giant,</c><00:09:37.920><c> sometimes</c><00:09:38.399><c> as</c><00:09:38.560><c> much</c><00:09:38.720><c> as</c>

08:05.772 --> 08:05.782 align:start position:0%
absolutely giant, sometimes as much as
 

08:05.782 --> 08:07.613 align:start position:0%
absolutely giant, sometimes as much as
four<00:09:39.200><c> times</c><00:09:39.600><c> the</c><00:09:39.839><c> size</c><00:09:40.000><c> of</c><00:09:40.160><c> our</c><00:09:40.399><c> chewing</c>

08:07.613 --> 08:07.623 align:start position:0%
four times the size of our chewing
 

08:07.623 --> 08:09.693 align:start position:0%
four times the size of our chewing
teeth.<00:09:41.600><c> There</c><00:09:41.760><c> was</c><00:09:41.920><c> no</c><00:09:42.080><c> doubt</c><00:09:42.399><c> that</c><00:09:42.640><c> this</c>

08:09.693 --> 08:09.703 align:start position:0%
teeth. There was no doubt that this
 

08:09.703 --> 08:11.533 align:start position:0%
teeth. There was no doubt that this
creature<00:09:43.360><c> could</c><00:09:43.519><c> chew</c><00:09:43.839><c> better</c><00:09:44.080><c> than</c><00:09:44.320><c> any</c><00:09:44.560><c> of</c>

08:11.533 --> 08:11.543 align:start position:0%
creature could chew better than any of
 

08:11.543 --> 08:18.893 align:start position:0%
creature could chew better than any of
the<00:09:44.880><c> other</c><00:09:45.040><c> hominins</c><00:09:45.839><c> discovered</c><00:09:46.320><c> so</c><00:09:46.640><c> far.</c>

08:18.893 --> 08:18.903 align:start position:0%
 
 

08:18.903 --> 08:21.133 align:start position:0%
 
Fossilized<00:09:52.800><c> teeth</c><00:09:53.120><c> can</c><00:09:53.360><c> tell</c><00:09:53.440><c> us</c><00:09:53.600><c> a</c><00:09:53.839><c> good</c><00:09:54.000><c> deal</c>

08:21.133 --> 08:21.143 align:start position:0%
Fossilized teeth can tell us a good deal
 

08:21.143 --> 08:23.212 align:start position:0%
Fossilized teeth can tell us a good deal
about<00:09:54.560><c> the</c><00:09:54.800><c> diet</c><00:09:55.040><c> and</c><00:09:55.360><c> lifestyle</c><00:09:55.920><c> of</c><00:09:56.160><c> their</c>

08:23.212 --> 08:23.222 align:start position:0%
about the diet and lifestyle of their
 

08:23.222 --> 08:25.453 align:start position:0%
about the diet and lifestyle of their
owner.<00:09:56.959><c> A</c><00:09:57.200><c> mouthful</c><00:09:57.600><c> of</c><00:09:57.680><c> canines</c><00:09:58.320><c> cannot</c>

08:25.453 --> 08:25.463 align:start position:0%
owner. A mouthful of canines cannot
 

08:25.463 --> 08:27.533 align:start position:0%
owner. A mouthful of canines cannot
munch<00:09:58.959><c> on</c><00:09:59.200><c> grasses,</c><00:09:59.920><c> while</c><00:10:00.080><c> a</c><00:10:00.240><c> jaw-</c><00:10:00.560><c> packed</c>

08:27.533 --> 08:27.543 align:start position:0%
munch on grasses, while a jaw- packed
 

08:27.543 --> 08:29.533 align:start position:0%
munch on grasses, while a jaw- packed
with<00:10:00.880><c> mullers</c><00:10:01.360><c> cannot</c><00:10:01.760><c> pierce</c><00:10:02.160><c> and</c><00:10:02.320><c> tear</c>

08:29.533 --> 08:29.543 align:start position:0%
with mullers cannot pierce and tear
 

08:29.543 --> 08:32.173 align:start position:0%
with mullers cannot pierce and tear
flesh.<00:10:03.839><c> This</c><00:10:04.080><c> creature's</c><00:10:04.640><c> teeth</c><00:10:04.959><c> meant</c><00:10:05.200><c> that</c>

08:32.173 --> 08:32.183 align:start position:0%
flesh. This creature's teeth meant that
 

08:32.183 --> 08:34.332 align:start position:0%
flesh. This creature's teeth meant that
it<00:10:05.680><c> clearly</c><00:10:06.000><c> developed</c><00:10:06.399><c> to</c><00:10:06.560><c> eat</c><00:10:06.800><c> grasses</c><00:10:07.279><c> and</c>

08:34.332 --> 08:34.342 align:start position:0%
it clearly developed to eat grasses and
 

08:34.342 --> 08:36.652 align:start position:0%
it clearly developed to eat grasses and
plants,<00:10:08.240><c> limiting</c><00:10:08.640><c> its</c><00:10:08.959><c> food</c><00:10:09.120><c> options</c><00:10:09.600><c> and</c>

08:36.652 --> 08:36.662 align:start position:0%
plants, limiting its food options and
 

08:36.662 --> 08:38.813 align:start position:0%
plants, limiting its food options and
its<00:10:10.000><c> ability</c><00:10:10.320><c> to</c><00:10:10.560><c> consume</c><00:10:10.959><c> the</c><00:10:11.200><c> protein</c><00:10:11.680><c> and</c>

08:38.813 --> 08:38.823 align:start position:0%
its ability to consume the protein and
 

08:38.823 --> 08:41.053 align:start position:0%
its ability to consume the protein and
fat-rich<00:10:12.560><c> meat</c><00:10:12.800><c> of</c><00:10:13.040><c> other</c><00:10:13.279><c> creatures.</c><00:10:14.000><c> That's</c>

08:41.053 --> 08:41.063 align:start position:0%
fat-rich meat of other creatures. That's
 

08:41.063 --> 08:42.892 align:start position:0%
fat-rich meat of other creatures. That's
not<00:10:14.320><c> to</c><00:10:14.480><c> say</c><00:10:14.640><c> it</c><00:10:14.880><c> never</c><00:10:15.040><c> ate</c><00:10:15.360><c> meat,</c><00:10:15.600><c> but</c><00:10:15.760><c> it</c><00:10:15.920><c> was</c>

08:42.892 --> 08:42.902 align:start position:0%
not to say it never ate meat, but it was
 

08:42.902 --> 08:46.332 align:start position:0%
not to say it never ate meat, but it was
primed<00:10:16.560><c> for</c><00:10:16.800><c> plants,</c><00:10:17.519><c> berries,</c><00:10:18.000><c> and</c><00:10:18.320><c> nuts.</c><00:10:19.279><c> It</c>

08:46.332 --> 08:46.342 align:start position:0%
primed for plants, berries, and nuts. It
 

08:46.342 --> 08:49.133 align:start position:0%
primed for plants, berries, and nuts. It
had<00:10:19.680><c> evolved</c><00:10:20.240><c> to</c><00:10:20.480><c> be</c><00:10:20.560><c> an</c><00:10:20.800><c> expert</c><00:10:21.279><c> chewer.</c>

08:49.133 --> 08:49.143 align:start position:0%
had evolved to be an expert chewer.
 

08:49.143 --> 08:51.373 align:start position:0%
had evolved to be an expert chewer.
Broom<00:10:22.640><c> called</c><00:10:22.880><c> the</c><00:10:23.040><c> creature</c><00:10:23.680><c> paranthropus</c>

08:51.373 --> 08:51.383 align:start position:0%
Broom called the creature paranthropus
 

08:51.383 --> 08:53.693 align:start position:0%
Broom called the creature paranthropus
robustus<00:10:25.360><c> because</c><00:10:25.600><c> he</c><00:10:25.920><c> saw</c><00:10:26.079><c> it</c><00:10:26.240><c> as</c><00:10:26.399><c> a</c><00:10:26.640><c> side</c>

08:53.693 --> 08:53.703 align:start position:0%
robustus because he saw it as a side
 

08:53.703 --> 08:55.933 align:start position:0%
robustus because he saw it as a side
branch<00:10:27.200><c> of</c><00:10:27.440><c> humanity</c><00:10:28.160><c> rather</c><00:10:28.480><c> than</c><00:10:28.640><c> on</c><00:10:28.880><c> our</c>

08:55.933 --> 08:55.943 align:start position:0%
branch of humanity rather than on our
 

08:55.943 --> 08:57.613 align:start position:0%
branch of humanity rather than on our
direct<00:10:29.519><c> ancestral</c><00:10:30.160><c> line</c><00:10:30.480><c> with</c><00:10:30.640><c> the</c>

08:57.613 --> 08:57.623 align:start position:0%
direct ancestral line with the
 

08:57.623 --> 08:59.373 align:start position:0%
direct ancestral line with the
orolopithesines.

08:59.373 --> 08:59.383 align:start position:0%
orolopithesines.
 

08:59.383 --> 09:01.772 align:start position:0%
orolopithesines.
Paranthropus<00:10:33.360><c> means</c><00:10:33.680><c> beside</c><00:10:34.160><c> man</c><00:10:34.560><c> while</c><00:10:34.720><c> its</c>

09:01.772 --> 09:01.782 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus means beside man while its
 

09:01.782 --> 09:04.253 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus means beside man while its
skull,<00:10:35.360><c> jaws,</c><00:10:35.760><c> and</c><00:10:35.920><c> teeth</c><00:10:36.320><c> were</c><00:10:36.640><c> robust</c>

09:04.253 --> 09:04.263 align:start position:0%
skull, jaws, and teeth were robust
 

09:04.263 --> 09:06.092 align:start position:0%
skull, jaws, and teeth were robust
compared<00:10:37.760><c> to</c><00:10:37.920><c> the</c><00:10:38.079><c> other</c><00:10:38.320><c> humanlike</c><00:10:38.880><c> fossils</c>

09:06.092 --> 09:06.102 align:start position:0%
compared to the other humanlike fossils
 

09:06.102 --> 09:08.813 align:start position:0%
compared to the other humanlike fossils
that<00:10:39.519><c> had</c><00:10:39.760><c> been</c><00:10:39.920><c> found</c><00:10:40.240><c> so</c><00:10:40.560><c> far.</c><00:10:41.440><c> And</c><00:10:41.600><c> indeed,</c>

09:08.813 --> 09:08.823 align:start position:0%
that had been found so far. And indeed,
 

09:08.823 --> 09:11.133 align:start position:0%
that had been found so far. And indeed,
when<00:10:42.240><c> announcing</c><00:10:42.720><c> the</c><00:10:42.959><c> discovery,</c><00:10:43.680><c> Broom</c><00:10:44.079><c> was</c>

09:11.133 --> 09:11.143 align:start position:0%
when announcing the discovery, Broom was
 

09:11.143 --> 09:13.212 align:start position:0%
when announcing the discovery, Broom was
careful<00:10:44.800><c> not</c><00:10:45.040><c> to</c><00:10:45.200><c> make</c><00:10:45.360><c> the</c><00:10:45.519><c> same</c><00:10:45.760><c> mistake</c><00:10:46.079><c> as</c>

09:13.212 --> 09:13.222 align:start position:0%
careful not to make the same mistake as
 

09:13.222 --> 09:15.453 align:start position:0%
careful not to make the same mistake as
Dart.<00:10:47.360><c> He</c><00:10:47.519><c> didn't</c><00:10:47.760><c> go</c><00:10:47.920><c> straight</c><00:10:48.320><c> to</c>

09:15.453 --> 09:15.463 align:start position:0%
Dart. He didn't go straight to
 

09:15.463 --> 09:17.613 align:start position:0%
Dart. He didn't go straight to
scientific<00:10:49.200><c> journals</c><00:10:49.600><c> with</c><00:10:49.760><c> his</c><00:10:50.000><c> discovery.</c>

09:17.613 --> 09:17.623 align:start position:0%
scientific journals with his discovery.
 

09:17.623 --> 09:19.693 align:start position:0%
scientific journals with his discovery.
Instead,<00:10:51.360><c> it</c><00:10:51.600><c> was</c><00:10:51.760><c> first</c><00:10:52.000><c> published</c><00:10:52.480><c> in</c><00:10:52.720><c> the</c>

09:19.693 --> 09:19.703 align:start position:0%
Instead, it was first published in the
 

09:19.703 --> 09:21.533 align:start position:0%
Instead, it was first published in the
Illustrated<00:10:53.440><c> London</c><00:10:53.920><c> News</c><00:10:54.399><c> with</c><00:10:54.560><c> the</c>

09:21.533 --> 09:21.543 align:start position:0%
Illustrated London News with the
 

09:21.543 --> 09:23.772 align:start position:0%
Illustrated London News with the
headline,<00:10:55.440><c> "Missing</c><00:10:55.920><c> link</c><00:10:56.399><c> no</c><00:10:56.640><c> longer</c>

09:23.772 --> 09:23.782 align:start position:0%
headline, "Missing link no longer
 

09:23.782 --> 09:26.413 align:start position:0%
headline, "Missing link no longer
missing,"<00:10:57.519><c> causing</c><00:10:58.079><c> some</c><00:10:58.399><c> controversy.</c>

09:26.413 --> 09:26.423 align:start position:0%
missing," causing some controversy.
 

09:26.423 --> 09:27.853 align:start position:0%
missing," causing some controversy.
Multiple<00:11:00.079><c> debates</c><00:11:00.480><c> have</c><00:11:00.640><c> surrounded</c>

09:27.853 --> 09:27.863 align:start position:0%
Multiple debates have surrounded
 

09:27.863 --> 09:29.613 align:start position:0%
Multiple debates have surrounded
Paranthropus<00:11:01.760><c> throughout</c><00:11:02.079><c> the</c><00:11:02.240><c> time</c><00:11:02.399><c> of</c><00:11:02.560><c> its</c>

09:29.613 --> 09:29.623 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus throughout the time of its
 

09:29.623 --> 09:32.332 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus throughout the time of its
study.<00:11:03.519><c> What</c><00:11:03.760><c> exactly</c><00:11:04.160><c> was</c><00:11:04.320><c> it</c><00:11:04.560><c> capable</c><00:11:04.880><c> of?</c>

09:32.332 --> 09:32.342 align:start position:0%
study. What exactly was it capable of?
 

09:32.342 --> 09:34.493 align:start position:0%
study. What exactly was it capable of?
How<00:11:05.839><c> close?</c><00:11:06.320><c> And</c><00:11:06.480><c> what</c><00:11:06.720><c> type</c><00:11:06.880><c> of</c><00:11:07.040><c> relative</c><00:11:07.440><c> to</c>

09:34.493 --> 09:34.503 align:start position:0%
How close? And what type of relative to
 

09:34.503 --> 09:36.573 align:start position:0%
How close? And what type of relative to
humans<00:11:08.079><c> was</c><00:11:08.320><c> it?</c><00:11:08.800><c> And</c><00:11:08.959><c> should</c><00:11:09.120><c> it</c><00:11:09.279><c> even</c><00:11:09.600><c> be</c>

09:36.573 --> 09:36.583 align:start position:0%
humans was it? And should it even be
 

09:36.583 --> 09:39.212 align:start position:0%
humans was it? And should it even be
given<00:11:10.000><c> its</c><00:11:10.320><c> own</c><00:11:10.480><c> genus?</c><00:11:11.519><c> Some</c><00:11:11.760><c> scientists</c>

09:39.212 --> 09:39.222 align:start position:0%
given its own genus? Some scientists
 

09:39.222 --> 09:40.892 align:start position:0%
given its own genus? Some scientists
disagree<00:11:12.880><c> with</c><00:11:13.120><c> broom</c><00:11:13.600><c> and</c><00:11:13.760><c> think</c><00:11:13.920><c> the</c>

09:40.892 --> 09:40.902 align:start position:0%
disagree with broom and think the
 

09:40.902 --> 09:42.652 align:start position:0%
disagree with broom and think the
paranthropus<00:11:14.720><c> robustus</c><00:11:15.360><c> are</c><00:11:15.519><c> just</c><00:11:15.680><c> a</c>

09:42.652 --> 09:42.662 align:start position:0%
paranthropus robustus are just a
 

09:42.662 --> 09:44.973 align:start position:0%
paranthropus robustus are just a
slightly<00:11:16.160><c> odd</c><00:11:16.560><c> orolopythesine.</c><00:11:17.600><c> And</c><00:11:17.760><c> so</c><00:11:17.920><c> they</c>

09:44.973 --> 09:44.983 align:start position:0%
slightly odd orolopythesine. And so they
 

09:44.983 --> 09:46.573 align:start position:0%
slightly odd orolopythesine. And so they
call<00:11:18.320><c> paranthropus</c><00:11:19.040><c> species</c>

09:46.573 --> 09:46.583 align:start position:0%
call paranthropus species
 

09:46.583 --> 09:48.973 align:start position:0%
call paranthropus species
oustropolipythecus<00:11:20.720><c> robustus.</c><00:11:21.760><c> But</c><00:11:22.000><c> one</c>

09:48.973 --> 09:48.983 align:start position:0%
oustropolipythecus robustus. But one
 

09:48.983 --> 09:50.813 align:start position:0%
oustropolipythecus robustus. But one
thing<00:11:22.320><c> they</c><00:11:22.480><c> do</c><00:11:22.640><c> agree</c><00:11:22.959><c> on</c><00:11:23.120><c> is</c><00:11:23.360><c> that</c><00:11:23.600><c> groom's</c>

09:50.813 --> 09:50.823 align:start position:0%
thing they do agree on is that groom's
 

09:50.823 --> 09:53.373 align:start position:0%
thing they do agree on is that groom's
homminin<00:11:24.560><c> was</c><00:11:24.880><c> more</c><00:11:25.200><c> robust,</c><00:11:25.839><c> more</c><00:11:26.079><c> heavily</c>

09:53.373 --> 09:53.383 align:start position:0%
homminin was more robust, more heavily
 

09:53.383 --> 09:56.253 align:start position:0%
homminin was more robust, more heavily
built<00:11:27.040><c> than</c><00:11:27.360><c> other</c><00:11:27.920><c> more</c><00:11:28.240><c> grassile</c><00:11:28.800><c> homminin</c>

09:56.253 --> 09:56.263 align:start position:0%
built than other more grassile homminin
 

09:56.263 --> 09:59.533 align:start position:0%
built than other more grassile homminin
species<00:11:30.480><c> like</c><00:11:30.720><c> us</c><00:11:30.959><c> today</c><00:11:31.519><c> or</c><00:11:31.839><c> Raymond</c><00:11:32.240><c> darts</c>

09:59.533 --> 09:59.543 align:start position:0%
species like us today or Raymond darts
 

09:59.543 --> 10:01.293 align:start position:0%
species like us today or Raymond darts
oropithesines.

10:01.293 --> 10:01.303 align:start position:0%
oropithesines.
 

10:01.303 --> 10:03.212 align:start position:0%
oropithesines.
The<00:11:34.720><c> term</c><00:11:34.959><c> grassile</c><00:11:35.680><c> doesn't</c><00:11:35.920><c> actually</c><00:11:36.240><c> have</c>

10:03.212 --> 10:03.222 align:start position:0%
The term grassile doesn't actually have
 

10:03.222 --> 10:05.533 align:start position:0%
The term grassile doesn't actually have
anything<00:11:36.720><c> to</c><00:11:36.959><c> do</c><00:11:37.120><c> with</c><00:11:37.360><c> how</c><00:11:37.600><c> they</c><00:11:37.839><c> moved.</c><00:11:38.399><c> It's</c>

10:05.533 --> 10:05.543 align:start position:0%
anything to do with how they moved. It's
 

10:05.543 --> 10:08.092 align:start position:0%
anything to do with how they moved. It's
all<00:11:38.880><c> about</c><00:11:39.120><c> their</c><00:11:39.440><c> teeth,</c><00:11:40.000><c> jaws,</c><00:11:40.560><c> and</c><00:11:40.880><c> chewing</c>

10:08.092 --> 10:08.102 align:start position:0%
all about their teeth, jaws, and chewing
 

10:08.102 --> 10:10.332 align:start position:0%
all about their teeth, jaws, and chewing
muscles.<00:11:42.240><c> South</c><00:11:42.560><c> Africa's</c><00:11:42.959><c> other</c><00:11:43.200><c> southern</c>

10:10.332 --> 10:10.342 align:start position:0%
muscles. South Africa's other southern
 

10:10.342 --> 10:12.813 align:start position:0%
muscles. South Africa's other southern
apes<00:11:44.000><c> such</c><00:11:44.160><c> as</c><00:11:44.240><c> Oralopycus</c><00:11:45.120><c> Africanis</c><00:11:45.839><c> and</c>

10:12.813 --> 10:12.823 align:start position:0%
apes such as Oralopycus Africanis and
 

10:12.823 --> 10:15.133 align:start position:0%
apes such as Oralopycus Africanis and
Oralopythecus<00:11:46.880><c> transfences</c><00:11:47.839><c> had</c><00:11:48.000><c> jewels</c>

10:15.133 --> 10:15.143 align:start position:0%
Oralopythecus transfences had jewels
 

10:15.143 --> 10:17.533 align:start position:0%
Oralopythecus transfences had jewels
that<00:11:48.480><c> were</c><00:11:48.560><c> much</c><00:11:48.800><c> more</c><00:11:49.040><c> slender.</c><00:11:50.320><c> And</c><00:11:50.480><c> so</c>

10:17.533 --> 10:17.543 align:start position:0%
that were much more slender. And so
 

10:17.543 --> 10:19.453 align:start position:0%
that were much more slender. And so
whether<00:11:50.959><c> we</c><00:11:51.120><c> grant</c><00:11:51.519><c> Paranthropus</c><00:11:52.240><c> its</c><00:11:52.480><c> own</c>

10:19.453 --> 10:19.463 align:start position:0%
whether we grant Paranthropus its own
 

10:19.463 --> 10:22.253 align:start position:0%
whether we grant Paranthropus its own
genus<00:11:53.120><c> or</c><00:11:53.360><c> not,</c><00:11:54.000><c> Robert</c><00:11:54.399><c> Broom</c><00:11:54.800><c> had</c><00:11:55.040><c> certainly</c>

10:22.253 --> 10:22.263 align:start position:0%
genus or not, Robert Broom had certainly
 

10:22.263 --> 10:24.652 align:start position:0%
genus or not, Robert Broom had certainly
discovered<00:11:55.920><c> a</c><00:11:56.160><c> new</c><00:11:56.320><c> lineage</c><00:11:56.720><c> of</c><00:11:56.880><c> hominins,</c>

10:24.652 --> 10:24.662 align:start position:0%
discovered a new lineage of hominins,
 

10:24.662 --> 10:26.973 align:start position:0%
discovered a new lineage of hominins,
and<00:11:58.000><c> the</c><00:11:58.160><c> puzzle</c><00:11:58.480><c> of</c><00:11:58.640><c> this</c><00:11:58.880><c> lineage</c><00:11:59.600><c> was</c><00:11:59.839><c> only</c>

10:26.973 --> 10:26.983 align:start position:0%
and the puzzle of this lineage was only
 

10:26.983 --> 10:32.652 align:start position:0%
and the puzzle of this lineage was only
just<00:12:00.399><c> beginning.</c>

10:32.652 --> 10:32.662 align:start position:0%
 
 

10:32.662 --> 10:35.853 align:start position:0%
 
A<00:12:06.160><c> clue</c><00:12:06.399><c> came</c><00:12:06.639><c> a</c><00:12:06.880><c> decade</c><00:12:07.200><c> later</c><00:12:07.680><c> in</c><00:12:08.000><c> 1948</c><00:12:08.800><c> as</c>

10:35.853 --> 10:35.863 align:start position:0%
A clue came a decade later in 1948 as
 

10:35.863 --> 10:37.933 align:start position:0%
A clue came a decade later in 1948 as
Broom<00:12:09.360><c> and</c><00:12:09.519><c> his</c><00:12:09.680><c> colleagues</c><00:12:10.160><c> found</c><00:12:10.480><c> even</c><00:12:10.800><c> more</c>

10:37.933 --> 10:37.943 align:start position:0%
Broom and his colleagues found even more
 

10:37.943 --> 10:40.813 align:start position:0%
Broom and his colleagues found even more
Paranthropus<00:12:11.839><c> fossils,</c><00:12:12.480><c> including</c><00:12:13.040><c> a</c><00:12:13.279><c> jaw.</c>

10:40.813 --> 10:40.823 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus fossils, including a jaw.
 

10:40.823 --> 10:42.573 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus fossils, including a jaw.
This<00:12:14.240><c> time</c><00:12:14.399><c> the</c><00:12:14.639><c> fossils</c><00:12:15.040><c> came</c><00:12:15.120><c> from</c><00:12:15.360><c> Swart</c>

10:42.573 --> 10:42.583 align:start position:0%
This time the fossils came from Swart
 

10:42.583 --> 10:44.493 align:start position:0%
This time the fossils came from Swart
Cran's<00:12:16.079><c> cave,</c><00:12:16.560><c> which</c><00:12:16.800><c> is</c><00:12:16.959><c> another</c><00:12:17.200><c> site</c><00:12:17.519><c> in</c>

10:44.493 --> 10:44.503 align:start position:0%
Cran's cave, which is another site in
 

10:44.503 --> 10:46.493 align:start position:0%
Cran's cave, which is another site in
the<00:12:17.839><c> same</c><00:12:18.079><c> fossilrich</c><00:12:18.800><c> region</c><00:12:19.200><c> nestled</c><00:12:19.600><c> in</c>

10:46.493 --> 10:46.503 align:start position:0%
the same fossilrich region nestled in
 

10:46.503 --> 10:48.973 align:start position:0%
the same fossilrich region nestled in
the<00:12:19.839><c> rolling</c><00:12:20.240><c> savas</c><00:12:20.720><c> of</c><00:12:20.880><c> South</c><00:12:21.200><c> Africa.</c><00:12:21.760><c> Broom</c>

10:48.973 --> 10:48.983 align:start position:0%
the rolling savas of South Africa. Broom
 

10:48.983 --> 10:50.652 align:start position:0%
the rolling savas of South Africa. Broom
tried<00:12:22.399><c> to</c><00:12:22.560><c> argue</c><00:12:22.800><c> that</c><00:12:22.959><c> it</c><00:12:23.120><c> was</c><00:12:23.200><c> a</c><00:12:23.360><c> new</c><00:12:23.519><c> type</c><00:12:23.680><c> of</c>

10:50.652 --> 10:50.662 align:start position:0%
tried to argue that it was a new type of
 

10:50.662 --> 10:52.332 align:start position:0%
tried to argue that it was a new type of
paranthropus.<00:12:24.639><c> He</c><00:12:24.880><c> even</c><00:12:25.040><c> named</c><00:12:25.279><c> it</c>

10:52.332 --> 10:52.342 align:start position:0%
paranthropus. He even named it
 

10:52.342 --> 10:54.413 align:start position:0%
paranthropus. He even named it
Paranthropus<00:12:26.160><c> Craidens,</c><00:12:26.880><c> but</c><00:12:27.040><c> the</c><00:12:27.200><c> creatures</c>

10:54.413 --> 10:54.423 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus Craidens, but the creatures
 

10:54.423 --> 10:56.253 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus Craidens, but the creatures
were<00:12:27.760><c> later</c><00:12:28.000><c> absorbed</c><00:12:28.480><c> into</c><00:12:28.720><c> Paranthropus</c>

10:56.253 --> 10:56.263 align:start position:0%
were later absorbed into Paranthropus
 

10:56.263 --> 10:58.892 align:start position:0%
were later absorbed into Paranthropus
robustus.<00:12:30.399><c> At</c><00:12:30.639><c> the</c><00:12:30.800><c> time,</c><00:12:31.200><c> scientists</c><00:12:31.680><c> agreed</c>

10:58.892 --> 10:58.902 align:start position:0%
robustus. At the time, scientists agreed
 

10:58.902 --> 11:00.652 align:start position:0%
robustus. At the time, scientists agreed
that<00:12:32.160><c> Paranthropus</c><00:12:32.880><c> was</c><00:12:33.040><c> rather</c><00:12:33.440><c> strange</c>

11:00.652 --> 11:00.662 align:start position:0%
that Paranthropus was rather strange
 

11:00.662 --> 11:02.733 align:start position:0%
that Paranthropus was rather strange
looking,<00:12:34.320><c> but</c><00:12:34.560><c> they</c><00:12:34.800><c> didn't</c><00:12:35.040><c> know</c><00:12:35.279><c> just</c><00:12:35.600><c> how</c>

11:02.733 --> 11:02.743 align:start position:0%
looking, but they didn't know just how
 

11:02.743 --> 11:04.973 align:start position:0%
looking, but they didn't know just how
strange<00:12:36.320><c> they</c><00:12:36.560><c> could</c><00:12:36.800><c> look.</c><00:12:37.680><c> Indeed,</c><00:12:38.000><c> they</c>

11:04.973 --> 11:04.983 align:start position:0%
strange they could look. Indeed, they
 

11:04.983 --> 11:06.892 align:start position:0%
strange they could look. Indeed, they
had<00:12:38.240><c> only</c><00:12:38.480><c> scraped</c><00:12:38.800><c> the</c><00:12:38.959><c> surface</c><00:12:39.519><c> of</c><00:12:39.680><c> what</c><00:12:39.839><c> a</c>

11:06.892 --> 11:06.902 align:start position:0%
had only scraped the surface of what a
 

11:06.902 --> 11:13.293 align:start position:0%
had only scraped the surface of what a
robust<00:12:40.480><c> homminin</c><00:12:41.279><c> could</c><00:12:41.600><c> look</c><00:12:41.760><c> like.</c>

11:13.293 --> 11:13.303 align:start position:0%
 
 

11:13.303 --> 11:16.253 align:start position:0%
 
In<00:12:46.800><c> 1959,</c><00:12:47.920><c> American</c><00:12:48.320><c> paleo</c><00:12:48.800><c> anthropologist</c>

11:16.253 --> 11:16.263 align:start position:0%
In 1959, American paleo anthropologist
 

11:16.263 --> 11:18.573 align:start position:0%
In 1959, American paleo anthropologist
Mary<00:12:49.760><c> Leaky</c><00:12:50.399><c> found</c><00:12:50.720><c> creatures</c><00:12:51.120><c> with</c><00:12:51.360><c> even</c>

11:18.573 --> 11:18.583 align:start position:0%
Mary Leaky found creatures with even
 

11:18.583 --> 11:21.373 align:start position:0%
Mary Leaky found creatures with even
larger<00:12:52.240><c> jaws</c><00:12:52.639><c> and</c><00:12:52.880><c> teeth</c><00:12:53.519><c> thousands</c><00:12:54.000><c> of</c><00:12:54.160><c> miles</c>

11:21.373 --> 11:21.383 align:start position:0%
larger jaws and teeth thousands of miles
 

11:21.383 --> 11:24.092 align:start position:0%
larger jaws and teeth thousands of miles
away<00:12:54.880><c> from</c><00:12:55.120><c> Crom</c><00:12:55.519><c> Dry</c><00:12:55.839><c> and</c><00:12:56.079><c> Sword</c><00:12:56.480><c> Crowns.</c>

11:24.092 --> 11:24.102 align:start position:0%
away from Crom Dry and Sword Crowns.
 

11:24.102 --> 11:26.332 align:start position:0%
away from Crom Dry and Sword Crowns.
Mary<00:12:57.600><c> and</c><00:12:57.839><c> her</c><00:12:58.000><c> husband</c><00:12:58.480><c> Louisis</c><00:12:58.800><c> Leaky</c><00:12:59.279><c> had</c>

11:26.332 --> 11:26.342 align:start position:0%
Mary and her husband Louisis Leaky had
 

11:26.342 --> 11:28.013 align:start position:0%
Mary and her husband Louisis Leaky had
been<00:12:59.680><c> digging</c><00:12:59.839><c> in</c><00:13:00.000><c> the</c><00:13:00.160><c> Old</c><00:13:00.480><c> Vi</c><00:13:00.720><c> Gorge</c><00:13:01.040><c> in</c>

11:28.013 --> 11:28.023 align:start position:0%
been digging in the Old Vi Gorge in
 

11:28.023 --> 11:31.293 align:start position:0%
been digging in the Old Vi Gorge in
Tanzania<00:13:01.920><c> since</c><00:13:02.240><c> the</c><00:13:02.480><c> 1930s.</c><00:13:03.920><c> Today,</c><00:13:04.320><c> the</c>

11:31.293 --> 11:31.303 align:start position:0%
Tanzania since the 1930s. Today, the
 

11:31.303 --> 11:33.693 align:start position:0%
Tanzania since the 1930s. Today, the
gorge<00:13:04.880><c> cuts</c><00:13:05.200><c> through</c><00:13:05.440><c> grasslands.</c><00:13:06.480><c> It's</c><00:13:06.720><c> a</c>

11:33.693 --> 11:33.703 align:start position:0%
gorge cuts through grasslands. It's a
 

11:33.703 --> 11:36.573 align:start position:0%
gorge cuts through grasslands. It's a
steep<00:13:07.200><c> ravine</c><00:13:07.680><c> about</c><00:13:08.079><c> 30</c><00:13:08.399><c> mi</c><00:13:08.800><c> long.</c><00:13:09.360><c> And</c><00:13:09.519><c> the</c>

11:36.573 --> 11:36.583 align:start position:0%
steep ravine about 30 mi long. And the
 

11:36.583 --> 11:38.733 align:start position:0%
steep ravine about 30 mi long. And the
sides<00:13:10.079><c> of</c><00:13:10.240><c> the</c><00:13:10.399><c> ravine</c><00:13:10.880><c> are</c><00:13:11.120><c> like</c><00:13:11.279><c> a</c><00:13:11.519><c> birthday</c>

11:38.733 --> 11:38.743 align:start position:0%
sides of the ravine are like a birthday
 

11:38.743 --> 11:41.373 align:start position:0%
sides of the ravine are like a birthday
cake<00:13:12.160><c> of</c><00:13:12.399><c> geology,</c><00:13:13.120><c> split</c><00:13:13.519><c> into</c><00:13:13.920><c> red,</c><00:13:14.320><c> cream,</c>

11:41.373 --> 11:41.383 align:start position:0%
cake of geology, split into red, cream,
 

11:41.383 --> 11:44.092 align:start position:0%
cake of geology, split into red, cream,
and<00:13:14.800><c> ochre</c><00:13:15.360><c> layers</c><00:13:15.760><c> that</c><00:13:16.000><c> each</c><00:13:16.320><c> trap</c><00:13:16.639><c> an</c><00:13:16.880><c> epoch</c>

11:44.092 --> 11:44.102 align:start position:0%
and ochre layers that each trap an epoch
 

11:44.102 --> 11:46.973 align:start position:0%
and ochre layers that each trap an epoch
of<00:13:17.440><c> time.</c><00:13:18.240><c> And</c><00:13:18.399><c> at</c><00:13:18.639><c> Old</c><00:13:19.120><c> Gorge,</c><00:13:19.600><c> the</c><00:13:19.680><c> Leakies</c>

11:46.973 --> 11:46.983 align:start position:0%
of time. And at Old Gorge, the Leakies
 

11:46.983 --> 11:49.533 align:start position:0%
of time. And at Old Gorge, the Leakies
had<00:13:20.399><c> so</c><00:13:20.639><c> far</c><00:13:21.040><c> mainly</c><00:13:21.360><c> found</c><00:13:21.680><c> extinct</c><00:13:22.160><c> mammals</c>

11:49.533 --> 11:49.543 align:start position:0%
had so far mainly found extinct mammals
 

11:49.543 --> 11:52.013 align:start position:0%
had so far mainly found extinct mammals
and<00:13:22.959><c> a</c><00:13:23.120><c> variety</c><00:13:23.440><c> of</c><00:13:23.600><c> stone</c><00:13:24.000><c> tools,</c><00:13:24.720><c> including</c>

11:52.013 --> 11:52.023 align:start position:0%
and a variety of stone tools, including
 

11:52.023 --> 11:54.652 align:start position:0%
and a variety of stone tools, including
handaxes.<00:13:26.320><c> However,</c><00:13:26.720><c> one</c><00:13:26.959><c> morning,</c><00:13:27.440><c> Mary</c>

11:54.652 --> 11:54.662 align:start position:0%
handaxes. However, one morning, Mary
 

11:54.662 --> 11:56.573 align:start position:0%
handaxes. However, one morning, Mary
went<00:13:28.000><c> for</c><00:13:28.160><c> a</c><00:13:28.320><c> walk</c><00:13:28.480><c> to</c><00:13:28.639><c> one</c><00:13:28.800><c> of</c><00:13:28.880><c> the</c><00:13:29.040><c> dig</c><00:13:29.279><c> sites</c>

11:56.573 --> 11:56.583 align:start position:0%
went for a walk to one of the dig sites
 

11:56.583 --> 11:58.652 align:start position:0%
went for a walk to one of the dig sites
and<00:13:30.000><c> noticed</c><00:13:30.320><c> a</c><00:13:30.480><c> bit</c><00:13:30.639><c> of</c><00:13:30.800><c> skull</c><00:13:31.360><c> sticking</c><00:13:31.680><c> out</c>

11:58.652 --> 11:58.662 align:start position:0%
and noticed a bit of skull sticking out
 

11:58.662 --> 12:00.892 align:start position:0%
and noticed a bit of skull sticking out
of<00:13:32.000><c> the</c><00:13:32.240><c> ground.</c><00:13:33.120><c> After</c><00:13:33.440><c> painstaking</c>

12:00.892 --> 12:00.902 align:start position:0%
of the ground. After painstaking
 

12:00.902 --> 12:02.892 align:start position:0%
of the ground. After painstaking
excavation,<00:13:34.959><c> she</c><00:13:35.200><c> found</c><00:13:35.519><c> that</c><00:13:35.760><c> there</c><00:13:35.920><c> was</c>

12:02.892 --> 12:02.902 align:start position:0%
excavation, she found that there was
 

12:02.902 --> 12:05.693 align:start position:0%
excavation, she found that there was
more<00:13:36.320><c> than</c><00:13:36.480><c> just</c><00:13:36.639><c> a</c><00:13:36.880><c> fragment</c><00:13:37.279><c> of</c><00:13:37.600><c> skull.</c><00:13:38.560><c> This</c>

12:05.693 --> 12:05.703 align:start position:0%
more than just a fragment of skull. This
 

12:05.703 --> 12:09.133 align:start position:0%
more than just a fragment of skull. This
was<00:13:39.040><c> a</c><00:13:39.360><c> new</c><00:13:39.600><c> species</c><00:13:40.240><c> of</c><00:13:40.560><c> homminin.</c><00:13:41.760><c> The</c><00:13:42.000><c> find</c>

12:09.133 --> 12:09.143 align:start position:0%
was a new species of homminin. The find
 

12:09.143 --> 12:11.293 align:start position:0%
was a new species of homminin. The find
was<00:13:42.560><c> nicknamed</c><00:13:43.040><c> the</c><00:13:43.279><c> nutcracker</c><00:13:43.920><c> man</c><00:13:44.240><c> because</c>

12:11.293 --> 12:11.303 align:start position:0%
was nicknamed the nutcracker man because
 

12:11.303 --> 12:13.053 align:start position:0%
was nicknamed the nutcracker man because
its<00:13:44.800><c> skull</c><00:13:45.040><c> and</c><00:13:45.279><c> teeth</c><00:13:45.680><c> looked</c><00:13:45.920><c> like</c><00:13:46.000><c> an</c>

12:13.053 --> 12:13.063 align:start position:0%
its skull and teeth looked like an
 

12:13.063 --> 12:15.212 align:start position:0%
its skull and teeth looked like an
old-fashioned<00:13:46.880><c> nutcracker.</c><00:13:47.760><c> Lewis</c><00:13:48.160><c> named</c>

12:15.212 --> 12:15.222 align:start position:0%
old-fashioned nutcracker. Lewis named
 

12:15.222 --> 12:16.892 align:start position:0%
old-fashioned nutcracker. Lewis named
the<00:13:48.560><c> strange</c><00:13:48.800><c> creature</c><00:13:49.200><c> Zinganthropus</c>

12:16.892 --> 12:16.902 align:start position:0%
the strange creature Zinganthropus
 

12:16.902 --> 12:19.212 align:start position:0%
the strange creature Zinganthropus
Boyceai.<00:13:50.880><c> Zinge</c><00:13:51.360><c> being</c><00:13:51.519><c> the</c><00:13:51.680><c> name</c><00:13:51.920><c> medieval</c>

12:19.212 --> 12:19.222 align:start position:0%
Boyceai. Zinge being the name medieval
 

12:19.222 --> 12:21.693 align:start position:0%
Boyceai. Zinge being the name medieval
Muslim<00:13:52.800><c> scholars</c><00:13:53.279><c> gave</c><00:13:53.600><c> Eastern</c><00:13:54.000><c> Africa.</c><00:13:54.639><c> and</c>

12:21.693 --> 12:21.703 align:start position:0%
Muslim scholars gave Eastern Africa. and
 

12:21.703 --> 12:23.533 align:start position:0%
Muslim scholars gave Eastern Africa. and
their<00:13:55.120><c> sponsor</c><00:13:55.519><c> was</c><00:13:55.760><c> mining</c><00:13:56.160><c> engineer</c>

12:23.533 --> 12:23.543 align:start position:0%
their sponsor was mining engineer
 

12:23.543 --> 12:26.173 align:start position:0%
their sponsor was mining engineer
Charles<00:13:57.120><c> Boy,</c><00:13:57.760><c> hence</c><00:13:58.079><c> Boiseey.</c><00:13:58.959><c> However,</c>

12:26.173 --> 12:26.183 align:start position:0%
Charles Boy, hence Boiseey. However,
 

12:26.183 --> 12:27.933 align:start position:0%
Charles Boy, hence Boiseey. However,
this<00:13:59.600><c> find</c><00:13:59.920><c> would</c><00:14:00.160><c> eventually</c><00:14:00.560><c> be</c><00:14:00.720><c> absorbed</c>

12:27.933 --> 12:27.943 align:start position:0%
this find would eventually be absorbed
 

12:27.943 --> 12:29.693 align:start position:0%
this find would eventually be absorbed
into<00:14:01.360><c> Paranthropus</c><00:14:02.240><c> and</c><00:14:02.480><c> became</c>

12:29.693 --> 12:29.703 align:start position:0%
into Paranthropus and became
 

12:29.703 --> 12:32.892 align:start position:0%
into Paranthropus and became
Paranthropus<00:14:03.680><c> Boise.</c><00:14:04.959><c> Even</c><00:14:05.199><c> by</c><00:14:05.440><c> Paranthropus</c>

12:32.892 --> 12:32.902 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus Boise. Even by Paranthropus
 

12:32.902 --> 12:35.533 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus Boise. Even by Paranthropus
standards,<00:14:06.639><c> Paranthropus</c><00:14:07.279><c> Boisee</c><00:14:07.920><c> had</c><00:14:08.240><c> giant</c>

12:35.533 --> 12:35.543 align:start position:0%
standards, Paranthropus Boisee had giant
 

12:35.543 --> 12:38.012 align:start position:0%
standards, Paranthropus Boisee had giant
teeth.<00:14:09.519><c> Indeed,</c><00:14:09.920><c> its</c><00:14:10.079><c> cheek</c><00:14:10.399><c> teeth</c><00:14:10.720><c> are</c><00:14:10.880><c> four</c>

12:38.012 --> 12:38.022 align:start position:0%
teeth. Indeed, its cheek teeth are four
 

12:38.022 --> 12:40.652 align:start position:0%
teeth. Indeed, its cheek teeth are four
times<00:14:11.519><c> the</c><00:14:11.839><c> size</c><00:14:12.000><c> of</c><00:14:12.160><c> modern</c><00:14:12.560><c> humans.</c><00:14:13.360><c> It</c><00:14:13.600><c> also</c>

12:40.652 --> 12:40.662 align:start position:0%
times the size of modern humans. It also
 

12:40.662 --> 12:42.573 align:start position:0%
times the size of modern humans. It also
had<00:14:14.000><c> the</c><00:14:14.160><c> thickest</c><00:14:14.639><c> tooth</c><00:14:14.959><c> enamel</c><00:14:15.360><c> of</c><00:14:15.519><c> any</c>

12:42.573 --> 12:42.583 align:start position:0%
had the thickest tooth enamel of any
 

12:42.583 --> 12:45.133 align:start position:0%
had the thickest tooth enamel of any
known<00:14:16.079><c> early</c><00:14:16.399><c> human.</c><00:14:16.959><c> Its</c><00:14:17.199><c> wide,</c><00:14:17.680><c> disshaped</c>

12:45.133 --> 12:45.143 align:start position:0%
known early human. Its wide, disshaped
 

12:45.143 --> 12:47.293 align:start position:0%
known early human. Its wide, disshaped
face<00:14:18.720><c> made</c><00:14:18.959><c> space</c><00:14:19.279><c> for</c><00:14:19.519><c> massive</c><00:14:19.920><c> muscles</c><00:14:20.320><c> to</c>

12:47.293 --> 12:47.303 align:start position:0%
face made space for massive muscles to
 

12:47.303 --> 12:49.533 align:start position:0%
face made space for massive muscles to
give<00:14:20.639><c> its</c><00:14:20.800><c> crunching</c><00:14:21.360><c> jaw</c><00:14:21.760><c> power.</c><00:14:22.480><c> And</c>

12:49.533 --> 12:49.543 align:start position:0%
give its crunching jaw power. And
 

12:49.543 --> 12:51.053 align:start position:0%
give its crunching jaw power. And
scientists<00:14:23.199><c> are</c><00:14:23.440><c> still</c><00:14:23.600><c> trying</c><00:14:23.839><c> to</c><00:14:24.079><c> figure</c>

12:51.053 --> 12:51.063 align:start position:0%
scientists are still trying to figure
 

12:51.063 --> 12:53.373 align:start position:0%
scientists are still trying to figure
out<00:14:24.560><c> just</c><00:14:24.800><c> how</c><00:14:25.120><c> strong</c><00:14:25.519><c> their</c><00:14:25.760><c> bite</c><00:14:26.079><c> was.</c>

12:53.373 --> 12:53.383 align:start position:0%
out just how strong their bite was.
 

12:53.383 --> 12:55.452 align:start position:0%
out just how strong their bite was.
They've<00:14:26.880><c> created</c><00:14:27.199><c> 3D</c><00:14:27.680><c> models</c><00:14:28.000><c> of</c><00:14:28.160><c> their</c><00:14:28.399><c> teeth</c>

12:55.452 --> 12:55.462 align:start position:0%
They've created 3D models of their teeth
 

12:55.462 --> 12:57.772 align:start position:0%
They've created 3D models of their teeth
and<00:14:28.800><c> jaw</c><00:14:29.279><c> and</c><00:14:29.519><c> simulated</c><00:14:30.160><c> how</c><00:14:30.399><c> strong</c><00:14:30.720><c> they</c>

12:57.772 --> 12:57.782 align:start position:0%
and jaw and simulated how strong they
 

12:57.782 --> 12:59.533 align:start position:0%
and jaw and simulated how strong they
would<00:14:31.120><c> have</c><00:14:31.199><c> to</c><00:14:31.360><c> clench</c><00:14:31.680><c> their</c><00:14:31.839><c> jaws</c><00:14:32.240><c> to</c><00:14:32.399><c> crush</c>

12:59.533 --> 12:59.543 align:start position:0%
would have to clench their jaws to crush
 

12:59.543 --> 13:02.092 align:start position:0%
would have to clench their jaws to crush
food<00:14:33.120><c> between</c><00:14:33.440><c> those</c><00:14:33.760><c> gigantic</c><00:14:34.399><c> teeth.</c><00:14:35.120><c> And</c>

13:02.092 --> 13:02.102 align:start position:0%
food between those gigantic teeth. And
 

13:02.102 --> 13:03.933 align:start position:0%
food between those gigantic teeth. And
through<00:14:35.519><c> these</c><00:14:35.680><c> efforts,</c><00:14:36.160><c> we</c><00:14:36.399><c> now</c><00:14:36.639><c> know</c><00:14:36.880><c> that</c>

13:03.933 --> 13:03.943 align:start position:0%
through these efforts, we now know that
 

13:03.943 --> 13:06.012 align:start position:0%
through these efforts, we now know that
they<00:14:37.440><c> definitely</c><00:14:38.000><c> had</c><00:14:38.240><c> the</c><00:14:38.399><c> strongest</c><00:14:38.880><c> bite</c>

13:06.012 --> 13:06.022 align:start position:0%
they definitely had the strongest bite
 

13:06.022 --> 13:07.853 align:start position:0%
they definitely had the strongest bite
of<00:14:39.360><c> any</c><00:14:39.600><c> hominin.</c><00:14:40.320><c> One</c><00:14:40.560><c> set</c><00:14:40.720><c> of</c><00:14:40.880><c> these</c>

13:07.853 --> 13:07.863 align:start position:0%
of any hominin. One set of these
 

13:07.863 --> 13:09.933 align:start position:0%
of any hominin. One set of these
simulated<00:14:41.600><c> muscles</c><00:14:42.079><c> was</c><00:14:42.320><c> able</c><00:14:42.480><c> to</c><00:14:42.560><c> bite</c><00:14:42.880><c> down</c>

13:09.933 --> 13:09.943 align:start position:0%
simulated muscles was able to bite down
 

13:09.943 --> 13:12.733 align:start position:0%
simulated muscles was able to bite down
with<00:14:43.360><c> a</c><00:14:43.519><c> force</c><00:14:43.760><c> of</c><00:14:43.920><c> about</c><00:14:44.320><c> 5,000</c><00:14:45.199><c> newtons,</c>

13:12.733 --> 13:12.743 align:start position:0%
with a force of about 5,000 newtons,
 

13:12.743 --> 13:14.733 align:start position:0%
with a force of about 5,000 newtons,
which<00:14:46.079><c> is</c><00:14:46.240><c> the</c><00:14:46.399><c> same</c><00:14:46.639><c> force</c><00:14:47.040><c> that</c><00:14:47.279><c> about</c><00:14:47.600><c> six</c>

13:14.733 --> 13:14.743 align:start position:0%
which is the same force that about six
 

13:14.743 --> 13:17.853 align:start position:0%
which is the same force that about six
adults<00:14:48.639><c> exert</c><00:14:49.040><c> on</c><00:14:49.279><c> the</c><00:14:49.440><c> ground.</c><00:14:50.639><c> But</c><00:14:50.800><c> what</c>

13:17.853 --> 13:17.863 align:start position:0%
adults exert on the ground. But what
 

13:17.863 --> 13:19.613 align:start position:0%
adults exert on the ground. But what
made<00:14:51.199><c> the</c><00:14:51.360><c> Old</c><00:14:51.519><c> Devi</c><00:14:52.000><c> discovery</c><00:14:52.480><c> so</c>

13:19.613 --> 13:19.623 align:start position:0%
made the Old Devi discovery so
 

13:19.623 --> 13:21.452 align:start position:0%
made the Old Devi discovery so
groundbreaking,<00:14:53.680><c> aside</c><00:14:54.079><c> from</c><00:14:54.240><c> being</c><00:14:54.480><c> the</c>

13:21.452 --> 13:21.462 align:start position:0%
groundbreaking, aside from being the
 

13:21.462 --> 13:23.053 align:start position:0%
groundbreaking, aside from being the
first<00:14:54.800><c> paranthropus</c><00:14:55.519><c> found</c><00:14:55.760><c> outside</c><00:14:56.079><c> of</c>

13:23.053 --> 13:23.063 align:start position:0%
first paranthropus found outside of
 

13:23.063 --> 13:25.293 align:start position:0%
first paranthropus found outside of
South<00:14:56.560><c> Africa,</c><00:14:56.959><c> was</c><00:14:57.120><c> that</c><00:14:57.279><c> it</c><00:14:57.519><c> was</c><00:14:57.680><c> found</c><00:14:58.000><c> in</c><00:14:58.240><c> a</c>

13:25.293 --> 13:25.303 align:start position:0%
South Africa, was that it was found in a
 

13:25.303 --> 13:28.652 align:start position:0%
South Africa, was that it was found in a
place<00:14:58.959><c> littered</c><00:14:59.600><c> with</c><00:15:00.000><c> tools.</c><00:15:01.120><c> Many</c><00:15:01.440><c> tools</c>

13:28.652 --> 13:28.662 align:start position:0%
place littered with tools. Many tools
 

13:28.662 --> 13:30.413 align:start position:0%
place littered with tools. Many tools
were<00:15:02.000><c> discovered</c><00:15:02.399><c> in</c><00:15:02.560><c> the</c><00:15:02.800><c> same</c><00:15:03.040><c> sediment</c>

13:30.413 --> 13:30.423 align:start position:0%
were discovered in the same sediment
 

13:30.423 --> 13:32.652 align:start position:0%
were discovered in the same sediment
layer<00:15:03.760><c> as</c><00:15:04.000><c> Paranthropus</c><00:15:04.639><c> Boise.</c><00:15:05.600><c> This</c>

13:32.652 --> 13:32.662 align:start position:0%
layer as Paranthropus Boise. This
 

13:32.662 --> 13:35.212 align:start position:0%
layer as Paranthropus Boise. This
creature<00:15:06.320><c> looked</c><00:15:06.560><c> like</c><00:15:06.720><c> a</c><00:15:06.880><c> nutcracker</c><00:15:07.519><c> toy,</c><00:15:08.160><c> a</c>

13:35.212 --> 13:35.222 align:start position:0%
creature looked like a nutcracker toy, a
 

13:35.222 --> 13:37.533 align:start position:0%
creature looked like a nutcracker toy, a
parody<00:15:08.880><c> of</c><00:15:09.040><c> a</c><00:15:09.199><c> human</c><00:15:09.519><c> ape.</c><00:15:10.160><c> But</c><00:15:10.320><c> could</c><00:15:10.480><c> it</c><00:15:10.639><c> have</c>

13:37.533 --> 13:37.543 align:start position:0%
parody of a human ape. But could it have
 

13:37.543 --> 13:40.413 align:start position:0%
parody of a human ape. But could it have
had<00:15:10.880><c> the</c><00:15:11.120><c> capability</c><00:15:11.680><c> to</c><00:15:11.920><c> use</c><00:15:12.320><c> tools</c><00:15:13.360><c> just</c>

13:40.413 --> 13:40.423 align:start position:0%
had the capability to use tools just
 

13:40.423 --> 13:53.452 align:start position:0%
had the capability to use tools just
like<00:15:13.760><c> its</c><00:15:14.000><c> grass</c><00:15:14.720><c> cousins</c><00:15:16.079><c> just</c><00:15:16.720><c> like</c><00:15:17.199><c> us?</c>

13:53.452 --> 13:53.462 align:start position:0%
 
 

13:53.462 --> 13:55.693 align:start position:0%
 
1<00:15:26.880><c> and</c><00:15:26.959><c> a</c><00:15:27.040><c> half</c><00:15:27.440><c> million</c><00:15:27.839><c> years</c><00:15:28.079><c> ago,</c><00:15:28.639><c> an</c>

13:55.693 --> 13:55.703 align:start position:0%
1 and a half million years ago, an
 

13:55.703 --> 13:57.772 align:start position:0%
1 and a half million years ago, an
ancient<00:15:29.199><c> human</c><00:15:29.760><c> treads</c><00:15:30.160><c> the</c><00:15:30.240><c> shoreline</c><00:15:30.720><c> of</c>

13:57.772 --> 13:57.782 align:start position:0%
ancient human treads the shoreline of
 

13:57.782 --> 14:02.092 align:start position:0%
ancient human treads the shoreline of
Lake<00:15:31.279><c> Takana,</c><00:15:32.320><c> and</c><00:15:32.959><c> he</c><00:15:33.199><c> is</c><00:15:33.440><c> being</c><00:15:33.760><c> watched.</c><00:15:34.959><c> He</c>

14:02.092 --> 14:02.102 align:start position:0%
Lake Takana, and he is being watched. He
 

14:02.102 --> 14:04.733 align:start position:0%
Lake Takana, and he is being watched. He
is<00:15:35.360><c> a</c><00:15:35.519><c> Homo</c><00:15:35.920><c> erectus,</c><00:15:36.880><c> standing</c><00:15:37.279><c> tall</c><00:15:37.600><c> as</c><00:15:37.760><c> he</c>

14:04.733 --> 14:04.743 align:start position:0%
is a Homo erectus, standing tall as he
 

14:04.743 --> 14:06.973 align:start position:0%
is a Homo erectus, standing tall as he
walks<00:15:38.160><c> over</c><00:15:38.320><c> the</c><00:15:38.480><c> muddy</c><00:15:38.880><c> shore,</c><00:15:39.519><c> his</c><00:15:39.760><c> body</c>

14:06.973 --> 14:06.983 align:start position:0%
walks over the muddy shore, his body
 

14:06.983 --> 14:09.373 align:start position:0%
walks over the muddy shore, his body
moving<00:15:40.480><c> much</c><00:15:40.720><c> as</c><00:15:41.040><c> ours</c><00:15:41.360><c> would.</c><00:15:41.920><c> In</c><00:15:42.160><c> his</c><00:15:42.320><c> hand</c>

14:09.373 --> 14:09.383 align:start position:0%
moving much as ours would. In his hand
 

14:09.383 --> 14:11.933 align:start position:0%
moving much as ours would. In his hand
is<00:15:42.720><c> an</c><00:15:42.880><c> issulan</c><00:15:43.519><c> handax,</c><00:15:44.240><c> a</c><00:15:44.399><c> pear-shaped</c>

14:11.933 --> 14:11.943 align:start position:0%
is an issulan handax, a pear-shaped
 

14:11.943 --> 14:14.012 align:start position:0%
is an issulan handax, a pear-shaped
stone<00:15:45.600><c> tool</c><00:15:46.000><c> used</c><00:15:46.320><c> earlier</c><00:15:46.560><c> that</c><00:15:46.800><c> morning</c><00:15:47.040><c> to</c>

14:14.012 --> 14:14.022 align:start position:0%
stone tool used earlier that morning to
 

14:14.022 --> 14:16.092 align:start position:0%
stone tool used earlier that morning to
carve<00:15:47.440><c> an</c><00:15:47.600><c> ancient</c><00:15:47.920><c> giraffe</c><00:15:48.639><c> before</c><00:15:48.959><c> digging</c>

14:16.092 --> 14:16.102 align:start position:0%
carve an ancient giraffe before digging
 

14:16.102 --> 14:19.693 align:start position:0%
carve an ancient giraffe before digging
for<00:15:49.519><c> roots.</c><00:15:50.720><c> But</c><00:15:50.959><c> now</c><00:15:51.519><c> something</c><00:15:51.920><c> else</c><00:15:52.240><c> nearby</c>

14:19.693 --> 14:19.703 align:start position:0%
for roots. But now something else nearby
 

14:19.703 --> 14:22.493 align:start position:0%
for roots. But now something else nearby
is<00:15:53.120><c> digging.</c><00:15:53.920><c> For</c><00:15:54.160><c> amongst</c><00:15:54.480><c> the</c><00:15:54.639><c> reeds,</c><00:15:55.440><c> a</c>

14:22.493 --> 14:22.503 align:start position:0%
is digging. For amongst the reeds, a
 

14:22.503 --> 14:25.373 align:start position:0%
is digging. For amongst the reeds, a
creature<00:15:56.160><c> pauses</c><00:15:56.560><c> its</c><00:15:56.880><c> work</c><00:15:57.519><c> and</c><00:15:57.839><c> their</c><00:15:58.079><c> eyes</c>

14:25.373 --> 14:25.383 align:start position:0%
creature pauses its work and their eyes
 

14:25.383 --> 14:28.012 align:start position:0%
creature pauses its work and their eyes
meet.<00:15:59.839><c> This</c><00:16:00.079><c> creature,</c><00:16:00.560><c> however,</c><00:16:00.959><c> is</c>

14:28.012 --> 14:28.022 align:start position:0%
meet. This creature, however, is
 

14:28.022 --> 14:29.772 align:start position:0%
meet. This creature, however, is
different<00:16:01.519><c> to</c><00:16:01.839><c> others</c><00:16:02.079><c> that</c><00:16:02.320><c> live</c><00:16:02.480><c> near</c><00:16:02.720><c> this</c>

14:29.772 --> 14:29.782 align:start position:0%
different to others that live near this
 

14:29.782 --> 14:31.853 align:start position:0%
different to others that live near this
lake.<00:16:03.680><c> smaller</c><00:16:04.079><c> in</c><00:16:04.240><c> height</c><00:16:04.480><c> than</c><00:16:04.560><c> the</c><00:16:04.720><c> Homo</c>

14:31.853 --> 14:31.863 align:start position:0%
lake. smaller in height than the Homo
 

14:31.863 --> 14:34.253 align:start position:0%
lake. smaller in height than the Homo
erectus<00:16:05.680><c> and</c><00:16:05.839><c> not</c><00:16:06.079><c> exactly</c><00:16:06.480><c> the</c><00:16:06.720><c> same</c><00:16:06.959><c> shape,</c>

14:34.253 --> 14:34.263 align:start position:0%
erectus and not exactly the same shape,
 

14:34.263 --> 14:36.173 align:start position:0%
erectus and not exactly the same shape,
much<00:16:07.680><c> more</c><00:16:07.920><c> similar</c><00:16:08.240><c> in</c><00:16:08.480><c> body</c><00:16:08.720><c> type</c><00:16:08.959><c> than</c><00:16:09.120><c> the</c>

14:36.173 --> 14:36.183 align:start position:0%
much more similar in body type than the
 

14:36.183 --> 14:37.933 align:start position:0%
much more similar in body type than the
ancient<00:16:09.600><c> antelopes</c><00:16:10.240><c> and</c><00:16:10.399><c> pigs</c><00:16:10.720><c> that</c><00:16:10.880><c> travel</c>

14:37.933 --> 14:37.943 align:start position:0%
ancient antelopes and pigs that travel
 

14:37.943 --> 14:39.772 align:start position:0%
ancient antelopes and pigs that travel
to<00:16:11.279><c> the</c><00:16:11.440><c> water's</c><00:16:11.839><c> edge</c><00:16:12.240><c> or</c><00:16:12.560><c> indeed</c><00:16:12.800><c> the</c>

14:39.772 --> 14:39.782 align:start position:0%
to the water's edge or indeed the
 

14:39.782 --> 14:42.332 align:start position:0%
to the water's edge or indeed the
crocodiles<00:16:13.600><c> that</c><00:16:13.839><c> lie</c><00:16:14.079><c> within</c><00:16:14.399><c> it.</c><00:16:15.120><c> It</c><00:16:15.279><c> is</c>

14:42.332 --> 14:42.342 align:start position:0%
crocodiles that lie within it. It is
 

14:42.342 --> 14:44.493 align:start position:0%
crocodiles that lie within it. It is
perhaps<00:16:16.079><c> most</c><00:16:16.399><c> similar</c><00:16:16.800><c> to</c><00:16:17.040><c> the</c><00:16:17.279><c> giant</c>

14:44.493 --> 14:44.503 align:start position:0%
perhaps most similar to the giant
 

14:44.503 --> 14:46.493 align:start position:0%
perhaps most similar to the giant
baboons<00:16:18.320><c> that</c><00:16:18.560><c> roam</c><00:16:18.880><c> the</c><00:16:19.120><c> area,</c><00:16:19.519><c> but</c>

14:46.493 --> 14:46.503 align:start position:0%
baboons that roam the area, but
 

14:46.503 --> 14:48.493 align:start position:0%
baboons that roam the area, but
something<00:16:19.920><c> behind</c><00:16:20.240><c> its</c><00:16:20.480><c> eyes</c><00:16:20.800><c> is</c><00:16:21.120><c> altogether</c>

14:48.493 --> 14:48.503 align:start position:0%
something behind its eyes is altogether
 

14:48.503 --> 14:50.493 align:start position:0%
something behind its eyes is altogether
different<00:16:22.000><c> to</c><00:16:22.240><c> them.</c><00:16:22.720><c> Perhaps</c><00:16:23.199><c> not</c><00:16:23.360><c> unlike</c>

14:50.493 --> 14:50.503 align:start position:0%
different to them. Perhaps not unlike
 

14:50.503 --> 14:52.572 align:start position:0%
different to them. Perhaps not unlike
the<00:16:23.839><c> look</c><00:16:24.000><c> an</c><00:16:24.160><c> ancient</c><00:16:24.480><c> human</c><00:16:24.880><c> would</c><00:16:25.120><c> get</c><00:16:25.519><c> from</c>

14:52.572 --> 14:52.582 align:start position:0%
the look an ancient human would get from
 

14:52.582 --> 15:01.212 align:start position:0%
the look an ancient human would get from
the<00:16:25.920><c> eyes</c><00:16:26.560><c> of</c><00:16:26.800><c> another</c><00:16:27.279><c> human.</c>

15:01.212 --> 15:01.222 align:start position:0%
 
 

15:01.222 --> 15:03.053 align:start position:0%
 
We<00:16:34.639><c> cannot</c><00:16:34.880><c> be</c><00:16:35.040><c> sure</c><00:16:35.199><c> exactly</c><00:16:35.680><c> how</c><00:16:35.920><c> much</c><00:16:36.079><c> of</c>

15:03.053 --> 15:03.063 align:start position:0%
We cannot be sure exactly how much of
 

15:03.063 --> 15:04.892 align:start position:0%
We cannot be sure exactly how much of
this<00:16:36.480><c> the</c><00:16:36.720><c> mind</c><00:16:36.880><c> of</c><00:16:36.959><c> a</c><00:16:37.120><c> homo</c><00:16:37.440><c> erectus</c><00:16:37.920><c> would</c>

15:04.892 --> 15:04.902 align:start position:0%
this the mind of a homo erectus would
 

15:04.902 --> 15:06.652 align:start position:0%
this the mind of a homo erectus would
have<00:16:38.240><c> been</c><00:16:38.320><c> able</c><00:16:38.480><c> to</c><00:16:38.639><c> compute</c><00:16:39.279><c> one</c><00:16:39.440><c> and</c><00:16:39.519><c> a</c><00:16:39.680><c> half</c>

15:06.652 --> 15:06.662 align:start position:0%
have been able to compute one and a half
 

15:06.662 --> 15:08.413 align:start position:0%
have been able to compute one and a half
million<00:16:40.240><c> years</c><00:16:40.480><c> ago.</c><00:16:40.959><c> But</c><00:16:41.120><c> we</c><00:16:41.279><c> can</c><00:16:41.440><c> be</c>

15:08.413 --> 15:08.423 align:start position:0%
million years ago. But we can be
 

15:08.423 --> 15:10.652 align:start position:0%
million years ago. But we can be
reasonably<00:16:42.160><c> sure</c><00:16:42.480><c> these</c><00:16:42.720><c> encounters</c><00:16:43.360><c> did</c>

15:10.652 --> 15:10.662 align:start position:0%
reasonably sure these encounters did
 

15:10.662 --> 15:12.813 align:start position:0%
reasonably sure these encounters did
happen.<00:16:44.560><c> Ancient</c><00:16:44.880><c> humans</c><00:16:45.199><c> had</c><00:16:45.440><c> experiences</c>

15:12.813 --> 15:12.823 align:start position:0%
happen. Ancient humans had experiences
 

15:12.823 --> 15:15.133 align:start position:0%
happen. Ancient humans had experiences
that<00:16:46.240><c> no</c><00:16:46.399><c> one</c><00:16:46.560><c> alive</c><00:16:46.959><c> today</c><00:16:47.360><c> could</c><00:16:47.680><c> have</c><00:16:48.160><c> that</c>

15:15.133 --> 15:15.143 align:start position:0%
that no one alive today could have that
 

15:15.143 --> 15:17.533 align:start position:0%
that no one alive today could have that
of<00:16:48.480><c> meeting</c><00:16:48.880><c> an</c><00:16:49.120><c> entirely</c><00:16:49.759><c> different</c><00:16:50.320><c> species</c>

15:17.533 --> 15:17.543 align:start position:0%
of meeting an entirely different species
 

15:17.543 --> 15:20.652 align:start position:0%
of meeting an entirely different species
of<00:16:50.959><c> homminin.</c><00:16:52.000><c> In</c><00:16:52.240><c> this</c><00:16:52.399><c> case,</c><00:16:53.040><c> paranthropus</c>

15:20.652 --> 15:20.662 align:start position:0%
of homminin. In this case, paranthropus
 

15:20.662 --> 15:22.253 align:start position:0%
of homminin. In this case, paranthropus
boisei.

15:22.253 --> 15:22.263 align:start position:0%
boisei.
 

15:22.263 --> 15:23.853 align:start position:0%
boisei.
Fossilized<00:16:56.079><c> footprints</c><00:16:56.560><c> have</c><00:16:56.720><c> been</c><00:16:56.880><c> found</c>

15:23.853 --> 15:23.863 align:start position:0%
Fossilized footprints have been found
 

15:23.863 --> 15:26.253 align:start position:0%
Fossilized footprints have been found
near<00:16:57.279><c> the</c><00:16:57.440><c> eastern</c><00:16:57.839><c> shore</c><00:16:58.160><c> of</c><00:16:58.320><c> Lake</c><00:16:58.560><c> Turkana</c>

15:26.253 --> 15:26.263 align:start position:0%
near the eastern shore of Lake Turkana
 

15:26.263 --> 15:28.413 align:start position:0%
near the eastern shore of Lake Turkana
that<00:16:59.680><c> belonged</c><00:17:00.079><c> to</c><00:17:00.320><c> two</c><00:17:00.639><c> different</c><00:17:01.040><c> homminin</c>

15:28.413 --> 15:28.423 align:start position:0%
that belonged to two different homminin
 

15:28.423 --> 15:30.892 align:start position:0%
that belonged to two different homminin
species.<00:17:02.720><c> Analysis</c><00:17:03.199><c> of</c><00:17:03.360><c> them</c><00:17:03.519><c> has</c><00:17:03.759><c> proposed</c>

15:30.892 --> 15:30.902 align:start position:0%
species. Analysis of them has proposed
 

15:30.902 --> 15:33.213 align:start position:0%
species. Analysis of them has proposed
these<00:17:04.319><c> species</c><00:17:04.640><c> to</c><00:17:04.799><c> be</c><00:17:04.959><c> homoerectus</c><00:17:06.079><c> and</c>

15:33.213 --> 15:33.223 align:start position:0%
these species to be homoerectus and
 

15:33.223 --> 15:35.293 align:start position:0%
these species to be homoerectus and
paranthropus<00:17:07.039><c> boi</c><00:17:07.600><c> and</c><00:17:07.839><c> has</c><00:17:08.000><c> found</c><00:17:08.160><c> that</c><00:17:08.319><c> the</c>

15:35.293 --> 15:35.303 align:start position:0%
paranthropus boi and has found that the
 

15:35.303 --> 15:37.132 align:start position:0%
paranthropus boi and has found that the
footprints<00:17:08.880><c> were</c><00:17:09.120><c> made</c><00:17:09.280><c> within</c><00:17:09.600><c> days</c><00:17:10.000><c> or</c>

15:37.132 --> 15:37.142 align:start position:0%
footprints were made within days or
 

15:37.142 --> 15:39.213 align:start position:0%
footprints were made within days or
perhaps<00:17:10.559><c> even</c><00:17:10.880><c> hours</c><00:17:11.199><c> of</c><00:17:11.439><c> each</c><00:17:11.600><c> other.</c><00:17:12.160><c> This</c>

15:39.213 --> 15:39.223 align:start position:0%
perhaps even hours of each other. This
 

15:39.223 --> 15:41.372 align:start position:0%
perhaps even hours of each other. This
shows<00:17:12.720><c> the</c><00:17:12.959><c> coexistence</c><00:17:13.839><c> and</c><00:17:14.079><c> likely</c>

15:41.372 --> 15:41.382 align:start position:0%
shows the coexistence and likely
 

15:41.382 --> 15:43.293 align:start position:0%
shows the coexistence and likely
interaction<00:17:15.360><c> between</c><00:17:15.760><c> humans</c><00:17:16.240><c> and</c>

15:43.293 --> 15:43.303 align:start position:0%
interaction between humans and
 

15:43.303 --> 15:45.693 align:start position:0%
interaction between humans and
paranthropus.<00:17:17.679><c> But</c><00:17:17.839><c> what</c><00:17:18.079><c> exactly</c><00:17:18.480><c> was</c><00:17:18.640><c> the</c>

15:45.693 --> 15:45.703 align:start position:0%
paranthropus. But what exactly was the
 

15:45.703 --> 15:47.612 align:start position:0%
paranthropus. But what exactly was the
creature<00:17:19.199><c> like</c><00:17:19.600><c> that</c><00:17:19.839><c> the</c><00:17:19.919><c> homoerectus</c>

15:47.612 --> 15:47.622 align:start position:0%
creature like that the homoerectus
 

15:47.622 --> 15:50.012 align:start position:0%
creature like that the homoerectus
looked<00:17:21.039><c> upon</c><00:17:21.360><c> near</c><00:17:21.600><c> the</c><00:17:21.760><c> shore</c><00:17:22.079><c> that</c><00:17:22.400><c> day?</c><00:17:23.039><c> How</c>

15:50.012 --> 15:50.022 align:start position:0%
looked upon near the shore that day? How
 

15:50.022 --> 15:52.492 align:start position:0%
looked upon near the shore that day? How
did<00:17:23.360><c> it</c><00:17:23.600><c> move?</c><00:17:24.319><c> Did</c><00:17:24.480><c> it</c><00:17:24.640><c> remain</c><00:17:25.039><c> hunched</c><00:17:25.520><c> over</c>

15:52.492 --> 15:52.502 align:start position:0%
did it move? Did it remain hunched over
 

15:52.502 --> 15:55.132 align:start position:0%
did it move? Did it remain hunched over
its<00:17:25.919><c> digging</c><00:17:26.400><c> or</c><00:17:26.640><c> could</c><00:17:26.880><c> it</c><00:17:27.120><c> stand?</c><00:17:27.919><c> How</c><00:17:28.160><c> did</c>

15:55.132 --> 15:55.142 align:start position:0%
its digging or could it stand? How did
 

15:55.142 --> 15:57.053 align:start position:0%
its digging or could it stand? How did
the<00:17:28.480><c> fingers</c><00:17:28.799><c> of</c><00:17:28.960><c> its</c><00:17:29.200><c> hands</c><00:17:29.679><c> move</c><00:17:30.000><c> through</c>

15:57.053 --> 15:57.063 align:start position:0%
the fingers of its hands move through
 

15:57.063 --> 15:59.453 align:start position:0%
the fingers of its hands move through
the<00:17:30.480><c> reeds?</c><00:17:31.600><c> Could</c><00:17:31.840><c> the</c><00:17:32.080><c> hands</c><00:17:32.320><c> of</c><00:17:32.400><c> this</c>

15:59.453 --> 15:59.463 align:start position:0%
the reeds? Could the hands of this
 

15:59.463 --> 16:01.852 align:start position:0%
the reeds? Could the hands of this
paranthropus<00:17:33.280><c> have</c><00:17:33.440><c> even</c><00:17:33.919><c> held</c><00:17:34.240><c> a</c><00:17:34.480><c> stone</c>

16:01.852 --> 16:01.862 align:start position:0%
paranthropus have even held a stone
 

16:01.862 --> 16:07.852 align:start position:0%
paranthropus have even held a stone
tool?

16:07.852 --> 16:07.862 align:start position:0%
 
 

16:07.862 --> 16:10.653 align:start position:0%
 
Making<00:17:41.360><c> and</c><00:17:41.600><c> using</c><00:17:41.919><c> tools</c><00:17:42.480><c> is</c><00:17:42.720><c> not</c><00:17:42.960><c> easy.</c><00:17:43.600><c> For</c>

16:10.653 --> 16:10.663 align:start position:0%
Making and using tools is not easy. For
 

16:10.663 --> 16:12.813 align:start position:0%
Making and using tools is not easy. For
many<00:17:44.160><c> years,</c><00:17:44.640><c> scientists</c><00:17:45.200><c> and</c><00:17:45.360><c> philosophers</c>

16:12.813 --> 16:12.823 align:start position:0%
many years, scientists and philosophers
 

16:12.823 --> 16:14.813 align:start position:0%
many years, scientists and philosophers
categorized<00:17:46.720><c> tool</c><00:17:47.039><c> use</c><00:17:47.360><c> as</c><00:17:47.520><c> one</c><00:17:47.679><c> of</c><00:17:47.760><c> the</c>

16:14.813 --> 16:14.823 align:start position:0%
categorized tool use as one of the
 

16:14.823 --> 16:16.732 align:start position:0%
categorized tool use as one of the
things<00:17:48.160><c> that</c><00:17:48.400><c> made</c><00:17:48.640><c> us</c><00:17:48.960><c> human</c><00:17:49.600><c> and</c>

16:16.732 --> 16:16.742 align:start position:0%
things that made us human and
 

16:16.742 --> 16:18.653 align:start position:0%
things that made us human and
importantly<00:17:50.640><c> placed</c><00:17:50.960><c> us</c><00:17:51.120><c> above</c><00:17:51.520><c> other</c>

16:18.653 --> 16:18.663 align:start position:0%
importantly placed us above other
 

16:18.663 --> 16:21.852 align:start position:0%
importantly placed us above other
animals<00:17:52.320><c> and</c><00:17:52.640><c> other</c><00:17:52.960><c> apes.</c><00:17:54.080><c> With</c><00:17:54.320><c> tools,</c><00:17:54.799><c> we</c>

16:21.852 --> 16:21.862 align:start position:0%
animals and other apes. With tools, we
 

16:21.862 --> 16:23.852 align:start position:0%
animals and other apes. With tools, we
can<00:17:55.200><c> change</c><00:17:55.440><c> the</c><00:17:55.600><c> environment</c><00:17:56.080><c> around</c><00:17:56.480><c> us.</c>

16:23.852 --> 16:23.862 align:start position:0%
can change the environment around us.
 

16:23.862 --> 16:25.773 align:start position:0%
can change the environment around us.
Tools<00:17:57.440><c> and</c><00:17:57.600><c> our</c><00:17:57.840><c> ability</c><00:17:58.080><c> to</c><00:17:58.240><c> harness</c><00:17:58.640><c> them</c>

16:25.773 --> 16:25.783 align:start position:0%
Tools and our ability to harness them
 

16:25.783 --> 16:27.773 align:start position:0%
Tools and our ability to harness them
have<00:17:59.280><c> ultimately</c><00:17:59.600><c> allowed</c><00:18:00.000><c> humans</c><00:18:00.480><c> to</c><00:18:00.720><c> take</c>

16:27.773 --> 16:27.783 align:start position:0%
have ultimately allowed humans to take
 

16:27.783 --> 16:30.573 align:start position:0%
have ultimately allowed humans to take
over<00:18:01.280><c> the</c><00:18:01.600><c> world.</c><00:18:02.480><c> And</c><00:18:02.640><c> so,</c><00:18:02.880><c> ever</c><00:18:03.039><c> since</c><00:18:03.440><c> Mary</c>

16:30.573 --> 16:30.583 align:start position:0%
over the world. And so, ever since Mary
 

16:30.583 --> 16:32.732 align:start position:0%
over the world. And so, ever since Mary
Leaky<00:18:04.240><c> discovered</c><00:18:04.720><c> Paranthropus</c><00:18:05.280><c> Boisei</c><00:18:05.840><c> in</c>

16:32.732 --> 16:32.742 align:start position:0%
Leaky discovered Paranthropus Boisei in
 

16:32.742 --> 16:34.973 align:start position:0%
Leaky discovered Paranthropus Boisei in
Tanzania,<00:18:06.720><c> Paleocientists</c><00:18:07.840><c> have</c><00:18:07.919><c> been</c>

16:34.973 --> 16:34.983 align:start position:0%
Tanzania, Paleocientists have been
 

16:34.983 --> 16:37.053 align:start position:0%
Tanzania, Paleocientists have been
debating<00:18:08.640><c> whether</c><00:18:08.960><c> these</c><00:18:09.280><c> strange</c><00:18:09.679><c> creatures</c>

16:37.053 --> 16:37.063 align:start position:0%
debating whether these strange creatures
 

16:37.063 --> 16:39.852 align:start position:0%
debating whether these strange creatures
could<00:18:10.640><c> use</c><00:18:10.960><c> tools.</c><00:18:11.840><c> The</c><00:18:12.000><c> tools</c><00:18:12.240><c> at</c><00:18:12.480><c> Oldi</c>

16:39.852 --> 16:39.862 align:start position:0%
could use tools. The tools at Oldi
 

16:39.862 --> 16:41.293 align:start position:0%
could use tools. The tools at Oldi
opened<00:18:13.280><c> the</c><00:18:13.520><c> question,</c><00:18:14.000><c> but</c><00:18:14.240><c> their</c>

16:41.293 --> 16:41.303 align:start position:0%
opened the question, but their
 

16:41.303 --> 16:42.973 align:start position:0%
opened the question, but their
connection<00:18:14.799><c> to</c><00:18:14.960><c> Paranthropus</c><00:18:15.679><c> was</c><00:18:15.919><c> quickly</c>

16:42.973 --> 16:42.983 align:start position:0%
connection to Paranthropus was quickly
 

16:42.983 --> 16:44.893 align:start position:0%
connection to Paranthropus was quickly
put<00:18:16.320><c> in</c><00:18:16.480><c> doubt</c><00:18:16.799><c> by</c><00:18:16.960><c> the</c><00:18:17.200><c> discovery</c><00:18:17.520><c> of</c><00:18:17.760><c> another</c>

16:44.893 --> 16:44.903 align:start position:0%
put in doubt by the discovery of another
 

16:44.903 --> 16:47.293 align:start position:0%
put in doubt by the discovery of another
species<00:18:18.640><c> within</c><00:18:18.960><c> the</c><00:18:19.200><c> same</c><00:18:19.360><c> sediment</c><00:18:20.000><c> layers,</c>

16:47.293 --> 16:47.303 align:start position:0%
species within the same sediment layers,
 

16:47.303 --> 16:50.492 align:start position:0%
species within the same sediment layers,
the<00:18:20.799><c> human</c><00:18:21.039><c> species</c><00:18:21.840><c> Homohabilis.</c><00:18:23.280><c> And</c><00:18:23.520><c> so</c>

16:50.492 --> 16:50.502 align:start position:0%
the human species Homohabilis. And so
 

16:50.502 --> 16:52.732 align:start position:0%
the human species Homohabilis. And so
the<00:18:23.919><c> answer</c><00:18:24.240><c> would</c><00:18:24.480><c> remain</c><00:18:24.799><c> elusive</c><00:18:25.280><c> for</c><00:18:25.600><c> some</c>

16:52.732 --> 16:52.742 align:start position:0%
the answer would remain elusive for some
 

16:52.742 --> 16:55.453 align:start position:0%
the answer would remain elusive for some
time.<00:18:26.799><c> In</c><00:18:26.960><c> fact,</c><00:18:27.360><c> it</c><00:18:27.520><c> would</c><00:18:27.679><c> be</c><00:18:27.840><c> nearly</c><00:18:28.240><c> 60</c>

16:55.453 --> 16:55.463 align:start position:0%
time. In fact, it would be nearly 60
 

16:55.463 --> 16:58.492 align:start position:0%
time. In fact, it would be nearly 60
years<00:18:29.039><c> until</c><00:18:29.280><c> the</c><00:18:29.520><c> debate</c><00:18:30.080><c> took</c><00:18:30.320><c> a</c><00:18:30.559><c> giant</c><00:18:31.280><c> leap</c>

16:58.492 --> 16:58.502 align:start position:0%
years until the debate took a giant leap
 

16:58.502 --> 17:02.492 align:start position:0%
years until the debate took a giant leap
forward.

17:02.492 --> 17:02.502 align:start position:0%
 
 

17:02.502 --> 17:05.053 align:start position:0%
 
Green<00:18:36.080><c> shrubs</c><00:18:36.559><c> and</c><00:18:36.880><c> long</c><00:18:37.120><c> grasses</c><00:18:37.760><c> cover</c><00:18:38.080><c> the</c>

17:05.053 --> 17:05.063 align:start position:0%
Green shrubs and long grasses cover the
 

17:05.063 --> 17:07.693 align:start position:0%
Green shrubs and long grasses cover the
landscape<00:18:38.640><c> of</c><00:18:38.880><c> Nyanga,</c><00:18:39.760><c> a</c><00:18:40.000><c> site</c><00:18:40.320><c> which</c><00:18:40.559><c> hugs</c>

17:07.693 --> 17:07.703 align:start position:0%
landscape of Nyanga, a site which hugs
 

17:07.703 --> 17:10.413 align:start position:0%
landscape of Nyanga, a site which hugs
the<00:18:41.039><c> northeast</c><00:18:41.440><c> of</c><00:18:41.600><c> Lake</c><00:18:41.919><c> Victoria</c><00:18:42.559><c> in</c><00:18:42.799><c> Kenya.</c>

17:10.413 --> 17:10.423 align:start position:0%
the northeast of Lake Victoria in Kenya.
 

17:10.423 --> 17:12.973 align:start position:0%
the northeast of Lake Victoria in Kenya.
And<00:18:43.760><c> below</c><00:18:44.160><c> the</c><00:18:44.400><c> grasses</c><00:18:45.039><c> is</c><00:18:45.280><c> a</c><00:18:45.520><c> crucial</c><00:18:45.919><c> piece</c>

17:12.973 --> 17:12.983 align:start position:0%
And below the grasses is a crucial piece
 

17:12.983 --> 17:15.612 align:start position:0%
And below the grasses is a crucial piece
of<00:18:46.320><c> evidence</c><00:18:46.799><c> in</c><00:18:47.039><c> the</c><00:18:47.200><c> paranthropus</c><00:18:47.919><c> puzzle.</c>

17:15.612 --> 17:15.622 align:start position:0%
of evidence in the paranthropus puzzle.
 

17:15.622 --> 17:17.533 align:start position:0%
of evidence in the paranthropus puzzle.
Researcher<00:18:49.360><c> Tom</c><00:18:49.600><c> Plameumber</c><00:18:50.080><c> from</c><00:18:50.320><c> Queens</c>

17:17.533 --> 17:17.543 align:start position:0%
Researcher Tom Plameumber from Queens
 

17:17.543 --> 17:19.612 align:start position:0%
Researcher Tom Plameumber from Queens
College<00:18:50.960><c> at</c><00:18:51.120><c> City</c><00:18:51.440><c> University</c><00:18:51.919><c> of</c><00:18:52.160><c> New</c><00:18:52.320><c> York</c>

17:19.612 --> 17:19.622 align:start position:0%
College at City University of New York
 

17:19.622 --> 17:21.852 align:start position:0%
College at City University of New York
was<00:18:53.039><c> excavating</c><00:18:53.600><c> human-made</c><00:18:54.240><c> stone</c><00:18:54.559><c> tools</c>

17:21.852 --> 17:21.862 align:start position:0%
was excavating human-made stone tools
 

17:21.862 --> 17:24.333 align:start position:0%
was excavating human-made stone tools
from<00:18:55.200><c> another</c><00:18:55.520><c> Kenyan</c><00:18:56.000><c> site,</c><00:18:56.400><c> Canera,</c><00:18:57.280><c> when</c>

17:24.333 --> 17:24.343 align:start position:0%
from another Kenyan site, Canera, when
 

17:24.343 --> 17:26.813 align:start position:0%
from another Kenyan site, Canera, when
Blastoyango<00:18:58.720><c> from</c><00:18:58.880><c> the</c><00:18:59.039><c> National</c><00:18:59.440><c> Museum</c><00:18:59.760><c> of</c>

17:26.813 --> 17:26.823 align:start position:0%
Blastoyango from the National Museum of
 

17:26.823 --> 17:28.813 align:start position:0%
Blastoyango from the National Museum of
Kenya<00:19:00.480><c> mentioned</c><00:19:00.799><c> that</c><00:19:00.960><c> evidence</c><00:19:01.360><c> of</c><00:19:01.600><c> similar</c>

17:28.813 --> 17:28.823 align:start position:0%
Kenya mentioned that evidence of similar
 

17:28.823 --> 17:31.612 align:start position:0%
Kenya mentioned that evidence of similar
tools<00:19:02.480><c> had</c><00:19:02.799><c> been</c><00:19:02.960><c> found</c><00:19:03.360><c> nearby.</c><00:19:04.559><c> They</c>

17:31.612 --> 17:31.622 align:start position:0%
tools had been found nearby. They
 

17:31.622 --> 17:33.933 align:start position:0%
tools had been found nearby. They
visited<00:19:05.200><c> this</c><00:19:05.360><c> new</c><00:19:05.600><c> site</c><00:19:05.760><c> at</c><00:19:05.919><c> Nyanga</c><00:19:06.640><c> and</c><00:19:06.880><c> saw</c>

17:33.933 --> 17:33.943 align:start position:0%
visited this new site at Nyanga and saw
 

17:33.943 --> 17:36.173 align:start position:0%
visited this new site at Nyanga and saw
some<00:19:07.360><c> potential.</c><00:19:08.240><c> We</c><00:19:08.480><c> surveyed,</c><00:19:09.039><c> said</c>

17:36.173 --> 17:36.183 align:start position:0%
some potential. We surveyed, said
 

17:36.183 --> 17:38.173 align:start position:0%
some potential. We surveyed, said
plumber,<00:19:09.919><c> who</c><00:19:10.080><c> saw</c><00:19:10.240><c> some</c><00:19:10.480><c> material</c><00:19:10.960><c> on</c><00:19:11.200><c> the</c>

17:38.173 --> 17:38.183 align:start position:0%
plumber, who saw some material on the
 

17:38.183 --> 17:41.293 align:start position:0%
plumber, who saw some material on the
surface.<00:19:12.240><c> And</c><00:19:12.400><c> a</c><00:19:12.640><c> few</c><00:19:12.720><c> years</c><00:19:12.960><c> later</c><00:19:13.360><c> in</c><00:19:13.600><c> 2015,</c>

17:41.293 --> 17:41.303 align:start position:0%
surface. And a few years later in 2015,
 

17:41.303 --> 17:43.533 align:start position:0%
surface. And a few years later in 2015,
digging<00:19:14.880><c> began</c><00:19:15.360><c> at</c><00:19:15.679><c> what</c><00:19:15.919><c> would</c><00:19:16.080><c> become</c><00:19:16.480><c> one</c>

17:43.533 --> 17:43.543 align:start position:0%
digging began at what would become one
 

17:43.543 --> 17:45.693 align:start position:0%
digging began at what would become one
of<00:19:16.799><c> the</c><00:19:16.960><c> most</c><00:19:17.200><c> important</c><00:19:17.679><c> sites</c><00:19:18.160><c> in</c><00:19:18.480><c> human</c>

17:45.693 --> 17:45.703 align:start position:0%
of the most important sites in human
 

17:45.703 --> 17:48.333 align:start position:0%
of the most important sites in human
evolution.<00:19:20.240><c> The</c><00:19:20.400><c> team</c><00:19:20.640><c> began</c><00:19:20.960><c> excavating</c>

17:48.333 --> 17:48.343 align:start position:0%
evolution. The team began excavating
 

17:48.343 --> 17:50.973 align:start position:0%
evolution. The team began excavating
into<00:19:21.760><c> the</c><00:19:21.919><c> ochre</c><00:19:22.400><c> soil</c><00:19:23.039><c> and</c><00:19:23.280><c> soon</c><00:19:23.679><c> found</c><00:19:23.919><c> a</c>

17:50.973 --> 17:50.983 align:start position:0%
into the ochre soil and soon found a
 

17:50.983 --> 17:52.893 align:start position:0%
into the ochre soil and soon found a
treasure<00:19:24.559><c> trove</c><00:19:24.880><c> of</c><00:19:25.120><c> tools</c><00:19:25.600><c> at</c><00:19:25.840><c> what</c>

17:52.893 --> 17:52.903 align:start position:0%
treasure trove of tools at what
 

17:52.903 --> 17:54.973 align:start position:0%
treasure trove of tools at what
scientists<00:19:26.640><c> now</c><00:19:26.960><c> think</c><00:19:27.280><c> was</c><00:19:27.440><c> a</c><00:19:27.679><c> butchery</c>

17:54.973 --> 17:54.983 align:start position:0%
scientists now think was a butchery
 

17:54.983 --> 17:58.173 align:start position:0%
scientists now think was a butchery
site.<00:19:28.960><c> They</c><00:19:29.200><c> unearthed</c><00:19:29.919><c> 330</c><00:19:30.960><c> stone</c>

17:58.173 --> 17:58.183 align:start position:0%
site. They unearthed 330 stone
 

17:58.183 --> 18:00.413 align:start position:0%
site. They unearthed 330 stone
artifacts,<00:19:32.240><c> which</c><00:19:32.480><c> they</c><00:19:32.799><c> believe</c><00:19:33.039><c> were</c><00:19:33.280><c> tools</c>

18:00.413 --> 18:00.423 align:start position:0%
artifacts, which they believe were tools
 

18:00.423 --> 18:02.653 align:start position:0%
artifacts, which they believe were tools
used<00:19:33.840><c> to</c><00:19:34.000><c> carve</c><00:19:34.480><c> long</c><00:19:34.799><c> deadad</c><00:19:35.039><c> hippos</c><00:19:35.600><c> and</c>

18:02.653 --> 18:02.663 align:start position:0%
used to carve long deadad hippos and
 

18:02.663 --> 18:05.133 align:start position:0%
used to carve long deadad hippos and
pound<00:19:36.240><c> plants.</c><00:19:37.120><c> But</c><00:19:37.360><c> something</c><00:19:37.679><c> else</c><00:19:38.080><c> was</c>

18:05.133 --> 18:05.143 align:start position:0%
pound plants. But something else was
 

18:05.143 --> 18:08.492 align:start position:0%
pound plants. But something else was
very<00:19:38.640><c> unique</c><00:19:39.120><c> about</c><00:19:39.360><c> the</c><00:19:39.520><c> Nyanga</c><00:19:40.240><c> site.</c><00:19:41.440><c> At</c>

18:08.492 --> 18:08.502 align:start position:0%
very unique about the Nyanga site. At
 

18:08.502 --> 18:10.013 align:start position:0%
very unique about the Nyanga site. At
the<00:19:41.840><c> previous</c><00:19:42.160><c> site,</c><00:19:42.640><c> plumber</c><00:19:43.039><c> was</c>

18:10.013 --> 18:10.023 align:start position:0%
the previous site, plumber was
 

18:10.023 --> 18:12.413 align:start position:0%
the previous site, plumber was
excavating<00:19:43.760><c> human</c><00:19:44.160><c> fossils</c><00:19:44.799><c> alongside</c><00:19:45.360><c> the</c>

18:12.413 --> 18:12.423 align:start position:0%
excavating human fossils alongside the
 

18:12.423 --> 18:15.533 align:start position:0%
excavating human fossils alongside the
tools.<00:19:46.480><c> But</c><00:19:46.640><c> at</c><00:19:46.799><c> Nianga,</c><00:19:47.600><c> unlike</c><00:19:47.919><c> both</c><00:19:48.080><c> Kanga</c>

18:15.533 --> 18:15.543 align:start position:0%
tools. But at Nianga, unlike both Kanga
 

18:15.543 --> 18:17.933 align:start position:0%
tools. But at Nianga, unlike both Kanga
and<00:19:48.880><c> Ulivi,</c><00:19:49.679><c> there</c><00:19:49.840><c> was</c><00:19:50.080><c> no</c><00:19:50.320><c> evidence</c><00:19:50.799><c> of</c>

18:17.933 --> 18:17.943 align:start position:0%
and Ulivi, there was no evidence of
 

18:17.943 --> 18:20.732 align:start position:0%
and Ulivi, there was no evidence of
human<00:19:51.600><c> fossils.</c><00:19:52.799><c> There</c><00:19:53.039><c> were,</c><00:19:53.360><c> however,</c>

18:20.732 --> 18:20.742 align:start position:0%
human fossils. There were, however,
 

18:20.742 --> 18:24.013 align:start position:0%
human fossils. There were, however,
alongside<00:19:54.720><c> these</c><00:19:55.039><c> ancient</c><00:19:55.440><c> stone</c><00:19:55.840><c> tools,</c><00:19:56.799><c> two</c>

18:24.013 --> 18:24.023 align:start position:0%
alongside these ancient stone tools, two
 

18:24.023 --> 18:29.372 align:start position:0%
alongside these ancient stone tools, two
Paranthropus<00:19:58.000><c> teeth.</c>

18:29.372 --> 18:29.382 align:start position:0%
 
 

18:29.382 --> 18:31.693 align:start position:0%
 
And<00:20:02.640><c> so,</c><00:20:02.880><c> Nianka</c><00:20:03.440><c> is</c><00:20:03.600><c> crucial</c><00:20:04.000><c> for</c><00:20:04.240><c> precisely</c>

18:31.693 --> 18:31.703 align:start position:0%
And so, Nianka is crucial for precisely
 

18:31.703 --> 18:33.693 align:start position:0%
And so, Nianka is crucial for precisely
this<00:20:05.200><c> reason.</c><00:20:05.760><c> At</c><00:20:06.000><c> last,</c><00:20:06.400><c> we</c><00:20:06.640><c> had</c>

18:33.693 --> 18:33.703 align:start position:0%
this reason. At last, we had
 

18:33.703 --> 18:35.852 align:start position:0%
this reason. At last, we had
Paranthropus<00:20:07.600><c> and</c><00:20:07.760><c> stone</c><00:20:08.160><c> tools</c><00:20:08.559><c> located</c>

18:35.852 --> 18:35.862 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus and stone tools located
 

18:35.862 --> 18:37.933 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus and stone tools located
together<00:20:09.600><c> without</c><00:20:09.919><c> any</c><00:20:10.160><c> other</c><00:20:10.400><c> contenders</c><00:20:10.960><c> on</c>

18:37.933 --> 18:37.943 align:start position:0%
together without any other contenders on
 

18:37.943 --> 18:40.333 align:start position:0%
together without any other contenders on
the<00:20:11.280><c> scene.</c><00:20:12.080><c> And</c><00:20:12.240><c> so,</c><00:20:12.480><c> does</c><00:20:12.720><c> this</c><00:20:12.960><c> prove</c><00:20:13.280><c> that</c>

18:40.333 --> 18:40.343 align:start position:0%
the scene. And so, does this prove that
 

18:40.343 --> 18:42.253 align:start position:0%
the scene. And so, does this prove that
they<00:20:13.679><c> had</c><00:20:13.760><c> the</c><00:20:14.000><c> humanlike</c><00:20:14.480><c> ability</c><00:20:14.799><c> to</c><00:20:15.039><c> use</c>

18:42.253 --> 18:42.263 align:start position:0%
they had the humanlike ability to use
 

18:42.263 --> 18:45.612 align:start position:0%
they had the humanlike ability to use
tools<00:20:16.000><c> to</c><00:20:16.240><c> butcher</c><00:20:16.640><c> their</c><00:20:16.880><c> food?</c><00:20:17.919><c> Well,</c><00:20:18.559><c> not</c>

18:45.612 --> 18:45.622 align:start position:0%
tools to butcher their food? Well, not
 

18:45.622 --> 18:47.933 align:start position:0%
tools to butcher their food? Well, not
entirely.<00:20:19.840><c> It's</c><00:20:20.080><c> certainly</c><00:20:20.320><c> a</c><00:20:20.559><c> key</c><00:20:20.799><c> piece</c><00:20:20.960><c> of</c>

18:47.933 --> 18:47.943 align:start position:0%
entirely. It's certainly a key piece of
 

18:47.943 --> 18:50.492 align:start position:0%
entirely. It's certainly a key piece of
evidence,<00:20:21.760><c> but</c><00:20:22.080><c> scientists</c><00:20:22.720><c> also</c><00:20:23.120><c> needed</c><00:20:23.440><c> to</c>

18:50.492 --> 18:50.502 align:start position:0%
evidence, but scientists also needed to
 

18:50.502 --> 18:51.773 align:start position:0%
evidence, but scientists also needed to
show<00:20:23.840><c> that</c><00:20:24.080><c> the</c><00:20:24.240><c> creature</c><00:20:24.559><c> would</c><00:20:24.720><c> have</c><00:20:24.799><c> been</c>

18:51.773 --> 18:51.783 align:start position:0%
show that the creature would have been
 

18:51.783 --> 18:54.573 align:start position:0%
show that the creature would have been
able<00:20:25.120><c> to</c><00:20:25.280><c> hold,</c><00:20:25.919><c> manipulate,</c><00:20:26.880><c> and</c><00:20:27.200><c> use</c><00:20:27.520><c> the</c>

18:54.573 --> 18:54.583 align:start position:0%
able to hold, manipulate, and use the
 

18:54.583 --> 18:57.372 align:start position:0%
able to hold, manipulate, and use the
tools.<00:20:28.880><c> Human</c><00:20:29.280><c> hands</c><00:20:29.679><c> are</c><00:20:29.919><c> superbly</c><00:20:30.400><c> well</c>

18:57.372 --> 18:57.382 align:start position:0%
tools. Human hands are superbly well
 

18:57.382 --> 18:59.773 align:start position:0%
tools. Human hands are superbly well
adapted<00:20:31.039><c> for</c><00:20:31.280><c> the</c><00:20:31.440><c> use</c><00:20:31.600><c> of</c><00:20:31.760><c> tools.</c><00:20:32.640><c> We</c><00:20:32.799><c> have</c>

18:59.773 --> 18:59.783 align:start position:0%
adapted for the use of tools. We have
 

18:59.783 --> 19:02.013 align:start position:0%
adapted for the use of tools. We have
long<00:20:33.360><c> opposable</c><00:20:33.919><c> thumbs</c><00:20:34.240><c> with</c><00:20:34.559><c> broad</c><00:20:34.880><c> tips</c>

19:02.013 --> 19:02.023 align:start position:0%
long opposable thumbs with broad tips
 

19:02.023 --> 19:03.933 align:start position:0%
long opposable thumbs with broad tips
that<00:20:35.360><c> can</c><00:20:35.520><c> grip</c><00:20:35.679><c> and</c><00:20:35.919><c> manipulate</c><00:20:36.400><c> objects.</c>

19:03.933 --> 19:03.943 align:start position:0%
that can grip and manipulate objects.
 

19:03.943 --> 19:06.013 align:start position:0%
that can grip and manipulate objects.
Wrists<00:20:37.520><c> that</c><00:20:37.760><c> have</c><00:20:37.919><c> a</c><00:20:38.080><c> large</c><00:20:38.320><c> range</c><00:20:38.559><c> of</c><00:20:38.720><c> motion</c>

19:06.013 --> 19:06.023 align:start position:0%
Wrists that have a large range of motion
 

19:06.023 --> 19:07.933 align:start position:0%
Wrists that have a large range of motion
and<00:20:39.360><c> dozens</c><00:20:39.840><c> of</c><00:20:40.000><c> clever</c><00:20:40.400><c> muscles</c><00:20:40.720><c> that</c><00:20:40.960><c> give</c>

19:07.933 --> 19:07.943 align:start position:0%
and dozens of clever muscles that give
 

19:07.943 --> 19:10.492 align:start position:0%
and dozens of clever muscles that give
us<00:20:41.200><c> a</c><00:20:41.360><c> precision</c><00:20:41.840><c> grip</c><00:20:42.159><c> with</c><00:20:42.400><c> our</c><00:20:42.640><c> fingers.</c>

19:10.492 --> 19:10.502 align:start position:0%
us a precision grip with our fingers.
 

19:10.502 --> 19:12.813 align:start position:0%
us a precision grip with our fingers.
The<00:20:43.919><c> problem</c><00:20:44.240><c> is</c><00:20:44.720><c> proving</c><00:20:45.120><c> that</c><00:20:45.200><c> paranthropus</c>

19:12.813 --> 19:12.823 align:start position:0%
The problem is proving that paranthropus
 

19:12.823 --> 19:14.253 align:start position:0%
The problem is proving that paranthropus
could<00:20:46.159><c> do</c><00:20:46.240><c> anything</c><00:20:46.559><c> approaching</c><00:20:46.960><c> the</c><00:20:47.200><c> same</c>

19:14.253 --> 19:14.263 align:start position:0%
could do anything approaching the same
 

19:14.263 --> 19:16.573 align:start position:0%
could do anything approaching the same
is<00:20:47.840><c> tricky</c><00:20:48.400><c> as</c><00:20:48.640><c> it</c><00:20:48.799><c> is</c><00:20:48.960><c> rare</c><00:20:49.280><c> to</c><00:20:49.520><c> find</c>

19:16.573 --> 19:16.583 align:start position:0%
is tricky as it is rare to find
 

19:16.583 --> 19:18.972 align:start position:0%
is tricky as it is rare to find
fossilized<00:20:50.480><c> hands</c><00:20:50.799><c> or</c><00:20:51.039><c> feet.</c><00:20:51.760><c> They</c><00:20:52.000><c> can</c>

19:18.972 --> 19:18.982 align:start position:0%
fossilized hands or feet. They can
 

19:18.982 --> 19:21.453 align:start position:0%
fossilized hands or feet. They can
detach<00:20:52.559><c> from</c><00:20:52.720><c> the</c><00:20:52.960><c> bodies</c><00:20:53.280><c> it</c><00:20:53.520><c> decomposes</c><00:20:54.320><c> or</c>

19:21.453 --> 19:21.463 align:start position:0%
detach from the bodies it decomposes or
 

19:21.463 --> 19:24.093 align:start position:0%
detach from the bodies it decomposes or
be<00:20:54.799><c> eaten</c><00:20:55.120><c> by</c><00:20:55.360><c> hungry</c><00:20:55.760><c> scavengers.</c><00:20:56.720><c> The</c><00:20:56.960><c> bones</c>

19:24.093 --> 19:24.103 align:start position:0%
be eaten by hungry scavengers. The bones
 

19:24.103 --> 19:26.253 align:start position:0%
be eaten by hungry scavengers. The bones
in<00:20:57.440><c> the</c><00:20:57.600><c> hands</c><00:20:57.840><c> and</c><00:20:58.000><c> feet</c><00:20:58.240><c> are</c><00:20:58.480><c> also</c><00:20:58.880><c> small</c><00:20:59.120><c> and</c>

19:26.253 --> 19:26.263 align:start position:0%
in the hands and feet are also small and
 

19:26.263 --> 19:28.173 align:start position:0%
in the hands and feet are also small and
fragile<00:21:00.159><c> which</c><00:21:00.320><c> makes</c><00:21:00.480><c> them</c><00:21:00.720><c> unlikely</c><00:21:01.120><c> to</c>

19:28.173 --> 19:28.183 align:start position:0%
fragile which makes them unlikely to
 

19:28.183 --> 19:30.732 align:start position:0%
fragile which makes them unlikely to
survive.<00:21:01.760><c> if</c><00:21:01.919><c> the</c><00:21:02.080><c> fossilization</c><00:21:02.960><c> process.</c>

19:30.732 --> 19:30.742 align:start position:0%
survive. if the fossilization process.
 

19:30.742 --> 19:33.453 align:start position:0%
survive. if the fossilization process.
And<00:21:04.159><c> yet,</c><00:21:04.880><c> a</c><00:21:05.120><c> few</c><00:21:05.280><c> years</c><00:21:05.520><c> after</c><00:21:05.840><c> the</c><00:21:06.000><c> Niyanga</c>

19:33.453 --> 19:33.463 align:start position:0%
And yet, a few years after the Niyanga
 

19:33.463 --> 19:35.773 align:start position:0%
And yet, a few years after the Niyanga
discovery,<00:21:07.200><c> we</c><00:21:07.360><c> would</c><00:21:07.520><c> at</c><00:21:07.760><c> long</c><00:21:08.000><c> last</c><00:21:08.559><c> get</c><00:21:08.720><c> a</c>

19:35.773 --> 19:35.783 align:start position:0%
discovery, we would at long last get a
 

19:35.783 --> 19:44.413 align:start position:0%
discovery, we would at long last get a
good<00:21:09.120><c> look</c><00:21:09.360><c> at</c><00:21:09.600><c> a</c><00:21:09.760><c> paranthropus</c><00:21:10.559><c> hand.</c>

19:44.413 --> 19:44.423 align:start position:0%
 
 

19:44.423 --> 19:46.573 align:start position:0%
 
At<00:21:17.760><c> the</c><00:21:17.919><c> Kooie</c><00:21:18.400><c> Fora</c><00:21:18.799><c> research</c><00:21:19.200><c> project</c><00:21:19.520><c> in</c>

19:46.573 --> 19:46.583 align:start position:0%
At the Kooie Fora research project in
 

19:46.583 --> 19:49.133 align:start position:0%
At the Kooie Fora research project in
Kenya,<00:21:20.320><c> local</c><00:21:20.640><c> community</c><00:21:21.120><c> partners</c><00:21:21.760><c> spend</c><00:21:22.080><c> 7</c>

19:49.133 --> 19:49.143 align:start position:0%
Kenya, local community partners spend 7
 

19:49.143 --> 19:51.852 align:start position:0%
Kenya, local community partners spend 7
to<00:21:22.559><c> 8</c><00:21:22.720><c> months</c><00:21:22.960><c> a</c><00:21:23.200><c> year</c><00:21:23.679><c> exploring,</c><00:21:24.400><c> surveying,</c>

19:51.852 --> 19:51.862 align:start position:0%
to 8 months a year exploring, surveying,
 

19:51.862 --> 19:54.413 align:start position:0%
to 8 months a year exploring, surveying,
and<00:21:25.280><c> excavating</c><00:21:25.760><c> the</c><00:21:26.000><c> earth.</c><00:21:26.720><c> The</c><00:21:26.960><c> site</c><00:21:27.280><c> first</c>

19:54.413 --> 19:54.423 align:start position:0%
and excavating the earth. The site first
 

19:54.423 --> 19:56.013 align:start position:0%
and excavating the earth. The site first
established<00:21:28.000><c> as</c><00:21:28.159><c> a</c><00:21:28.320><c> camp</c><00:21:28.559><c> by</c><00:21:28.720><c> the</c><00:21:28.880><c> son</c><00:21:29.039><c> of</c>

19:56.013 --> 19:56.023 align:start position:0%
established as a camp by the son of
 

19:56.023 --> 19:58.173 align:start position:0%
established as a camp by the son of
Louiswis<00:21:29.520><c> and</c><00:21:29.679><c> Mary</c><00:21:30.000><c> Leaky</c><00:21:30.559><c> Richard</c><00:21:30.960><c> in</c><00:21:31.200><c> the</c>

19:58.173 --> 19:58.183 align:start position:0%
Louiswis and Mary Leaky Richard in the
 

19:58.183 --> 20:00.972 align:start position:0%
Louiswis and Mary Leaky Richard in the
1960s<00:21:32.159><c> and</c><00:21:32.400><c> now</c><00:21:32.640><c> run</c><00:21:32.960><c> by</c><00:21:33.039><c> his</c><00:21:33.280><c> daughter</c><00:21:33.600><c> Louise</c>

20:00.972 --> 20:00.982 align:start position:0%
1960s and now run by his daughter Louise
 

20:00.982 --> 20:03.612 align:start position:0%
1960s and now run by his daughter Louise
has<00:21:34.400><c> been</c><00:21:34.480><c> a</c><00:21:34.640><c> hotbed</c><00:21:35.120><c> for</c><00:21:35.280><c> homminin</c><00:21:35.840><c> finds</c><00:21:36.640><c> and</c>

20:03.612 --> 20:03.622 align:start position:0%
has been a hotbed for homminin finds and
 

20:03.622 --> 20:06.253 align:start position:0%
has been a hotbed for homminin finds and
in<00:21:37.039><c> 2019</c><00:21:37.840><c> they</c><00:21:38.080><c> found</c><00:21:38.320><c> something</c><00:21:38.720><c> special</c><00:21:39.200><c> on</c>

20:06.253 --> 20:06.263 align:start position:0%
in 2019 they found something special on
 

20:06.263 --> 20:08.893 align:start position:0%
in 2019 they found something special on
the<00:21:39.600><c> eastern</c><00:21:40.000><c> shore</c><00:21:40.320><c> of</c><00:21:40.480><c> Lake</c><00:21:40.720><c> Turkana.</c><00:21:41.840><c> It</c>

20:08.893 --> 20:08.903 align:start position:0%
the eastern shore of Lake Turkana. It
 

20:08.903 --> 20:10.732 align:start position:0%
the eastern shore of Lake Turkana. It
was<00:21:42.159><c> a</c><00:21:42.320><c> partial</c><00:21:42.720><c> skeleton</c><00:21:43.200><c> that</c><00:21:43.440><c> was</c><00:21:43.600><c> then</c>

20:10.732 --> 20:10.742 align:start position:0%
was a partial skeleton that was then
 

20:10.742 --> 20:13.133 align:start position:0%
was a partial skeleton that was then
painstakingly<00:21:44.720><c> excavated</c><00:21:45.360><c> over</c><00:21:45.520><c> the</c><00:21:45.760><c> next</c><00:21:46.000><c> 2</c>

20:13.133 --> 20:13.143 align:start position:0%
painstakingly excavated over the next 2
 

20:13.143 --> 20:15.372 align:start position:0%
painstakingly excavated over the next 2
years.<00:21:47.120><c> The</c><00:21:47.360><c> fossils</c><00:21:47.760><c> recovered</c><00:21:48.159><c> from</c><00:21:48.320><c> this</c>

20:15.372 --> 20:15.382 align:start position:0%
years. The fossils recovered from this
 

20:15.382 --> 20:17.293 align:start position:0%
years. The fossils recovered from this
skeleton<00:21:48.960><c> of</c><00:21:49.039><c> a</c><00:21:49.200><c> paranthropus</c><00:21:49.919><c> that</c><00:21:50.159><c> lived</c>

20:17.293 --> 20:17.303 align:start position:0%
skeleton of a paranthropus that lived
 

20:17.303 --> 20:19.133 align:start position:0%
skeleton of a paranthropus that lived
around<00:21:50.720><c> 1</c><00:21:50.880><c> and</c><00:21:50.960><c> a</c><00:21:51.039><c> half</c><00:21:51.280><c> million</c><00:21:51.679><c> years</c><00:21:51.840><c> ago</c>

20:19.133 --> 20:19.143 align:start position:0%
around 1 and a half million years ago
 

20:19.143 --> 20:21.453 align:start position:0%
around 1 and a half million years ago
included<00:21:52.799><c> teeth,</c><00:21:53.360><c> skull</c><00:21:53.760><c> fragments,</c><00:21:54.400><c> and</c>

20:21.453 --> 20:21.463 align:start position:0%
included teeth, skull fragments, and
 

20:21.463 --> 20:23.693 align:start position:0%
included teeth, skull fragments, and
also<00:21:54.960><c> an</c><00:21:55.200><c> incredibly</c><00:21:55.760><c> wellpreserved</c><00:21:56.480><c> set</c><00:21:56.640><c> of</c>

20:23.693 --> 20:23.703 align:start position:0%
also an incredibly wellpreserved set of
 

20:23.703 --> 20:27.053 align:start position:0%
also an incredibly wellpreserved set of
foot<00:21:57.280><c> and</c><00:21:57.600><c> handbones.</c><00:21:58.880><c> The</c><00:21:59.039><c> fossil</c><00:21:59.520><c> handbones</c>

20:27.053 --> 20:27.063 align:start position:0%
foot and handbones. The fossil handbones
 

20:27.063 --> 20:28.813 align:start position:0%
foot and handbones. The fossil handbones
showed<00:22:00.480><c> the</c><00:22:00.640><c> Paranthropus's</c><00:22:01.440><c> hand</c><00:22:01.679><c> had</c><00:22:01.840><c> a</c>

20:28.813 --> 20:28.823 align:start position:0%
showed the Paranthropus's hand had a
 

20:28.823 --> 20:30.972 align:start position:0%
showed the Paranthropus's hand had a
grip<00:22:02.320><c> similar</c><00:22:02.640><c> to</c><00:22:02.880><c> ours,</c><00:22:03.440><c> precise</c><00:22:03.919><c> and</c>

20:30.972 --> 20:30.982 align:start position:0%
grip similar to ours, precise and
 

20:30.982 --> 20:32.732 align:start position:0%
grip similar to ours, precise and
nimble,<00:22:04.559><c> but</c><00:22:04.799><c> with</c><00:22:04.960><c> the</c><00:22:05.200><c> strength</c><00:22:05.520><c> of</c><00:22:05.679><c> a</c>

20:32.732 --> 20:32.742 align:start position:0%
nimble, but with the strength of a
 

20:32.742 --> 20:35.053 align:start position:0%
nimble, but with the strength of a
gorilla.<00:22:06.880><c> It</c><00:22:07.039><c> lacked</c><00:22:07.440><c> our</c><00:22:07.760><c> particularly</c>

20:35.053 --> 20:35.063 align:start position:0%
gorilla. It lacked our particularly
 

20:35.063 --> 20:37.293 align:start position:0%
gorilla. It lacked our particularly
mobile<00:22:08.720><c> wrists.</c><00:22:09.520><c> But</c><00:22:09.679><c> crucially,</c><00:22:10.240><c> the</c>

20:37.293 --> 20:37.303 align:start position:0%
mobile wrists. But crucially, the
 

20:37.303 --> 20:39.453 align:start position:0%
mobile wrists. But crucially, the
conclusion<00:22:10.799><c> of</c><00:22:10.960><c> a</c><00:22:11.120><c> 2025</c><00:22:12.000><c> study</c><00:22:12.320><c> on</c><00:22:12.480><c> the</c>

20:39.453 --> 20:39.463 align:start position:0%
conclusion of a 2025 study on the
 

20:39.463 --> 20:41.053 align:start position:0%
conclusion of a 2025 study on the
fossils<00:22:13.200><c> found</c><00:22:13.440><c> that</c><00:22:13.600><c> it</c><00:22:13.760><c> would</c><00:22:13.919><c> have</c><00:22:14.080><c> been</c>

20:41.053 --> 20:41.063 align:start position:0%
fossils found that it would have been
 

20:41.063 --> 20:43.852 align:start position:0%
fossils found that it would have been
able<00:22:14.400><c> to</c><00:22:14.640><c> use</c><00:22:15.039><c> tools.</c><00:22:16.080><c> in</c><00:22:16.320><c> their</c><00:22:16.480><c> words,</c>

20:43.852 --> 20:43.862 align:start position:0%
able to use tools. in their words,
 

20:43.862 --> 20:46.093 align:start position:0%
able to use tools. in their words,
complicating<00:22:17.600><c> the</c><00:22:17.840><c> evolutionary</c><00:22:18.640><c> history</c><00:22:18.960><c> of</c>

20:46.093 --> 20:46.103 align:start position:0%
complicating the evolutionary history of
 

20:46.103 --> 20:48.813 align:start position:0%
complicating the evolutionary history of
hand<00:22:19.600><c> and</c><00:22:19.840><c> tool</c><00:22:20.240><c> manipulation.</c><00:22:21.520><c> And</c><00:22:21.679><c> indeed,</c>

20:48.813 --> 20:48.823 align:start position:0%
hand and tool manipulation. And indeed,
 

20:48.823 --> 20:51.133 align:start position:0%
hand and tool manipulation. And indeed,
the<00:22:22.159><c> footbones</c><00:22:22.880><c> were</c><00:22:23.120><c> just</c><00:22:23.360><c> as</c><00:22:23.600><c> revealing.</c>

20:51.133 --> 20:51.143 align:start position:0%
the footbones were just as revealing.
 

20:51.143 --> 20:52.893 align:start position:0%
the footbones were just as revealing.
They<00:22:24.559><c> felt</c><00:22:24.720><c> that</c><00:22:24.880><c> the</c><00:22:25.039><c> paranthropus</c><00:22:25.760><c> feet</c>

20:52.893 --> 20:52.903 align:start position:0%
They felt that the paranthropus feet
 

20:52.903 --> 20:55.293 align:start position:0%
They felt that the paranthropus feet
were<00:22:26.400><c> unquestionably</c><00:22:27.360><c> adapted</c><00:22:27.840><c> to</c><00:22:28.080><c> walking</c>

20:55.293 --> 20:55.303 align:start position:0%
were unquestionably adapted to walking
 

20:55.303 --> 20:58.732 align:start position:0%
were unquestionably adapted to walking
upright<00:22:29.360><c> on</c><00:22:29.679><c> two</c><00:22:30.000><c> legs.</c><00:22:30.880><c> Like</c><00:22:31.120><c> us,</c><00:22:31.440><c> its</c><00:22:31.679><c> big</c>

20:58.732 --> 20:58.742 align:start position:0%
upright on two legs. Like us, its big
 

20:58.742 --> 21:00.732 align:start position:0%
upright on two legs. Like us, its big
toes<00:22:32.320><c> pointed</c><00:22:32.720><c> in</c><00:22:32.880><c> the</c><00:22:33.039><c> same</c><00:22:33.280><c> direction</c><00:22:33.679><c> as</c>

21:00.732 --> 21:00.742 align:start position:0%
toes pointed in the same direction as
 

21:00.742 --> 21:02.813 align:start position:0%
toes pointed in the same direction as
the<00:22:34.159><c> rest</c><00:22:34.320><c> of</c><00:22:34.400><c> its</c><00:22:34.640><c> toes.</c><00:22:35.200><c> Other</c><00:22:35.520><c> ape's</c><00:22:35.840><c> big</c>

21:02.813 --> 21:02.823 align:start position:0%
the rest of its toes. Other ape's big
 

21:02.823 --> 21:04.972 align:start position:0%
the rest of its toes. Other ape's big
toes<00:22:36.480><c> stick</c><00:22:36.720><c> out</c><00:22:36.880><c> to</c><00:22:37.039><c> the</c><00:22:37.200><c> sides,</c><00:22:37.760><c> which</c><00:22:38.000><c> means</c>

21:04.972 --> 21:04.982 align:start position:0%
toes stick out to the sides, which means
 

21:04.982 --> 21:06.573 align:start position:0%
toes stick out to the sides, which means
they're<00:22:38.400><c> able</c><00:22:38.640><c> to</c><00:22:38.720><c> better</c><00:22:39.039><c> grasp</c><00:22:39.360><c> branches</c>

21:06.573 --> 21:06.583 align:start position:0%
they're able to better grasp branches
 

21:06.583 --> 21:09.053 align:start position:0%
they're able to better grasp branches
with<00:22:40.000><c> their</c><00:22:40.240><c> feet</c><00:22:40.480><c> and</c><00:22:40.720><c> climb</c><00:22:41.120><c> trees.</c><00:22:41.919><c> And</c><00:22:42.080><c> the</c>

21:09.053 --> 21:09.063 align:start position:0%
with their feet and climb trees. And the
 

21:09.063 --> 21:10.972 align:start position:0%
with their feet and climb trees. And the
joints<00:22:42.559><c> in</c><00:22:42.720><c> Paranthropus's</c><00:22:43.520><c> foot</c><00:22:43.840><c> also</c>

21:10.972 --> 21:10.982 align:start position:0%
joints in Paranthropus's foot also
 

21:10.982 --> 21:13.693 align:start position:0%
joints in Paranthropus's foot also
allowed<00:22:44.480><c> it</c><00:22:44.720><c> to</c><00:22:45.280><c> literally</c><00:22:46.000><c> have</c><00:22:46.159><c> a</c><00:22:46.400><c> spring</c><00:22:46.720><c> in</c>

21:13.693 --> 21:13.703 align:start position:0%
allowed it to literally have a spring in
 

21:13.703 --> 21:16.093 align:start position:0%
allowed it to literally have a spring in
its<00:22:47.200><c> step,</c><00:22:48.000><c> something</c><00:22:48.240><c> that</c><00:22:48.400><c> enables</c><00:22:48.880><c> modern</c>

21:16.093 --> 21:16.103 align:start position:0%
its step, something that enables modern
 

21:16.103 --> 21:17.933 align:start position:0%
its step, something that enables modern
humans<00:22:49.600><c> to</c><00:22:49.760><c> push</c><00:22:50.000><c> off</c><00:22:50.240><c> the</c><00:22:50.400><c> ground</c><00:22:50.799><c> when</c>

21:17.933 --> 21:17.943 align:start position:0%
humans to push off the ground when
 

21:17.943 --> 21:21.933 align:start position:0%
humans to push off the ground when
walking<00:22:51.679><c> or</c><00:22:52.000><c> running.</c>

21:21.933 --> 21:21.943 align:start position:0%
 
 

21:21.943 --> 21:23.693 align:start position:0%
 
The<00:22:55.360><c> picture</c><00:22:55.600><c> of</c><00:22:55.760><c> Paranthropus</c><00:22:56.480><c> that</c><00:22:56.640><c> these</c>

21:23.693 --> 21:23.703 align:start position:0%
The picture of Paranthropus that these
 

21:23.703 --> 21:26.492 align:start position:0%
The picture of Paranthropus that these
finds<00:22:57.360><c> give</c><00:22:57.520><c> us</c><00:22:57.840><c> is</c><00:22:58.080><c> a</c><00:22:58.240><c> stark</c><00:22:58.799><c> contrast</c><00:22:59.440><c> to</c>

21:26.492 --> 21:26.502 align:start position:0%
finds give us is a stark contrast to
 

21:26.502 --> 21:28.253 align:start position:0%
finds give us is a stark contrast to
what<00:22:59.840><c> we</c><00:23:00.080><c> may</c><00:23:00.240><c> have</c><00:23:00.400><c> imagined</c><00:23:00.880><c> back</c><00:23:01.120><c> in</c><00:23:01.280><c> the</c>

21:28.253 --> 21:28.263 align:start position:0%
what we may have imagined back in the
 

21:28.263 --> 21:31.453 align:start position:0%
what we may have imagined back in the
1930s<00:23:02.240><c> or</c><00:23:02.640><c> 50s</c><00:23:03.280><c> as</c><00:23:03.440><c> the</c><00:23:03.679><c> first</c><00:23:04.000><c> Panthropus</c>

21:31.453 --> 21:31.463 align:start position:0%
1930s or 50s as the first Panthropus
 

21:31.463 --> 21:33.293 align:start position:0%
1930s or 50s as the first Panthropus
fossils<00:23:05.039><c> of</c><00:23:05.200><c> their</c><00:23:05.360><c> respective</c><00:23:05.840><c> species</c>

21:33.293 --> 21:33.303 align:start position:0%
fossils of their respective species
 

21:33.303 --> 21:35.133 align:start position:0%
fossils of their respective species
found<00:23:06.720><c> the</c><00:23:06.880><c> light</c><00:23:07.120><c> of</c><00:23:07.280><c> day.</c><00:23:07.679><c> Indeed,</c><00:23:08.080><c> the</c><00:23:08.240><c> more</c>

21:35.133 --> 21:35.143 align:start position:0%
found the light of day. Indeed, the more
 

21:35.143 --> 21:36.972 align:start position:0%
found the light of day. Indeed, the more
we<00:23:08.559><c> discover</c><00:23:08.880><c> about</c><00:23:09.120><c> this</c><00:23:09.280><c> homonyin,</c><00:23:10.000><c> the</c>

21:36.972 --> 21:36.982 align:start position:0%
we discover about this homonyin, the
 

21:36.982 --> 21:39.133 align:start position:0%
we discover about this homonyin, the
more<00:23:10.320><c> we</c><00:23:10.480><c> develop</c><00:23:10.799><c> a</c><00:23:11.039><c> detailed</c><00:23:11.520><c> picture</c><00:23:11.840><c> of</c><00:23:12.080><c> a</c>

21:39.133 --> 21:39.143 align:start position:0%
more we develop a detailed picture of a
 

21:39.143 --> 21:42.173 align:start position:0%
more we develop a detailed picture of a
complex<00:23:12.799><c> mosaic</c><00:23:13.360><c> of</c><00:23:13.600><c> features.</c><00:23:14.559><c> Some,</c><00:23:15.039><c> like</c>

21:42.173 --> 21:42.183 align:start position:0%
complex mosaic of features. Some, like
 

21:42.183 --> 21:44.253 align:start position:0%
complex mosaic of features. Some, like
gorilla<00:23:15.760><c> grip</c><00:23:16.080><c> strength</c><00:23:16.480><c> or</c><00:23:16.640><c> a</c><00:23:16.880><c> bite</c><00:23:17.120><c> power</c>

21:44.253 --> 21:44.263 align:start position:0%
gorilla grip strength or a bite power
 

21:44.263 --> 21:46.653 align:start position:0%
gorilla grip strength or a bite power
similar<00:23:17.760><c> to</c><00:23:17.840><c> a</c><00:23:18.000><c> hyena</c><00:23:18.400><c> or</c><00:23:18.640><c> grizzly,</c><00:23:19.280><c> show</c><00:23:19.440><c> us</c><00:23:19.600><c> a</c>

21:46.653 --> 21:46.663 align:start position:0%
similar to a hyena or grizzly, show us a
 

21:46.663 --> 21:49.213 align:start position:0%
similar to a hyena or grizzly, show us a
creature<00:23:20.080><c> that</c><00:23:20.400><c> feels</c><00:23:20.960><c> truly</c><00:23:21.520><c> alien.</c><00:23:22.240><c> But</c>

21:49.213 --> 21:49.223 align:start position:0%
creature that feels truly alien. But
 

21:49.223 --> 21:50.972 align:start position:0%
creature that feels truly alien. But
others,<00:23:22.960><c> like</c><00:23:23.120><c> the</c><00:23:23.360><c> movement</c><00:23:23.600><c> of</c><00:23:23.760><c> the</c><00:23:23.919><c> feet</c>

21:50.972 --> 21:50.982 align:start position:0%
others, like the movement of the feet
 

21:50.982 --> 21:52.653 align:start position:0%
others, like the movement of the feet
and<00:23:24.320><c> the</c><00:23:24.480><c> somewhat</c><00:23:24.799><c> dextrous</c><00:23:25.360><c> potential</c><00:23:25.679><c> of</c>

21:52.653 --> 21:52.663 align:start position:0%
and the somewhat dextrous potential of
 

21:52.663 --> 21:54.413 align:start position:0%
and the somewhat dextrous potential of
the<00:23:26.000><c> hands,</c><00:23:26.480><c> paint</c><00:23:26.720><c> an</c><00:23:26.880><c> image</c><00:23:27.120><c> of</c><00:23:27.360><c> something</c>

21:54.413 --> 21:54.423 align:start position:0%
the hands, paint an image of something
 

21:54.423 --> 21:56.972 align:start position:0%
the hands, paint an image of something
eerily<00:23:28.159><c> similar</c><00:23:28.400><c> to</c><00:23:28.640><c> us.</c><00:23:29.280><c> And</c><00:23:29.440><c> so</c><00:23:29.679><c> this</c><00:23:29.840><c> begs</c>

21:56.972 --> 21:56.982 align:start position:0%
eerily similar to us. And so this begs
 

21:56.982 --> 21:59.133 align:start position:0%
eerily similar to us. And so this begs
the<00:23:30.400><c> question,</c><00:23:30.960><c> what</c><00:23:31.280><c> actually</c><00:23:31.679><c> was</c>

21:59.133 --> 21:59.143 align:start position:0%
the question, what actually was
 

21:59.143 --> 22:02.333 align:start position:0%
the question, what actually was
Paranthropus<00:23:33.280><c> to</c><00:23:33.520><c> us?</c><00:23:34.480><c> If</c><00:23:34.640><c> it</c><00:23:34.799><c> is</c><00:23:34.880><c> a</c><00:23:35.039><c> homminin</c>

22:02.333 --> 22:02.343 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus to us? If it is a homminin
 

22:02.343 --> 22:04.173 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus to us? If it is a homminin
and<00:23:35.760><c> as</c><00:23:36.000><c> such</c><00:23:36.159><c> is</c><00:23:36.400><c> more</c><00:23:36.559><c> closely</c><00:23:36.960><c> related</c><00:23:37.200><c> to</c>

22:04.173 --> 22:04.183 align:start position:0%
and as such is more closely related to
 

22:04.183 --> 22:06.813 align:start position:0%
and as such is more closely related to
us<00:23:37.600><c> than</c><00:23:37.760><c> anything</c><00:23:38.080><c> else</c><00:23:38.400><c> left</c><00:23:38.720><c> alive</c><00:23:39.120><c> today,</c>

22:06.813 --> 22:06.823 align:start position:0%
us than anything else left alive today,
 

22:06.823 --> 22:08.972 align:start position:0%
us than anything else left alive today,
but<00:23:40.159><c> where</c><00:23:40.400><c> exactly</c><00:23:40.880><c> in</c><00:23:41.120><c> our</c><00:23:41.360><c> family</c><00:23:41.679><c> tree</c>

22:08.972 --> 22:08.982 align:start position:0%
but where exactly in our family tree
 

22:08.982 --> 22:12.013 align:start position:0%
but where exactly in our family tree
does<00:23:42.400><c> it</c><00:23:42.720><c> sit?</c><00:23:43.600><c> Could</c><00:23:43.760><c> we</c><00:23:44.000><c> even</c><00:23:44.400><c> consider</c><00:23:44.799><c> it</c><00:23:44.960><c> a</c>

22:12.013 --> 22:12.023 align:start position:0%
does it sit? Could we even consider it a
 

22:12.023 --> 22:18.253 align:start position:0%
does it sit? Could we even consider it a
human<00:23:45.840><c> or</c><00:23:46.080><c> a</c><00:23:46.240><c> human</c><00:23:46.559><c> ancestor?</c>

22:18.253 --> 22:18.263 align:start position:0%
 
 

22:18.263 --> 22:20.253 align:start position:0%
 
To<00:23:51.679><c> locate</c><00:23:52.159><c> Paranthropus'</c><00:23:52.960><c> position</c><00:23:53.200><c> on</c><00:23:53.360><c> the</c>

22:20.253 --> 22:20.263 align:start position:0%
To locate Paranthropus' position on the
 

22:20.263 --> 22:22.333 align:start position:0%
To locate Paranthropus' position on the
homminin<00:23:54.000><c> family</c><00:23:54.320><c> tree,</c><00:23:54.799><c> we</c><00:23:54.960><c> need</c><00:23:55.120><c> to</c><00:23:55.280><c> push</c>

22:22.333 --> 22:22.343 align:start position:0%
homminin family tree, we need to push
 

22:22.343 --> 22:24.653 align:start position:0%
homminin family tree, we need to push
backwards<00:23:55.919><c> in</c><00:23:56.240><c> time</c><00:23:56.799><c> as</c><00:23:57.039><c> close</c><00:23:57.280><c> as</c><00:23:57.520><c> possible</c>

22:24.653 --> 22:24.663 align:start position:0%
backwards in time as close as possible
 

22:24.663 --> 22:26.813 align:start position:0%
backwards in time as close as possible
to<00:23:58.080><c> where</c><00:23:58.240><c> its</c><00:23:58.480><c> branch</c><00:23:58.880><c> diverged</c><00:23:59.520><c> from</c><00:23:59.760><c> the</c>

22:26.813 --> 22:26.823 align:start position:0%
to where its branch diverged from the
 

22:26.823 --> 22:29.133 align:start position:0%
to where its branch diverged from the
rest<00:24:00.159><c> of</c><00:24:00.240><c> the</c><00:24:00.480><c> tree.</c><00:24:01.120><c> We've</c><00:24:01.360><c> seen</c><00:24:01.600><c> so</c><00:24:01.840><c> far</c><00:24:02.080><c> that</c>

22:29.133 --> 22:29.143 align:start position:0%
rest of the tree. We've seen so far that
 

22:29.143 --> 22:31.933 align:start position:0%
rest of the tree. We've seen so far that
it<00:24:02.559><c> existed</c><00:24:03.039><c> alongside</c><00:24:03.760><c> other</c><00:24:04.080><c> homo</c><00:24:04.559><c> species</c>

22:31.933 --> 22:31.943 align:start position:0%
it existed alongside other homo species
 

22:31.943 --> 22:33.693 align:start position:0%
it existed alongside other homo species
one<00:24:05.280><c> and</c><00:24:05.360><c> a</c><00:24:05.520><c> half</c><00:24:05.679><c> million</c><00:24:06.000><c> years</c><00:24:06.240><c> ago.</c><00:24:06.720><c> But</c>

22:33.693 --> 22:33.703 align:start position:0%
one and a half million years ago. But
 

22:33.703 --> 22:35.372 align:start position:0%
one and a half million years ago. But
how<00:24:07.039><c> much</c><00:24:07.280><c> further</c><00:24:07.600><c> back</c><00:24:07.919><c> can</c><00:24:08.159><c> we</c><00:24:08.320><c> find</c>

22:35.372 --> 22:35.382 align:start position:0%
how much further back can we find
 

22:35.382 --> 22:38.333 align:start position:0%
how much further back can we find
species<00:24:08.880><c> of</c><00:24:09.039><c> paranthropus</c><00:24:09.919><c> living</c><00:24:10.240><c> on</c><00:24:10.480><c> Earth?</c>

22:38.333 --> 22:38.343 align:start position:0%
species of paranthropus living on Earth?
 

22:38.343 --> 22:40.013 align:start position:0%
species of paranthropus living on Earth?
For<00:24:11.760><c> much</c><00:24:11.919><c> of</c><00:24:12.000><c> the</c><00:24:12.159><c> time</c><00:24:12.400><c> paranthropus</c><00:24:12.960><c> has</c>

22:40.013 --> 22:40.023 align:start position:0%
For much of the time paranthropus has
 

22:40.023 --> 22:42.253 align:start position:0%
For much of the time paranthropus has
been<00:24:13.360><c> studied,</c><00:24:13.919><c> precise</c><00:24:14.400><c> dating</c><00:24:14.720><c> of</c><00:24:14.880><c> fossils</c>

22:42.253 --> 22:42.263 align:start position:0%
been studied, precise dating of fossils
 

22:42.263 --> 22:44.413 align:start position:0%
been studied, precise dating of fossils
has<00:24:15.760><c> been</c><00:24:15.919><c> difficult.</c><00:24:16.799><c> Back</c><00:24:17.039><c> in</c><00:24:17.200><c> the</c><00:24:17.360><c> days</c><00:24:17.440><c> of</c>

22:44.413 --> 22:44.423 align:start position:0%
has been difficult. Back in the days of
 

22:44.423 --> 22:46.413 align:start position:0%
has been difficult. Back in the days of
Broom<00:24:17.919><c> and</c><00:24:18.080><c> the</c><00:24:18.240><c> Leakys,</c><00:24:18.880><c> fossil</c><00:24:19.200><c> dating</c>

22:46.413 --> 22:46.423 align:start position:0%
Broom and the Leakys, fossil dating
 

22:46.423 --> 22:48.573 align:start position:0%
Broom and the Leakys, fossil dating
relied<00:24:20.000><c> on</c><00:24:20.159><c> geology</c><00:24:20.799><c> rather</c><00:24:21.120><c> than</c><00:24:21.360><c> chemical</c>

22:48.573 --> 22:48.583 align:start position:0%
relied on geology rather than chemical
 

22:48.583 --> 22:50.893 align:start position:0%
relied on geology rather than chemical
analysis.<00:24:23.120><c> Scientists</c><00:24:23.679><c> made</c><00:24:23.919><c> their</c>

22:50.893 --> 22:50.903 align:start position:0%
analysis. Scientists made their
 

22:50.903 --> 22:52.813 align:start position:0%
analysis. Scientists made their
estimations<00:24:24.640><c> as</c><00:24:24.799><c> to</c><00:24:24.880><c> when</c><00:24:25.120><c> an</c><00:24:25.279><c> animal</c><00:24:25.600><c> lived</c>

22:52.813 --> 22:52.823 align:start position:0%
estimations as to when an animal lived
 

22:52.823 --> 22:55.053 align:start position:0%
estimations as to when an animal lived
based<00:24:26.320><c> on</c><00:24:26.480><c> the</c><00:24:26.799><c> layer</c><00:24:26.960><c> of</c><00:24:27.120><c> soil</c><00:24:27.520><c> it</c><00:24:27.760><c> was</c><00:24:28.000><c> found</c>

22:55.053 --> 22:55.063 align:start position:0%
based on the layer of soil it was found
 

22:55.063 --> 22:58.013 align:start position:0%
based on the layer of soil it was found
in.<00:24:28.960><c> Alv,</c><00:24:29.840><c> for</c><00:24:29.840><c> example,</c><00:24:30.480><c> looks</c><00:24:30.720><c> like</c><00:24:30.880><c> a</c>

22:58.013 --> 22:58.023 align:start position:0%
in. Alv, for example, looks like a
 

22:58.023 --> 22:59.933 align:start position:0%
in. Alv, for example, looks like a
layered<00:24:31.520><c> birthday</c><00:24:31.919><c> cake.</c><00:24:32.480><c> Each</c><00:24:32.640><c> of</c><00:24:32.799><c> those</c>

22:59.933 --> 22:59.943 align:start position:0%
layered birthday cake. Each of those
 

22:59.943 --> 23:01.693 align:start position:0%
layered birthday cake. Each of those
layers<00:24:33.279><c> of</c><00:24:33.440><c> sediment</c><00:24:33.919><c> is</c><00:24:34.159><c> linked</c><00:24:34.480><c> to</c><00:24:34.640><c> a</c>

23:01.693 --> 23:01.703 align:start position:0%
layers of sediment is linked to a
 

23:01.703 --> 23:04.492 align:start position:0%
layers of sediment is linked to a
specific<00:24:35.360><c> time</c><00:24:35.760><c> band.</c><00:24:36.559><c> If</c><00:24:36.799><c> archaeologists</c>

23:04.492 --> 23:04.502 align:start position:0%
specific time band. If archaeologists
 

23:04.502 --> 23:06.333 align:start position:0%
specific time band. If archaeologists
found<00:24:37.840><c> a</c><00:24:38.000><c> creature</c><00:24:38.320><c> trapped</c><00:24:38.640><c> in</c><00:24:38.799><c> a</c><00:24:38.960><c> specific</c>

23:06.333 --> 23:06.343 align:start position:0%
found a creature trapped in a specific
 

23:06.343 --> 23:07.933 align:start position:0%
found a creature trapped in a specific
layer,<00:24:39.840><c> then</c><00:24:40.080><c> they</c><00:24:40.320><c> could</c><00:24:40.480><c> tell</c><00:24:40.720><c> that</c><00:24:40.880><c> it</c>

23:07.933 --> 23:07.943 align:start position:0%
layer, then they could tell that it
 

23:07.943 --> 23:10.092 align:start position:0%
layer, then they could tell that it
lived<00:24:41.360><c> at</c><00:24:41.600><c> that</c><00:24:41.840><c> time</c><00:24:42.320><c> with</c><00:24:42.480><c> an</c><00:24:42.640><c> accuracy</c><00:24:43.039><c> of</c>

23:10.092 --> 23:10.102 align:start position:0%
lived at that time with an accuracy of
 

23:10.102 --> 23:13.053 align:start position:0%
lived at that time with an accuracy of
around<00:24:43.520><c> a</c><00:24:43.760><c> few</c><00:24:43.919><c> hundred,000</c><00:24:44.799><c> years.</c><00:24:45.840><c> However,</c>

23:13.053 --> 23:13.063 align:start position:0%
around a few hundred,000 years. However,
 

23:13.063 --> 23:15.372 align:start position:0%
around a few hundred,000 years. However,
in<00:24:46.480><c> the</c><00:24:46.640><c> last</c><00:24:46.960><c> 15</c><00:24:47.279><c> years,</c><00:24:47.840><c> scientists</c><00:24:48.400><c> have</c>

23:15.372 --> 23:15.382 align:start position:0%
in the last 15 years, scientists have
 

23:15.382 --> 23:16.972 align:start position:0%
in the last 15 years, scientists have
developed<00:24:48.880><c> the</c><00:24:49.120><c> technology</c><00:24:49.600><c> to</c><00:24:49.919><c> more</c>

23:16.972 --> 23:16.982 align:start position:0%
developed the technology to more
 

23:16.982 --> 23:19.053 align:start position:0%
developed the technology to more
confidently<00:24:50.799><c> date</c><00:24:51.120><c> paranthropus</c><00:24:51.760><c> skeletons</c>

23:19.053 --> 23:19.063 align:start position:0%
confidently date paranthropus skeletons
 

23:19.063 --> 23:21.453 align:start position:0%
confidently date paranthropus skeletons
to<00:24:52.480><c> a</c><00:24:52.640><c> more</c><00:24:52.799><c> precise</c><00:24:53.360><c> degree.</c><00:24:54.000><c> And</c><00:24:54.240><c> as</c><00:24:54.400><c> a</c>

23:21.453 --> 23:21.463 align:start position:0%
to a more precise degree. And as a
 

23:21.463 --> 23:23.453 align:start position:0%
to a more precise degree. And as a
result,<00:24:55.039><c> we</c><00:24:55.279><c> now</c><00:24:55.520><c> know</c><00:24:55.600><c> that</c><00:24:55.919><c> paranthropus</c>

23:23.453 --> 23:23.463 align:start position:0%
result, we now know that paranthropus
 

23:23.463 --> 23:25.773 align:start position:0%
result, we now know that paranthropus
robustus<00:24:57.440><c> began</c><00:24:57.760><c> to</c><00:24:58.000><c> walk</c><00:24:58.240><c> the</c><00:24:58.400><c> plains</c><00:24:58.720><c> of</c>

23:25.773 --> 23:25.783 align:start position:0%
robustus began to walk the plains of
 

23:25.783 --> 23:28.972 align:start position:0%
robustus began to walk the plains of
southern<00:24:59.279><c> Africa</c><00:24:59.919><c> around</c><00:25:00.400><c> 2.3</c><00:25:01.520><c> million</c><00:25:01.919><c> years</c>

23:28.972 --> 23:28.982 align:start position:0%
southern Africa around 2.3 million years
 

23:28.982 --> 23:31.612 align:start position:0%
southern Africa around 2.3 million years
ago.<00:25:02.799><c> Paranthropus</c><00:25:03.440><c> boisei</c><00:25:04.000><c> individuals</c>

23:31.612 --> 23:31.622 align:start position:0%
ago. Paranthropus boisei individuals
 

23:31.622 --> 23:33.372 align:start position:0%
ago. Paranthropus boisei individuals
found<00:25:05.120><c> throughout</c><00:25:05.440><c> eastern</c><00:25:05.840><c> Africa</c><00:25:06.320><c> from</c>

23:33.372 --> 23:33.382 align:start position:0%
found throughout eastern Africa from
 

23:33.382 --> 23:35.693 align:start position:0%
found throughout eastern Africa from
Tanzania<00:25:07.039><c> to</c><00:25:07.279><c> Ethiopia</c><00:25:07.919><c> existed</c><00:25:08.400><c> around</c><00:25:08.640><c> the</c>

23:35.693 --> 23:35.703 align:start position:0%
Tanzania to Ethiopia existed around the
 

23:35.703 --> 23:37.612 align:start position:0%
Tanzania to Ethiopia existed around the
same<00:25:09.039><c> time</c><00:25:09.200><c> as</c><00:25:09.440><c> their</c><00:25:09.679><c> robustest</c><00:25:10.240><c> brethren,</c>

23:37.612 --> 23:37.622 align:start position:0%
same time as their robustest brethren,
 

23:37.622 --> 23:39.372 align:start position:0%
same time as their robustest brethren,
albeit<00:25:11.279><c> thousands</c><00:25:11.679><c> of</c><00:25:11.840><c> miles</c><00:25:12.240><c> to</c><00:25:12.400><c> the</c>

23:39.372 --> 23:39.382 align:start position:0%
albeit thousands of miles to the
 

23:39.382 --> 23:41.612 align:start position:0%
albeit thousands of miles to the
northeast.<00:25:13.520><c> And</c><00:25:13.679><c> so</c><00:25:13.919><c> this</c><00:25:14.080><c> evidence</c><00:25:14.480><c> doesn't</c>

23:41.612 --> 23:41.622 align:start position:0%
northeast. And so this evidence doesn't
 

23:41.622 --> 23:43.533 align:start position:0%
northeast. And so this evidence doesn't
discount<00:25:15.440><c> Paranthropus</c><00:25:16.159><c> from</c><00:25:16.400><c> having</c>

23:43.533 --> 23:43.543 align:start position:0%
discount Paranthropus from having
 

23:43.543 --> 23:46.173 align:start position:0%
discount Paranthropus from having
diverged<00:25:17.279><c> from</c><00:25:17.520><c> our</c><00:25:17.760><c> human</c><00:25:18.159><c> lineage.</c><00:25:19.200><c> The</c>

23:46.173 --> 23:46.183 align:start position:0%
diverged from our human lineage. The
 

23:46.183 --> 23:48.013 align:start position:0%
diverged from our human lineage. The
homogeneous<00:25:20.080><c> had</c><00:25:20.240><c> emerged</c><00:25:20.559><c> a</c><00:25:20.720><c> few</c><00:25:20.799><c> thousand</c>

23:48.013 --> 23:48.023 align:start position:0%
homogeneous had emerged a few thousand
 

23:48.023 --> 23:49.933 align:start position:0%
homogeneous had emerged a few thousand
years<00:25:21.520><c> before</c><00:25:21.840><c> this.</c><00:25:22.400><c> So</c><00:25:22.559><c> it</c><00:25:22.799><c> would</c><00:25:22.880><c> leave</c>

23:49.933 --> 23:49.943 align:start position:0%
years before this. So it would leave
 

23:49.943 --> 23:51.852 align:start position:0%
years before this. So it would leave
open<00:25:23.360><c> the</c><00:25:23.600><c> possibility</c><00:25:24.000><c> of</c><00:25:24.159><c> the</c><00:25:24.320><c> paranthropus</c>

23:51.852 --> 23:51.862 align:start position:0%
open the possibility of the paranthropus
 

23:51.862 --> 23:54.092 align:start position:0%
open the possibility of the paranthropus
branch<00:25:25.520><c> springing</c><00:25:25.919><c> from</c><00:25:26.240><c> ours</c><00:25:26.559><c> shortly</c><00:25:26.960><c> after</c>

23:54.092 --> 23:54.102 align:start position:0%
branch springing from ours shortly after
 

23:54.102 --> 23:57.133 align:start position:0%
branch springing from ours shortly after
that<00:25:27.600><c> time.</c><00:25:28.720><c> However,</c><00:25:29.279><c> there</c><00:25:29.520><c> is</c><00:25:29.679><c> one</c><00:25:29.919><c> extra</c>

23:57.133 --> 23:57.143 align:start position:0%
that time. However, there is one extra
 

23:57.143 --> 24:00.013 align:start position:0%
that time. However, there is one extra
thing<00:25:30.559><c> to</c><00:25:30.799><c> resolve.</c><00:25:32.240><c> For</c><00:25:32.400><c> Robustus</c><00:25:33.039><c> and</c>

24:00.013 --> 24:00.023 align:start position:0%
thing to resolve. For Robustus and
 

24:00.023 --> 24:02.972 align:start position:0%
thing to resolve. For Robustus and
Boisei<00:25:34.000><c> are</c><00:25:34.159><c> not</c><00:25:34.320><c> the</c><00:25:34.559><c> only</c><00:25:34.960><c> two</c><00:25:35.279><c> species</c><00:25:35.840><c> of</c>

24:02.972 --> 24:02.982 align:start position:0%
Boisei are not the only two species of
 

24:02.982 --> 24:04.492 align:start position:0%
Boisei are not the only two species of
Paranthropus.

24:04.492 --> 24:04.502 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus.
 

24:04.502 --> 24:07.773 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus.
For<00:25:37.919><c> in</c><00:25:38.080><c> 1985,</c><00:25:39.360><c> scientists</c><00:25:40.000><c> made</c><00:25:40.159><c> a</c><00:25:40.400><c> discovery</c>

24:07.773 --> 24:07.783 align:start position:0%
For in 1985, scientists made a discovery
 

24:07.783 --> 24:10.333 align:start position:0%
For in 1985, scientists made a discovery
that<00:25:41.279><c> was</c><00:25:41.520><c> vital</c><00:25:41.919><c> in</c><00:25:42.240><c> locating</c><00:25:42.640><c> Paranthropus'</c>

24:10.333 --> 24:10.343 align:start position:0%
that was vital in locating Paranthropus'
 

24:10.343 --> 24:17.773 align:start position:0%
that was vital in locating Paranthropus'
position<00:25:44.080><c> in</c><00:25:44.400><c> human</c><00:25:44.720><c> evolution.</c>

24:17.773 --> 24:17.783 align:start position:0%
 
 

24:17.783 --> 24:20.173 align:start position:0%
 
British<00:25:51.279><c> paleontologist</c><00:25:52.159><c> Alan</c><00:25:52.559><c> Walker</c><00:25:53.120><c> was</c>

24:20.173 --> 24:20.183 align:start position:0%
British paleontologist Alan Walker was
 

24:20.183 --> 24:22.893 align:start position:0%
British paleontologist Alan Walker was
scouting<00:25:53.760><c> the</c><00:25:53.919><c> edge</c><00:25:54.080><c> of</c><00:25:54.240><c> Lake</c><00:25:54.559><c> Tana.</c><00:25:55.520><c> Tufty</c>

24:22.893 --> 24:22.903 align:start position:0%
scouting the edge of Lake Tana. Tufty
 

24:22.903 --> 24:25.293 align:start position:0%
scouting the edge of Lake Tana. Tufty
beige<00:25:56.559><c> grass</c><00:25:57.039><c> framed</c><00:25:57.440><c> the</c><00:25:57.679><c> bright</c><00:25:58.000><c> blue</c><00:25:58.240><c> green</c>

24:25.293 --> 24:25.303 align:start position:0%
beige grass framed the bright blue green
 

24:25.303 --> 24:27.293 align:start position:0%
beige grass framed the bright blue green
of<00:25:58.640><c> the</c><00:25:58.799><c> lakes's</c><00:25:59.200><c> water.</c><00:25:59.919><c> Walker</c><00:26:00.320><c> and</c>

24:27.293 --> 24:27.303 align:start position:0%
of the lakes's water. Walker and
 

24:27.303 --> 24:29.453 align:start position:0%
of the lakes's water. Walker and
American<00:26:00.880><c> anthropologist</c><00:26:01.600><c> Pat</c><00:26:01.919><c> Shipman</c><00:26:02.400><c> had</c>

24:29.453 --> 24:29.463 align:start position:0%
American anthropologist Pat Shipman had
 

24:29.463 --> 24:31.372 align:start position:0%
American anthropologist Pat Shipman had
gone<00:26:02.799><c> to</c><00:26:02.880><c> the</c><00:26:03.039><c> remote</c><00:26:03.360><c> spot</c><00:26:03.760><c> to</c><00:26:04.000><c> follow</c><00:26:04.159><c> up</c><00:26:04.320><c> on</c>

24:31.372 --> 24:31.382 align:start position:0%
gone to the remote spot to follow up on
 

24:31.382 --> 24:33.612 align:start position:0%
gone to the remote spot to follow up on
reports<00:26:04.880><c> of</c><00:26:05.120><c> a</c><00:26:05.279><c> hippo</c><00:26:05.679><c> skull.</c><00:26:06.320><c> Although</c><00:26:06.559><c> no</c>

24:33.612 --> 24:33.622 align:start position:0%
reports of a hippo skull. Although no
 

24:33.622 --> 24:35.293 align:start position:0%
reports of a hippo skull. Although no
one<00:26:06.960><c> actually</c><00:26:07.279><c> recorded</c><00:26:07.679><c> if</c><00:26:07.919><c> they</c><00:26:08.080><c> found</c><00:26:08.240><c> the</c>

24:35.293 --> 24:35.303 align:start position:0%
one actually recorded if they found the
 

24:35.303 --> 24:38.173 align:start position:0%
one actually recorded if they found the
hippo<00:26:09.120><c> as</c><00:26:09.360><c> the</c><00:26:09.520><c> pair</c><00:26:10.000><c> became</c><00:26:10.400><c> justifiably</c>

24:38.173 --> 24:38.183 align:start position:0%
hippo as the pair became justifiably
 

24:38.183 --> 24:40.972 align:start position:0%
hippo as the pair became justifiably
distracted.<00:26:12.640><c> Walker</c><00:26:13.039><c> went</c><00:26:13.200><c> off</c><00:26:13.360><c> on</c><00:26:13.520><c> his</c><00:26:13.760><c> own,</c>

24:40.972 --> 24:40.982 align:start position:0%
distracted. Walker went off on his own,
 

24:40.982 --> 24:42.813 align:start position:0%
distracted. Walker went off on his own,
only<00:26:14.400><c> to</c><00:26:14.559><c> come</c><00:26:14.720><c> back</c><00:26:14.880><c> a</c><00:26:15.039><c> short</c><00:26:15.279><c> while</c><00:26:15.520><c> later</c>

24:42.813 --> 24:42.823 align:start position:0%
only to come back a short while later
 

24:42.823 --> 24:45.933 align:start position:0%
only to come back a short while later
with<00:26:16.159><c> a</c><00:26:16.400><c> sly</c><00:26:16.880><c> grin.</c><00:26:17.760><c> He</c><00:26:17.919><c> had</c><00:26:18.159><c> found</c><00:26:18.400><c> something</c>

24:45.933 --> 24:45.943 align:start position:0%
with a sly grin. He had found something
 

24:45.943 --> 24:48.492 align:start position:0%
with a sly grin. He had found something
exciting.<00:26:20.240><c> He</c><00:26:20.400><c> told</c><00:26:20.640><c> Pat</c><00:26:20.960><c> in</c><00:26:21.120><c> his</c><00:26:21.279><c> classic</c>

24:48.492 --> 24:48.502 align:start position:0%
exciting. He told Pat in his classic
 

24:48.502 --> 24:50.173 align:start position:0%
exciting. He told Pat in his classic
understated<00:26:22.320><c> fashion,</c><00:26:22.640><c> "When</c><00:26:22.960><c> you</c><00:26:23.120><c> finished</c>

24:50.173 --> 24:50.183 align:start position:0%
understated fashion, "When you finished
 

24:50.183 --> 24:52.492 align:start position:0%
understated fashion, "When you finished
with<00:26:23.520><c> that,</c><00:26:24.080><c> I'll</c><00:26:24.320><c> show</c><00:26:24.480><c> you</c><00:26:24.640><c> a</c><00:26:24.799><c> homminid."</c>

24:52.492 --> 24:52.502 align:start position:0%
with that, I'll show you a homminid."
 

24:52.502 --> 24:54.492 align:start position:0%
with that, I'll show you a homminid."
And<00:26:25.840><c> what</c><00:26:26.080><c> Alan</c><00:26:26.400><c> had</c><00:26:26.640><c> found</c><00:26:27.120><c> looked</c><00:26:27.360><c> like</c><00:26:27.520><c> no</c>

24:54.492 --> 24:54.502 align:start position:0%
And what Alan had found looked like no
 

24:54.502 --> 24:57.053 align:start position:0%
And what Alan had found looked like no
other<00:26:27.919><c> homminid</c><00:26:28.640><c> previously</c><00:26:29.200><c> discovered.</c>

24:57.053 --> 24:57.063 align:start position:0%
other homminid previously discovered.
 

24:57.063 --> 24:58.813 align:start position:0%
other homminid previously discovered.
Indeed,<00:26:30.559><c> even</c><00:26:30.799><c> aside</c><00:26:31.200><c> from</c><00:26:31.440><c> their</c><00:26:31.679><c> rather</c>

24:58.813 --> 24:58.823 align:start position:0%
Indeed, even aside from their rather
 

24:58.823 --> 25:02.253 align:start position:0%
Indeed, even aside from their rather
strange<00:26:32.400><c> shape,</c><00:26:32.960><c> the</c><00:26:33.279><c> fossils</c><00:26:34.000><c> were</c><00:26:34.320><c> black.</c>

25:02.253 --> 25:02.263 align:start position:0%
strange shape, the fossils were black.
 

25:02.263 --> 25:03.933 align:start position:0%
strange shape, the fossils were black.
After<00:26:35.760><c> the</c><00:26:35.919><c> creature</c><00:26:36.159><c> had</c><00:26:36.400><c> died,</c><00:26:36.880><c> its</c>

25:03.933 --> 25:03.943 align:start position:0%
After the creature had died, its
 

25:03.943 --> 25:06.173 align:start position:0%
After the creature had died, its
skeleton<00:26:37.520><c> had</c><00:26:37.760><c> lain</c><00:26:38.080><c> in</c><00:26:38.159><c> tuned</c><00:26:38.480><c> in</c><00:26:38.720><c> soil</c><00:26:39.039><c> for</c>

25:06.173 --> 25:06.183 align:start position:0%
skeleton had lain in tuned in soil for
 

25:06.183 --> 25:08.413 align:start position:0%
skeleton had lain in tuned in soil for
millions<00:26:39.679><c> of</c><00:26:39.919><c> years,</c><00:26:40.559><c> and</c><00:26:40.720><c> that</c><00:26:40.960><c> soil</c><00:26:41.360><c> was</c>

25:08.413 --> 25:08.423 align:start position:0%
millions of years, and that soil was
 

25:08.423 --> 25:10.972 align:start position:0%
millions of years, and that soil was
rich<00:26:41.840><c> in</c><00:26:42.000><c> manganese,</c><00:26:42.960><c> a</c><00:26:43.200><c> brittle,</c><00:26:43.679><c> shiny</c>

25:10.972 --> 25:10.982 align:start position:0%
rich in manganese, a brittle, shiny
 

25:10.982 --> 25:12.972 align:start position:0%
rich in manganese, a brittle, shiny
metal.<00:26:44.799><c> Over</c><00:26:45.039><c> the</c><00:26:45.200><c> millennia,</c><00:26:45.760><c> the</c><00:26:45.919><c> mineral</c>

25:12.972 --> 25:12.982 align:start position:0%
metal. Over the millennia, the mineral
 

25:12.982 --> 25:14.972 align:start position:0%
metal. Over the millennia, the mineral
had<00:26:46.400><c> leeched</c><00:26:46.720><c> into</c><00:26:46.880><c> the</c><00:26:47.039><c> bones,</c><00:26:47.679><c> turning</c><00:26:48.000><c> them</c>

25:14.972 --> 25:14.982 align:start position:0%
had leeched into the bones, turning them
 

25:14.982 --> 25:17.533 align:start position:0%
had leeched into the bones, turning them
black<00:26:48.559><c> as</c><00:26:48.799><c> they</c><00:26:49.039><c> transformed</c><00:26:49.600><c> into</c><00:26:49.919><c> rock.</c><00:26:50.559><c> But</c>

25:17.533 --> 25:17.543 align:start position:0%
black as they transformed into rock. But
 

25:17.543 --> 25:19.612 align:start position:0%
black as they transformed into rock. But
even<00:26:50.960><c> without</c><00:26:51.440><c> the</c><00:26:51.600><c> blackened</c><00:26:52.159><c> otherworldly</c>

25:19.612 --> 25:19.622 align:start position:0%
even without the blackened otherworldly
 

25:19.622 --> 25:21.612 align:start position:0%
even without the blackened otherworldly
tint,<00:26:53.440><c> the</c><00:26:53.600><c> fossils</c><00:26:54.000><c> would</c><00:26:54.240><c> still</c><00:26:54.480><c> have</c><00:26:54.640><c> been</c>

25:21.612 --> 25:21.622 align:start position:0%
tint, the fossils would still have been
 

25:21.622 --> 25:23.933 align:start position:0%
tint, the fossils would still have been
a<00:26:54.960><c> bit</c><00:26:55.039><c> of</c><00:26:55.120><c> a</c><00:26:55.279><c> shock.</c><00:26:56.159><c> The</c><00:26:56.400><c> creature</c><00:26:56.799><c> had</c><00:26:56.960><c> a</c>

25:23.933 --> 25:23.943 align:start position:0%
a bit of a shock. The creature had a
 

25:23.943 --> 25:26.573 align:start position:0%
a bit of a shock. The creature had a
remarkable<00:26:57.840><c> sagittal</c><00:26:58.480><c> crest</c><00:26:59.120><c> and</c><00:26:59.360><c> large</c>

25:26.573 --> 25:26.583 align:start position:0%
remarkable sagittal crest and large
 

25:26.583 --> 25:28.573 align:start position:0%
remarkable sagittal crest and large
chewing<00:27:00.240><c> teeth</c><00:27:00.480><c> with</c><00:27:00.720><c> thick</c><00:27:00.960><c> enamel,</c>

25:28.573 --> 25:28.583 align:start position:0%
chewing teeth with thick enamel,
 

25:28.583 --> 25:31.372 align:start position:0%
chewing teeth with thick enamel,
hallmark<00:27:02.320><c> Panthropus</c><00:27:03.120><c> features.</c><00:27:04.159><c> And</c><00:27:04.320><c> yet,</c>

25:31.372 --> 25:31.382 align:start position:0%
hallmark Panthropus features. And yet,
 

25:31.382 --> 25:33.612 align:start position:0%
hallmark Panthropus features. And yet,
these<00:27:04.799><c> fossils</c><00:27:05.360><c> were</c><00:27:05.520><c> estimated</c><00:27:06.000><c> to</c><00:27:06.159><c> be</c><00:27:06.400><c> very</c>

25:33.612 --> 25:33.622 align:start position:0%
these fossils were estimated to be very
 

25:33.622 --> 25:36.253 align:start position:0%
these fossils were estimated to be very
old.<00:27:07.679><c> More</c><00:27:07.919><c> precisely,</c><00:27:08.559><c> buried</c><00:27:08.880><c> in</c><00:27:09.039><c> a</c><00:27:09.279><c> layer</c>

25:36.253 --> 25:36.263 align:start position:0%
old. More precisely, buried in a layer
 

25:36.263 --> 25:38.972 align:start position:0%
old. More precisely, buried in a layer
of<00:27:09.600><c> rock</c><00:27:09.919><c> that</c><00:27:10.159><c> was</c><00:27:10.320><c> around</c><00:27:10.720><c> 2.5</c><00:27:11.760><c> million</c>

25:38.972 --> 25:38.982 align:start position:0%
of rock that was around 2.5 million
 

25:38.982 --> 25:41.133 align:start position:0%
of rock that was around 2.5 million
years<00:27:12.480><c> old.</c><00:27:13.120><c> And</c><00:27:13.279><c> what</c><00:27:13.520><c> was</c><00:27:13.679><c> more,</c><00:27:14.080><c> this</c>

25:41.133 --> 25:41.143 align:start position:0%
years old. And what was more, this
 

25:41.143 --> 25:42.732 align:start position:0%
years old. And what was more, this
discovery<00:27:14.880><c> reminded</c><00:27:15.279><c> the</c><00:27:15.520><c> world</c><00:27:15.679><c> of</c><00:27:15.760><c> a</c>

25:42.732 --> 25:42.742 align:start position:0%
discovery reminded the world of a
 

25:42.742 --> 25:44.413 align:start position:0%
discovery reminded the world of a
homminin<00:27:16.400><c> fossil</c><00:27:16.720><c> that</c><00:27:16.960><c> had</c><00:27:17.200><c> been</c><00:27:17.360><c> found</c>

25:44.413 --> 25:44.423 align:start position:0%
homminin fossil that had been found
 

25:44.423 --> 25:46.813 align:start position:0%
homminin fossil that had been found
almost<00:27:18.000><c> two</c><00:27:18.240><c> decades</c><00:27:18.640><c> earlier</c><00:27:19.279><c> in</c><00:27:19.440><c> the</c><00:27:19.600><c> Omo</c>

25:46.813 --> 25:46.823 align:start position:0%
almost two decades earlier in the Omo
 

25:46.823 --> 25:49.852 align:start position:0%
almost two decades earlier in the Omo
Valley<00:27:20.480><c> in</c><00:27:20.720><c> Ethiopia.</c>

25:49.852 --> 25:49.862 align:start position:0%
Valley in Ethiopia.
 

25:49.862 --> 25:52.972 align:start position:0%
Valley in Ethiopia.
In<00:27:23.279><c> 1967,</c><00:27:24.480><c> French</c><00:27:24.799><c> paleontologists</c><00:27:25.760><c> Camille</c>

25:52.972 --> 25:52.982 align:start position:0%
In 1967, French paleontologists Camille
 

25:52.982 --> 25:55.453 align:start position:0%
In 1967, French paleontologists Camille
Armbborg<00:27:26.880><c> and</c><00:27:27.039><c> Eve</c><00:27:27.360><c> Coppins</c><00:27:28.000><c> had</c><00:27:28.240><c> found</c><00:27:28.400><c> a</c>

25:55.453 --> 25:55.463 align:start position:0%
Armbborg and Eve Coppins had found a
 

25:55.463 --> 25:57.773 align:start position:0%
Armbborg and Eve Coppins had found a
single<00:27:29.039><c> toothless</c><00:27:29.760><c> jewel</c><00:27:30.080><c> bone.</c><00:27:30.559><c> They</c><00:27:30.799><c> had</c>

25:57.773 --> 25:57.783 align:start position:0%
single toothless jewel bone. They had
 

25:57.783 --> 25:59.213 align:start position:0%
single toothless jewel bone. They had
named<00:27:31.200><c> the</c><00:27:31.279><c> species</c><00:27:31.760><c> Paranthropus</c>

25:59.213 --> 25:59.223 align:start position:0%
named the species Paranthropus
 

25:59.223 --> 26:02.013 align:start position:0%
named the species Paranthropus
Ethiopicus<00:27:33.120><c> and</c><00:27:33.360><c> dated</c><00:27:33.679><c> it</c><00:27:33.919><c> to</c><00:27:34.080><c> around</c><00:27:34.480><c> 2.8</c>

26:02.013 --> 26:02.023 align:start position:0%
Ethiopicus and dated it to around 2.8
 

26:02.023 --> 26:04.253 align:start position:0%
Ethiopicus and dated it to around 2.8
million<00:27:35.600><c> years</c><00:27:35.760><c> ago.</c><00:27:36.400><c> This</c><00:27:36.640><c> was</c><00:27:36.799><c> much</c><00:27:37.039><c> earlier</c>

26:04.253 --> 26:04.263 align:start position:0%
million years ago. This was much earlier
 

26:04.263 --> 26:06.013 align:start position:0%
million years ago. This was much earlier
than<00:27:37.600><c> any</c><00:27:37.760><c> other</c><00:27:37.919><c> Paranthropus</c><00:27:38.640><c> fossil,</c><00:27:38.960><c> and</c>

26:06.013 --> 26:06.023 align:start position:0%
than any other Paranthropus fossil, and
 

26:06.023 --> 26:07.693 align:start position:0%
than any other Paranthropus fossil, and
no<00:27:39.440><c> other</c><00:27:39.679><c> fossils</c><00:27:40.080><c> were</c><00:27:40.240><c> found</c><00:27:40.400><c> in</c><00:27:40.559><c> the</c><00:27:40.720><c> years</c>

26:07.693 --> 26:07.703 align:start position:0%
no other fossils were found in the years
 

26:07.703 --> 26:09.612 align:start position:0%
no other fossils were found in the years
that<00:27:41.120><c> followed.</c><00:27:41.919><c> The</c><00:27:42.080><c> scientists</c><00:27:42.480><c> argued</c>

26:09.612 --> 26:09.622 align:start position:0%
that followed. The scientists argued
 

26:09.622 --> 26:11.533 align:start position:0%
that followed. The scientists argued
that<00:27:43.039><c> the</c><00:27:43.200><c> Ethiopian</c><00:27:43.840><c> find</c><00:27:44.159><c> was</c><00:27:44.400><c> some</c><00:27:44.559><c> other</c>

26:11.533 --> 26:11.543 align:start position:0%
that the Ethiopian find was some other
 

26:11.543 --> 26:13.453 align:start position:0%
that the Ethiopian find was some other
form<00:27:44.960><c> of</c><00:27:45.120><c> orolopiththesine</c><00:27:46.159><c> and</c><00:27:46.400><c> not</c>

26:13.453 --> 26:13.463 align:start position:0%
form of orolopiththesine and not
 

26:13.463 --> 26:16.333 align:start position:0%
form of orolopiththesine and not
paranthropus<00:27:47.440><c> at</c><00:27:47.679><c> all.</c><00:27:48.480><c> But</c><00:27:48.640><c> when</c><00:27:48.960><c> Walker</c>

26:16.333 --> 26:16.343 align:start position:0%
paranthropus at all. But when Walker
 

26:16.343 --> 26:19.293 align:start position:0%
paranthropus at all. But when Walker
found<00:27:49.760><c> this</c><00:27:50.080><c> strange</c><00:27:50.480><c> black</c><00:27:50.799><c> skull</c><00:27:51.200><c> in</c><00:27:51.360><c> 1985,</c>

26:19.293 --> 26:19.303 align:start position:0%
found this strange black skull in 1985,
 

26:19.303 --> 26:21.212 align:start position:0%
found this strange black skull in 1985,
it<00:27:52.799><c> supported</c><00:27:53.279><c> the</c><00:27:53.520><c> older</c><00:27:53.840><c> piece</c><00:27:54.000><c> of</c><00:27:54.080><c> jewel</c>

26:21.212 --> 26:21.222 align:start position:0%
it supported the older piece of jewel
 

26:21.222 --> 26:23.453 align:start position:0%
it supported the older piece of jewel
bone<00:27:54.640><c> from</c><00:27:54.799><c> Ethiopia</c><00:27:55.600><c> and</c><00:27:55.840><c> Paranthropus</c>

26:23.453 --> 26:23.463 align:start position:0%
bone from Ethiopia and Paranthropus
 

26:23.463 --> 26:25.372 align:start position:0%
bone from Ethiopia and Paranthropus
Ethiopicus<00:27:57.520><c> came</c><00:27:57.760><c> back</c><00:27:57.919><c> from</c><00:27:58.080><c> the</c><00:27:58.240><c> cupboard</c>

26:25.372 --> 26:25.382 align:start position:0%
Ethiopicus came back from the cupboard
 

26:25.382 --> 26:27.533 align:start position:0%
Ethiopicus came back from the cupboard
of<00:27:58.720><c> discarded</c><00:27:59.279><c> species</c><00:27:59.840><c> and</c><00:28:00.080><c> was</c><00:28:00.240><c> given</c><00:28:00.480><c> its</c>

26:27.533 --> 26:27.543 align:start position:0%
of discarded species and was given its
 

26:27.543 --> 26:29.533 align:start position:0%
of discarded species and was given its
place<00:28:01.200><c> as</c><00:28:01.440><c> the</c><00:28:01.600><c> oldest</c><00:28:01.919><c> known</c><00:28:02.240><c> form</c><00:28:02.559><c> of</c>

26:29.533 --> 26:29.543 align:start position:0%
place as the oldest known form of
 

26:29.543 --> 26:32.573 align:start position:0%
place as the oldest known form of
Paranthropus.

26:32.573 --> 26:32.583 align:start position:0%
 
 

26:32.583 --> 26:34.413 align:start position:0%
 
Later<00:28:06.159><c> finds</c><00:28:06.480><c> have</c><00:28:06.720><c> continued</c><00:28:07.039><c> to</c><00:28:07.279><c> support</c>

26:34.413 --> 26:34.423 align:start position:0%
Later finds have continued to support
 

26:34.423 --> 26:36.333 align:start position:0%
Later finds have continued to support
this<00:28:07.840><c> timeline.</c><00:28:08.480><c> The</c><00:28:08.640><c> Nianga</c><00:28:09.200><c> tools</c>

26:36.333 --> 26:36.343 align:start position:0%
this timeline. The Nianga tools
 

26:36.343 --> 26:38.092 align:start position:0%
this timeline. The Nianga tools
discovered<00:28:09.840><c> by</c><00:28:10.000><c> Plumber</c><00:28:10.320><c> and</c><00:28:10.399><c> Onyango</c><00:28:11.120><c> have</c>

26:38.092 --> 26:38.102 align:start position:0%
discovered by Plumber and Onyango have
 

26:38.102 --> 26:39.533 align:start position:0%
discovered by Plumber and Onyango have
been<00:28:11.360><c> dated</c><00:28:11.679><c> with</c><00:28:11.840><c> modern</c><00:28:12.159><c> methods</c><00:28:12.559><c> to</c>

26:39.533 --> 26:39.543 align:start position:0%
been dated with modern methods to
 

26:39.543 --> 26:42.173 align:start position:0%
been dated with modern methods to
between<00:28:13.039><c> 2.6</c><00:28:13.679><c> and</c><00:28:13.919><c> 3</c><00:28:14.240><c> million</c><00:28:14.559><c> years</c><00:28:14.720><c> ago.</c>

26:42.173 --> 26:42.183 align:start position:0%
between 2.6 and 3 million years ago.
 

26:42.183 --> 26:44.173 align:start position:0%
between 2.6 and 3 million years ago.
Plumber<00:28:15.840><c> also</c><00:28:16.080><c> noted</c><00:28:16.320><c> on</c><00:28:16.559><c> their</c><00:28:16.720><c> discovery,</c>

26:44.173 --> 26:44.183 align:start position:0%
Plumber also noted on their discovery,
 

26:44.183 --> 26:45.933 align:start position:0%
Plumber also noted on their discovery,
we<00:28:17.600><c> think</c><00:28:17.760><c> it's</c><00:28:18.000><c> in</c><00:28:18.159><c> the</c><00:28:18.240><c> older</c><00:28:18.559><c> end</c><00:28:18.720><c> of</c><00:28:18.880><c> that</c>

26:45.933 --> 26:45.943 align:start position:0%
we think it's in the older end of that
 

26:45.943 --> 26:47.852 align:start position:0%
we think it's in the older end of that
range.<00:28:19.919><c> And</c><00:28:20.080><c> though</c><00:28:20.240><c> the</c><00:28:20.480><c> species</c><00:28:20.880><c> of</c>

26:47.852 --> 26:47.862 align:start position:0%
range. And though the species of
 

26:47.862 --> 26:49.612 align:start position:0%
range. And though the species of
Paranthropus<00:28:21.760><c> the</c><00:28:21.919><c> teeth</c><00:28:22.159><c> belong</c><00:28:22.399><c> to</c><00:28:22.640><c> is</c>

26:49.612 --> 26:49.622 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus the teeth belong to is
 

26:49.622 --> 26:51.773 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus the teeth belong to is
unclear,<00:28:23.520><c> it</c><00:28:23.760><c> gives</c><00:28:23.919><c> us</c><00:28:24.080><c> definitive</c><00:28:24.559><c> evidence</c>

26:51.773 --> 26:51.783 align:start position:0%
unclear, it gives us definitive evidence
 

26:51.783 --> 26:54.173 align:start position:0%
unclear, it gives us definitive evidence
for<00:28:25.200><c> Paranthropus</c><00:28:25.919><c> existing</c><00:28:26.640><c> and</c><00:28:26.880><c> perhaps</c>

26:54.173 --> 26:54.183 align:start position:0%
for Paranthropus existing and perhaps
 

26:54.183 --> 26:56.972 align:start position:0%
for Paranthropus existing and perhaps
even<00:28:27.679><c> using</c><00:28:28.080><c> tools</c><00:28:28.640><c> as</c><00:28:28.880><c> long</c><00:28:29.039><c> ago</c><00:28:29.360><c> as</c><00:28:29.520><c> nearly</c><00:28:29.919><c> 3</c>

26:56.972 --> 26:56.982 align:start position:0%
even using tools as long ago as nearly 3
 

26:56.982 --> 26:59.372 align:start position:0%
even using tools as long ago as nearly 3
million<00:28:30.559><c> years.</c><00:28:31.520><c> This</c><00:28:31.840><c> scuppers</c><00:28:32.399><c> the</c>

26:59.372 --> 26:59.382 align:start position:0%
million years. This scuppers the
 

26:59.382 --> 27:01.053 align:start position:0%
million years. This scuppers the
possibility<00:28:32.960><c> of</c><00:28:33.200><c> Paranthropus</c><00:28:33.919><c> emerging</c>

27:01.053 --> 27:01.063 align:start position:0%
possibility of Paranthropus emerging
 

27:01.063 --> 27:03.293 align:start position:0%
possibility of Paranthropus emerging
from<00:28:34.399><c> the</c><00:28:34.640><c> homo</c><00:28:35.039><c> lineage</c><00:28:35.600><c> and</c><00:28:35.840><c> shows</c><00:28:36.080><c> us</c><00:28:36.240><c> they</c>

27:03.293 --> 27:03.303 align:start position:0%
from the homo lineage and shows us they
 

27:03.303 --> 27:05.453 align:start position:0%
from the homo lineage and shows us they
likely<00:28:36.880><c> evolved</c><00:28:37.440><c> from</c><00:28:37.760><c> earlier</c><00:28:38.320><c> more</c>

27:05.453 --> 27:05.463 align:start position:0%
likely evolved from earlier more
 

27:05.463 --> 27:08.573 align:start position:0%
likely evolved from earlier more
grassile<00:28:39.279><c> oropithesine</c><00:28:40.399><c> species.</c><00:28:41.360><c> They</c><00:28:41.600><c> are</c>

27:08.573 --> 27:08.583 align:start position:0%
grassile oropithesine species. They are
 

27:08.583 --> 27:10.813 align:start position:0%
grassile oropithesine species. They are
our<00:28:42.000><c> cousins,</c><00:28:42.559><c> but</c><00:28:42.799><c> their</c><00:28:43.039><c> robust</c><00:28:43.520><c> branch</c>

27:10.813 --> 27:10.823 align:start position:0%
our cousins, but their robust branch
 

27:10.823 --> 27:13.372 align:start position:0%
our cousins, but their robust branch
emerged<00:28:44.480><c> on</c><00:28:44.640><c> our</c><00:28:44.880><c> family</c><00:28:45.200><c> tree</c><00:28:45.760><c> even</c><00:28:46.080><c> earlier</c>

27:13.372 --> 27:13.382 align:start position:0%
emerged on our family tree even earlier
 

27:13.382 --> 27:15.693 align:start position:0%
emerged on our family tree even earlier
than<00:28:46.799><c> we</c><00:28:46.960><c> once</c><00:28:47.200><c> might</c><00:28:47.440><c> have</c><00:28:47.600><c> thought.</c><00:28:48.640><c> This</c>

27:15.693 --> 27:15.703 align:start position:0%
than we once might have thought. This
 

27:15.703 --> 27:17.773 align:start position:0%
than we once might have thought. This
shows<00:28:49.120><c> us</c><00:28:49.360><c> just</c><00:28:49.600><c> how</c><00:28:49.840><c> ancient</c><00:28:50.320><c> this</c><00:28:50.559><c> robust</c>

27:17.773 --> 27:17.783 align:start position:0%
shows us just how ancient this robust
 

27:17.783 --> 27:20.653 align:start position:0%
shows us just how ancient this robust
homminin<00:28:51.440><c> lineage</c><00:28:51.919><c> was</c><00:28:52.640><c> and</c><00:28:52.880><c> also</c><00:28:53.440><c> just</c><00:28:53.679><c> how</c>

27:20.653 --> 27:20.663 align:start position:0%
homminin lineage was and also just how
 

27:20.663 --> 27:23.053 align:start position:0%
homminin lineage was and also just how
long<00:28:54.000><c> it</c><00:28:54.240><c> survived</c><00:28:54.640><c> on</c><00:28:54.880><c> the</c><00:28:55.120><c> planet.</c><00:28:56.000><c> The</c>

27:23.053 --> 27:23.063 align:start position:0%
long it survived on the planet. The
 

27:23.063 --> 27:24.893 align:start position:0%
long it survived on the planet. The
youngest<00:28:56.559><c> paranthropus</c><00:28:57.200><c> fossil</c><00:28:57.600><c> nestled</c><00:28:57.919><c> in</c>

27:24.893 --> 27:24.903 align:start position:0%
youngest paranthropus fossil nestled in
 

27:24.903 --> 27:26.653 align:start position:0%
youngest paranthropus fossil nestled in
the<00:28:58.159><c> rock</c><00:28:58.399><c> of</c><00:28:58.559><c> Sword</c><00:28:58.880><c> Grant's</c><00:28:59.200><c> cave</c><00:28:59.600><c> could</c>

27:26.653 --> 27:26.663 align:start position:0%
the rock of Sword Grant's cave could
 

27:26.663 --> 27:28.972 align:start position:0%
the rock of Sword Grant's cave could
have<00:28:59.919><c> died</c><00:29:00.159><c> as</c><00:29:00.399><c> recently</c><00:29:00.799><c> as</c><00:29:01.120><c> 600,000</c><00:29:01.919><c> years</c>

27:28.972 --> 27:28.982 align:start position:0%
have died as recently as 600,000 years
 

27:28.982 --> 27:30.972 align:start position:0%
have died as recently as 600,000 years
ago,<00:29:02.640><c> putting</c><00:29:02.960><c> their</c><00:29:03.120><c> tenure</c><00:29:03.440><c> on</c><00:29:03.600><c> the</c><00:29:03.760><c> planet</c>

27:30.972 --> 27:30.982 align:start position:0%
ago, putting their tenure on the planet
 

27:30.982 --> 27:34.092 align:start position:0%
ago, putting their tenure on the planet
at<00:29:04.399><c> over</c><00:29:04.799><c> 2</c><00:29:05.039><c> million</c><00:29:05.440><c> years.</c><00:29:06.559><c> It</c><00:29:06.799><c> is</c><00:29:07.039><c> clear</c>

27:34.092 --> 27:34.102 align:start position:0%
at over 2 million years. It is clear
 

27:34.102 --> 27:35.933 align:start position:0%
at over 2 million years. It is clear
that<00:29:07.520><c> they</c><00:29:07.760><c> were</c><00:29:07.919><c> highly</c><00:29:08.240><c> successful</c><00:29:08.880><c> on</c>

27:35.933 --> 27:35.943 align:start position:0%
that they were highly successful on
 

27:35.943 --> 27:38.972 align:start position:0%
that they were highly successful on
longived<00:29:09.760><c> genus.</c><00:29:10.880><c> And</c><00:29:11.120><c> so</c><00:29:11.520><c> where</c><00:29:11.760><c> did</c><00:29:11.919><c> they</c>

27:38.972 --> 27:38.982 align:start position:0%
longived genus. And so where did they
 

27:38.982 --> 27:42.092 align:start position:0%
longived genus. And so where did they
go?<00:29:13.120><c> Our</c><00:29:13.440><c> slim-faced,</c><00:29:14.240><c> grassile</c><00:29:14.880><c> branch</c><00:29:15.120><c> of</c>

27:42.092 --> 27:42.102 align:start position:0%
go? Our slim-faced, grassile branch of
 

27:42.102 --> 27:44.253 align:start position:0%
go? Our slim-faced, grassile branch of
the<00:29:15.360><c> homminin</c><00:29:15.919><c> family</c><00:29:16.159><c> endured</c><00:29:16.960><c> while</c><00:29:17.200><c> all</c>

27:44.253 --> 27:44.263 align:start position:0%
the homminin family endured while all
 

27:44.263 --> 27:46.492 align:start position:0%
the homminin family endured while all
hominins<00:29:18.000><c> with</c><00:29:18.240><c> powerful</c><00:29:18.640><c> jaws</c><00:29:19.039><c> and</c><00:29:19.279><c> giant</c>

27:46.492 --> 27:46.502 align:start position:0%
hominins with powerful jaws and giant
 

27:46.502 --> 27:50.013 align:start position:0%
hominins with powerful jaws and giant
teeth<00:29:20.159><c> would</c><00:29:20.399><c> come</c><00:29:20.559><c> to</c><00:29:20.720><c> an</c><00:29:20.960><c> end.</c><00:29:22.159><c> Why</c><00:29:22.399><c> did</c><00:29:22.640><c> they</c>

27:50.013 --> 27:50.023 align:start position:0%
teeth would come to an end. Why did they
 

27:50.023 --> 28:05.773 align:start position:0%
teeth would come to an end. Why did they
go<00:29:23.520><c> extinct?</c>

28:05.773 --> 28:05.783 align:start position:0%
 
 

28:05.783 --> 28:10.653 align:start position:0%
 
Megan<00:29:39.440><c> Tyrion</c><00:29:40.240><c> was</c><00:29:40.480><c> built</c><00:29:41.279><c> to</c><00:29:41.520><c> kill.</c>

28:10.653 --> 28:10.663 align:start position:0%
Megan Tyrion was built to kill.
 

28:10.663 --> 28:13.133 align:start position:0%
Megan Tyrion was built to kill.
It<00:29:44.000><c> was</c><00:29:44.159><c> about</c><00:29:44.399><c> the</c><00:29:44.640><c> size</c><00:29:44.880><c> of</c><00:29:44.960><c> a</c><00:29:45.200><c> modern</c><00:29:45.520><c> jaguar</c>

28:13.133 --> 28:13.143 align:start position:0%
It was about the size of a modern jaguar
 

28:13.143 --> 28:15.372 align:start position:0%
It was about the size of a modern jaguar
but<00:29:46.480><c> with</c><00:29:46.640><c> a</c><00:29:46.799><c> bigger</c><00:29:47.120><c> neck.</c><00:29:47.679><c> It</c><00:29:47.919><c> had</c><00:29:48.080><c> notably</c>

28:15.372 --> 28:15.382 align:start position:0%
but with a bigger neck. It had notably
 

28:15.382 --> 28:17.053 align:start position:0%
but with a bigger neck. It had notably
large<00:29:48.799><c> shoulder</c><00:29:49.200><c> blades</c><00:29:49.760><c> supporting</c>

28:17.053 --> 28:17.063 align:start position:0%
large shoulder blades supporting
 

28:17.063 --> 28:19.372 align:start position:0%
large shoulder blades supporting
powerful<00:29:50.799><c> shoulders</c><00:29:51.440><c> and</c><00:29:51.679><c> relatively</c><00:29:52.240><c> short</c>

28:19.372 --> 28:19.382 align:start position:0%
powerful shoulders and relatively short
 

28:19.382 --> 28:22.253 align:start position:0%
powerful shoulders and relatively short
but<00:29:52.799><c> incredibly</c><00:29:53.360><c> powerful</c><00:29:53.840><c> forlims.</c><00:29:55.200><c> In</c>

28:22.253 --> 28:22.263 align:start position:0%
but incredibly powerful forlims. In
 

28:22.263 --> 28:24.492 align:start position:0%
but incredibly powerful forlims. In
fact,<00:29:55.840><c> it</c><00:29:56.080><c> was</c><00:29:56.159><c> so</c><00:29:56.399><c> heavily</c><00:29:56.799><c> built</c><00:29:57.120><c> that</c><00:29:57.440><c> some</c>

28:24.492 --> 28:24.502 align:start position:0%
fact, it was so heavily built that some
 

28:24.502 --> 28:27.133 align:start position:0%
fact, it was so heavily built that some
experts<00:29:58.159><c> dispute</c><00:29:58.559><c> Megan</c><00:29:59.440><c> could</c><00:29:59.600><c> climb</c><00:30:00.000><c> trees</c>

28:27.133 --> 28:27.143 align:start position:0%
experts dispute Megan could climb trees
 

28:27.143 --> 28:29.933 align:start position:0%
experts dispute Megan could climb trees
as<00:30:00.480><c> well</c><00:30:00.640><c> as</c><00:30:00.799><c> modern</c><00:30:01.200><c> jaguars.</c><00:30:02.640><c> Yet,</c><00:30:02.880><c> this</c>

28:29.933 --> 28:29.943 align:start position:0%
as well as modern jaguars. Yet, this
 

28:29.943 --> 28:31.693 align:start position:0%
as well as modern jaguars. Yet, this
powerful<00:30:03.600><c> front</c><00:30:03.919><c> section</c><00:30:04.399><c> came</c><00:30:04.640><c> with</c>

28:31.693 --> 28:31.703 align:start position:0%
powerful front section came with
 

28:31.703 --> 28:34.653 align:start position:0%
powerful front section came with
considerable<00:30:05.520><c> advantages</c><00:30:06.480><c> as</c><00:30:06.720><c> well.</c><00:30:07.600><c> For</c>

28:34.653 --> 28:34.663 align:start position:0%
considerable advantages as well. For
 

28:34.663 --> 28:36.813 align:start position:0%
considerable advantages as well. For
this<00:30:08.000><c> feline</c><00:30:08.559><c> was</c><00:30:08.799><c> superbly</c><00:30:09.279><c> well</c><00:30:09.520><c> adapted</c>

28:36.813 --> 28:36.823 align:start position:0%
this feline was superbly well adapted
 

28:36.823 --> 28:39.693 align:start position:0%
this feline was superbly well adapted
for<00:30:10.240><c> a</c><00:30:10.480><c> quick,</c><00:30:10.880><c> powerful</c><00:30:11.440><c> pounce.</c><00:30:12.480><c> Once</c><00:30:12.720><c> in</c>

28:39.693 --> 28:39.703 align:start position:0%
for a quick, powerful pounce. Once in
 

28:39.703 --> 28:42.013 align:start position:0%
for a quick, powerful pounce. Once in
its<00:30:13.120><c> grasp,</c><00:30:13.600><c> its</c><00:30:13.840><c> vicel-like</c><00:30:14.480><c> forearms</c><00:30:15.039><c> and</c>

28:42.013 --> 28:42.023 align:start position:0%
its grasp, its vicel-like forearms and
 

28:42.023 --> 28:43.533 align:start position:0%
its grasp, its vicel-like forearms and
forceful<00:30:15.679><c> neck</c><00:30:15.919><c> and</c><00:30:16.080><c> shoulders</c><00:30:16.480><c> could</c>

28:43.533 --> 28:43.543 align:start position:0%
forceful neck and shoulders could
 

28:43.543 --> 28:46.253 align:start position:0%
forceful neck and shoulders could
quickly<00:30:17.200><c> expose</c><00:30:17.679><c> the</c><00:30:17.840><c> neck</c><00:30:18.080><c> of</c><00:30:18.240><c> its</c><00:30:18.480><c> prey,</c><00:30:19.200><c> and</c>

28:46.253 --> 28:46.263 align:start position:0%
quickly expose the neck of its prey, and
 

28:46.263 --> 28:49.372 align:start position:0%
quickly expose the neck of its prey, and
then<00:30:19.840><c> its</c><00:30:20.159><c> razor-sharp</c><00:30:20.960><c> canines,</c><00:30:21.919><c> so</c><00:30:22.240><c> large</c>

28:49.372 --> 28:49.382 align:start position:0%
then its razor-sharp canines, so large
 

28:49.382 --> 28:51.133 align:start position:0%
then its razor-sharp canines, so large
they<00:30:22.799><c> likely</c><00:30:23.120><c> projected</c><00:30:23.520><c> from</c><00:30:23.679><c> its</c><00:30:23.840><c> mouth</c><00:30:24.080><c> at</c>

28:51.133 --> 28:51.143 align:start position:0%
they likely projected from its mouth at
 

28:51.143 --> 28:53.933 align:start position:0%
they likely projected from its mouth at
all<00:30:24.480><c> times,</c><00:30:25.200><c> would</c><00:30:25.360><c> be</c><00:30:25.520><c> put</c><00:30:25.679><c> to</c><00:30:25.840><c> use.</c><00:30:26.880><c> Its</c>

28:53.933 --> 28:53.943 align:start position:0%
all times, would be put to use. Its
 

28:53.943 --> 28:56.492 align:start position:0%
all times, would be put to use. Its
saber<00:30:27.520><c> teeth</c><00:30:27.919><c> could</c><00:30:28.159><c> perform</c><00:30:28.480><c> a</c><00:30:28.720><c> canine</c><00:30:29.279><c> shear</c>

28:56.492 --> 28:56.502 align:start position:0%
saber teeth could perform a canine shear
 

28:56.502 --> 28:58.492 align:start position:0%
saber teeth could perform a canine shear
bite,<00:30:30.240><c> penetrating</c><00:30:30.799><c> the</c><00:30:30.960><c> esophagus</c><00:30:31.520><c> and</c>

28:58.492 --> 28:58.502 align:start position:0%
bite, penetrating the esophagus and
 

28:58.502 --> 29:00.972 align:start position:0%
bite, penetrating the esophagus and
major<00:30:32.000><c> blood</c><00:30:32.240><c> vessels</c><00:30:32.559><c> of</c><00:30:32.720><c> its</c><00:30:32.960><c> victim.</c><00:30:33.919><c> And</c>

29:00.972 --> 29:00.982 align:start position:0%
major blood vessels of its victim. And
 

29:00.982 --> 29:03.372 align:start position:0%
major blood vessels of its victim. And
sometimes<00:30:35.039><c> the</c><00:30:35.279><c> victims</c><00:30:35.840><c> this</c><00:30:36.080><c> ambush</c>

29:03.372 --> 29:03.382 align:start position:0%
sometimes the victims this ambush
 

29:03.382 --> 29:11.133 align:start position:0%
sometimes the victims this ambush
machine<00:30:36.960><c> was</c><00:30:37.120><c> preying</c><00:30:37.520><c> upon</c><00:30:38.480><c> were</c><00:30:38.720><c> hominins.</c>

29:11.133 --> 29:11.143 align:start position:0%
 
 

29:11.143 --> 29:13.372 align:start position:0%
 
At<00:30:44.480><c> Kooper's</c><00:30:44.880><c> Cave</c><00:30:45.200><c> system</c><00:30:45.520><c> in</c><00:30:45.760><c> South</c><00:30:46.000><c> Africa,</c>

29:13.372 --> 29:13.382 align:start position:0%
At Kooper's Cave system in South Africa,
 

29:13.382 --> 29:15.293 align:start position:0%
At Kooper's Cave system in South Africa,
Paranthropus<00:30:47.200><c> and</c><00:30:47.360><c> Megan</c><00:30:47.679><c> Tyrion</c><00:30:48.159><c> appeared</c>

29:15.293 --> 29:15.303 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus and Megan Tyrion appeared
 

29:15.303 --> 29:17.372 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus and Megan Tyrion appeared
to<00:30:48.640><c> have</c><00:30:48.799><c> lived</c><00:30:49.039><c> and</c><00:30:49.279><c> died</c><00:30:49.520><c> there</c><00:30:49.840><c> together</c><00:30:50.320><c> at</c>

29:17.372 --> 29:17.382 align:start position:0%
to have lived and died there together at
 

29:17.382 --> 29:19.453 align:start position:0%
to have lived and died there together at
the<00:30:50.799><c> same</c><00:30:51.039><c> time</c><00:30:51.679><c> around</c><00:30:52.000><c> 1</c><00:30:52.159><c> and</c><00:30:52.240><c> a</c><00:30:52.399><c> half</c>

29:19.453 --> 29:19.463 align:start position:0%
the same time around 1 and a half
 

29:19.463 --> 29:21.852 align:start position:0%
the same time around 1 and a half
million<00:30:52.960><c> years</c><00:30:53.200><c> ago.</c><00:30:53.919><c> The</c><00:30:54.080><c> big</c><00:30:54.320><c> cats</c><00:30:54.640><c> had</c><00:30:54.880><c> been</c>

29:21.852 --> 29:21.862 align:start position:0%
million years ago. The big cats had been
 

29:21.862 --> 29:23.693 align:start position:0%
million years ago. The big cats had been
around<00:30:55.200><c> in</c><00:30:55.360><c> Africa</c><00:30:55.760><c> for</c><00:30:55.919><c> a</c><00:30:56.080><c> lot</c><00:30:56.240><c> longer,</c><00:30:56.720><c> with</c>

29:23.693 --> 29:23.703 align:start position:0%
around in Africa for a lot longer, with
 

29:23.703 --> 29:25.533 align:start position:0%
around in Africa for a lot longer, with
the<00:30:56.960><c> oldest</c><00:30:57.360><c> example</c><00:30:57.679><c> dating</c><00:30:58.080><c> back</c><00:30:58.240><c> at</c><00:30:58.320><c> least</c>

29:25.533 --> 29:25.543 align:start position:0%
the oldest example dating back at least
 

29:25.543 --> 29:28.092 align:start position:0%
the oldest example dating back at least
4<00:30:58.960><c> million</c><00:30:59.360><c> years.</c><00:31:00.080><c> And</c><00:31:00.320><c> so</c><00:31:00.480><c> it</c><00:31:00.720><c> appears</c><00:31:01.039><c> that</c>

29:28.092 --> 29:28.102 align:start position:0%
4 million years. And so it appears that
 

29:28.102 --> 29:29.372 align:start position:0%
4 million years. And so it appears that
as<00:31:01.440><c> the</c><00:31:01.600><c> many</c><00:31:01.840><c> different</c><00:31:02.080><c> species</c><00:31:02.399><c> of</c>

29:29.372 --> 29:29.382 align:start position:0%
as the many different species of
 

29:29.382 --> 29:31.453 align:start position:0%
as the many different species of
paranthropus<00:31:03.360><c> wandered</c><00:31:03.760><c> through</c><00:31:04.000><c> the</c><00:31:04.159><c> grassy</c>

29:31.453 --> 29:31.463 align:start position:0%
paranthropus wandered through the grassy
 

29:31.463 --> 29:33.612 align:start position:0%
paranthropus wandered through the grassy
plains<00:31:04.960><c> and</c><00:31:05.200><c> wooded</c><00:31:05.520><c> valleys</c><00:31:05.840><c> of</c><00:31:06.000><c> Africa,</c>

29:33.612 --> 29:33.622 align:start position:0%
plains and wooded valleys of Africa,
 

29:33.622 --> 29:35.372 align:start position:0%
plains and wooded valleys of Africa,
they<00:31:07.039><c> were</c><00:31:07.200><c> at</c><00:31:07.360><c> risk</c><00:31:07.760><c> from</c><00:31:08.000><c> these</c><00:31:08.240><c> killing</c>

29:35.372 --> 29:35.382 align:start position:0%
they were at risk from these killing
 

29:35.382 --> 29:38.253 align:start position:0%
they were at risk from these killing
machines<00:31:09.440><c> and</c><00:31:09.679><c> others</c><00:31:10.000><c> like</c><00:31:10.320><c> them.</c><00:31:11.200><c> The</c>

29:38.253 --> 29:38.263 align:start position:0%
machines and others like them. The
 

29:38.263 --> 29:40.413 align:start position:0%
machines and others like them. The
juvenile<00:31:11.919><c> paranthropus</c><00:31:12.559><c> robuster</c><00:31:13.120><c> skull</c>

29:40.413 --> 29:40.423 align:start position:0%
juvenile paranthropus robuster skull
 

29:40.423 --> 29:44.492 align:start position:0%
juvenile paranthropus robuster skull
SK54<00:31:15.039><c> shows</c><00:31:15.440><c> two</c><00:31:16.080><c> 6</c><00:31:16.399><c> millm</c><00:31:16.799><c> puncture</c><00:31:17.200><c> wounds</c>

29:44.492 --> 29:44.502 align:start position:0%
SK54 shows two 6 millm puncture wounds
 

29:44.502 --> 29:46.492 align:start position:0%
SK54 shows two 6 millm puncture wounds
consistent<00:31:18.159><c> with</c><00:31:18.320><c> the</c><00:31:18.559><c> lower</c><00:31:18.880><c> canines</c><00:31:19.360><c> of</c><00:31:19.520><c> an</c>

29:46.492 --> 29:46.502 align:start position:0%
consistent with the lower canines of an
 

29:46.502 --> 29:49.053 align:start position:0%
consistent with the lower canines of an
African<00:31:20.159><c> leopard.</c><00:31:21.120><c> And</c><00:31:21.279><c> the</c><00:31:21.520><c> evidence</c><00:31:21.919><c> does</c>

29:49.053 --> 29:49.063 align:start position:0%
African leopard. And the evidence does
 

29:49.063 --> 29:51.453 align:start position:0%
African leopard. And the evidence does
not<00:31:22.399><c> end</c><00:31:22.720><c> there.</c><00:31:23.679><c> In</c><00:31:23.840><c> fact,</c><00:31:24.159><c> it</c><00:31:24.399><c> comes</c>

29:51.453 --> 29:51.463 align:start position:0%
not end there. In fact, it comes
 

29:51.463 --> 29:53.453 align:start position:0%
not end there. In fact, it comes
handinhand<00:31:25.440><c> with</c><00:31:25.679><c> more</c><00:31:26.000><c> proof</c><00:31:26.399><c> of</c>

29:53.453 --> 29:53.463 align:start position:0%
handinhand with more proof of
 

29:53.463 --> 29:56.573 align:start position:0%
handinhand with more proof of
paranthropy's<00:31:27.600><c> upright</c><00:31:28.159><c> nature.</c><00:31:29.520><c> A</c>

29:56.573 --> 29:56.583 align:start position:0%
paranthropy's upright nature. A
 

29:56.583 --> 29:58.813 align:start position:0%
paranthropy's upright nature. A
fossilized<00:31:30.320><c> hip,</c><00:31:30.799><c> thigh,</c><00:31:31.200><c> and</c><00:31:31.440><c> shin</c><00:31:31.760><c> in</c>

29:58.813 --> 29:58.823 align:start position:0%
fossilized hip, thigh, and shin in
 

29:58.823 --> 30:01.453 align:start position:0%
fossilized hip, thigh, and shin in
Swadran's<00:31:32.720><c> layer</c><00:31:32.960><c> member</c><00:31:33.360><c> one</c><00:31:33.840><c> was</c><00:31:34.080><c> a</c><00:31:34.240><c> huge</c>

30:01.453 --> 30:01.463 align:start position:0%
Swadran's layer member one was a huge
 

30:01.463 --> 30:03.453 align:start position:0%
Swadran's layer member one was a huge
find.<00:31:35.840><c> Indeed,</c><00:31:36.080><c> it</c><00:31:36.240><c> was</c><00:31:36.320><c> the</c><00:31:36.480><c> first</c>

30:03.453 --> 30:03.463 align:start position:0%
find. Indeed, it was the first
 

30:03.463 --> 30:05.533 align:start position:0%
find. Indeed, it was the first
articulating<00:31:37.279><c> hipbone,</c><00:31:38.000><c> thigh</c><00:31:38.320><c> bone,</c><00:31:38.480><c> and</c>

30:05.533 --> 30:05.543 align:start position:0%
articulating hipbone, thigh bone, and
 

30:05.543 --> 30:07.372 align:start position:0%
articulating hipbone, thigh bone, and
shin<00:31:39.039><c> bone</c><00:31:39.200><c> of</c><00:31:39.360><c> Paranthropus</c><00:31:39.919><c> Robustas</c>

30:07.372 --> 30:07.382 align:start position:0%
shin bone of Paranthropus Robustas
 

30:07.382 --> 30:09.852 align:start position:0%
shin bone of Paranthropus Robustas
found.<00:31:41.360><c> And</c><00:31:41.519><c> it</c><00:31:41.760><c> showed</c><00:31:42.320><c> like</c><00:31:42.480><c> the</c><00:31:42.640><c> partial</c>

30:09.852 --> 30:09.862 align:start position:0%
found. And it showed like the partial
 

30:09.862 --> 30:11.933 align:start position:0%
found. And it showed like the partial
boy's<00:31:43.360><c> eye</c><00:31:43.600><c> skeleton</c><00:31:43.919><c> from</c><00:31:44.080><c> Kooie</c><00:31:44.559><c> Fora</c><00:31:44.960><c> that</c>

30:11.933 --> 30:11.943 align:start position:0%
boy's eye skeleton from Kooie Fora that
 

30:11.943 --> 30:13.852 align:start position:0%
boy's eye skeleton from Kooie Fora that
their<00:31:45.360><c> South</c><00:31:45.600><c> African</c><00:31:45.919><c> relatives</c><00:31:46.399><c> were</c><00:31:46.559><c> also</c>

30:13.852 --> 30:13.862 align:start position:0%
their South African relatives were also
 

30:13.862 --> 30:16.972 align:start position:0%
their South African relatives were also
like<00:31:47.279><c> modern</c><00:31:47.679><c> humans,</c><00:31:48.799><c> habitual</c><00:31:49.600><c> upright</c>

30:16.972 --> 30:16.982 align:start position:0%
like modern humans, habitual upright
 

30:16.982 --> 30:20.253 align:start position:0%
like modern humans, habitual upright
walkers.<00:31:51.120><c> This</c><00:31:51.360><c> example,</c><00:31:51.760><c> a</c><00:31:52.000><c> female</c><00:31:52.399><c> only</c><00:31:52.799><c> 3'3</c>

30:20.253 --> 30:20.263 align:start position:0%
walkers. This example, a female only 3'3
 

30:20.263 --> 30:22.813 align:start position:0%
walkers. This example, a female only 3'3
in<00:31:53.760><c> tall</c><00:31:54.000><c> and</c><00:31:54.320><c> 60</c><00:31:54.559><c> lb</c><00:31:54.880><c> in</c><00:31:55.120><c> weight,</c><00:31:55.679><c> also</c>

30:22.813 --> 30:22.823 align:start position:0%
in tall and 60 lb in weight, also
 

30:22.823 --> 30:25.852 align:start position:0%
in tall and 60 lb in weight, also
highlighted<00:31:56.559><c> their</c><00:31:56.880><c> dimminative</c><00:31:57.600><c> size.</c><00:31:58.799><c> And</c>

30:25.852 --> 30:25.862 align:start position:0%
highlighted their dimminative size. And
 

30:25.862 --> 30:27.372 align:start position:0%
highlighted their dimminative size. And
this<00:31:59.279><c> size</c><00:31:59.679><c> clearly</c><00:32:00.159><c> came</c><00:32:00.320><c> with</c>

30:27.372 --> 30:27.382 align:start position:0%
this size clearly came with
 

30:27.382 --> 30:29.453 align:start position:0%
this size clearly came with
vulnerability<00:32:01.440><c> because</c><00:32:01.679><c> these</c><00:32:02.000><c> leg</c><00:32:02.240><c> bones</c>

30:29.453 --> 30:29.463 align:start position:0%
vulnerability because these leg bones
 

30:29.463 --> 30:31.933 align:start position:0%
vulnerability because these leg bones
from<00:32:02.799><c> Swadrans</c><00:32:03.519><c> member</c><00:32:03.840><c> one</c><00:32:04.159><c> also</c><00:32:04.559><c> displayed</c>

30:31.933 --> 30:31.943 align:start position:0%
from Swadrans member one also displayed
 

30:31.943 --> 30:33.773 align:start position:0%
from Swadrans member one also displayed
according<00:32:05.440><c> to</c><00:32:05.600><c> their</c><00:32:05.760><c> discoverers</c><00:32:06.640><c> tooth</c>

30:33.773 --> 30:33.783 align:start position:0%
according to their discoverers tooth
 

30:33.783 --> 30:35.852 align:start position:0%
according to their discoverers tooth
marks<00:32:07.279><c> and</c><00:32:07.440><c> other</c><00:32:07.679><c> chewing</c><00:32:08.080><c> damage</c><00:32:08.720><c> identical</c>

30:35.852 --> 30:35.862 align:start position:0%
marks and other chewing damage identical
 

30:35.862 --> 30:38.253 align:start position:0%
marks and other chewing damage identical
to<00:32:09.279><c> that</c><00:32:09.519><c> made</c><00:32:09.679><c> by</c><00:32:09.919><c> leopards</c><00:32:10.480><c> on</c><00:32:10.720><c> the</c><00:32:10.880><c> bones</c><00:32:11.279><c> of</c>

30:38.253 --> 30:38.263 align:start position:0%
to that made by leopards on the bones of
 

30:38.263 --> 30:44.173 align:start position:0%
to that made by leopards on the bones of
their<00:32:11.679><c> prey.</c>

30:44.173 --> 30:44.183 align:start position:0%
 
 

30:44.183 --> 30:46.492 align:start position:0%
 
And<00:32:17.600><c> here</c><00:32:17.919><c> yet</c><00:32:18.159><c> again</c><00:32:18.640><c> the</c><00:32:18.799><c> more</c><00:32:18.960><c> we</c><00:32:19.200><c> form</c><00:32:19.440><c> a</c>

30:46.492 --> 30:46.502 align:start position:0%
And here yet again the more we form a
 

30:46.502 --> 30:48.653 align:start position:0%
And here yet again the more we form a
full<00:32:19.919><c> picture</c><00:32:20.159><c> of</c><00:32:20.399><c> paranthropus</c><00:32:21.360><c> the</c><00:32:21.519><c> more</c><00:32:21.679><c> it</c>

30:48.653 --> 30:48.663 align:start position:0%
full picture of paranthropus the more it
 

30:48.663 --> 30:51.372 align:start position:0%
full picture of paranthropus the more it
becomes<00:32:22.080><c> a</c><00:32:22.320><c> patchwork</c><00:32:22.880><c> of</c><00:32:23.120><c> features.</c><00:32:24.240><c> These</c>

30:51.372 --> 30:51.382 align:start position:0%
becomes a patchwork of features. These
 

30:51.382 --> 30:54.332 align:start position:0%
becomes a patchwork of features. These
creatures<00:32:25.039><c> had</c><00:32:25.360><c> huge</c><00:32:25.760><c> teeth,</c><00:32:26.559><c> powerful</c><00:32:27.039><c> jaws,</c>

30:54.332 --> 30:54.342 align:start position:0%
creatures had huge teeth, powerful jaws,
 

30:54.342 --> 30:56.253 align:start position:0%
creatures had huge teeth, powerful jaws,
and<00:32:27.760><c> grip</c><00:32:28.159><c> strength</c><00:32:28.480><c> equal</c><00:32:28.799><c> to</c><00:32:28.960><c> that</c><00:32:29.120><c> of</c><00:32:29.279><c> a</c>

30:56.253 --> 30:56.263 align:start position:0%
and grip strength equal to that of a
 

30:56.263 --> 30:58.573 align:start position:0%
and grip strength equal to that of a
gorilla.<00:32:30.159><c> And</c><00:32:30.320><c> yet,</c><00:32:30.480><c> their</c><00:32:30.720><c> overall</c><00:32:31.200><c> stature</c>

30:58.573 --> 30:58.583 align:start position:0%
gorilla. And yet, their overall stature
 

30:58.583 --> 31:00.253 align:start position:0%
gorilla. And yet, their overall stature
left<00:32:32.000><c> them</c><00:32:32.240><c> vulnerable</c><00:32:32.640><c> to</c><00:32:32.799><c> leopards,</c>

31:00.253 --> 31:00.263 align:start position:0%
left them vulnerable to leopards,
 

31:00.263 --> 31:02.492 align:start position:0%
left them vulnerable to leopards,
hyenas,<00:32:34.080><c> and</c><00:32:34.320><c> highly</c><00:32:34.720><c> specialized</c><00:32:35.360><c> ancient</c>

31:02.492 --> 31:02.502 align:start position:0%
hyenas, and highly specialized ancient
 

31:02.502 --> 31:05.372 align:start position:0%
hyenas, and highly specialized ancient
ambush<00:32:36.159><c> specialists</c><00:32:36.799><c> like</c><00:32:37.120><c> Megant</c><00:32:37.519><c> Tyrion.</c>

31:05.372 --> 31:05.382 align:start position:0%
ambush specialists like Megant Tyrion.
 

31:05.382 --> 31:07.773 align:start position:0%
ambush specialists like Megant Tyrion.
And<00:32:38.799><c> so,</c><00:32:39.440><c> was</c><00:32:39.679><c> this</c><00:32:39.840><c> the</c><00:32:40.159><c> reason</c><00:32:40.399><c> for</c><00:32:40.720><c> their</c>

31:07.773 --> 31:07.783 align:start position:0%
And so, was this the reason for their
 

31:07.783 --> 31:10.253 align:start position:0%
And so, was this the reason for their
extinction?<00:32:42.080><c> Were</c><00:32:42.320><c> they</c><00:32:42.559><c> simply</c><00:32:42.799><c> an</c><00:32:43.039><c> easier</c>

31:10.253 --> 31:10.263 align:start position:0%
extinction? Were they simply an easier
 

31:10.263 --> 31:12.413 align:start position:0%
extinction? Were they simply an easier
meal<00:32:43.840><c> than</c><00:32:44.000><c> their</c><00:32:44.320><c> taller,</c><00:32:44.799><c> more</c><00:32:45.039><c> grassile</c>

31:12.413 --> 31:12.423 align:start position:0%
meal than their taller, more grassile
 

31:12.423 --> 31:15.372 align:start position:0%
meal than their taller, more grassile
homminin<00:32:46.159><c> cousins?</c><00:32:47.279><c> After</c><00:32:47.600><c> 2</c><00:32:47.919><c> million</c><00:32:48.320><c> years</c>

31:15.372 --> 31:15.382 align:start position:0%
homminin cousins? After 2 million years
 

31:15.382 --> 31:18.092 align:start position:0%
homminin cousins? After 2 million years
of<00:32:48.799><c> existence,</c><00:32:49.519><c> was</c><00:32:49.760><c> the</c><00:32:49.919><c> Paranthropus</c><00:32:50.640><c> genus</c>

31:18.092 --> 31:18.102 align:start position:0%
of existence, was the Paranthropus genus
 

31:18.102 --> 31:20.492 align:start position:0%
of existence, was the Paranthropus genus
eaten<00:32:51.919><c> to</c><00:32:52.159><c> extinction?</c>

31:20.492 --> 31:20.502 align:start position:0%
eaten to extinction?
 

31:20.502 --> 31:22.332 align:start position:0%
eaten to extinction?
No,<00:32:54.159><c> because</c><00:32:54.480><c> something</c><00:32:54.799><c> else</c><00:32:55.120><c> came</c><00:32:55.360><c> for</c>

31:22.332 --> 31:22.342 align:start position:0%
No, because something else came for
 

31:22.342 --> 31:24.653 align:start position:0%
No, because something else came for
Baranthropus<00:32:56.320><c> between</c><00:32:56.640><c> 1</c><00:32:57.039><c> 2</c><00:32:57.279><c> million</c><00:32:57.679><c> years</c>

31:24.653 --> 31:24.663 align:start position:0%
Baranthropus between 1 2 million years
 

31:24.663 --> 31:27.372 align:start position:0%
Baranthropus between 1 2 million years
ago.<00:32:58.799><c> Something</c><00:32:59.120><c> that</c><00:32:59.360><c> would</c><00:32:59.600><c> also</c><00:33:00.159><c> come</c><00:33:00.320><c> from</c>

31:27.372 --> 31:27.382 align:start position:0%
ago. Something that would also come from
 

31:27.382 --> 31:34.972 align:start position:0%
ago. Something that would also come from
Megan<00:33:00.960><c> Tyrion.</c>

31:34.972 --> 31:34.982 align:start position:0%
 
 

31:34.982 --> 31:37.612 align:start position:0%
 
In<00:33:08.399><c> Slovenia,</c><00:33:09.440><c> ghostly</c><00:33:10.159><c> snake-</c><00:33:10.559><c> like</c>

31:37.612 --> 31:37.622 align:start position:0%
In Slovenia, ghostly snake- like
 

31:37.622 --> 31:40.573 align:start position:0%
In Slovenia, ghostly snake- like
creatures<00:33:11.279><c> lurk</c><00:33:11.760><c> in</c><00:33:12.080><c> underground</c><00:33:12.720><c> pools.</c>

31:40.573 --> 31:40.583 align:start position:0%
creatures lurk in underground pools.
 

31:40.583 --> 31:42.653 align:start position:0%
creatures lurk in underground pools.
Their<00:33:14.000><c> four</c><00:33:14.320><c> little</c><00:33:14.559><c> legs</c><00:33:15.039><c> that</c><00:33:15.279><c> pump</c><00:33:15.600><c> against</c>

31:42.653 --> 31:42.663 align:start position:0%
Their four little legs that pump against
 

31:42.663 --> 31:45.453 align:start position:0%
Their four little legs that pump against
the<00:33:16.080><c> water</c><00:33:16.480><c> and</c><00:33:16.799><c> long</c><00:33:17.120><c> crocodilelike</c><00:33:18.080><c> snouts</c>

31:45.453 --> 31:45.463 align:start position:0%
the water and long crocodilelike snouts
 

31:45.463 --> 31:47.933 align:start position:0%
the water and long crocodilelike snouts
that<00:33:18.960><c> taste</c><00:33:19.360><c> and</c><00:33:19.600><c> scent</c><00:33:19.919><c> the</c><00:33:20.080><c> air.</c><00:33:20.720><c> And</c><00:33:20.960><c> this</c>

31:47.933 --> 31:47.943 align:start position:0%
that taste and scent the air. And this
 

31:47.943 --> 31:50.732 align:start position:0%
that taste and scent the air. And this
is<00:33:21.360><c> necessary</c><00:33:22.080><c> because</c><00:33:22.399><c> inside</c><00:33:22.880><c> these</c><00:33:23.200><c> caves,</c>

31:50.732 --> 31:50.742 align:start position:0%
is necessary because inside these caves,
 

31:50.742 --> 31:53.212 align:start position:0%
is necessary because inside these caves,
the<00:33:24.159><c> habitat</c><00:33:24.559><c> of</c><00:33:24.720><c> the</c><00:33:24.880><c> European</c><00:33:25.519><c> alm,</c><00:33:26.240><c> there</c>

31:53.212 --> 31:53.222 align:start position:0%
the habitat of the European alm, there
 

31:53.222 --> 31:57.612 align:start position:0%
the habitat of the European alm, there
is<00:33:26.640><c> no</c><00:33:26.960><c> light</c><00:33:27.760><c> at</c><00:33:28.000><c> all.</c><00:33:29.279><c> The</c><00:33:29.600><c> rare</c><00:33:30.000><c> pale</c><00:33:30.480><c> cave</c>

31:57.612 --> 31:57.622 align:start position:0%
is no light at all. The rare pale cave
 

31:57.622 --> 31:59.372 align:start position:0%
is no light at all. The rare pale cave
salamanders<00:33:31.519><c> therefore</c><00:33:31.919><c> have</c><00:33:32.159><c> very</c>

31:59.372 --> 31:59.382 align:start position:0%
salamanders therefore have very
 

31:59.382 --> 32:02.173 align:start position:0%
salamanders therefore have very
underdeveloped<00:33:33.440><c> eyes.</c><00:33:34.320><c> After</c><00:33:34.640><c> all,</c><00:33:35.039><c> what's</c>

32:02.173 --> 32:02.183 align:start position:0%
underdeveloped eyes. After all, what's
 

32:02.183 --> 32:03.693 align:start position:0%
underdeveloped eyes. After all, what's
the<00:33:35.519><c> point</c><00:33:35.679><c> of</c><00:33:35.919><c> excellent</c><00:33:36.320><c> vision</c><00:33:36.640><c> when</c>

32:03.693 --> 32:03.703 align:start position:0%
the point of excellent vision when
 

32:03.703 --> 32:06.092 align:start position:0%
the point of excellent vision when
you're<00:33:37.039><c> surrounded</c><00:33:37.600><c> by</c><00:33:37.840><c> darkness,</c><00:33:38.960><c> but</c><00:33:39.120><c> to</c>

32:06.092 --> 32:06.102 align:start position:0%
you're surrounded by darkness, but to
 

32:06.102 --> 32:07.693 align:start position:0%
you're surrounded by darkness, but to
make<00:33:39.440><c> up</c><00:33:39.600><c> for</c><00:33:39.760><c> it,</c><00:33:40.159><c> the</c><00:33:40.399><c> creature</c><00:33:40.640><c> is</c>

32:07.693 --> 32:07.703 align:start position:0%
make up for it, the creature is
 

32:07.703 --> 32:10.173 align:start position:0%
make up for it, the creature is
especially<00:33:41.360><c> sensitive</c><00:33:41.840><c> to</c><00:33:42.080><c> smell,</c><00:33:42.720><c> touch,</c>

32:10.173 --> 32:10.183 align:start position:0%
especially sensitive to smell, touch,
 

32:10.183 --> 32:12.893 align:start position:0%
especially sensitive to smell, touch,
movement,<00:33:44.000><c> and</c><00:33:44.240><c> even</c><00:33:44.720><c> electricity,</c><00:33:45.760><c> all</c><00:33:46.000><c> of</c>

32:12.893 --> 32:12.903 align:start position:0%
movement, and even electricity, all of
 

32:12.903 --> 32:16.573 align:start position:0%
movement, and even electricity, all of
which<00:33:46.640><c> help</c><00:33:46.880><c> it</c><00:33:47.120><c> track</c><00:33:47.600><c> prey.</c><00:33:48.799><c> However,</c><00:33:49.519><c> more</c>

32:16.573 --> 32:16.583 align:start position:0%
which help it track prey. However, more
 

32:16.583 --> 32:18.413 align:start position:0%
which help it track prey. However, more
than<00:33:49.919><c> a</c><00:33:50.080><c> million</c><00:33:50.399><c> years</c><00:33:50.640><c> ago,</c><00:33:51.360><c> their</c>

32:18.413 --> 32:18.423 align:start position:0%
than a million years ago, their
 

32:18.423 --> 32:21.453 align:start position:0%
than a million years ago, their
ancestors<00:33:52.399><c> lived</c><00:33:52.720><c> on</c><00:33:52.960><c> the</c><00:33:53.120><c> surface</c><00:33:54.000><c> and</c><00:33:54.320><c> could</c>

32:21.453 --> 32:21.463 align:start position:0%
ancestors lived on the surface and could
 

32:21.463 --> 32:24.413 align:start position:0%
ancestors lived on the surface and could
see.<00:33:55.840><c> Researchers</c><00:33:56.480><c> suspect</c><00:33:56.960><c> that</c><00:33:57.279><c> some</c>

32:24.413 --> 32:24.423 align:start position:0%
see. Researchers suspect that some
 

32:24.423 --> 32:26.573 align:start position:0%
see. Researchers suspect that some
individuals<00:33:58.240><c> fell</c><00:33:58.480><c> into</c><00:33:58.640><c> the</c><00:33:58.799><c> caves</c><00:33:59.200><c> below.</c>

32:26.573 --> 32:26.583 align:start position:0%
individuals fell into the caves below.
 

32:26.583 --> 32:28.332 align:start position:0%
individuals fell into the caves below.
And<00:33:59.919><c> with</c><00:34:00.159><c> each</c><00:34:00.320><c> successive</c><00:34:00.880><c> generation,</c>

32:28.332 --> 32:28.342 align:start position:0%
And with each successive generation,
 

32:28.342 --> 32:30.732 align:start position:0%
And with each successive generation,
they<00:34:01.840><c> adapted</c><00:34:02.320><c> to</c><00:34:02.480><c> their</c><00:34:02.720><c> new</c><00:34:02.960><c> environment,</c>

32:30.732 --> 32:30.742 align:start position:0%
they adapted to their new environment,
 

32:30.742 --> 32:33.133 align:start position:0%
they adapted to their new environment,
becoming<00:34:04.320><c> highly</c><00:34:04.720><c> specialized</c><00:34:05.519><c> to</c><00:34:05.760><c> this</c><00:34:06.000><c> new</c>

32:33.133 --> 32:33.143 align:start position:0%
becoming highly specialized to this new
 

32:33.143 --> 32:35.692 align:start position:0%
becoming highly specialized to this new
biome.<00:34:07.440><c> And</c><00:34:07.679><c> of</c><00:34:07.840><c> course,</c><00:34:08.000><c> if</c><00:34:08.159><c> they</c><00:34:08.320><c> now</c><00:34:08.560><c> return</c>

32:35.692 --> 32:35.702 align:start position:0%
biome. And of course, if they now return
 

32:35.702 --> 32:38.013 align:start position:0%
biome. And of course, if they now return
to<00:34:09.119><c> the</c><00:34:09.280><c> waters</c><00:34:09.599><c> of</c><00:34:09.760><c> the</c><00:34:10.000><c> surface,</c><00:34:10.720><c> they</c><00:34:10.960><c> would</c>

32:38.013 --> 32:38.023 align:start position:0%
to the waters of the surface, they would
 

32:38.023 --> 32:40.253 align:start position:0%
to the waters of the surface, they would
stand<00:34:11.520><c> little</c><00:34:11.839><c> chance</c><00:34:12.240><c> of</c><00:34:12.480><c> surviving</c><00:34:12.960><c> in</c><00:34:13.200><c> this</c>

32:40.253 --> 32:40.263 align:start position:0%
stand little chance of surviving in this
 

32:40.263 --> 32:43.293 align:start position:0%
stand little chance of surviving in this
new<00:34:13.760><c> world.</c><00:34:14.560><c> Their</c><00:34:15.280><c> fate</c><00:34:15.599><c> is</c><00:34:15.839><c> likely</c><00:34:16.240><c> now</c>

32:43.293 --> 32:43.303 align:start position:0%
new world. Their fate is likely now
 

32:43.303 --> 32:52.573 align:start position:0%
new world. Their fate is likely now
bound<00:34:17.359><c> to</c><00:34:17.599><c> these</c><00:34:17.839><c> depths.</c>

32:52.573 --> 32:52.583 align:start position:0%
 
 

32:52.583 --> 32:54.652 align:start position:0%
 
This<00:34:26.000><c> may</c><00:34:26.159><c> seem</c><00:34:26.480><c> extreme,</c><00:34:27.200><c> but</c><00:34:27.440><c> this</c><00:34:27.679><c> is</c>

32:54.652 --> 32:54.662 align:start position:0%
This may seem extreme, but this is
 

32:54.662 --> 32:56.732 align:start position:0%
This may seem extreme, but this is
happening<00:34:28.240><c> all</c><00:34:28.480><c> around</c><00:34:28.800><c> us</c><00:34:29.040><c> in</c><00:34:29.280><c> the</c><00:34:29.440><c> natural</c>

32:56.732 --> 32:56.742 align:start position:0%
happening all around us in the natural
 

32:56.742 --> 33:00.412 align:start position:0%
happening all around us in the natural
world<00:34:30.560><c> on</c><00:34:30.800><c> truly</c><00:34:31.280><c> massive</c><00:34:31.839><c> scales.</c>

33:00.412 --> 33:00.422 align:start position:0%
world on truly massive scales.
 

33:00.422 --> 33:02.333 align:start position:0%
world on truly massive scales.
Populations<00:34:34.240><c> become</c><00:34:34.560><c> dependent</c><00:34:34.960><c> on</c><00:34:35.200><c> certain</c>

33:02.333 --> 33:02.343 align:start position:0%
Populations become dependent on certain
 

33:02.343 --> 33:05.133 align:start position:0%
Populations become dependent on certain
niches<00:34:36.000><c> within</c><00:34:36.320><c> a</c><00:34:36.480><c> biome</c><00:34:37.200><c> and</c><00:34:37.520><c> largecale</c>

33:05.133 --> 33:05.143 align:start position:0%
niches within a biome and largecale
 

33:05.143 --> 33:07.373 align:start position:0%
niches within a biome and largecale
changes<00:34:38.720><c> to</c><00:34:38.960><c> the</c><00:34:39.119><c> planet</c><00:34:39.520><c> can</c><00:34:39.760><c> threaten</c><00:34:40.240><c> those</c>

33:07.373 --> 33:07.383 align:start position:0%
changes to the planet can threaten those
 

33:07.383 --> 33:11.932 align:start position:0%
changes to the planet can threaten those
populations<00:34:41.679><c> or</c><00:34:42.000><c> sometimes</c><00:34:42.960><c> entire</c><00:34:43.599><c> species.</c>

33:11.932 --> 33:11.942 align:start position:0%
populations or sometimes entire species.
 

33:11.942 --> 33:13.613 align:start position:0%
populations or sometimes entire species.
Indeed,<00:34:45.520><c> changing</c><00:34:46.000><c> climates</c><00:34:46.480><c> can</c><00:34:46.639><c> be</c>

33:13.613 --> 33:13.623 align:start position:0%
Indeed, changing climates can be
 

33:13.623 --> 33:16.013 align:start position:0%
Indeed, changing climates can be
especially<00:34:47.440><c> catastrophic.</c><00:34:48.560><c> Most</c><00:34:48.879><c> creatures</c>

33:16.013 --> 33:16.023 align:start position:0%
especially catastrophic. Most creatures
 

33:16.023 --> 33:17.853 align:start position:0%
especially catastrophic. Most creatures
on<00:34:49.440><c> the</c><00:34:49.599><c> planet</c><00:34:49.839><c> have</c><00:34:50.079><c> evolved</c><00:34:50.320><c> to</c><00:34:50.480><c> fit</c><00:34:50.720><c> into</c><00:34:50.879><c> a</c>

33:17.853 --> 33:17.863 align:start position:0%
on the planet have evolved to fit into a
 

33:17.863 --> 33:20.333 align:start position:0%
on the planet have evolved to fit into a
particular<00:34:51.520><c> corner</c><00:34:51.839><c> of</c><00:34:52.000><c> an</c><00:34:52.159><c> ecosystem.</c><00:34:53.280><c> The</c>

33:20.333 --> 33:20.343 align:start position:0%
particular corner of an ecosystem. The
 

33:20.343 --> 33:22.732 align:start position:0%
particular corner of an ecosystem. The
temperature<00:34:53.919><c> just</c><00:34:54.159><c> right,</c><00:34:54.720><c> enough</c><00:34:55.119><c> food,</c><00:34:55.679><c> not</c>

33:22.732 --> 33:22.742 align:start position:0%
temperature just right, enough food, not
 

33:22.742 --> 33:24.892 align:start position:0%
temperature just right, enough food, not
too<00:34:56.079><c> many</c><00:34:56.320><c> creatures</c><00:34:56.720><c> trying</c><00:34:56.960><c> to</c><00:34:57.119><c> eat</c><00:34:57.359><c> them.</c>

33:24.892 --> 33:24.902 align:start position:0%
too many creatures trying to eat them.
 

33:24.902 --> 33:26.652 align:start position:0%
too many creatures trying to eat them.
And<00:34:58.240><c> so</c><00:34:58.400><c> when</c><00:34:58.640><c> the</c><00:34:58.800><c> climate</c><00:34:59.280><c> starts</c><00:34:59.520><c> to</c>

33:26.652 --> 33:26.662 align:start position:0%
And so when the climate starts to
 

33:26.662 --> 33:28.733 align:start position:0%
And so when the climate starts to
change,<00:35:00.640><c> this</c><00:35:00.880><c> delicate</c><00:35:01.359><c> balance</c><00:35:01.680><c> is</c>

33:28.733 --> 33:28.743 align:start position:0%
change, this delicate balance is
 

33:28.743 --> 33:31.213 align:start position:0%
change, this delicate balance is
upended.<00:35:02.880><c> Some</c><00:35:03.119><c> animals</c><00:35:03.520><c> move</c><00:35:03.839><c> to</c><00:35:04.079><c> similar</c>

33:31.213 --> 33:31.223 align:start position:0%
upended. Some animals move to similar
 

33:31.223 --> 33:33.053 align:start position:0%
upended. Some animals move to similar
habitats<00:35:05.119><c> or</c><00:35:05.280><c> change</c><00:35:05.520><c> their</c><00:35:05.760><c> behavior</c><00:35:06.079><c> so</c>

33:33.053 --> 33:33.063 align:start position:0%
habitats or change their behavior so
 

33:33.063 --> 33:34.733 align:start position:0%
habitats or change their behavior so
that<00:35:06.400><c> they</c><00:35:06.560><c> are</c><00:35:06.720><c> more</c><00:35:06.960><c> comfortable.</c><00:35:07.839><c> For</c>

33:34.733 --> 33:34.743 align:start position:0%
that they are more comfortable. For
 

33:34.743 --> 33:36.813 align:start position:0%
that they are more comfortable. For
example,<00:35:08.480><c> mosquitoes</c><00:35:09.200><c> have</c><00:35:09.440><c> significantly</c>

33:36.813 --> 33:36.823 align:start position:0%
example, mosquitoes have significantly
 

33:36.823 --> 33:38.573 align:start position:0%
example, mosquitoes have significantly
expanded<00:35:10.480><c> their</c><00:35:10.720><c> niche</c><00:35:11.040><c> as</c><00:35:11.280><c> global</c>

33:38.573 --> 33:38.583 align:start position:0%
expanded their niche as global
 

33:38.583 --> 33:40.973 align:start position:0%
expanded their niche as global
temperatures<00:35:12.160><c> rise</c><00:35:12.560><c> today.</c><00:35:13.599><c> There</c><00:35:13.760><c> are</c><00:35:13.920><c> even</c>

33:40.973 --> 33:40.983 align:start position:0%
temperatures rise today. There are even
 

33:40.983 --> 33:42.813 align:start position:0%
temperatures rise today. There are even
reports<00:35:14.480><c> of</c><00:35:14.640><c> caterpillar</c><00:35:15.280><c> species</c><00:35:15.680><c> in</c><00:35:15.839><c> the</c>

33:42.813 --> 33:42.823 align:start position:0%
reports of caterpillar species in the
 

33:42.823 --> 33:44.973 align:start position:0%
reports of caterpillar species in the
northern<00:35:16.320><c> hemisphere</c><00:35:17.119><c> maturing</c><00:35:17.760><c> earlier</c>

33:44.973 --> 33:44.983 align:start position:0%
northern hemisphere maturing earlier
 

33:44.983 --> 33:48.013 align:start position:0%
northern hemisphere maturing earlier
each<00:35:18.480><c> year</c><00:35:18.880><c> as</c><00:35:19.200><c> springs</c><00:35:19.839><c> become</c><00:35:20.240><c> warmer.</c><00:35:21.040><c> But</c>

33:48.013 --> 33:48.023 align:start position:0%
each year as springs become warmer. But
 

33:48.023 --> 33:49.773 align:start position:0%
each year as springs become warmer. But
of<00:35:21.440><c> course,</c><00:35:21.839><c> those</c><00:35:22.079><c> that</c><00:35:22.240><c> could</c><00:35:22.400><c> not</c><00:35:22.560><c> adapt</c>

33:49.773 --> 33:49.783 align:start position:0%
of course, those that could not adapt
 

33:49.783 --> 33:52.813 align:start position:0%
of course, those that could not adapt
quickly<00:35:23.359><c> enough</c><00:35:23.920><c> become</c><00:35:24.320><c> extinct,</c><00:35:25.599><c> just</c><00:35:25.760><c> as</c>

33:52.813 --> 33:52.823 align:start position:0%
quickly enough become extinct, just as
 

33:52.823 --> 33:55.853 align:start position:0%
quickly enough become extinct, just as
Megan<00:35:26.880><c> and</c><00:35:27.040><c> Paranthropus</c><00:35:27.760><c> did</c><00:35:28.400><c> around</c><00:35:28.800><c> the</c>

33:55.853 --> 33:55.863 align:start position:0%
Megan and Paranthropus did around the
 

33:55.863 --> 34:00.573 align:start position:0%
Megan and Paranthropus did around the
same<00:35:29.280><c> time.</c>

34:00.573 --> 34:00.583 align:start position:0%
 
 

34:00.583 --> 34:02.973 align:start position:0%
 
Southern<00:35:34.160><c> Africa,</c><00:35:34.880><c> particularly</c><00:35:35.520><c> the</c><00:35:35.760><c> cradle</c>

34:02.973 --> 34:02.983 align:start position:0%
Southern Africa, particularly the cradle
 

34:02.983 --> 34:04.892 align:start position:0%
Southern Africa, particularly the cradle
of<00:35:36.320><c> humankind,</c><00:35:36.960><c> where</c><00:35:37.200><c> Paranthropus</c><00:35:37.920><c> was</c>

34:04.892 --> 34:04.902 align:start position:0%
of humankind, where Paranthropus was
 

34:04.902 --> 34:07.453 align:start position:0%
of humankind, where Paranthropus was
first<00:35:38.320><c> discovered,</c><00:35:39.119><c> was</c><00:35:39.359><c> once</c><00:35:39.760><c> a</c><00:35:40.000><c> lush</c><00:35:40.320><c> land</c>

34:07.453 --> 34:07.463 align:start position:0%
first discovered, was once a lush land
 

34:07.463 --> 34:10.733 align:start position:0%
first discovered, was once a lush land
of<00:35:40.880><c> woodlands,</c><00:35:41.599><c> lagoons,</c><00:35:42.320><c> and</c><00:35:42.560><c> wetlands.</c>

34:10.733 --> 34:10.743 align:start position:0%
of woodlands, lagoons, and wetlands.
 

34:10.743 --> 34:13.053 align:start position:0%
of woodlands, lagoons, and wetlands.
Plants<00:35:44.320><c> were</c><00:35:44.560><c> thickd,</c><00:35:45.520><c> animals</c><00:35:46.000><c> were</c>

34:13.053 --> 34:13.063 align:start position:0%
Plants were thickd, animals were
 

34:13.063 --> 34:16.093 align:start position:0%
Plants were thickd, animals were
plentiful,<00:35:46.800><c> and</c><00:35:47.119><c> competition</c><00:35:47.920><c> was</c><00:35:48.240><c> fierce.</c>

34:16.093 --> 34:16.103 align:start position:0%
plentiful, and competition was fierce.
 

34:16.103 --> 34:18.093 align:start position:0%
plentiful, and competition was fierce.
However,<00:35:49.760><c> food</c><00:35:50.079><c> was</c><00:35:50.320><c> abundant</c><00:35:51.040><c> and</c>

34:18.093 --> 34:18.103 align:start position:0%
However, food was abundant and
 

34:18.103 --> 34:19.932 align:start position:0%
However, food was abundant and
Paranthropus<00:35:51.920><c> and</c><00:35:52.079><c> other</c><00:35:52.240><c> homminins</c><00:35:52.880><c> could</c>

34:19.932 --> 34:19.942 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus and other homminins could
 

34:19.942 --> 34:22.333 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus and other homminins could
feast<00:35:53.440><c> on</c><00:35:53.680><c> nature's</c><00:35:54.079><c> bounty.</c><00:35:55.040><c> As</c><00:35:55.200><c> well</c><00:35:55.359><c> as</c>

34:22.333 --> 34:22.343 align:start position:0%
feast on nature's bounty. As well as
 

34:22.343 --> 34:24.253 align:start position:0%
feast on nature's bounty. As well as
this,<00:35:55.920><c> scientists</c><00:35:56.400><c> suspect</c><00:35:56.880><c> that</c><00:35:57.200><c> places</c>

34:24.253 --> 34:24.263 align:start position:0%
this, scientists suspect that places
 

34:24.263 --> 34:25.853 align:start position:0%
this, scientists suspect that places
where<00:35:57.680><c> they</c><00:35:57.839><c> find</c><00:35:58.160><c> particularly</c><00:35:58.720><c> high</c>

34:25.853 --> 34:25.863 align:start position:0%
where they find particularly high
 

34:25.863 --> 34:27.613 align:start position:0%
where they find particularly high
numbers<00:35:59.280><c> of</c><00:35:59.359><c> homminin</c><00:35:59.920><c> fossils</c><00:36:00.400><c> had</c><00:36:00.640><c> the</c>

34:27.613 --> 34:27.623 align:start position:0%
numbers of homminin fossils had the
 

34:27.623 --> 34:30.733 align:start position:0%
numbers of homminin fossils had the
added<00:36:01.119><c> attraction</c><00:36:01.680><c> of</c><00:36:01.920><c> fresh</c><00:36:02.320><c> water,</c><00:36:02.880><c> too.</c>

34:30.733 --> 34:30.743 align:start position:0%
added attraction of fresh water, too.
 

34:30.743 --> 34:33.053 align:start position:0%
added attraction of fresh water, too.
But<00:36:04.160><c> eastern</c><00:36:04.480><c> Africa,</c><00:36:05.040><c> in</c><00:36:05.200><c> contrast,</c><00:36:05.839><c> was</c><00:36:06.000><c> a</c>

34:33.053 --> 34:33.063 align:start position:0%
But eastern Africa, in contrast, was a
 

34:33.063 --> 34:35.613 align:start position:0%
But eastern Africa, in contrast, was a
much<00:36:06.400><c> more</c><00:36:06.720><c> challenging</c><00:36:07.359><c> place.</c><00:36:08.400><c> It</c><00:36:08.640><c> was</c>

34:35.613 --> 34:35.623 align:start position:0%
much more challenging place. It was
 

34:35.623 --> 34:38.093 align:start position:0%
much more challenging place. It was
actually<00:36:09.200><c> more</c><00:36:09.520><c> dry</c><00:36:09.920><c> than</c><00:36:10.160><c> it</c><00:36:10.320><c> is</c><00:36:10.480><c> today.</c>

34:38.093 --> 34:38.103 align:start position:0%
actually more dry than it is today.
 

34:38.103 --> 34:40.253 align:start position:0%
actually more dry than it is today.
Rolling<00:36:11.760><c> savas</c><00:36:12.480><c> punctuated</c><00:36:13.119><c> by</c><00:36:13.280><c> the</c>

34:40.253 --> 34:40.263 align:start position:0%
Rolling savas punctuated by the
 

34:40.263 --> 34:43.053 align:start position:0%
Rolling savas punctuated by the
occasional<00:36:13.920><c> thorny</c><00:36:14.400><c> thicket</c><00:36:14.880><c> or</c><00:36:15.200><c> tree.</c><00:36:16.079><c> But</c>

34:43.053 --> 34:43.063 align:start position:0%
occasional thorny thicket or tree. But
 

34:43.063 --> 34:44.973 align:start position:0%
occasional thorny thicket or tree. But
there<00:36:16.400><c> was</c><00:36:16.640><c> still</c><00:36:16.960><c> water.</c><00:36:17.440><c> Deep</c><00:36:17.760><c> lakes</c>

34:44.973 --> 34:44.983 align:start position:0%
there was still water. Deep lakes
 

34:44.983 --> 34:46.973 align:start position:0%
there was still water. Deep lakes
appeared<00:36:18.480><c> and</c><00:36:18.640><c> disappeared</c><00:36:19.119><c> over</c><00:36:19.359><c> the</c><00:36:19.520><c> years,</c>

34:46.973 --> 34:46.983 align:start position:0%
appeared and disappeared over the years,
 

34:46.983 --> 34:48.973 align:start position:0%
appeared and disappeared over the years,
some<00:36:20.320><c> of</c><00:36:20.400><c> them</c><00:36:20.560><c> acting</c><00:36:20.880><c> as</c><00:36:21.119><c> transient</c><00:36:21.680><c> hubs</c><00:36:22.000><c> of</c>

34:48.973 --> 34:48.983 align:start position:0%
some of them acting as transient hubs of
 

34:48.983 --> 34:52.253 align:start position:0%
some of them acting as transient hubs of
life<00:36:22.480><c> for</c><00:36:22.800><c> animals</c><00:36:23.440><c> and</c><00:36:23.680><c> homins.</c><00:36:24.880><c> And</c><00:36:25.040><c> we</c><00:36:25.280><c> can</c>

34:52.253 --> 34:52.263 align:start position:0%
life for animals and homins. And we can
 

34:52.263 --> 34:54.093 align:start position:0%
life for animals and homins. And we can
piece<00:36:25.760><c> together</c><00:36:26.160><c> these</c><00:36:26.560><c> visions</c><00:36:26.960><c> of</c><00:36:27.119><c> the</c>

34:54.093 --> 34:54.103 align:start position:0%
piece together these visions of the
 

34:54.103 --> 34:56.733 align:start position:0%
piece together these visions of the
ancient<00:36:27.680><c> earth</c><00:36:28.240><c> by</c><00:36:28.560><c> studying</c><00:36:28.960><c> the</c><00:36:29.200><c> teeth</c><00:36:29.680><c> of</c>

34:56.733 --> 34:56.743 align:start position:0%
ancient earth by studying the teeth of
 

34:56.743 --> 35:03.133 align:start position:0%
ancient earth by studying the teeth of
those<00:36:30.160><c> who</c><00:36:30.400><c> lived</c><00:36:30.640><c> there.</c>

35:03.133 --> 35:03.143 align:start position:0%
 
 

35:03.143 --> 35:05.932 align:start position:0%
 
All<00:36:36.640><c> plants</c><00:36:37.200><c> contain</c><00:36:37.839><c> carbon,</c><00:36:38.560><c> but</c><00:36:38.800><c> there</c><00:36:38.960><c> are</c>

35:05.932 --> 35:05.942 align:start position:0%
All plants contain carbon, but there are
 

35:05.942 --> 35:07.932 align:start position:0%
All plants contain carbon, but there are
different<00:36:39.440><c> types</c><00:36:40.000><c> of</c><00:36:40.240><c> carbon.</c>

35:07.932 --> 35:07.942 align:start position:0%
different types of carbon.
 

35:07.942 --> 35:10.172 align:start position:0%
different types of carbon.
Paleocientists<00:36:42.160><c> are</c><00:36:42.320><c> interested</c><00:36:42.720><c> in</c><00:36:42.960><c> two</c>

35:10.172 --> 35:10.182 align:start position:0%
Paleocientists are interested in two
 

35:10.182 --> 35:12.892 align:start position:0%
Paleocientists are interested in two
particular<00:36:43.920><c> kinds,</c><00:36:44.640><c> carbon</c><00:36:45.119><c> 12</c><00:36:45.359><c> and</c><00:36:45.599><c> carbon</c>

35:12.892 --> 35:12.902 align:start position:0%
particular kinds, carbon 12 and carbon
 

35:12.902 --> 35:16.013 align:start position:0%
particular kinds, carbon 12 and carbon
13,<00:36:46.720><c> which</c><00:36:46.960><c> are</c><00:36:47.200><c> called</c><00:36:47.520><c> isotopes</c><00:36:48.160><c> of</c><00:36:48.320><c> carbon.</c>

35:16.013 --> 35:16.023 align:start position:0%
13, which are called isotopes of carbon.
 

35:16.023 --> 35:18.333 align:start position:0%
13, which are called isotopes of carbon.
All<00:36:49.440><c> carbon</c><00:36:49.760><c> atoms</c><00:36:50.160><c> have</c><00:36:50.320><c> six</c><00:36:50.640><c> protons,</c><00:36:51.280><c> but</c>

35:18.333 --> 35:18.343 align:start position:0%
All carbon atoms have six protons, but
 

35:18.343 --> 35:19.773 align:start position:0%
All carbon atoms have six protons, but
they<00:36:51.760><c> can</c><00:36:51.920><c> have</c><00:36:52.079><c> different</c><00:36:52.400><c> numbers</c><00:36:52.720><c> of</c>

35:19.773 --> 35:19.783 align:start position:0%
they can have different numbers of
 

35:19.783 --> 35:23.373 align:start position:0%
they can have different numbers of
neutrons.<00:36:54.079><c> Carbon</c><00:36:54.560><c> 12</c><00:36:54.880><c> has</c><00:36:55.200><c> six</c><00:36:55.520><c> neutrons</c><00:36:56.240><c> and</c>

35:23.373 --> 35:23.383 align:start position:0%
neutrons. Carbon 12 has six neutrons and
 

35:23.383 --> 35:26.652 align:start position:0%
neutrons. Carbon 12 has six neutrons and
carbon<00:36:56.960><c> 13</c><00:36:57.599><c> has</c><00:36:57.920><c> seven.</c><00:36:59.200><c> And</c><00:36:59.359><c> the</c><00:36:59.520><c> important</c>

35:26.652 --> 35:26.662 align:start position:0%
carbon 13 has seven. And the important
 

35:26.662 --> 35:28.013 align:start position:0%
carbon 13 has seven. And the important
thing<00:37:00.000><c> about</c><00:37:00.160><c> these</c><00:37:00.480><c> isotopes</c><00:37:01.040><c> for</c>

35:28.013 --> 35:28.023 align:start position:0%
thing about these isotopes for
 

35:28.023 --> 35:29.932 align:start position:0%
thing about these isotopes for
paleocientists<00:37:02.400><c> is</c><00:37:02.560><c> that</c><00:37:02.800><c> they</c><00:37:02.960><c> are</c>

35:29.932 --> 35:29.942 align:start position:0%
paleocientists is that they are
 

35:29.942 --> 35:32.573 align:start position:0%
paleocientists is that they are
radioactive<00:37:04.160><c> and</c><00:37:04.400><c> so</c><00:37:04.640><c> they</c><00:37:04.880><c> break</c><00:37:05.119><c> down</c><00:37:05.440><c> over</c>

35:32.573 --> 35:32.583 align:start position:0%
radioactive and so they break down over
 

35:32.583 --> 35:35.453 align:start position:0%
radioactive and so they break down over
time<00:37:06.320><c> and</c><00:37:06.560><c> we</c><00:37:06.800><c> can</c><00:37:06.880><c> use</c><00:37:07.119><c> them</c><00:37:07.359><c> to</c><00:37:07.680><c> date</c><00:37:08.079><c> organic</c>

35:35.453 --> 35:35.463 align:start position:0%
time and we can use them to date organic
 

35:35.463 --> 35:38.253 align:start position:0%
time and we can use them to date organic
matter.<00:37:09.680><c> Fossils,</c><00:37:10.320><c> for</c><00:37:10.400><c> example,</c><00:37:10.960><c> have</c><00:37:11.119><c> less</c>

35:38.253 --> 35:38.263 align:start position:0%
matter. Fossils, for example, have less
 

35:38.263 --> 35:40.733 align:start position:0%
matter. Fossils, for example, have less
carbon<00:37:11.839><c> 12</c><00:37:12.079><c> and</c><00:37:12.240><c> carbon</c><00:37:12.720><c> 13</c><00:37:13.040><c> in</c><00:37:13.200><c> them</c><00:37:13.520><c> than</c><00:37:13.680><c> you</c>

35:40.733 --> 35:40.743 align:start position:0%
carbon 12 and carbon 13 in them than you
 

35:40.743 --> 35:43.133 align:start position:0%
carbon 12 and carbon 13 in them than you
would<00:37:14.079><c> find</c><00:37:14.240><c> in</c><00:37:14.400><c> the</c><00:37:14.560><c> atmosphere</c><00:37:15.119><c> today.</c><00:37:16.160><c> And</c>

35:43.133 --> 35:43.143 align:start position:0%
would find in the atmosphere today. And
 

35:43.143 --> 35:45.853 align:start position:0%
would find in the atmosphere today. And
so<00:37:16.560><c> scientists</c><00:37:17.200><c> split</c><00:37:17.760><c> creatures</c><00:37:18.240><c> diets</c><00:37:18.640><c> into</c>

35:45.853 --> 35:45.863 align:start position:0%
so scientists split creatures diets into
 

35:45.863 --> 35:50.813 align:start position:0%
so scientists split creatures diets into
C3<00:37:19.760><c> and</c><00:37:20.160><c> C4</c><00:37:20.880><c> foods.</c><00:37:22.079><c> C3</c><00:37:22.560><c> and</c><00:37:22.800><c> C4</c><00:37:23.440><c> are</c><00:37:23.599><c> types</c><00:37:23.839><c> of</c>

35:50.813 --> 35:50.823 align:start position:0%
C3 and C4 foods. C3 and C4 are types of
 

35:50.823 --> 35:52.333 align:start position:0%
C3 and C4 foods. C3 and C4 are types of
plants<00:37:24.240><c> that</c><00:37:24.480><c> have</c><00:37:24.640><c> different</c><00:37:24.960><c> ratios</c><00:37:25.359><c> of</c>

35:52.333 --> 35:52.343 align:start position:0%
plants that have different ratios of
 

35:52.343 --> 35:56.093 align:start position:0%
plants that have different ratios of
carbon<00:37:26.000><c> 12</c><00:37:26.320><c> and</c><00:37:26.560><c> carbon</c><00:37:27.119><c> 13.</c><00:37:28.079><c> A</c><00:37:28.320><c> C3</c><00:37:28.800><c> diet</c><00:37:29.040><c> has</c>

35:56.093 --> 35:56.103 align:start position:0%
carbon 12 and carbon 13. A C3 diet has
 

35:56.103 --> 35:58.093 align:start position:0%
carbon 12 and carbon 13. A C3 diet has
lots<00:37:29.520><c> of</c><00:37:29.599><c> fruits</c><00:37:29.839><c> and</c><00:37:30.079><c> leaves,</c><00:37:30.800><c> food</c><00:37:31.119><c> which</c>

35:58.093 --> 35:58.103 align:start position:0%
lots of fruits and leaves, food which
 

35:58.103 --> 35:59.693 align:start position:0%
lots of fruits and leaves, food which
you'd<00:37:31.520><c> be</c><00:37:31.680><c> more</c><00:37:31.839><c> likely,</c><00:37:32.160><c> of</c><00:37:32.320><c> course,</c><00:37:32.560><c> to</c><00:37:32.720><c> find</c>

35:59.693 --> 35:59.703 align:start position:0%
you'd be more likely, of course, to find
 

35:59.703 --> 36:02.493 align:start position:0%
you'd be more likely, of course, to find
in<00:37:33.040><c> a</c><00:37:33.200><c> place</c><00:37:33.359><c> with</c><00:37:33.599><c> lots</c><00:37:33.839><c> of</c><00:37:34.079><c> trees.</c><00:37:34.880><c> A</c><00:37:35.119><c> C4</c>

36:02.493 --> 36:02.503 align:start position:0%
in a place with lots of trees. A C4
 

36:02.503 --> 36:04.172 align:start position:0%
in a place with lots of trees. A C4
diet,<00:37:36.000><c> on</c><00:37:36.160><c> the</c><00:37:36.320><c> other</c><00:37:36.480><c> hand,</c><00:37:36.720><c> has</c><00:37:36.960><c> lots</c><00:37:37.200><c> of</c>

36:04.172 --> 36:04.182 align:start position:0%
diet, on the other hand, has lots of
 

36:04.182 --> 36:06.733 align:start position:0%
diet, on the other hand, has lots of
grasses,<00:37:38.000><c> seeds,</c><00:37:38.400><c> and</c><00:37:38.640><c> tubers.</c><00:37:39.599><c> And</c><00:37:39.680><c> these</c>

36:06.733 --> 36:06.743 align:start position:0%
grasses, seeds, and tubers. And these
 

36:06.743 --> 36:08.253 align:start position:0%
grasses, seeds, and tubers. And these
are<00:37:40.079><c> foods</c><00:37:40.400><c> that</c><00:37:40.560><c> you</c><00:37:40.720><c> would</c><00:37:40.800><c> be</c><00:37:40.960><c> more</c><00:37:41.119><c> likely</c>

36:08.253 --> 36:08.263 align:start position:0%
are foods that you would be more likely
 

36:08.263 --> 36:11.613 align:start position:0%
are foods that you would be more likely
to<00:37:41.599><c> find</c><00:37:41.839><c> in</c><00:37:42.079><c> savas</c><00:37:42.720><c> and</c><00:37:42.960><c> grasslands.</c><00:37:44.240><c> So,</c><00:37:44.560><c> a</c>

36:11.613 --> 36:11.623 align:start position:0%
to find in savas and grasslands. So, a
 

36:11.623 --> 36:14.093 align:start position:0%
to find in savas and grasslands. So, a
C4<00:37:45.280><c> loving</c><00:37:45.599><c> animal</c><00:37:46.000><c> would</c><00:37:46.240><c> have</c><00:37:46.400><c> more</c><00:37:46.640><c> carbon</c>

36:14.093 --> 36:14.103 align:start position:0%
C4 loving animal would have more carbon
 

36:14.103 --> 36:16.573 align:start position:0%
C4 loving animal would have more carbon
13<00:37:47.520><c> in</c><00:37:47.760><c> its</c><00:37:47.920><c> tooth</c><00:37:48.240><c> enamel.</c><00:37:48.960><c> And</c><00:37:49.200><c> this</c><00:37:49.440><c> means</c>

36:16.573 --> 36:16.583 align:start position:0%
13 in its tooth enamel. And this means
 

36:16.583 --> 36:18.973 align:start position:0%
13 in its tooth enamel. And this means
that<00:37:49.920><c> if</c><00:37:50.160><c> a</c><00:37:50.320><c> carnivore</c><00:37:50.880><c> eats</c><00:37:51.119><c> that</c><00:37:51.359><c> animal,</c><00:37:51.920><c> it</c>

36:18.973 --> 36:18.983 align:start position:0%
that if a carnivore eats that animal, it
 

36:18.983 --> 36:21.533 align:start position:0%
that if a carnivore eats that animal, it
would<00:37:52.320><c> also</c><00:37:52.720><c> have</c><00:37:52.960><c> more</c><00:37:53.200><c> carbon</c><00:37:53.760><c> 13</c><00:37:54.160><c> in</c><00:37:54.400><c> its</c>

36:21.533 --> 36:21.543 align:start position:0%
would also have more carbon 13 in its
 

36:21.543 --> 36:23.613 align:start position:0%
would also have more carbon 13 in its
tooth<00:37:55.040><c> enamel.</c><00:37:55.680><c> And</c><00:37:55.839><c> it</c><00:37:56.079><c> is</c><00:37:56.240><c> analysis</c><00:37:56.640><c> of</c>

36:23.613 --> 36:23.623 align:start position:0%
tooth enamel. And it is analysis of
 

36:23.623 --> 36:25.693 align:start position:0%
tooth enamel. And it is analysis of
these<00:37:57.119><c> isotopes</c><00:37:57.760><c> that</c><00:37:58.000><c> help</c><00:37:58.240><c> scientists</c>

36:25.693 --> 36:25.703 align:start position:0%
these isotopes that help scientists
 

36:25.703 --> 36:28.093 align:start position:0%
these isotopes that help scientists
figure<00:37:59.119><c> out</c><00:37:59.359><c> what</c><00:37:59.680><c> animals</c><00:38:00.079><c> ate</c><00:38:00.720><c> millions</c><00:38:01.119><c> of</c>

36:28.093 --> 36:28.103 align:start position:0%
figure out what animals ate millions of
 

36:28.103 --> 36:32.573 align:start position:0%
figure out what animals ate millions of
years<00:38:01.440><c> ago.</c>

36:32.573 --> 36:32.583 align:start position:0%
 
 

36:32.583 --> 36:34.973 align:start position:0%
 
And<00:38:06.079><c> 2</c><00:38:06.240><c> million</c><00:38:06.560><c> years</c><00:38:06.800><c> ago,</c><00:38:07.280><c> Paranthropus</c>

36:34.973 --> 36:34.983 align:start position:0%
And 2 million years ago, Paranthropus
 

36:34.983 --> 36:38.573 align:start position:0%
And 2 million years ago, Paranthropus
was<00:38:08.320><c> about</c><00:38:08.480><c> to</c><00:38:08.720><c> experience</c><00:38:09.440><c> quite</c><00:38:09.760><c> a</c><00:38:10.000><c> shock.</c>

36:38.573 --> 36:38.583 align:start position:0%
was about to experience quite a shock.
 

36:38.583 --> 36:40.813 align:start position:0%
was about to experience quite a shock.
The<00:38:12.000><c> climate</c><00:38:12.320><c> and</c><00:38:12.560><c> landscape</c><00:38:12.960><c> it</c><00:38:13.200><c> was</c><00:38:13.359><c> used</c><00:38:13.520><c> to</c>

36:40.813 --> 36:40.823 align:start position:0%
The climate and landscape it was used to
 

36:40.823 --> 36:43.453 align:start position:0%
The climate and landscape it was used to
was<00:38:14.240><c> about</c><00:38:14.560><c> to</c><00:38:14.880><c> change.</c><00:38:15.839><c> Around</c><00:38:16.160><c> this</c><00:38:16.400><c> time,</c>

36:43.453 --> 36:43.463 align:start position:0%
was about to change. Around this time,
 

36:43.463 --> 36:45.133 align:start position:0%
was about to change. Around this time,
there<00:38:16.800><c> were</c><00:38:16.960><c> quite</c><00:38:17.119><c> a</c><00:38:17.359><c> few</c><00:38:17.599><c> connected</c><00:38:18.000><c> shifts</c>

36:45.133 --> 36:45.143 align:start position:0%
there were quite a few connected shifts
 

36:45.143 --> 36:47.053 align:start position:0%
there were quite a few connected shifts
in<00:38:18.480><c> the</c><00:38:18.640><c> Earth's</c><00:38:19.040><c> climate.</c><00:38:19.920><c> There</c><00:38:20.079><c> were</c>

36:47.053 --> 36:47.063 align:start position:0%
in the Earth's climate. There were
 

36:47.063 --> 36:48.573 align:start position:0%
in the Earth's climate. There were
changes<00:38:20.480><c> in</c><00:38:20.560><c> the</c><00:38:20.720><c> Earth's</c><00:38:21.040><c> orbit</c><00:38:21.359><c> around</c><00:38:21.520><c> the</c>

36:48.573 --> 36:48.583 align:start position:0%
changes in the Earth's orbit around the
 

36:48.583 --> 36:50.733 align:start position:0%
changes in the Earth's orbit around the
sun<00:38:21.920><c> and</c><00:38:22.160><c> the</c><00:38:22.320><c> tilt</c><00:38:22.560><c> on</c><00:38:22.720><c> its</c><00:38:22.880><c> axis,</c><00:38:23.440><c> and</c><00:38:23.680><c> this</c>

36:50.733 --> 36:50.743 align:start position:0%
sun and the tilt on its axis, and this
 

36:50.743 --> 36:52.892 align:start position:0%
sun and the tilt on its axis, and this
led<00:38:24.079><c> to</c><00:38:24.240><c> greater</c><00:38:24.560><c> variability</c><00:38:25.040><c> in</c><00:38:25.359><c> climate.</c>

36:52.892 --> 36:52.902 align:start position:0%
led to greater variability in climate.
 

36:52.902 --> 36:55.293 align:start position:0%
led to greater variability in climate.
The<00:38:26.320><c> Walker</c><00:38:26.720><c> circulation</c><00:38:27.280><c> began</c><00:38:27.599><c> to</c><00:38:27.760><c> shift.</c><00:38:28.240><c> A</c>

36:55.293 --> 36:55.303 align:start position:0%
The Walker circulation began to shift. A
 

36:55.303 --> 36:57.533 align:start position:0%
The Walker circulation began to shift. A
massive<00:38:29.040><c> global</c><00:38:29.440><c> heat</c><00:38:29.760><c> exchange</c><00:38:30.240><c> system</c><00:38:30.480><c> that</c>

36:57.533 --> 36:57.543 align:start position:0%
massive global heat exchange system that
 

36:57.543 --> 36:59.053 align:start position:0%
massive global heat exchange system that
operates<00:38:31.040><c> in</c><00:38:31.200><c> the</c><00:38:31.280><c> atmosphere</c><00:38:31.839><c> that</c><00:38:32.079><c> is</c>

36:59.053 --> 36:59.063 align:start position:0%
operates in the atmosphere that is
 

36:59.063 --> 37:01.453 align:start position:0%
operates in the atmosphere that is
closely<00:38:32.560><c> linked</c><00:38:32.880><c> to</c><00:38:33.040><c> El</c><00:38:33.280><c> Nino</c><00:38:33.680><c> and</c><00:38:33.920><c> Leninia,</c>

37:01.453 --> 37:01.463 align:start position:0%
closely linked to El Nino and Leninia,
 

37:01.463 --> 37:02.973 align:start position:0%
closely linked to El Nino and Leninia,
climate<00:38:35.040><c> patterns</c><00:38:35.359><c> that</c><00:38:35.599><c> influence</c>

37:02.973 --> 37:02.983 align:start position:0%
climate patterns that influence
 

37:02.983 --> 37:05.613 align:start position:0%
climate patterns that influence
rainfall.<00:38:37.200><c> This</c><00:38:37.440><c> meant</c><00:38:37.680><c> the</c><00:38:37.920><c> days</c><00:38:38.240><c> got</c><00:38:38.400><c> colder</c>

37:05.613 --> 37:05.623 align:start position:0%
rainfall. This meant the days got colder
 

37:05.623 --> 37:07.853 align:start position:0%
rainfall. This meant the days got colder
and<00:38:38.960><c> drier</c><00:38:39.440><c> and</c><00:38:39.760><c> some</c><00:38:40.000><c> types</c><00:38:40.240><c> of</c><00:38:40.480><c> vegetation</c>

37:07.853 --> 37:07.863 align:start position:0%
and drier and some types of vegetation
 

37:07.863 --> 37:10.652 align:start position:0%
and drier and some types of vegetation
died<00:38:41.359><c> out</c><00:38:41.839><c> whilst</c><00:38:42.160><c> others</c><00:38:42.640><c> flourished.</c><00:38:43.680><c> And</c>

37:10.652 --> 37:10.662 align:start position:0%
died out whilst others flourished. And
 

37:10.662 --> 37:12.652 align:start position:0%
died out whilst others flourished. And
in<00:38:44.079><c> South</c><00:38:44.400><c> Africa</c><00:38:44.720><c> in</c><00:38:44.960><c> particular,</c><00:38:45.599><c> the</c>

37:12.652 --> 37:12.662 align:start position:0%
in South Africa in particular, the
 

37:12.662 --> 37:14.652 align:start position:0%
in South Africa in particular, the
landscape<00:38:46.240><c> got</c><00:38:46.480><c> drier</c><00:38:46.880><c> and</c><00:38:47.119><c> woodlands</c><00:38:47.680><c> gave</c>

37:14.652 --> 37:14.662 align:start position:0%
landscape got drier and woodlands gave
 

37:14.662 --> 37:17.533 align:start position:0%
landscape got drier and woodlands gave
way<00:38:48.079><c> to</c><00:38:48.240><c> grassy</c><00:38:48.640><c> savas.</c><00:38:49.680><c> Meanwhile,</c><00:38:50.320><c> trees</c>

37:17.533 --> 37:17.543 align:start position:0%
way to grassy savas. Meanwhile, trees
 

37:17.543 --> 37:19.693 align:start position:0%
way to grassy savas. Meanwhile, trees
became<00:38:51.119><c> more</c><00:38:51.280><c> common</c><00:38:51.520><c> in</c><00:38:51.760><c> Eastern</c><00:38:52.079><c> Africa</c><00:38:52.640><c> and</c>

37:19.693 --> 37:19.703 align:start position:0%
became more common in Eastern Africa and
 

37:19.703 --> 37:22.733 align:start position:0%
became more common in Eastern Africa and
grasses<00:38:53.440><c> were</c><00:38:53.599><c> overwhelmed</c><00:38:54.160><c> by</c><00:38:54.480><c> woody</c><00:38:54.880><c> brush.</c>

37:22.733 --> 37:22.743 align:start position:0%
grasses were overwhelmed by woody brush.
 

37:22.743 --> 37:25.293 align:start position:0%
grasses were overwhelmed by woody brush.
And<00:38:56.240><c> this</c><00:38:56.720><c> is</c><00:38:56.880><c> where</c><00:38:57.119><c> teeth</c><00:38:57.440><c> and</c><00:38:57.680><c> jaws</c><00:38:58.240><c> can</c>

37:25.293 --> 37:25.303 align:start position:0%
And this is where teeth and jaws can
 

37:25.303 --> 37:34.172 align:start position:0%
And this is where teeth and jaws can
start<00:38:58.720><c> to</c><00:38:58.960><c> decide</c><00:38:59.599><c> who</c><00:38:59.920><c> lives</c><00:39:00.720><c> and</c><00:39:00.960><c> who</c><00:39:01.280><c> dies.</c>

37:34.172 --> 37:34.182 align:start position:0%
 
 

37:34.182 --> 37:36.573 align:start position:0%
 
Paranthropus'<00:39:08.160><c> big</c><00:39:08.400><c> teeth</c><00:39:08.960><c> constrained</c><00:39:09.520><c> the</c>

37:36.573 --> 37:36.583 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus' big teeth constrained the
 

37:36.583 --> 37:38.733 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus' big teeth constrained the
types<00:39:10.000><c> of</c><00:39:10.160><c> foods</c><00:39:10.480><c> they</c><00:39:10.800><c> could</c><00:39:10.960><c> eat.</c><00:39:11.680><c> While</c>

37:38.733 --> 37:38.743 align:start position:0%
types of foods they could eat. While
 

37:38.743 --> 37:40.333 align:start position:0%
types of foods they could eat. While
they<00:39:12.079><c> did</c><00:39:12.240><c> adapt</c><00:39:12.640><c> to</c><00:39:12.800><c> eat</c><00:39:12.960><c> the</c><00:39:13.119><c> plants</c><00:39:13.359><c> that</c>

37:40.333 --> 37:40.343 align:start position:0%
they did adapt to eat the plants that
 

37:40.343 --> 37:42.412 align:start position:0%
they did adapt to eat the plants that
were<00:39:13.680><c> available</c><00:39:14.079><c> to</c><00:39:14.320><c> them,</c><00:39:14.720><c> they</c><00:39:14.960><c> lived</c><00:39:15.200><c> in</c><00:39:15.359><c> a</c>

37:42.412 --> 37:42.422 align:start position:0%
were available to them, they lived in a
 

37:42.422 --> 37:44.733 align:start position:0%
were available to them, they lived in a
narrow<00:39:16.000><c> niche</c><00:39:16.560><c> and</c><00:39:16.880><c> couldn't</c><00:39:17.119><c> pivot</c><00:39:17.520><c> to</c><00:39:17.680><c> new</c>

37:44.733 --> 37:44.743 align:start position:0%
narrow niche and couldn't pivot to new
 

37:44.743 --> 37:47.293 align:start position:0%
narrow niche and couldn't pivot to new
foods<00:39:18.320><c> fast</c><00:39:18.640><c> enough.</c><00:39:19.599><c> This</c><00:39:19.920><c> meant</c><00:39:20.079><c> that</c><00:39:20.320><c> when</c>

37:47.293 --> 37:47.303 align:start position:0%
foods fast enough. This meant that when
 

37:47.303 --> 37:49.533 align:start position:0%
foods fast enough. This meant that when
the<00:39:20.720><c> climate</c><00:39:21.040><c> changed,</c><00:39:21.599><c> vegetation</c><00:39:22.320><c> followed</c>

37:49.533 --> 37:49.543 align:start position:0%
the climate changed, vegetation followed
 

37:49.543 --> 37:51.453 align:start position:0%
the climate changed, vegetation followed
suit<00:39:22.960><c> and</c><00:39:23.280><c> competition</c><00:39:23.839><c> for</c><00:39:24.079><c> their</c><00:39:24.240><c> preferred</c>

37:51.453 --> 37:51.463 align:start position:0%
suit and competition for their preferred
 

37:51.463 --> 37:54.253 align:start position:0%
suit and competition for their preferred
food<00:39:25.040><c> increased,</c><00:39:26.000><c> they</c><00:39:26.240><c> were</c><00:39:26.400><c> in</c><00:39:26.560><c> trouble.</c>

37:54.253 --> 37:54.263 align:start position:0%
food increased, they were in trouble.
 

37:54.263 --> 37:56.733 align:start position:0%
food increased, they were in trouble.
Individuals<00:39:28.160><c> died</c><00:39:28.480><c> and</c><00:39:28.800><c> entire</c><00:39:29.200><c> communities</c>

37:56.733 --> 37:56.743 align:start position:0%
Individuals died and entire communities
 

37:56.743 --> 37:59.053 align:start position:0%
Individuals died and entire communities
died<00:39:30.240><c> out</c><00:39:30.640><c> and</c><00:39:30.800><c> the</c><00:39:31.040><c> populations</c><00:39:31.760><c> began</c><00:39:32.000><c> to</c>

37:59.053 --> 37:59.063 align:start position:0%
died out and the populations began to
 

37:59.063 --> 38:01.693 align:start position:0%
died out and the populations began to
fragment.<00:39:33.440><c> Groups</c><00:39:33.760><c> of</c><00:39:33.920><c> Paranthropus</c><00:39:34.720><c> would</c>

38:01.693 --> 38:01.703 align:start position:0%
fragment. Groups of Paranthropus would
 

38:01.703 --> 38:04.013 align:start position:0%
fragment. Groups of Paranthropus would
eventually<00:39:35.280><c> get</c><00:39:35.520><c> smaller</c><00:39:36.000><c> and</c><00:39:36.320><c> smaller</c><00:39:36.880><c> until</c>

38:04.013 --> 38:04.023 align:start position:0%
eventually get smaller and smaller until
 

38:04.023 --> 38:06.493 align:start position:0%
eventually get smaller and smaller until
they<00:39:37.520><c> ultimately</c><00:39:38.160><c> disappeared.</c><00:39:39.359><c> Indeed,</c>

38:06.493 --> 38:06.503 align:start position:0%
they ultimately disappeared. Indeed,
 

38:06.503 --> 38:08.493 align:start position:0%
they ultimately disappeared. Indeed,
Paranthropus'<00:39:40.400><c> diets</c><00:39:40.720><c> were</c><00:39:40.880><c> so</c><00:39:41.119><c> tailored</c><00:39:41.520><c> to</c>

38:08.493 --> 38:08.503 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus' diets were so tailored to
 

38:08.503 --> 38:10.013 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus' diets were so tailored to
their<00:39:41.839><c> environments</c><00:39:42.480><c> that</c><00:39:42.800><c> even</c><00:39:42.960><c> the</c>

38:10.013 --> 38:10.023 align:start position:0%
their environments that even the
 

38:10.023 --> 38:12.013 align:start position:0%
their environments that even the
different<00:39:43.520><c> species</c><00:39:44.000><c> ate</c><00:39:44.320><c> slightly</c><00:39:44.720><c> different</c>

38:12.013 --> 38:12.023 align:start position:0%
different species ate slightly different
 

38:12.023 --> 38:14.333 align:start position:0%
different species ate slightly different
foods.<00:39:46.240><c> Scientists</c><00:39:46.720><c> have</c><00:39:46.880><c> analyzed</c><00:39:47.280><c> the</c>

38:14.333 --> 38:14.343 align:start position:0%
foods. Scientists have analyzed the
 

38:14.343 --> 38:16.412 align:start position:0%
foods. Scientists have analyzed the
scratches<00:39:47.920><c> and</c><00:39:48.160><c> marks</c><00:39:48.480><c> on</c><00:39:48.640><c> their</c><00:39:48.880><c> teeth</c><00:39:49.359><c> and</c>

38:16.412 --> 38:16.422 align:start position:0%
scratches and marks on their teeth and
 

38:16.422 --> 38:18.172 align:start position:0%
scratches and marks on their teeth and
they<00:39:49.839><c> found</c><00:39:50.079><c> that</c><00:39:50.240><c> they</c><00:39:50.400><c> inhabited</c><00:39:50.960><c> different</c>

38:18.172 --> 38:18.182 align:start position:0%
they found that they inhabited different
 

38:18.182 --> 38:21.213 align:start position:0%
they found that they inhabited different
ecological<00:39:52.160><c> niches.</c><00:39:53.440><c> Panthropus</c><00:39:54.000><c> boy's</c><00:39:54.240><c> eye</c>

38:21.213 --> 38:21.223 align:start position:0%
ecological niches. Panthropus boy's eye
 

38:21.223 --> 38:23.133 align:start position:0%
ecological niches. Panthropus boy's eye
in<00:39:54.560><c> Eastern</c><00:39:54.880><c> Africa,</c><00:39:55.280><c> for</c><00:39:55.359><c> example,</c><00:39:56.000><c> chewed</c>

38:23.133 --> 38:23.143 align:start position:0%
in Eastern Africa, for example, chewed
 

38:23.143 --> 38:25.533 align:start position:0%
in Eastern Africa, for example, chewed
on<00:39:56.480><c> leaves</c><00:39:56.800><c> and</c><00:39:57.040><c> grasses</c><00:39:57.520><c> for</c><00:39:57.839><c> hours</c><00:39:58.480><c> rather</c>

38:25.533 --> 38:25.543 align:start position:0%
on leaves and grasses for hours rather
 

38:25.543 --> 38:27.133 align:start position:0%
on leaves and grasses for hours rather
than<00:39:58.880><c> cracking</c><00:39:59.280><c> nuts</c><00:39:59.599><c> between</c><00:39:59.839><c> their</c><00:40:00.000><c> teeth</c>

38:27.133 --> 38:27.143 align:start position:0%
than cracking nuts between their teeth
 

38:27.143 --> 38:29.613 align:start position:0%
than cracking nuts between their teeth
as<00:40:00.560><c> suggested</c><00:40:01.040><c> decades</c><00:40:01.359><c> ago.</c><00:40:02.160><c> Panthropus</c>

38:29.613 --> 38:29.623 align:start position:0%
as suggested decades ago. Panthropus
 

38:29.623 --> 38:31.613 align:start position:0%
as suggested decades ago. Panthropus
robusters,<00:40:03.440><c> however,</c><00:40:03.839><c> had</c><00:40:04.000><c> a</c><00:40:04.160><c> more</c><00:40:04.400><c> varied</c>

38:31.613 --> 38:31.623 align:start position:0%
robusters, however, had a more varied
 

38:31.623 --> 38:34.013 align:start position:0%
robusters, however, had a more varied
diet,<00:40:05.440><c> and</c><00:40:05.599><c> their</c><00:40:05.920><c> teeth</c><00:40:06.240><c> reflect</c><00:40:06.640><c> that</c><00:40:06.960><c> with</c>

38:34.013 --> 38:34.023 align:start position:0%
diet, and their teeth reflect that with
 

38:34.023 --> 38:35.932 align:start position:0%
diet, and their teeth reflect that with
their<00:40:07.359><c> pitted</c><00:40:07.839><c> holes</c><00:40:08.160><c> and</c><00:40:08.480><c> worn</c><00:40:08.880><c> tooth</c>

38:35.932 --> 38:35.942 align:start position:0%
their pitted holes and worn tooth
 

38:35.942 --> 38:37.773 align:start position:0%
their pitted holes and worn tooth
enamel.<00:40:10.079><c> And</c><00:40:10.240><c> this</c><00:40:10.400><c> slightly</c><00:40:10.720><c> more</c>

38:37.773 --> 38:37.783 align:start position:0%
enamel. And this slightly more
 

38:37.783 --> 38:39.773 align:start position:0%
enamel. And this slightly more
generalized<00:40:11.520><c> nature</c><00:40:11.839><c> perhaps</c><00:40:12.320><c> influenced</c>

38:39.773 --> 38:39.783 align:start position:0%
generalized nature perhaps influenced
 

38:39.783 --> 38:42.093 align:start position:0%
generalized nature perhaps influenced
them<00:40:13.280><c> lasting</c><00:40:13.839><c> longer.</c><00:40:14.480><c> The</c><00:40:14.640><c> window</c><00:40:14.960><c> often</c>

38:42.093 --> 38:42.103 align:start position:0%
them lasting longer. The window often
 

38:42.103 --> 38:44.093 align:start position:0%
them lasting longer. The window often
given<00:40:15.520><c> for</c><00:40:15.760><c> paranthropus</c><00:40:16.320><c> boey</c><00:40:16.800><c> extinction</c>

38:44.093 --> 38:44.103 align:start position:0%
given for paranthropus boey extinction
 

38:44.103 --> 38:47.373 align:start position:0%
given for paranthropus boey extinction
is<00:40:17.520><c> between</c><00:40:17.839><c> 1.4</c><00:40:18.560><c> and</c><00:40:18.800><c> 1.2</c><00:40:19.520><c> million</c><00:40:19.920><c> years</c><00:40:20.079><c> ago</c>

38:47.373 --> 38:47.383 align:start position:0%
is between 1.4 and 1.2 million years ago
 

38:47.383 --> 38:48.973 align:start position:0%
is between 1.4 and 1.2 million years ago
with<00:40:20.720><c> some</c><00:40:20.960><c> individuals</c><00:40:21.440><c> perhaps</c><00:40:21.760><c> surviving</c>

38:48.973 --> 38:48.983 align:start position:0%
with some individuals perhaps surviving
 

38:48.983 --> 38:51.293 align:start position:0%
with some individuals perhaps surviving
until<00:40:22.480><c> a</c><00:40:22.640><c> million</c><00:40:22.960><c> years</c><00:40:23.119><c> ago.</c><00:40:23.839><c> Robustus,</c>

38:51.293 --> 38:51.303 align:start position:0%
until a million years ago. Robustus,
 

38:51.303 --> 38:53.932 align:start position:0%
until a million years ago. Robustus,
however,<00:40:24.720><c> is</c><00:40:25.040><c> slightly</c><00:40:25.440><c> later,</c><00:40:26.079><c> 1.2</c><00:40:26.720><c> to</c><00:40:26.880><c> 1</c>

38:53.932 --> 38:53.942 align:start position:0%
however, is slightly later, 1.2 to 1
 

38:53.942 --> 38:55.453 align:start position:0%
however, is slightly later, 1.2 to 1
million<00:40:27.440><c> years</c><00:40:27.599><c> ago,</c><00:40:28.079><c> with</c><00:40:28.240><c> the</c><00:40:28.400><c> last</c>

38:55.453 --> 38:55.463 align:start position:0%
million years ago, with the last
 

38:55.463 --> 38:57.453 align:start position:0%
million years ago, with the last
survivors<00:40:29.200><c> making</c><00:40:29.440><c> their</c><00:40:29.680><c> way</c><00:40:29.839><c> into</c><00:40:30.160><c> the</c><00:40:30.320><c> last</c>

38:57.453 --> 38:57.463 align:start position:0%
survivors making their way into the last
 

38:57.463 --> 39:00.652 align:start position:0%
survivors making their way into the last
million<00:40:31.040><c> years.</c><00:40:32.160><c> But</c><00:40:32.720><c> sometime</c><00:40:33.359><c> roughly</c>

39:00.652 --> 39:00.662 align:start position:0%
million years. But sometime roughly
 

39:00.662 --> 39:03.533 align:start position:0%
million years. But sometime roughly
600,000<00:40:34.720><c> years</c><00:40:34.960><c> ago,</c><00:40:35.440><c> after</c><00:40:35.680><c> over</c><00:40:36.000><c> 2</c><00:40:36.320><c> million</c>

39:03.533 --> 39:03.543 align:start position:0%
600,000 years ago, after over 2 million
 

39:03.543 --> 39:05.293 align:start position:0%
600,000 years ago, after over 2 million
years<00:40:36.960><c> of</c><00:40:37.119><c> existence,</c><00:40:38.000><c> the</c><00:40:38.240><c> last</c>

39:05.293 --> 39:05.303 align:start position:0%
years of existence, the last
 

39:05.303 --> 39:07.533 align:start position:0%
years of existence, the last
Paranthropus<00:40:39.280><c> closed</c><00:40:39.599><c> its</c><00:40:39.760><c> eyes</c><00:40:40.160><c> on</c><00:40:40.400><c> a</c><00:40:40.560><c> world</c>

39:07.533 --> 39:07.543 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus closed its eyes on a world
 

39:07.543 --> 39:09.613 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus closed its eyes on a world
that<00:40:40.960><c> had</c><00:40:41.119><c> undergone</c><00:40:41.599><c> remarkable</c><00:40:42.240><c> changes</c>

39:09.613 --> 39:09.623 align:start position:0%
that had undergone remarkable changes
 

39:09.623 --> 39:13.533 align:start position:0%
that had undergone remarkable changes
throughout<00:40:43.200><c> the</c><00:40:43.359><c> lifetime</c><00:40:43.760><c> of</c><00:40:43.920><c> its</c><00:40:44.160><c> genus.</c>

39:13.533 --> 39:13.543 align:start position:0%
throughout the lifetime of its genus.
 

39:13.543 --> 39:15.853 align:start position:0%
throughout the lifetime of its genus.
Though,<00:40:47.040><c> of</c><00:40:47.200><c> course,</c><00:40:47.599><c> Paranthropus</c><00:40:48.480><c> was</c><00:40:48.720><c> far</c>

39:15.853 --> 39:15.863 align:start position:0%
Though, of course, Paranthropus was far
 

39:15.863 --> 39:18.253 align:start position:0%
Though, of course, Paranthropus was far
from<00:40:49.280><c> the</c><00:40:49.520><c> last</c><00:40:49.839><c> homminin.</c>

39:18.253 --> 39:18.263 align:start position:0%
from the last homminin.
 

39:18.263 --> 39:20.093 align:start position:0%
from the last homminin.
Megantyion<00:40:52.240><c> was</c><00:40:52.480><c> survived</c><00:40:52.880><c> by</c><00:40:53.040><c> other</c>

39:20.093 --> 39:20.103 align:start position:0%
Megantyion was survived by other
 

39:20.103 --> 39:22.412 align:start position:0%
Megantyion was survived by other
saber-tooththed<00:40:54.000><c> cats</c><00:40:54.480><c> such</c><00:40:54.640><c> as</c><00:40:54.800><c> Hometherum,</c>

39:22.412 --> 39:22.422 align:start position:0%
saber-tooththed cats such as Hometherum,
 

39:22.422 --> 39:24.093 align:start position:0%
saber-tooththed cats such as Hometherum,
which<00:40:55.760><c> stayed</c><00:40:56.000><c> in</c><00:40:56.160><c> existence</c><00:40:56.560><c> until</c><00:40:56.880><c> as</c><00:40:57.119><c> late</c>

39:24.093 --> 39:24.103 align:start position:0%
which stayed in existence until as late
 

39:24.103 --> 39:26.892 align:start position:0%
which stayed in existence until as late
as<00:40:57.440><c> 12,000</c><00:40:58.079><c> years</c><00:40:58.240><c> ago.</c><00:40:59.119><c> Homothetherum,</c>

39:26.892 --> 39:26.902 align:start position:0%
as 12,000 years ago. Homothetherum,
 

39:26.902 --> 39:28.333 align:start position:0%
as 12,000 years ago. Homothetherum,
unlike<00:41:00.400><c> the</c><00:41:00.560><c> generally</c><00:41:00.960><c> solitary</c>

39:28.333 --> 39:28.343 align:start position:0%
unlike the generally solitary
 

39:28.343 --> 39:31.132 align:start position:0%
unlike the generally solitary
Megantyion,<00:41:02.560><c> hunted</c><00:41:02.960><c> in</c><00:41:03.280><c> packs,</c><00:41:04.079><c> which</c>

39:31.132 --> 39:31.142 align:start position:0%
Megantyion, hunted in packs, which
 

39:31.142 --> 39:33.213 align:start position:0%
Megantyion, hunted in packs, which
offered<00:41:04.640><c> a</c><00:41:04.800><c> variety</c><00:41:05.119><c> of</c><00:41:05.280><c> advantages,</c><00:41:06.079><c> one</c><00:41:06.240><c> of</c>

39:33.213 --> 39:33.223 align:start position:0%
offered a variety of advantages, one of
 

39:33.223 --> 39:34.652 align:start position:0%
offered a variety of advantages, one of
which<00:41:06.560><c> being</c><00:41:06.720><c> an</c><00:41:06.960><c> increased</c><00:41:07.280><c> ability</c><00:41:07.599><c> to</c>

39:34.652 --> 39:34.662 align:start position:0%
which being an increased ability to
 

39:34.662 --> 39:36.412 align:start position:0%
which being an increased ability to
defend<00:41:08.079><c> their</c><00:41:08.319><c> kills</c><00:41:08.720><c> from</c><00:41:08.960><c> aggressive</c>

39:36.412 --> 39:36.422 align:start position:0%
defend their kills from aggressive
 

39:36.422 --> 39:38.973 align:start position:0%
defend their kills from aggressive
carcass<00:41:10.160><c> stealing</c><00:41:10.560><c> scavengers.</c>

39:38.973 --> 39:38.983 align:start position:0%
carcass stealing scavengers.
 

39:38.983 --> 39:40.573 align:start position:0%
carcass stealing scavengers.
Some<00:41:12.319><c> of</c><00:41:12.480><c> those</c><00:41:12.640><c> scavengers</c><00:41:13.200><c> came</c><00:41:13.440><c> in</c><00:41:13.599><c> the</c>

39:40.573 --> 39:40.583 align:start position:0%
Some of those scavengers came in the
 

39:40.583 --> 39:43.693 align:start position:0%
Some of those scavengers came in the
form<00:41:13.920><c> of</c><00:41:14.079><c> giant</c><00:41:14.560><c> ancient</c><00:41:14.960><c> hyenas,</c><00:41:16.160><c> others</c>

39:43.693 --> 39:43.703 align:start position:0%
form of giant ancient hyenas, others
 

39:43.703 --> 39:46.573 align:start position:0%
form of giant ancient hyenas, others
walked<00:41:17.200><c> on</c><00:41:17.359><c> two</c><00:41:17.599><c> legs.</c><00:41:18.720><c> For</c><00:41:18.880><c> Paranthropus</c><00:41:19.599><c> was</c>

39:46.573 --> 39:46.583 align:start position:0%
walked on two legs. For Paranthropus was
 

39:46.583 --> 39:49.853 align:start position:0%
walked on two legs. For Paranthropus was
survived<00:41:20.480><c> by</c><00:41:20.720><c> the</c><00:41:20.880><c> grassile</c><00:41:21.520><c> hominins.</c><00:41:22.880><c> And</c>

39:49.853 --> 39:49.863 align:start position:0%
survived by the grassile hominins. And
 

39:49.863 --> 39:51.773 align:start position:0%
survived by the grassile hominins. And
so<00:41:23.200><c> what</c><00:41:23.359><c> was</c><00:41:23.520><c> it</c><00:41:23.760><c> about</c><00:41:23.920><c> this</c><00:41:24.160><c> lineage</c><00:41:24.640><c> that</c>

39:51.773 --> 39:51.783 align:start position:0%
so what was it about this lineage that
 

39:51.783 --> 39:54.652 align:start position:0%
so what was it about this lineage that
allowed<00:41:25.359><c> them,</c><00:41:25.839><c> our</c><00:41:26.160><c> ancestors,</c><00:41:26.960><c> to</c><00:41:27.200><c> outlast</c>

39:54.652 --> 39:54.662 align:start position:0%
allowed them, our ancestors, to outlast
 

39:54.662 --> 39:57.373 align:start position:0%
allowed them, our ancestors, to outlast
their<00:41:28.160><c> more</c><00:41:28.400><c> robust</c><00:41:28.880><c> cousins?</c><00:41:30.000><c> And</c><00:41:30.160><c> how</c><00:41:30.319><c> does</c>

39:57.373 --> 39:57.383 align:start position:0%
their more robust cousins? And how does
 

39:57.383 --> 40:00.333 align:start position:0%
their more robust cousins? And how does
our<00:41:30.720><c> own</c><00:41:30.960><c> species,</c><00:41:31.680><c> Homo</c><00:41:32.079><c> sapiens,</c><00:41:33.040><c> fit</c><00:41:33.280><c> into</c>

40:00.333 --> 40:00.343 align:start position:0%
our own species, Homo sapiens, fit into
 

40:00.343 --> 40:09.213 align:start position:0%
our own species, Homo sapiens, fit into
the<00:41:33.760><c> story?</c>

40:09.213 --> 40:09.223 align:start position:0%
 
 

40:09.223 --> 40:11.373 align:start position:0%
 
In<00:41:42.640><c> the</c><00:41:42.800><c> early</c><00:41:42.960><c> half</c><00:41:43.200><c> of</c><00:41:43.359><c> the</c><00:41:43.520><c> 20th</c><00:41:43.920><c> century,</c>

40:11.373 --> 40:11.383 align:start position:0%
In the early half of the 20th century,
 

40:11.383 --> 40:14.013 align:start position:0%
In the early half of the 20th century,
rangers<00:41:44.960><c> at</c><00:41:45.119><c> Yusede</c><00:41:45.839><c> National</c><00:41:46.240><c> Park</c><00:41:46.800><c> wouldn't</c>

40:14.013 --> 40:14.023 align:start position:0%
rangers at Yusede National Park wouldn't
 

40:14.023 --> 40:15.853 align:start position:0%
rangers at Yusede National Park wouldn't
discourage<00:41:47.760><c> people</c><00:41:48.000><c> from</c><00:41:48.319><c> leaving</c><00:41:48.640><c> rubbish</c>

40:15.853 --> 40:15.863 align:start position:0%
discourage people from leaving rubbish
 

40:15.863 --> 40:18.973 align:start position:0%
discourage people from leaving rubbish
for<00:41:49.280><c> bears</c><00:41:49.599><c> to</c><00:41:49.839><c> eat.</c><00:41:50.640><c> In</c><00:41:50.880><c> fact,</c><00:41:51.359><c> they</c><00:41:51.599><c> went</c><00:41:51.839><c> one</c>

40:18.973 --> 40:18.983 align:start position:0%
for bears to eat. In fact, they went one
 

40:18.983 --> 40:22.253 align:start position:0%
for bears to eat. In fact, they went one
step<00:41:52.480><c> further.</c><00:41:53.359><c> They</c><00:41:53.599><c> made</c><00:41:53.760><c> a</c><00:41:54.000><c> show</c><00:41:54.160><c> of</c><00:41:54.319><c> it.</c><00:41:55.200><c> In</c>

40:22.253 --> 40:22.263 align:start position:0%
step further. They made a show of it. In
 

40:22.263 --> 40:24.813 align:start position:0%
step further. They made a show of it. In
a<00:41:55.599><c> large</c><00:41:56.240><c> illuminated</c><00:41:56.880><c> area</c><00:41:57.359><c> surrounded</c><00:41:57.760><c> by</c>

40:24.813 --> 40:24.823 align:start position:0%
a large illuminated area surrounded by
 

40:24.823 --> 40:26.973 align:start position:0%
a large illuminated area surrounded by
benches<00:41:58.400><c> for</c><00:41:58.560><c> spectators,</c><00:41:59.520><c> rangers</c><00:41:59.920><c> would</c>

40:26.973 --> 40:26.983 align:start position:0%
benches for spectators, rangers would
 

40:26.983 --> 40:29.132 align:start position:0%
benches for spectators, rangers would
dump<00:42:00.560><c> huge</c><00:42:00.880><c> amounts</c><00:42:01.200><c> of</c><00:42:01.440><c> leftovers,</c>

40:29.132 --> 40:29.142 align:start position:0%
dump huge amounts of leftovers,
 

40:29.142 --> 40:31.213 align:start position:0%
dump huge amounts of leftovers,
sometimes<00:42:02.720><c> attracting</c><00:42:03.280><c> up</c><00:42:03.440><c> to</c><00:42:03.599><c> 20</c><00:42:03.839><c> or</c><00:42:04.160><c> 30</c>

40:31.213 --> 40:31.223 align:start position:0%
sometimes attracting up to 20 or 30
 

40:31.223 --> 40:33.932 align:start position:0%
sometimes attracting up to 20 or 30
bears<00:42:04.800><c> to</c><00:42:05.040><c> compete</c><00:42:05.280><c> for</c><00:42:05.440><c> the</c><00:42:05.680><c> food.</c><00:42:06.480><c> Onlookers</c>

40:33.932 --> 40:33.942 align:start position:0%
bears to compete for the food. Onlookers
 

40:33.942 --> 40:36.333 align:start position:0%
bears to compete for the food. Onlookers
would<00:42:07.280><c> cheer</c><00:42:07.599><c> these</c><00:42:08.000><c> garbage</c><00:42:08.560><c> pitch</c><00:42:08.880><c> shows.</c>

40:36.333 --> 40:36.343 align:start position:0%
would cheer these garbage pitch shows.
 

40:36.343 --> 40:38.333 align:start position:0%
would cheer these garbage pitch shows.
And<00:42:09.599><c> the</c><00:42:09.839><c> descendants</c><00:42:10.319><c> of</c><00:42:10.480><c> these</c><00:42:10.720><c> bears</c><00:42:11.280><c> still</c>

40:38.333 --> 40:38.343 align:start position:0%
And the descendants of these bears still
 

40:38.343 --> 40:40.333 align:start position:0%
And the descendants of these bears still
rummage<00:42:12.000><c> through</c><00:42:12.160><c> bins</c><00:42:12.560><c> and</c><00:42:12.800><c> landfills</c><00:42:13.359><c> at</c>

40:40.333 --> 40:40.343 align:start position:0%
rummage through bins and landfills at
 

40:40.343 --> 40:42.733 align:start position:0%
rummage through bins and landfills at
any<00:42:13.760><c> chance</c><00:42:13.920><c> they</c><00:42:14.240><c> get.</c><00:42:14.720><c> Indeed,</c><00:42:15.119><c> brown</c><00:42:15.440><c> bears</c>

40:42.733 --> 40:42.743 align:start position:0%
any chance they get. Indeed, brown bears
 

40:42.743 --> 40:45.293 align:start position:0%
any chance they get. Indeed, brown bears
will<00:42:16.160><c> eat</c><00:42:16.400><c> almost</c><00:42:16.960><c> anything.</c><00:42:17.839><c> They</c><00:42:18.160><c> have</c><00:42:18.240><c> a</c>

40:45.293 --> 40:45.303 align:start position:0%
will eat almost anything. They have a
 

40:45.303 --> 40:47.213 align:start position:0%
will eat almost anything. They have a
variety<00:42:18.880><c> of</c><00:42:19.040><c> teeth</c><00:42:19.440><c> that</c><00:42:19.680><c> allow</c><00:42:19.920><c> them</c><00:42:20.079><c> to</c><00:42:20.240><c> do</c>

40:47.213 --> 40:47.223 align:start position:0%
variety of teeth that allow them to do
 

40:47.223 --> 40:49.213 align:start position:0%
variety of teeth that allow them to do
everything<00:42:20.720><c> from</c><00:42:20.960><c> grip</c><00:42:21.200><c> a</c><00:42:21.440><c> wet</c><00:42:21.680><c> salmon</c><00:42:22.160><c> to</c>

40:49.213 --> 40:49.223 align:start position:0%
everything from grip a wet salmon to
 

40:49.223 --> 40:51.773 align:start position:0%
everything from grip a wet salmon to
grind<00:42:22.880><c> through</c><00:42:23.200><c> tree</c><00:42:23.520><c> bark.</c><00:42:24.240><c> Their</c><00:42:24.560><c> diet</c>

40:51.773 --> 40:51.783 align:start position:0%
grind through tree bark. Their diet
 

40:51.783 --> 40:53.853 align:start position:0%
grind through tree bark. Their diet
includes,<00:42:25.599><c> but</c><00:42:25.839><c> it's</c><00:42:26.000><c> not</c><00:42:26.240><c> limited</c><00:42:26.560><c> to</c>

40:53.853 --> 40:53.863 align:start position:0%
includes, but it's not limited to
 

40:53.863 --> 40:56.973 align:start position:0%
includes, but it's not limited to
leaves,<00:42:27.680><c> moss,</c><00:42:28.319><c> nuts,</c><00:42:28.880><c> pine</c><00:42:29.200><c> cones,</c><00:42:29.680><c> roots,</c>

40:56.973 --> 40:56.983 align:start position:0%
leaves, moss, nuts, pine cones, roots,
 

40:56.983 --> 40:59.132 align:start position:0%
leaves, moss, nuts, pine cones, roots,
grasses,<00:42:30.800><c> fruits,</c><00:42:31.200><c> flowers,</c><00:42:31.760><c> mushrooms,</c>

40:59.132 --> 40:59.142 align:start position:0%
grasses, fruits, flowers, mushrooms,
 

40:59.142 --> 41:01.932 align:start position:0%
grasses, fruits, flowers, mushrooms,
clams,<00:42:32.800><c> crabs,</c><00:42:33.359><c> eggs,</c><00:42:33.839><c> mice,</c><00:42:34.400><c> squirrels,</c>

41:01.932 --> 41:01.942 align:start position:0%
clams, crabs, eggs, mice, squirrels,
 

41:01.942 --> 41:04.573 align:start position:0%
clams, crabs, eggs, mice, squirrels,
deer<00:42:35.440><c> thorns,</c><00:42:35.920><c> and</c><00:42:36.079><c> even</c><00:42:36.319><c> ants</c><00:42:36.640><c> or</c><00:42:36.880><c> moths.</c>

41:04.573 --> 41:04.583 align:start position:0%
deer thorns, and even ants or moths.
 

41:04.583 --> 41:06.333 align:start position:0%
deer thorns, and even ants or moths.
Grizzlies<00:42:38.240><c> in</c><00:42:38.400><c> the</c><00:42:38.480><c> Rocky</c><00:42:38.880><c> Mountains</c><00:42:39.280><c> will</c>

41:06.333 --> 41:06.343 align:start position:0%
Grizzlies in the Rocky Mountains will
 

41:06.343 --> 41:09.213 align:start position:0%
Grizzlies in the Rocky Mountains will
eat<00:42:39.680><c> up</c><00:42:39.839><c> to</c><00:42:40.000><c> 40,000</c><00:42:40.880><c> army</c><00:42:41.200><c> cutwa</c><00:42:41.760><c> moths</c><00:42:42.079><c> in</c><00:42:42.240><c> a</c>

41:09.213 --> 41:09.223 align:start position:0%
eat up to 40,000 army cutwa moths in a
 

41:09.223 --> 41:11.053 align:start position:0%
eat up to 40,000 army cutwa moths in a
single<00:42:42.720><c> day</c><00:42:43.040><c> during</c><00:42:43.359><c> the</c><00:42:43.520><c> summer</c><00:42:43.839><c> as</c><00:42:44.079><c> they</c>

41:11.053 --> 41:11.063 align:start position:0%
single day during the summer as they
 

41:11.063 --> 41:13.132 align:start position:0%
single day during the summer as they
load<00:42:44.400><c> up</c><00:42:44.560><c> on</c><00:42:44.720><c> calories</c><00:42:45.200><c> before</c><00:42:45.440><c> the</c><00:42:45.680><c> winter.</c>

41:13.132 --> 41:13.142 align:start position:0%
load up on calories before the winter.
 

41:13.142 --> 41:15.693 align:start position:0%
load up on calories before the winter.
This<00:42:46.560><c> ability</c><00:42:46.960><c> to</c><00:42:47.200><c> eat</c><00:42:47.359><c> a</c><00:42:47.599><c> vast</c><00:42:47.920><c> range</c><00:42:48.160><c> of</c><00:42:48.400><c> food</c>

41:15.693 --> 41:15.703 align:start position:0%
This ability to eat a vast range of food
 

41:15.703 --> 41:17.373 align:start position:0%
This ability to eat a vast range of food
allows<00:42:49.200><c> them</c><00:42:49.359><c> to</c><00:42:49.520><c> avoid</c><00:42:49.839><c> the</c><00:42:50.079><c> hassle</c><00:42:50.400><c> of</c>

41:17.373 --> 41:17.383 align:start position:0%
allows them to avoid the hassle of
 

41:17.383 --> 41:19.373 align:start position:0%
allows them to avoid the hassle of
migrating<00:42:51.119><c> to</c><00:42:51.359><c> stay</c><00:42:51.599><c> alongside</c><00:42:52.240><c> food</c>

41:19.373 --> 41:19.383 align:start position:0%
migrating to stay alongside food
 

41:19.383 --> 41:21.853 align:start position:0%
migrating to stay alongside food
sources.<00:42:53.440><c> Instead,</c><00:42:53.920><c> using</c><00:42:54.240><c> these</c><00:42:54.640><c> calories</c>

41:21.853 --> 41:21.863 align:start position:0%
sources. Instead, using these calories
 

41:21.863 --> 41:23.693 align:start position:0%
sources. Instead, using these calories
to<00:42:55.200><c> hibernate</c><00:42:55.680><c> for</c><00:42:55.839><c> the</c><00:42:56.000><c> winter.</c><00:42:56.560><c> And</c><00:42:56.720><c> so,</c>

41:23.693 --> 41:23.703 align:start position:0%
to hibernate for the winter. And so,
 

41:23.703 --> 41:25.773 align:start position:0%
to hibernate for the winter. And so,
what<00:42:57.119><c> begins</c><00:42:57.440><c> with</c><00:42:57.599><c> their</c><00:42:57.920><c> teeth</c><00:42:58.319><c> and</c><00:42:58.560><c> broad</c>

41:25.773 --> 41:25.783 align:start position:0%
what begins with their teeth and broad
 

41:25.783 --> 41:28.093 align:start position:0%
what begins with their teeth and broad
diets<00:42:59.599><c> has</c><00:42:59.839><c> implications</c><00:43:00.480><c> for</c><00:43:00.720><c> the</c><00:43:00.960><c> rest</c><00:43:01.119><c> of</c>

41:28.093 --> 41:28.103 align:start position:0%
diets has implications for the rest of
 

41:28.103 --> 41:30.253 align:start position:0%
diets has implications for the rest of
their<00:43:01.520><c> body</c><00:43:01.920><c> and</c><00:43:02.160><c> can</c><00:43:02.319><c> even</c><00:43:02.560><c> open</c><00:43:02.720><c> the</c><00:43:02.960><c> door</c><00:43:03.200><c> to</c>

41:30.253 --> 41:30.263 align:start position:0%
their body and can even open the door to
 

41:30.263 --> 41:32.493 align:start position:0%
their body and can even open the door to
new<00:43:03.760><c> capabilities</c><00:43:04.640><c> and</c><00:43:04.960><c> patterns</c><00:43:05.359><c> of</c>

41:32.493 --> 41:32.503 align:start position:0%
new capabilities and patterns of
 

41:32.503 --> 41:35.613 align:start position:0%
new capabilities and patterns of
behavior.

41:35.613 --> 41:35.623 align:start position:0%
 
 

41:35.623 --> 41:37.773 align:start position:0%
 
Whatever<00:43:09.280><c> form</c><00:43:09.599><c> an</c><00:43:09.839><c> animal</c><00:43:10.160><c> takes</c><00:43:10.560><c> is</c>

41:37.773 --> 41:37.783 align:start position:0%
Whatever form an animal takes is
 

41:37.783 --> 41:39.613 align:start position:0%
Whatever form an animal takes is
essentially<00:43:11.280><c> a</c><00:43:11.520><c> bet,</c><00:43:12.000><c> and</c><00:43:12.240><c> there</c><00:43:12.400><c> are</c><00:43:12.560><c> many</c>

41:39.613 --> 41:39.623 align:start position:0%
essentially a bet, and there are many
 

41:39.623 --> 41:42.172 align:start position:0%
essentially a bet, and there are many
ways<00:43:13.040><c> to</c><00:43:13.280><c> play</c><00:43:13.440><c> the</c><00:43:13.680><c> game.</c><00:43:14.560><c> Some</c><00:43:14.800><c> animals</c><00:43:15.200><c> are</c>

41:42.172 --> 41:42.182 align:start position:0%
ways to play the game. Some animals are
 

41:42.182 --> 41:44.253 align:start position:0%
ways to play the game. Some animals are
highly<00:43:15.760><c> specialized,</c><00:43:16.640><c> dependent</c><00:43:17.040><c> on</c><00:43:17.280><c> a</c>

41:44.253 --> 41:44.263 align:start position:0%
highly specialized, dependent on a
 

41:44.263 --> 41:47.132 align:start position:0%
highly specialized, dependent on a
single<00:43:17.760><c> food</c><00:43:18.079><c> source</c><00:43:18.400><c> or</c><00:43:18.640><c> habitat.</c><00:43:19.760><c> Koalas,</c>

41:47.132 --> 41:47.142 align:start position:0%
single food source or habitat. Koalas,
 

41:47.142 --> 41:48.892 align:start position:0%
single food source or habitat. Koalas,
for example,<00:43:20.800><c> are</c><00:43:21.040><c> entirely</c><00:43:21.520><c> reliant</c><00:43:21.920><c> on</c>

41:48.892 --> 41:48.902 align:start position:0%
for example, are entirely reliant on
 

41:48.902 --> 41:51.293 align:start position:0%
for example, are entirely reliant on
eucalyptus<00:43:22.720><c> leaves</c><00:43:23.040><c> for</c><00:43:23.280><c> food</c><00:43:23.440><c> and</c><00:43:23.760><c> habitat.</c>

41:51.293 --> 41:51.303 align:start position:0%
eucalyptus leaves for food and habitat.
 

41:51.303 --> 41:52.733 align:start position:0%
eucalyptus leaves for food and habitat.
The<00:43:24.640><c> lack</c><00:43:24.800><c> of</c><00:43:24.960><c> energy</c><00:43:25.200><c> in</c><00:43:25.359><c> these</c><00:43:25.520><c> leaves</c>

41:52.733 --> 41:52.743 align:start position:0%
The lack of energy in these leaves
 

41:52.743 --> 41:54.973 align:start position:0%
The lack of energy in these leaves
causes<00:43:26.240><c> them</c><00:43:26.400><c> to</c><00:43:26.560><c> sleep</c><00:43:26.800><c> for</c><00:43:27.040><c> 18</c><00:43:27.359><c> to</c><00:43:27.680><c> 20</c><00:43:27.920><c> hours</c>

41:54.973 --> 41:54.983 align:start position:0%
causes them to sleep for 18 to 20 hours
 

41:54.983 --> 41:57.213 align:start position:0%
causes them to sleep for 18 to 20 hours
a<00:43:28.400><c> day.</c><00:43:29.040><c> But</c><00:43:29.200><c> they</c><00:43:29.440><c> have</c><00:43:29.599><c> survived</c><00:43:30.000><c> doing</c><00:43:30.240><c> this</c>

41:57.213 --> 41:57.223 align:start position:0%
a day. But they have survived doing this
 

41:57.223 --> 41:58.573 align:start position:0%
a day. But they have survived doing this
for<00:43:30.640><c> more</c><00:43:30.800><c> than</c><00:43:30.960><c> quarter</c><00:43:31.200><c> of</c><00:43:31.280><c> a</c><00:43:31.440><c> million</c>

41:58.573 --> 41:58.583 align:start position:0%
for more than quarter of a million
 

41:58.583 --> 42:00.733 align:start position:0%
for more than quarter of a million
years,<00:43:32.400><c> possibly</c><00:43:32.800><c> longer</c><00:43:33.119><c> than</c><00:43:33.280><c> our</c><00:43:33.520><c> species</c>

42:00.733 --> 42:00.743 align:start position:0%
years, possibly longer than our species
 

42:00.743 --> 42:03.132 align:start position:0%
years, possibly longer than our species
has<00:43:34.160><c> existed</c><00:43:34.560><c> thus</c><00:43:34.960><c> far.</c><00:43:35.760><c> Whereas</c><00:43:36.079><c> other</c>

42:03.132 --> 42:03.142 align:start position:0%
has existed thus far. Whereas other
 

42:03.142 --> 42:04.973 align:start position:0%
has existed thus far. Whereas other
animals<00:43:36.880><c> are</c><00:43:37.040><c> shown</c><00:43:37.200><c> with</c><00:43:37.359><c> a</c><00:43:37.520><c> diet</c><00:43:37.680><c> of</c><00:43:37.839><c> brown</c>

42:04.973 --> 42:04.983 align:start position:0%
animals are shown with a diet of brown
 

42:04.983 --> 42:08.013 align:start position:0%
animals are shown with a diet of brown
bears<00:43:38.720><c> rely</c><00:43:38.960><c> on</c><00:43:39.200><c> variety</c><00:43:39.839><c> and</c><00:43:40.160><c> versatility</c><00:43:40.960><c> to</c>

42:08.013 --> 42:08.023 align:start position:0%
bears rely on variety and versatility to
 

42:08.023 --> 42:10.652 align:start position:0%
bears rely on variety and versatility to
survive.<00:43:42.400><c> And</c><00:43:42.560><c> so</c><00:43:42.800><c> what</c><00:43:42.960><c> bet</c><00:43:43.359><c> had</c><00:43:43.599><c> our</c>

42:10.652 --> 42:10.662 align:start position:0%
survive. And so what bet had our
 

42:10.662 --> 42:12.733 align:start position:0%
survive. And so what bet had our
ancestors<00:43:44.480><c> made</c><00:43:44.880><c> back</c><00:43:45.200><c> in</c><00:43:45.359><c> the</c><00:43:45.520><c> time</c><00:43:45.760><c> of</c>

42:12.733 --> 42:12.743 align:start position:0%
ancestors made back in the time of
 

42:12.743 --> 42:16.093 align:start position:0%
ancestors made back in the time of
Paranthropus?<00:43:47.280><c> What</c><00:43:47.520><c> form</c><00:43:47.920><c> had</c><00:43:48.160><c> we</c><00:43:48.319><c> taken?</c>

42:16.093 --> 42:16.103 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus? What form had we taken?
 

42:16.103 --> 42:25.853 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus? What form had we taken?
What<00:43:49.520><c> did</c><00:43:49.680><c> we</c><00:43:49.839><c> eat?</c><00:43:50.720><c> And</c><00:43:50.960><c> how</c><00:43:51.680><c> did</c><00:43:51.839><c> we</c><00:43:52.160><c> live?</c>

42:25.853 --> 42:25.863 align:start position:0%
 
 

42:25.863 --> 42:28.733 align:start position:0%
 
Kenyan<00:43:59.520><c> paleocientist</c><00:44:00.480><c> Kamoya</c><00:44:00.960><c> Kamehu</c><00:44:01.680><c> was</c>

42:28.733 --> 42:28.743 align:start position:0%
Kenyan paleocientist Kamoya Kamehu was
 

42:28.743 --> 42:30.172 align:start position:0%
Kenyan paleocientist Kamoya Kamehu was
recognized<00:44:02.400><c> as</c><00:44:02.640><c> one</c><00:44:02.800><c> of</c><00:44:02.800><c> the</c><00:44:02.960><c> world's</c>

42:30.172 --> 42:30.182 align:start position:0%
recognized as one of the world's
 

42:30.182 --> 42:31.853 align:start position:0%
recognized as one of the world's
greatest<00:44:03.760><c> fossil</c><00:44:04.160><c> hunters</c><00:44:04.720><c> and</c>

42:31.853 --> 42:31.863 align:start position:0%
greatest fossil hunters and
 

42:31.863 --> 42:33.932 align:start position:0%
greatest fossil hunters and
single-handedly<00:44:05.920><c> rewrote</c><00:44:06.319><c> large</c><00:44:06.720><c> tracks</c><00:44:07.040><c> of</c>

42:33.932 --> 42:33.942 align:start position:0%
single-handedly rewrote large tracks of
 

42:33.942 --> 42:36.333 align:start position:0%
single-handedly rewrote large tracks of
the<00:44:07.359><c> human</c><00:44:07.760><c> story.</c><00:44:08.720><c> He</c><00:44:08.960><c> seemed</c><00:44:09.200><c> to</c><00:44:09.280><c> have</c><00:44:09.359><c> an</c>

42:36.333 --> 42:36.343 align:start position:0%
the human story. He seemed to have an
 

42:36.343 --> 42:38.733 align:start position:0%
the human story. He seemed to have an
innate<00:44:09.920><c> knack</c><00:44:10.400><c> for</c><00:44:10.640><c> spotting</c><00:44:11.040><c> shards</c><00:44:11.440><c> of</c><00:44:11.599><c> bone</c>

42:38.733 --> 42:38.743 align:start position:0%
innate knack for spotting shards of bone
 

42:38.743 --> 42:41.613 align:start position:0%
innate knack for spotting shards of bone
nudging<00:44:12.400><c> out</c><00:44:12.560><c> of</c><00:44:12.720><c> a</c><00:44:12.880><c> rock's</c><00:44:13.200><c> surface.</c><00:44:14.400><c> And</c><00:44:14.560><c> in</c>

42:41.613 --> 42:41.623 align:start position:0%
nudging out of a rock's surface. And in
 

42:41.623 --> 42:44.493 align:start position:0%
nudging out of a rock's surface. And in
1984,<00:44:15.920><c> he</c><00:44:16.160><c> was</c><00:44:16.319><c> scouting</c><00:44:16.720><c> for</c><00:44:16.880><c> fossils</c><00:44:17.359><c> along</c>

42:44.493 --> 42:44.503 align:start position:0%
1984, he was scouting for fossils along
 

42:44.503 --> 42:47.053 align:start position:0%
1984, he was scouting for fossils along
the<00:44:17.839><c> western</c><00:44:18.240><c> shore</c><00:44:18.480><c> of</c><00:44:18.720><c> Lake</c><00:44:18.960><c> Turkana.</c><00:44:20.000><c> He</c>

42:47.053 --> 42:47.063 align:start position:0%
the western shore of Lake Turkana. He
 

42:47.063 --> 42:48.892 align:start position:0%
the western shore of Lake Turkana. He
spotted<00:44:20.560><c> a</c><00:44:20.720><c> section</c><00:44:20.960><c> of</c><00:44:21.200><c> skull</c><00:44:21.599><c> on</c><00:44:21.760><c> the</c><00:44:21.920><c> shore</c>

42:48.892 --> 42:48.902 align:start position:0%
spotted a section of skull on the shore
 

42:48.902 --> 42:51.213 align:start position:0%
spotted a section of skull on the shore
of<00:44:22.160><c> a</c><00:44:22.319><c> dried</c><00:44:22.640><c> up</c><00:44:22.800><c> riverbed.</c><00:44:23.520><c> And</c><00:44:23.680><c> it</c><00:44:23.920><c> revealed</c>

42:51.213 --> 42:51.223 align:start position:0%
of a dried up riverbed. And it revealed
 

42:51.223 --> 42:53.693 align:start position:0%
of a dried up riverbed. And it revealed
what<00:44:24.720><c> was</c><00:44:24.880><c> then</c><00:44:25.200><c> the</c><00:44:25.520><c> most</c><00:44:25.760><c> complete</c><00:44:26.160><c> hominin</c>

42:53.693 --> 42:53.703 align:start position:0%
what was then the most complete hominin
 

42:53.703 --> 42:56.892 align:start position:0%
what was then the most complete hominin
ever<00:44:27.200><c> found.</c><00:44:28.480><c> Takana</c><00:44:29.280><c> boy,</c><00:44:29.520><c> as</c><00:44:29.760><c> they</c><00:44:29.920><c> called</c>

42:56.892 --> 42:56.902 align:start position:0%
ever found. Takana boy, as they called
 

42:56.902 --> 42:58.813 align:start position:0%
ever found. Takana boy, as they called
the<00:44:30.319><c> skeleton,</c><00:44:30.880><c> would</c><00:44:31.040><c> have</c><00:44:31.200><c> been</c><00:44:31.359><c> between</c><00:44:31.760><c> 7</c>

42:58.813 --> 42:58.823 align:start position:0%
the skeleton, would have been between 7
 

42:58.823 --> 43:01.613 align:start position:0%
the skeleton, would have been between 7
and<00:44:32.240><c> 11</c><00:44:32.560><c> years</c><00:44:32.800><c> old</c><00:44:32.960><c> when</c><00:44:33.200><c> he</c><00:44:33.440><c> died.</c><00:44:34.400><c> Despite</c>

43:01.613 --> 43:01.623 align:start position:0%
and 11 years old when he died. Despite
 

43:01.623 --> 43:03.453 align:start position:0%
and 11 years old when he died. Despite
his<00:44:35.040><c> young</c><00:44:35.280><c> age,</c><00:44:35.680><c> he</c><00:44:35.920><c> would</c><00:44:36.000><c> have</c><00:44:36.160><c> stood</c><00:44:36.400><c> at</c>

43:03.453 --> 43:03.463 align:start position:0%
his young age, he would have stood at
 

43:03.463 --> 43:05.533 align:start position:0%
his young age, he would have stood at
about<00:44:36.720><c> a</c><00:44:36.960><c> meter</c><00:44:37.200><c> and</c><00:44:37.280><c> a</c><00:44:37.359><c> half</c><00:44:37.680><c> tall</c><00:44:38.319><c> and</c><00:44:38.480><c> if</c><00:44:38.640><c> he</c>

43:05.533 --> 43:05.543 align:start position:0%
about a meter and a half tall and if he
 

43:05.543 --> 43:07.053 align:start position:0%
about a meter and a half tall and if he
had<00:44:38.960><c> lived,</c><00:44:39.359><c> could</c><00:44:39.520><c> have</c><00:44:39.680><c> reached</c><00:44:39.920><c> the</c><00:44:40.000><c> height</c>

43:07.053 --> 43:07.063 align:start position:0%
had lived, could have reached the height
 

43:07.063 --> 43:09.213 align:start position:0%
had lived, could have reached the height
of<00:44:40.319><c> an</c><00:44:40.480><c> adult</c><00:44:40.800><c> man</c><00:44:41.119><c> today.</c><00:44:41.920><c> And</c><00:44:42.079><c> this</c><00:44:42.240><c> makes</c>

43:09.213 --> 43:09.223 align:start position:0%
of an adult man today. And this makes
 

43:09.223 --> 43:11.373 align:start position:0%
of an adult man today. And this makes
him<00:44:42.720><c> very</c><00:44:43.040><c> tall</c><00:44:43.359><c> when</c><00:44:43.680><c> lined</c><00:44:43.920><c> up</c><00:44:44.079><c> alongside</c>

43:11.373 --> 43:11.383 align:start position:0%
him very tall when lined up alongside
 

43:11.383 --> 43:13.373 align:start position:0%
him very tall when lined up alongside
other<00:44:44.800><c> hominins</c><00:44:45.440><c> that</c><00:44:45.680><c> were</c><00:44:45.839><c> around</c><00:44:46.160><c> at</c><00:44:46.400><c> the</c>

43:13.373 --> 43:13.383 align:start position:0%
other hominins that were around at the
 

43:13.383 --> 43:15.132 align:start position:0%
other hominins that were around at the
time.<00:44:47.359><c> But</c><00:44:47.440><c> he'd</c><00:44:47.680><c> been</c><00:44:47.760><c> trapped</c><00:44:48.000><c> in</c><00:44:48.160><c> the</c>

43:15.132 --> 43:15.142 align:start position:0%
time. But he'd been trapped in the
 

43:15.142 --> 43:16.733 align:start position:0%
time. But he'd been trapped in the
sediment<00:44:48.720><c> for</c><00:44:48.960><c> more</c><00:44:49.119><c> than</c><00:44:49.280><c> 1</c><00:44:49.440><c> and</c><00:44:49.520><c> a</c><00:44:49.680><c> half</c>

43:16.733 --> 43:16.743 align:start position:0%
sediment for more than 1 and a half
 

43:16.743 --> 43:19.693 align:start position:0%
sediment for more than 1 and a half
million<00:44:50.400><c> years.</c><00:44:51.520><c> His</c><00:44:51.839><c> species</c><00:44:52.400><c> was</c><00:44:52.560><c> dubbed</c>

43:19.693 --> 43:19.703 align:start position:0%
million years. His species was dubbed
 

43:19.703 --> 43:23.132 align:start position:0%
million years. His species was dubbed
Homoagasta<00:44:54.079><c> or</c><00:44:54.480><c> the</c><00:44:54.720><c> African</c><00:44:55.200><c> homoerectus</c>

43:23.132 --> 43:23.142 align:start position:0%
Homoagasta or the African homoerectus
 

43:23.142 --> 43:25.373 align:start position:0%
Homoagasta or the African homoerectus
and<00:44:56.560><c> looked</c><00:44:56.880><c> much</c><00:44:57.119><c> more</c><00:44:57.440><c> like</c><00:44:57.760><c> later</c><00:44:58.160><c> humans</c>

43:25.373 --> 43:25.383 align:start position:0%
and looked much more like later humans
 

43:25.383 --> 43:26.573 align:start position:0%
and looked much more like later humans
than<00:44:58.720><c> the</c><00:44:58.880><c> homminins</c><00:44:59.280><c> that</c><00:44:59.440><c> had</c><00:44:59.599><c> been</c>

43:26.573 --> 43:26.583 align:start position:0%
than the homminins that had been
 

43:26.583 --> 43:28.493 align:start position:0%
than the homminins that had been
discovered<00:45:00.240><c> before.</c><00:45:00.960><c> the</c><00:45:01.119><c> ape-like</c>

43:28.493 --> 43:28.503 align:start position:0%
discovered before. the ape-like
 

43:28.503 --> 43:31.453 align:start position:0%
discovered before. the ape-like
orolopithesines,<00:45:02.880><c> the</c><00:45:03.119><c> robust</c><00:45:03.680><c> paranthropus</c>

43:31.453 --> 43:31.463 align:start position:0%
orolopithesines, the robust paranthropus
 

43:31.463 --> 43:34.333 align:start position:0%
orolopithesines, the robust paranthropus
or<00:45:04.880><c> the</c><00:45:05.040><c> smallrained</c><00:45:05.920><c> homohabilis.</c>

43:34.333 --> 43:34.343 align:start position:0%
or the smallrained homohabilis.
 

43:34.343 --> 43:37.132 align:start position:0%
or the smallrained homohabilis.
Indeed,<00:45:08.000><c> Takana</c><00:45:08.640><c> boy</c><00:45:09.119><c> like</c><00:45:09.280><c> other</c><00:45:09.520><c> homoagasta</c>

43:37.132 --> 43:37.142 align:start position:0%
Indeed, Takana boy like other homoagasta
 

43:37.142 --> 43:39.853 align:start position:0%
Indeed, Takana boy like other homoagasta
and<00:45:10.480><c> homoerectus</c><00:45:11.200><c> individuals</c><00:45:12.240><c> resembles</c>

43:39.853 --> 43:39.863 align:start position:0%
and homoerectus individuals resembles
 

43:39.863 --> 43:42.973 align:start position:0%
and homoerectus individuals resembles
us.<00:45:14.000><c> He</c><00:45:14.240><c> had</c><00:45:14.400><c> long</c><00:45:14.640><c> legs</c><00:45:15.040><c> for</c><00:45:15.280><c> walking</c><00:45:15.839><c> and</c>

43:42.973 --> 43:42.983 align:start position:0%
us. He had long legs for walking and
 

43:42.983 --> 43:45.213 align:start position:0%
us. He had long legs for walking and
shorter,<00:45:16.640><c> weaker</c><00:45:17.119><c> arms</c><00:45:17.520><c> that</c><00:45:17.760><c> were</c><00:45:17.920><c> less</c><00:45:18.160><c> able</c>

43:45.213 --> 43:45.223 align:start position:0%
shorter, weaker arms that were less able
 

43:45.223 --> 43:48.172 align:start position:0%
shorter, weaker arms that were less able
to<00:45:18.560><c> climb</c><00:45:19.040><c> trees,</c><00:45:20.000><c> and</c><00:45:20.240><c> his</c><00:45:20.560><c> teeth</c><00:45:20.960><c> also</c>

43:48.172 --> 43:48.182 align:start position:0%
to climb trees, and his teeth also
 

43:48.182 --> 43:50.733 align:start position:0%
to climb trees, and his teeth also
resembled<00:45:21.920><c> ours.</c><00:45:22.800><c> The</c><00:45:23.040><c> larger</c><00:45:23.440><c> chunkier</c>

43:50.733 --> 43:50.743 align:start position:0%
resembled ours. The larger chunkier
 

43:50.743 --> 43:52.973 align:start position:0%
resembled ours. The larger chunkier
teeth<00:45:24.079><c> of</c><00:45:24.240><c> Oralopythecus</c><00:45:25.359><c> and</c><00:45:25.599><c> the</c><00:45:25.760><c> massive</c>

43:52.973 --> 43:52.983 align:start position:0%
teeth of Oralopythecus and the massive
 

43:52.983 --> 43:55.213 align:start position:0%
teeth of Oralopythecus and the massive
teeth<00:45:26.400><c> of</c><00:45:26.560><c> Paranthropus</c><00:45:27.359><c> begin</c><00:45:27.680><c> to</c><00:45:27.839><c> disappear</c>

43:55.213 --> 43:55.223 align:start position:0%
teeth of Paranthropus begin to disappear
 

43:55.223 --> 43:57.453 align:start position:0%
teeth of Paranthropus begin to disappear
from<00:45:28.560><c> the</c><00:45:28.720><c> fossil</c><00:45:29.200><c> record</c><00:45:29.839><c> in</c><00:45:30.160><c> favor</c><00:45:30.400><c> of</c>

43:57.453 --> 43:57.463 align:start position:0%
from the fossil record in favor of
 

43:57.463 --> 44:00.253 align:start position:0%
from the fossil record in favor of
smaller<00:45:31.040><c> mers</c><00:45:31.520><c> and</c><00:45:31.760><c> preolars.</c><00:45:32.960><c> And</c><00:45:33.119><c> as</c><00:45:33.280><c> the</c>

44:00.253 --> 44:00.263 align:start position:0%
smaller mers and preolars. And as the
 

44:00.263 --> 44:03.132 align:start position:0%
smaller mers and preolars. And as the
teeth<00:45:33.680><c> got</c><00:45:33.920><c> smaller,</c><00:45:34.560><c> so</c><00:45:34.880><c> did</c><00:45:35.119><c> the</c><00:45:35.359><c> jaw.</c><00:45:36.079><c> It</c>

44:03.132 --> 44:03.142 align:start position:0%
teeth got smaller, so did the jaw. It
 

44:03.142 --> 44:05.373 align:start position:0%
teeth got smaller, so did the jaw. It
needed<00:45:36.640><c> less</c><00:45:36.880><c> power</c><00:45:37.200><c> to</c><00:45:37.440><c> chew</c><00:45:37.760><c> and</c><00:45:38.079><c> grind</c>

44:05.373 --> 44:05.383 align:start position:0%
needed less power to chew and grind
 

44:05.383 --> 44:08.733 align:start position:0%
needed less power to chew and grind
food.<00:45:39.520><c> And</c><00:45:39.760><c> in</c><00:45:40.079><c> fact,</c><00:45:40.800><c> scientists</c><00:45:41.440><c> think</c><00:45:41.680><c> that</c>

44:08.733 --> 44:08.743 align:start position:0%
food. And in fact, scientists think that
 

44:08.743 --> 44:11.453 align:start position:0%
food. And in fact, scientists think that
Tana<00:45:42.480><c> Boy's</c><00:45:42.880><c> teeth</c><00:45:43.520><c> were</c><00:45:43.760><c> what</c><00:45:44.000><c> actually</c><00:45:44.400><c> got</c>

44:11.453 --> 44:11.463 align:start position:0%
Tana Boy's teeth were what actually got
 

44:11.463 --> 44:14.013 align:start position:0%
Tana Boy's teeth were what actually got
him<00:45:44.880><c> killed</c><00:45:45.359><c> all</c><00:45:45.599><c> those</c><00:45:45.839><c> years</c><00:45:46.000><c> ago.</c><00:45:46.880><c> He</c><00:45:47.119><c> had</c>

44:14.013 --> 44:14.023 align:start position:0%
him killed all those years ago. He had
 

44:14.023 --> 44:16.172 align:start position:0%
him killed all those years ago. He had
the<00:45:47.440><c> fragments</c><00:45:47.839><c> of</c><00:45:48.000><c> a</c><00:45:48.160><c> broken</c><00:45:48.560><c> milk</c><00:45:48.880><c> tooth</c><00:45:49.119><c> in</c>

44:16.172 --> 44:16.182 align:start position:0%
the fragments of a broken milk tooth in
 

44:16.182 --> 44:18.253 align:start position:0%
the fragments of a broken milk tooth in
his<00:45:49.599><c> mouth.</c><00:45:50.160><c> And</c><00:45:50.400><c> scientists</c><00:45:50.880><c> think</c><00:45:51.119><c> that</c><00:45:51.280><c> he</c>

44:18.253 --> 44:18.263 align:start position:0%
his mouth. And scientists think that he
 

44:18.263 --> 44:20.172 align:start position:0%
his mouth. And scientists think that he
got<00:45:51.599><c> an</c><00:45:51.760><c> infection</c><00:45:52.319><c> between</c><00:45:52.560><c> that</c><00:45:52.800><c> old</c><00:45:53.040><c> tooth</c>

44:20.172 --> 44:20.182 align:start position:0%
got an infection between that old tooth
 

44:20.182 --> 44:22.813 align:start position:0%
got an infection between that old tooth
and<00:45:53.599><c> a</c><00:45:53.760><c> new</c><00:45:54.160><c> erupting</c><00:45:54.560><c> preolar.</c><00:45:55.599><c> The</c><00:45:55.760><c> mouth</c>

44:22.813 --> 44:22.823 align:start position:0%
and a new erupting preolar. The mouth
 

44:22.823 --> 44:24.573 align:start position:0%
and a new erupting preolar. The mouth
infection<00:45:56.400><c> would</c><00:45:56.640><c> have</c><00:45:56.800><c> poisoned</c><00:45:57.119><c> his</c><00:45:57.280><c> blood</c>

44:24.573 --> 44:24.583 align:start position:0%
infection would have poisoned his blood
 

44:24.583 --> 44:28.892 align:start position:0%
infection would have poisoned his blood
and<00:45:58.079><c> killed</c><00:45:58.319><c> him.</c>

44:28.892 --> 44:28.902 align:start position:0%
 
 

44:28.902 --> 44:31.213 align:start position:0%
 
And<00:46:02.240><c> so</c><00:46:02.400><c> as</c><00:46:02.560><c> homminid</c><00:46:03.040><c> fossils</c><00:46:03.599><c> get</c><00:46:03.839><c> younger</c>

44:31.213 --> 44:31.223 align:start position:0%
And so as homminid fossils get younger
 

44:31.223 --> 44:33.293 align:start position:0%
And so as homminid fossils get younger
and<00:46:04.720><c> closer</c><00:46:05.040><c> to</c><00:46:05.200><c> modern</c><00:46:05.520><c> humans,</c><00:46:06.240><c> their</c>

44:33.293 --> 44:33.303 align:start position:0%
and closer to modern humans, their
 

44:33.303 --> 44:35.853 align:start position:0%
and closer to modern humans, their
grassile<00:46:07.040><c> traits</c><00:46:07.520><c> continue</c><00:46:08.240><c> while</c><00:46:08.560><c> robust</c>

44:35.853 --> 44:35.863 align:start position:0%
grassile traits continue while robust
 

44:35.863 --> 44:38.973 align:start position:0%
grassile traits continue while robust
features<00:46:09.760><c> disappear.</c><00:46:11.040><c> Homo's</c><00:46:11.520><c> teeth</c><00:46:11.839><c> become</c>

44:38.973 --> 44:38.983 align:start position:0%
features disappear. Homo's teeth become
 

44:38.983 --> 44:40.973 align:start position:0%
features disappear. Homo's teeth become
smaller<00:46:12.560><c> and</c><00:46:12.800><c> their</c><00:46:13.040><c> faces</c><00:46:13.440><c> start</c><00:46:13.680><c> to</c><00:46:13.920><c> stick</c>

44:40.973 --> 44:40.983 align:start position:0%
smaller and their faces start to stick
 

44:40.983 --> 44:43.533 align:start position:0%
smaller and their faces start to stick
out<00:46:14.400><c> less.</c><00:46:15.119><c> Paranthropus'</c><00:46:16.000><c> face</c><00:46:16.160><c> jutted</c><00:46:16.560><c> out</c>

44:43.533 --> 44:43.543 align:start position:0%
out less. Paranthropus' face jutted out
 

44:43.543 --> 44:45.533 align:start position:0%
out less. Paranthropus' face jutted out
more<00:46:16.880><c> than</c><00:46:17.119><c> ours</c><00:46:17.359><c> or</c><00:46:17.599><c> even</c><00:46:17.760><c> Homoagasta</c><00:46:18.560><c> and</c>

44:45.533 --> 44:45.543 align:start position:0%
more than ours or even Homoagasta and
 

44:45.543 --> 44:47.932 align:start position:0%
more than ours or even Homoagasta and
Homo<00:46:19.040><c> erectus.</c><00:46:19.920><c> Although</c><00:46:20.240><c> later</c><00:46:20.480><c> homminins</c>

44:47.932 --> 44:47.942 align:start position:0%
Homo erectus. Although later homminins
 

44:47.942 --> 44:49.853 align:start position:0%
Homo erectus. Although later homminins
still<00:46:21.280><c> had</c><00:46:21.520><c> strong</c><00:46:21.839><c> jaws,</c><00:46:22.400><c> they</c><00:46:22.640><c> would</c><00:46:22.800><c> never</c>

44:49.853 --> 44:49.863 align:start position:0%
still had strong jaws, they would never
 

44:49.863 --> 44:52.573 align:start position:0%
still had strong jaws, they would never
again<00:46:23.440><c> be</c><00:46:23.599><c> as</c><00:46:23.839><c> powerful</c><00:46:24.480><c> as</c><00:46:24.880><c> giant</c><00:46:25.359><c> tooththed</c>

44:52.573 --> 44:52.583 align:start position:0%
again be as powerful as giant tooththed
 

44:52.583 --> 44:54.813 align:start position:0%
again be as powerful as giant tooththed
paranthropus.<00:46:26.720><c> And</c><00:46:26.880><c> so</c><00:46:27.040><c> just</c><00:46:27.280><c> how</c><00:46:27.520><c> crucial</c>

44:54.813 --> 44:54.823 align:start position:0%
paranthropus. And so just how crucial
 

44:54.823 --> 44:57.373 align:start position:0%
paranthropus. And so just how crucial
was<00:46:28.240><c> our</c><00:46:28.480><c> reduced</c><00:46:28.960><c> tooth</c><00:46:29.359><c> and</c><00:46:29.520><c> jaw</c><00:46:29.839><c> size</c><00:46:30.240><c> to</c>

44:57.373 --> 44:57.383 align:start position:0%
was our reduced tooth and jaw size to
 

44:57.383 --> 45:01.453 align:start position:0%
was our reduced tooth and jaw size to
our<00:46:30.720><c> eventual</c><00:46:31.520><c> survival?</c>

45:01.453 --> 45:01.463 align:start position:0%
 
 

45:01.463 --> 45:03.213 align:start position:0%
 
The<00:46:34.880><c> difficulty</c><00:46:35.200><c> in</c><00:46:35.440><c> examining</c><00:46:35.839><c> the</c><00:46:36.079><c> pattern</c>

45:03.213 --> 45:03.223 align:start position:0%
The difficulty in examining the pattern
 

45:03.223 --> 45:05.453 align:start position:0%
The difficulty in examining the pattern
of<00:46:36.640><c> human</c><00:46:36.880><c> origins</c><00:46:37.599><c> is</c><00:46:37.760><c> that</c><00:46:37.920><c> we</c><00:46:38.079><c> do</c><00:46:38.240><c> not</c><00:46:38.400><c> know</c>

45:05.453 --> 45:05.463 align:start position:0%
of human origins is that we do not know
 

45:05.463 --> 45:07.773 align:start position:0%
of human origins is that we do not know
exactly<00:46:39.280><c> what</c><00:46:39.520><c> was</c><00:46:39.760><c> cause</c><00:46:40.240><c> and</c><00:46:40.480><c> what</c><00:46:40.720><c> was</c>

45:07.773 --> 45:07.783 align:start position:0%
exactly what was cause and what was
 

45:07.783 --> 45:10.652 align:start position:0%
exactly what was cause and what was
effect.<00:46:42.000><c> But</c><00:46:42.240><c> grassile</c><00:46:42.880><c> teeth</c><00:46:43.119><c> and</c><00:46:43.440><c> jaws</c>

45:10.652 --> 45:10.662 align:start position:0%
effect. But grassile teeth and jaws
 

45:10.662 --> 45:12.813 align:start position:0%
effect. But grassile teeth and jaws
appear<00:46:44.079><c> to</c><00:46:44.240><c> have</c><00:46:44.319><c> offered</c><00:46:44.720><c> later</c><00:46:45.119><c> species</c><00:46:45.680><c> an</c>

45:12.813 --> 45:12.823 align:start position:0%
appear to have offered later species an
 

45:12.823 --> 45:15.773 align:start position:0%
appear to have offered later species an
advantage.<00:46:47.280><c> One</c><00:46:47.520><c> benefit</c><00:46:47.920><c> is</c><00:46:48.160><c> that</c><00:46:48.400><c> smaller,</c>

45:15.773 --> 45:15.783 align:start position:0%
advantage. One benefit is that smaller,
 

45:15.783 --> 45:17.533 align:start position:0%
advantage. One benefit is that smaller,
sharper<00:46:49.440><c> teeth</c><00:46:49.760><c> allow</c><00:46:50.079><c> you</c><00:46:50.240><c> to</c><00:46:50.400><c> pierce</c>

45:17.533 --> 45:17.543 align:start position:0%
sharper teeth allow you to pierce
 

45:17.543 --> 45:19.932 align:start position:0%
sharper teeth allow you to pierce
objects<00:46:51.119><c> with</c><00:46:51.359><c> less</c><00:46:51.680><c> force.</c><00:46:52.400><c> Paranthropus</c>

45:19.932 --> 45:19.942 align:start position:0%
objects with less force. Paranthropus
 

45:19.942 --> 45:22.253 align:start position:0%
objects with less force. Paranthropus
mouths<00:46:53.599><c> were</c><00:46:53.760><c> highly</c><00:46:54.160><c> specialized</c><00:46:54.880><c> grinding</c>

45:22.253 --> 45:22.263 align:start position:0%
mouths were highly specialized grinding
 

45:22.263 --> 45:24.892 align:start position:0%
mouths were highly specialized grinding
machines,<00:46:56.160><c> but</c><00:46:56.480><c> rasile</c><00:46:57.119><c> humans</c><00:46:57.520><c> could</c><00:46:57.760><c> eat</c><00:46:57.920><c> a</c>

45:24.892 --> 45:24.902 align:start position:0%
machines, but rasile humans could eat a
 

45:24.902 --> 45:27.053 align:start position:0%
machines, but rasile humans could eat a
wider<00:46:58.400><c> variety</c><00:46:58.720><c> of</c><00:46:58.960><c> foods</c><00:46:59.280><c> than</c><00:46:59.440><c> their</c><00:46:59.680><c> robust</c>

45:27.053 --> 45:27.063 align:start position:0%
wider variety of foods than their robust
 

45:27.063 --> 45:29.453 align:start position:0%
wider variety of foods than their robust
cousins<00:47:00.960><c> and</c><00:47:01.200><c> could</c><00:47:01.520><c> consequently</c><00:47:02.160><c> survive</c><00:47:02.480><c> a</c>

45:29.453 --> 45:29.463 align:start position:0%
cousins and could consequently survive a
 

45:29.463 --> 45:31.373 align:start position:0%
cousins and could consequently survive a
tumultuous<00:47:03.359><c> climate</c><00:47:03.760><c> and</c><00:47:04.079><c> changing</c>

45:31.373 --> 45:31.383 align:start position:0%
tumultuous climate and changing
 

45:31.383 --> 45:34.013 align:start position:0%
tumultuous climate and changing
environments.<00:47:05.839><c> And</c><00:47:06.079><c> of</c><00:47:06.240><c> course,</c><00:47:06.560><c> this</c><00:47:06.800><c> wider</c>

45:34.013 --> 45:34.023 align:start position:0%
environments. And of course, this wider
 

45:34.023 --> 45:36.093 align:start position:0%
environments. And of course, this wider
variety<00:47:07.599><c> of</c><00:47:07.839><c> food</c><00:47:08.400><c> included</c><00:47:08.800><c> the</c><00:47:09.040><c> more</c>

45:36.093 --> 45:36.103 align:start position:0%
variety of food included the more
 

45:36.103 --> 45:38.733 align:start position:0%
variety of food included the more
regular<00:47:09.839><c> consumption</c><00:47:10.560><c> of</c><00:47:10.960><c> meat.</c>

45:38.733 --> 45:38.743 align:start position:0%
regular consumption of meat.
 

45:38.743 --> 45:41.453 align:start position:0%
regular consumption of meat.
Paranthropus<00:47:12.640><c> could</c><00:47:12.960><c> and</c><00:47:13.280><c> would</c><00:47:13.599><c> eat</c><00:47:13.839><c> meat.</c>

45:41.453 --> 45:41.463 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus could and would eat meat.
 

45:41.463 --> 45:43.773 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus could and would eat meat.
They,<00:47:15.040><c> like</c><00:47:15.200><c> us</c><00:47:15.359><c> and</c><00:47:15.599><c> our</c><00:47:15.839><c> ancestors,</c><00:47:16.560><c> were</c>

45:43.773 --> 45:43.783 align:start position:0%
They, like us and our ancestors, were
 

45:43.783 --> 45:45.533 align:start position:0%
They, like us and our ancestors, were
omnivores<00:47:17.680><c> and</c><00:47:17.920><c> would</c><00:47:18.079><c> eat</c><00:47:18.319><c> whatever</c><00:47:18.560><c> they</c>

45:45.533 --> 45:45.543 align:start position:0%
omnivores and would eat whatever they
 

45:45.543 --> 45:47.853 align:start position:0%
omnivores and would eat whatever they
could<00:47:18.880><c> get</c><00:47:19.040><c> their</c><00:47:19.200><c> hands</c><00:47:19.440><c> on</c><00:47:19.760><c> and</c><00:47:20.079><c> teeth</c><00:47:20.400><c> into.</c>

45:47.853 --> 45:47.863 align:start position:0%
could get their hands on and teeth into.
 

45:47.863 --> 45:49.932 align:start position:0%
could get their hands on and teeth into.
But<00:47:21.280><c> experts</c><00:47:21.760><c> believe</c><00:47:22.240><c> that</c><00:47:22.400><c> paranthropus</c>

45:49.932 --> 45:49.942 align:start position:0%
But experts believe that paranthropus
 

45:49.942 --> 45:52.172 align:start position:0%
But experts believe that paranthropus
meat<00:47:23.440><c> consumption</c><00:47:24.000><c> was</c><00:47:24.240><c> more</c><00:47:24.480><c> occasional</c><00:47:25.200><c> and</c>

45:52.172 --> 45:52.182 align:start position:0%
meat consumption was more occasional and
 

45:52.182 --> 45:54.172 align:start position:0%
meat consumption was more occasional and
opportunistic,<00:47:26.560><c> whereas</c><00:47:26.880><c> grassile</c>

45:54.172 --> 45:54.182 align:start position:0%
opportunistic, whereas grassile
 

45:54.182 --> 45:56.493 align:start position:0%
opportunistic, whereas grassile
homminins<00:47:28.000><c> took</c><00:47:28.240><c> meat</c><00:47:28.560><c> consumption</c><00:47:29.119><c> to</c><00:47:29.440><c> whole</c>

45:56.493 --> 45:56.503 align:start position:0%
homminins took meat consumption to whole
 

45:56.503 --> 45:59.773 align:start position:0%
homminins took meat consumption to whole
new<00:47:30.000><c> levels.</c><00:47:31.200><c> Although</c><00:47:31.520><c> despite</c><00:47:31.920><c> this,</c><00:47:32.560><c> human</c>

45:59.773 --> 45:59.783 align:start position:0%
new levels. Although despite this, human
 

45:59.783 --> 46:02.253 align:start position:0%
new levels. Although despite this, human
teeth<00:47:33.440><c> don't</c><00:47:33.920><c> scream</c><00:47:34.480><c> meate</c><00:47:34.800><c> eater.</c><00:47:35.200><c> When</c>

46:02.253 --> 46:02.263 align:start position:0%
teeth don't scream meate eater. When
 

46:02.263 --> 46:04.333 align:start position:0%
teeth don't scream meate eater. When
compared<00:47:35.680><c> to</c><00:47:35.839><c> carnivores</c><00:47:36.480><c> like</c><00:47:36.720><c> lions</c><00:47:37.280><c> or</c>

46:04.333 --> 46:04.343 align:start position:0%
compared to carnivores like lions or
 

46:04.343 --> 46:06.333 align:start position:0%
compared to carnivores like lions or
even<00:47:37.760><c> other</c><00:47:38.000><c> meat</c><00:47:38.240><c> heavy</c><00:47:38.640><c> omnivores</c><00:47:39.280><c> like</c>

46:06.333 --> 46:06.343 align:start position:0%
even other meat heavy omnivores like
 

46:06.343 --> 46:09.693 align:start position:0%
even other meat heavy omnivores like
badgers,<00:47:40.160><c> raccoons</c><00:47:40.800><c> or</c><00:47:41.200><c> bears,</c><00:47:42.319><c> they</c><00:47:42.640><c> all</c>

46:09.693 --> 46:09.703 align:start position:0%
badgers, raccoons or bears, they all
 

46:09.703 --> 46:11.932 align:start position:0%
badgers, raccoons or bears, they all
have<00:47:43.040><c> much</c><00:47:43.359><c> more</c><00:47:43.599><c> pronounced</c><00:47:44.160><c> canines</c><00:47:44.800><c> to</c>

46:11.932 --> 46:11.942 align:start position:0%
have much more pronounced canines to
 

46:11.942 --> 46:14.172 align:start position:0%
have much more pronounced canines to
tear<00:47:45.440><c> at</c><00:47:45.680><c> meat.</c><00:47:46.319><c> Human</c><00:47:46.640><c> teeth,</c><00:47:46.960><c> on</c><00:47:47.119><c> the</c><00:47:47.200><c> other</c>

46:14.172 --> 46:14.182 align:start position:0%
tear at meat. Human teeth, on the other
 

46:14.182 --> 46:16.652 align:start position:0%
tear at meat. Human teeth, on the other
hand,<00:47:47.599><c> are</c><00:47:47.839><c> highly</c><00:47:48.240><c> generalized.</c><00:47:49.200><c> Our</c><00:47:49.440><c> array</c>

46:16.652 --> 46:16.662 align:start position:0%
hand, are highly generalized. Our array
 

46:16.662 --> 46:18.892 align:start position:0%
hand, are highly generalized. Our array
of<00:47:50.000><c> incizers,</c><00:47:50.720><c> canines,</c><00:47:51.280><c> and</c><00:47:51.440><c> mers</c><00:47:51.920><c> are</c>

46:18.892 --> 46:18.902 align:start position:0%
of incizers, canines, and mers are
 

46:18.902 --> 46:20.973 align:start position:0%
of incizers, canines, and mers are
capable<00:47:52.400><c> of</c><00:47:52.560><c> tearing,</c><00:47:53.280><c> grinding,</c><00:47:53.839><c> and</c>

46:20.973 --> 46:20.983 align:start position:0%
capable of tearing, grinding, and
 

46:20.983 --> 46:23.132 align:start position:0%
capable of tearing, grinding, and
cutting<00:47:54.720><c> without</c><00:47:55.040><c> specializing</c><00:47:55.680><c> too</c><00:47:56.000><c> heavily</c>

46:23.132 --> 46:23.142 align:start position:0%
cutting without specializing too heavily
 

46:23.142 --> 46:25.693 align:start position:0%
cutting without specializing too heavily
in<00:47:56.560><c> any</c><00:47:56.880><c> one</c><00:47:57.200><c> aspect.</c><00:47:58.240><c> This</c><00:47:58.400><c> would</c><00:47:58.560><c> have</c><00:47:58.720><c> been</c>

46:25.693 --> 46:25.703 align:start position:0%
in any one aspect. This would have been
 

46:25.703 --> 46:27.613 align:start position:0%
in any one aspect. This would have been
useful<00:47:59.119><c> when</c><00:47:59.359><c> having</c><00:47:59.599><c> to</c><00:47:59.760><c> rely</c><00:48:00.000><c> on</c><00:48:00.240><c> new</c><00:48:00.480><c> or</c>

46:27.613 --> 46:27.623 align:start position:0%
useful when having to rely on new or
 

46:27.623 --> 46:29.773 align:start position:0%
useful when having to rely on new or
changing<00:48:01.200><c> food</c><00:48:01.440><c> sources</c><00:48:02.000><c> and</c><00:48:02.240><c> also</c><00:48:02.560><c> left</c><00:48:02.720><c> us</c>

46:29.773 --> 46:29.783 align:start position:0%
changing food sources and also left us
 

46:29.783 --> 46:31.853 align:start position:0%
changing food sources and also left us
able<00:48:03.200><c> to</c><00:48:03.359><c> eat</c><00:48:03.599><c> large</c><00:48:03.920><c> quantities</c><00:48:04.400><c> of</c><00:48:04.640><c> meat</c>

46:31.853 --> 46:31.863 align:start position:0%
able to eat large quantities of meat
 

46:31.863 --> 46:33.693 align:start position:0%
able to eat large quantities of meat
when<00:48:05.280><c> presented</c><00:48:05.680><c> with</c><00:48:05.839><c> the</c><00:48:06.079><c> opportunity</c><00:48:06.640><c> by</c>

46:33.693 --> 46:33.703 align:start position:0%
when presented with the opportunity by
 

46:33.703 --> 46:36.652 align:start position:0%
when presented with the opportunity by
our<00:48:07.119><c> advanced</c><00:48:07.599><c> tools</c><00:48:08.319><c> enabled</c><00:48:08.880><c> by</c><00:48:09.200><c> our</c><00:48:09.440><c> large</c>

46:36.652 --> 46:36.662 align:start position:0%
our advanced tools enabled by our large
 

46:36.662 --> 46:39.053 align:start position:0%
our advanced tools enabled by our large
brains.

46:39.053 --> 46:39.063 align:start position:0%
brains.
 

46:39.063 --> 46:41.613 align:start position:0%
brains.
And<00:48:12.400><c> so</c><00:48:12.640><c> grassho</c><00:48:13.280><c> humans</c><00:48:13.680><c> may</c><00:48:13.920><c> be</c><00:48:14.079><c> defined</c><00:48:14.560><c> and</c>

46:41.613 --> 46:41.623 align:start position:0%
And so grassho humans may be defined and
 

46:41.623 --> 46:43.853 align:start position:0%
And so grassho humans may be defined and
categorized<00:48:15.440><c> as</c><00:48:15.599><c> such</c><00:48:15.839><c> by</c><00:48:16.079><c> their</c><00:48:16.319><c> teeth</c><00:48:16.800><c> which</c>

46:43.853 --> 46:43.863 align:start position:0%
categorized as such by their teeth which
 

46:43.863 --> 46:45.853 align:start position:0%
categorized as such by their teeth which
has<00:48:17.119><c> been</c><00:48:17.280><c> a</c><00:48:17.440><c> useful</c><00:48:17.680><c> way</c><00:48:17.920><c> to</c><00:48:18.079><c> classify</c><00:48:18.640><c> fines</c>

46:45.853 --> 46:45.863 align:start position:0%
has been a useful way to classify fines
 

46:45.863 --> 46:47.932 align:start position:0%
has been a useful way to classify fines
over<00:48:19.280><c> the</c><00:48:19.520><c> decades.</c><00:48:20.240><c> But</c><00:48:20.319><c> we</c><00:48:20.480><c> do</c><00:48:20.640><c> have</c><00:48:20.800><c> other</c>

46:47.932 --> 46:47.942 align:start position:0%
over the decades. But we do have other
 

46:47.942 --> 46:49.613 align:start position:0%
over the decades. But we do have other
features<00:48:21.599><c> that</c><00:48:21.839><c> are</c><00:48:22.000><c> vastly</c><00:48:22.400><c> different</c><00:48:22.640><c> to</c>

46:49.613 --> 46:49.623 align:start position:0%
features that are vastly different to
 

46:49.623 --> 46:52.412 align:start position:0%
features that are vastly different to
Paranthropus<00:48:23.680><c> as</c><00:48:24.000><c> well.</c>

46:52.412 --> 46:52.422 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus as well.
 

46:52.422 --> 46:54.733 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus as well.
Though<00:48:25.839><c> Paranthropus</c><00:48:26.640><c> could</c><00:48:26.880><c> walk</c><00:48:27.200><c> upright,</c>

46:54.733 --> 46:54.743 align:start position:0%
Though Paranthropus could walk upright,
 

46:54.743 --> 46:56.973 align:start position:0%
Though Paranthropus could walk upright,
the<00:48:28.079><c> grassile</c><00:48:28.640><c> homogeneous</c><00:48:29.359><c> became</c><00:48:29.680><c> masters</c>

46:56.973 --> 46:56.983 align:start position:0%
the grassile homogeneous became masters
 

46:56.983 --> 46:59.453 align:start position:0%
the grassile homogeneous became masters
of<00:48:30.400><c> traveling</c><00:48:30.800><c> long</c><00:48:31.119><c> distances,</c><00:48:32.079><c> allowing</c><00:48:32.480><c> us</c>

46:59.453 --> 46:59.463 align:start position:0%
of traveling long distances, allowing us
 

46:59.463 --> 47:01.613 align:start position:0%
of traveling long distances, allowing us
to<00:48:32.880><c> search</c><00:48:33.200><c> far</c><00:48:33.440><c> and</c><00:48:33.680><c> wide</c><00:48:34.000><c> for</c><00:48:34.319><c> food</c><00:48:34.559><c> and</c>

47:01.613 --> 47:01.623 align:start position:0%
to search far and wide for food and
 

47:01.623 --> 47:03.932 align:start position:0%
to search far and wide for food and
other<00:48:35.040><c> resources.</c><00:48:36.079><c> As</c><00:48:36.240><c> well</c><00:48:36.400><c> as</c><00:48:36.559><c> this,</c><00:48:36.880><c> our</c>

47:03.932 --> 47:03.942 align:start position:0%
other resources. As well as this, our
 

47:03.942 --> 47:06.333 align:start position:0%
other resources. As well as this, our
walking<00:48:37.520><c> legs</c><00:48:37.839><c> freed</c><00:48:38.160><c> up</c><00:48:38.319><c> our</c><00:48:38.559><c> arms</c><00:48:39.200><c> so</c><00:48:39.359><c> that</c>

47:06.333 --> 47:06.343 align:start position:0%
walking legs freed up our arms so that
 

47:06.343 --> 47:07.932 align:start position:0%
walking legs freed up our arms so that
we<00:48:39.680><c> could</c><00:48:39.839><c> do</c><00:48:40.000><c> other</c><00:48:40.240><c> things</c><00:48:40.480><c> while</c><00:48:40.800><c> we</c><00:48:40.960><c> were</c>

47:07.932 --> 47:07.942 align:start position:0%
we could do other things while we were
 

47:07.942 --> 47:09.853 align:start position:0%
we could do other things while we were
moving.<00:48:41.680><c> And</c><00:48:41.760><c> we</c><00:48:41.920><c> took</c><00:48:42.160><c> this</c><00:48:42.400><c> much</c><00:48:42.720><c> further</c>

47:09.853 --> 47:09.863 align:start position:0%
moving. And we took this much further
 

47:09.863 --> 47:11.853 align:start position:0%
moving. And we took this much further
than<00:48:43.280><c> Paranthropus.</c><00:48:44.400><c> This</c><00:48:44.559><c> included</c>

47:11.853 --> 47:11.863 align:start position:0%
than Paranthropus. This included
 

47:11.863 --> 47:13.853 align:start position:0%
than Paranthropus. This included
multi-use<00:48:45.599><c> handaxes</c><00:48:46.319><c> like</c><00:48:46.480><c> those</c><00:48:46.720><c> developed</c>

47:13.853 --> 47:13.863 align:start position:0%
multi-use handaxes like those developed
 

47:13.863 --> 47:16.333 align:start position:0%
multi-use handaxes like those developed
by<00:48:47.200><c> Homo</c><00:48:47.599><c> Erectus</c><00:48:48.240><c> and</c><00:48:48.480><c> also</c><00:48:48.800><c> the</c><00:48:49.040><c> eventual</c>

47:16.333 --> 47:16.343 align:start position:0%
by Homo Erectus and also the eventual
 

47:16.343 --> 47:18.573 align:start position:0%
by Homo Erectus and also the eventual
use<00:48:49.760><c> of</c><00:48:49.920><c> the</c><00:48:50.160><c> spear.</c><00:48:50.880><c> And</c><00:48:51.119><c> these</c><00:48:51.359><c> types</c><00:48:51.599><c> of</c>

47:18.573 --> 47:18.583 align:start position:0%
use of the spear. And these types of
 

47:18.583 --> 47:20.892 align:start position:0%
use of the spear. And these types of
tools<00:48:52.160><c> allowed</c><00:48:52.559><c> us</c><00:48:52.720><c> to</c><00:48:52.880><c> hunt,</c><00:48:53.520><c> multiplying</c>

47:20.892 --> 47:20.902 align:start position:0%
tools allowed us to hunt, multiplying
 

47:20.902 --> 47:23.213 align:start position:0%
tools allowed us to hunt, multiplying
our<00:48:54.240><c> food</c><00:48:54.559><c> opportunities</c><00:48:55.280><c> even</c><00:48:55.680><c> further,</c>

47:23.213 --> 47:23.223 align:start position:0%
our food opportunities even further,
 

47:23.223 --> 47:24.973 align:start position:0%
our food opportunities even further,
eventually<00:48:56.800><c> helping</c><00:48:57.040><c> us</c><00:48:57.280><c> fend</c><00:48:57.520><c> off</c><00:48:57.760><c> larger</c>

47:24.973 --> 47:24.983 align:start position:0%
eventually helping us fend off larger
 

47:24.983 --> 47:26.733 align:start position:0%
eventually helping us fend off larger
predators<00:48:58.559><c> that</c><00:48:58.720><c> might</c><00:48:58.880><c> look</c><00:48:59.119><c> to</c><00:48:59.280><c> kill</c><00:48:59.440><c> us,</c>

47:26.733 --> 47:26.743 align:start position:0%
predators that might look to kill us,
 

47:26.743 --> 47:28.333 align:start position:0%
predators that might look to kill us,
and<00:49:00.160><c> even</c><00:49:00.400><c> helping</c><00:49:00.720><c> us</c><00:49:00.880><c> compete</c><00:49:01.280><c> with</c>

47:28.333 --> 47:28.343 align:start position:0%
and even helping us compete with
 

47:28.343 --> 47:30.412 align:start position:0%
and even helping us compete with
predators<00:49:01.920><c> like</c><00:49:02.079><c> Megan</c><00:49:02.480><c> Tyrion</c><00:49:03.040><c> for</c><00:49:03.359><c> their</c>

47:30.412 --> 47:30.422 align:start position:0%
predators like Megan Tyrion for their
 

47:30.422 --> 47:33.213 align:start position:0%
predators like Megan Tyrion for their
kills.<00:49:04.400><c> All</c><00:49:04.640><c> of</c><00:49:04.800><c> this</c><00:49:05.040><c> brought</c><00:49:05.440><c> calories,</c>

47:33.213 --> 47:33.223 align:start position:0%
kills. All of this brought calories,
 

47:33.223 --> 47:35.533 align:start position:0%
kills. All of this brought calories,
feeding<00:49:06.880><c> brain</c><00:49:07.280><c> size,</c><00:49:07.680><c> and</c><00:49:07.920><c> in</c><00:49:08.079><c> turn</c><00:49:08.319><c> allowing</c>

47:35.533 --> 47:35.543 align:start position:0%
feeding brain size, and in turn allowing
 

47:35.543 --> 47:37.853 align:start position:0%
feeding brain size, and in turn allowing
for<00:49:08.960><c> more</c><00:49:09.200><c> complex</c><00:49:09.599><c> tools</c><00:49:10.000><c> and</c><00:49:10.240><c> strategies</c><00:49:10.800><c> to</c>

47:37.853 --> 47:37.863 align:start position:0%
for more complex tools and strategies to
 

47:37.863 --> 47:40.013 align:start position:0%
for more complex tools and strategies to
be<00:49:11.200><c> formed.</c><00:49:12.000><c> And</c><00:49:12.240><c> as</c><00:49:12.400><c> our</c><00:49:12.640><c> brains</c><00:49:12.960><c> were</c>

47:40.013 --> 47:40.023 align:start position:0%
be formed. And as our brains were
 

47:40.023 --> 47:41.693 align:start position:0%
be formed. And as our brains were
getting<00:49:13.440><c> bigger,</c><00:49:13.839><c> our</c><00:49:14.079><c> hands</c><00:49:14.480><c> were</c><00:49:14.640><c> getting</c>

47:41.693 --> 47:41.703 align:start position:0%
getting bigger, our hands were getting
 

47:41.703 --> 47:44.013 align:start position:0%
getting bigger, our hands were getting
nimler,<00:49:15.599><c> thus</c><00:49:15.920><c> more</c><00:49:16.240><c> suitable</c><00:49:16.720><c> for</c><00:49:16.960><c> more</c>

47:44.013 --> 47:44.023 align:start position:0%
nimler, thus more suitable for more
 

47:44.023 --> 47:46.652 align:start position:0%
nimler, thus more suitable for more
precise<00:49:17.839><c> work.</c><00:49:18.800><c> And</c><00:49:18.960><c> so</c><00:49:19.200><c> we</c><00:49:19.359><c> may</c><00:49:19.520><c> share</c><00:49:19.680><c> a</c>

47:46.652 --> 47:46.662 align:start position:0%
precise work. And so we may share a
 

47:46.662 --> 47:48.892 align:start position:0%
precise work. And so we may share a
common<00:49:20.160><c> ancestor</c><00:49:20.559><c> with</c><00:49:20.800><c> Paranthropus</c><00:49:21.839><c> deep</c>

47:48.892 --> 47:48.902 align:start position:0%
common ancestor with Paranthropus deep
 

47:48.902 --> 47:51.293 align:start position:0%
common ancestor with Paranthropus deep
in<00:49:22.319><c> the</c><00:49:22.480><c> heyday</c><00:49:22.880><c> of</c><00:49:22.960><c> the</c><00:49:23.119><c> orolopythecines.</c>

47:51.293 --> 47:51.303 align:start position:0%
in the heyday of the orolopythecines.
 

47:51.303 --> 47:53.132 align:start position:0%
in the heyday of the orolopythecines.
But<00:49:24.559><c> the</c><00:49:24.720><c> longer</c><00:49:25.040><c> our</c><00:49:25.359><c> ancestors</c><00:49:25.920><c> existed</c>

47:53.132 --> 47:53.142 align:start position:0%
But the longer our ancestors existed
 

47:53.142 --> 47:55.053 align:start position:0%
But the longer our ancestors existed
alongside<00:49:26.960><c> Paranthropus,</c><00:49:27.839><c> the</c><00:49:28.000><c> more</c>

47:55.053 --> 47:55.063 align:start position:0%
alongside Paranthropus, the more
 

47:55.063 --> 47:57.533 align:start position:0%
alongside Paranthropus, the more
different<00:49:28.559><c> from</c><00:49:28.880><c> them</c><00:49:29.280><c> they</c><00:49:29.599><c> became.</c><00:49:30.319><c> By</c><00:49:30.559><c> the</c>

47:57.533 --> 47:57.543 align:start position:0%
different from them they became. By the
 

47:57.543 --> 47:59.372 align:start position:0%
different from them they became. By the
time<00:49:30.800><c> of</c><00:49:30.960><c> their</c><00:49:31.200><c> extinction,</c><00:49:31.839><c> we</c><00:49:32.079><c> had</c><00:49:32.240><c> become</c>

47:59.372 --> 47:59.382 align:start position:0%
time of their extinction, we had become
 

47:59.382 --> 48:01.613 align:start position:0%
time of their extinction, we had become
capable<00:49:32.880><c> of</c><00:49:33.119><c> many</c><00:49:33.440><c> things</c><00:49:33.920><c> well</c><00:49:34.160><c> beyond</c><00:49:34.559><c> their</c>

48:01.613 --> 48:01.623 align:start position:0%
capable of many things well beyond their
 

48:01.623 --> 48:03.932 align:start position:0%
capable of many things well beyond their
grasp.<00:49:35.520><c> And</c><00:49:35.680><c> we</c><00:49:35.920><c> continued</c><00:49:36.400><c> to</c><00:49:36.640><c> break</c><00:49:36.880><c> new</c>

48:03.932 --> 48:03.942 align:start position:0%
grasp. And we continued to break new
 

48:03.942 --> 48:06.412 align:start position:0%
grasp. And we continued to break new
boundaries<00:49:37.839><c> after</c><00:49:38.160><c> they</c><00:49:38.400><c> were</c><00:49:38.559><c> gone.</c><00:49:39.359><c> And</c>

48:06.412 --> 48:06.422 align:start position:0%
boundaries after they were gone. And
 

48:06.422 --> 48:09.293 align:start position:0%
boundaries after they were gone. And
this<00:49:39.839><c> journey</c><00:49:40.319><c> is</c><00:49:40.559><c> not</c><00:49:40.800><c> over.</c><00:49:41.680><c> Our</c><00:49:41.920><c> species</c>

48:09.293 --> 48:09.303 align:start position:0%
this journey is not over. Our species
 

48:09.303 --> 48:11.773 align:start position:0%
this journey is not over. Our species
has<00:49:42.720><c> created</c><00:49:43.040><c> a</c><00:49:43.280><c> great</c><00:49:43.520><c> many</c><00:49:43.839><c> new</c><00:49:44.160><c> things,</c>

48:11.773 --> 48:11.783 align:start position:0%
has created a great many new things,
 

48:11.783 --> 48:14.493 align:start position:0%
has created a great many new things,
especially<00:49:45.440><c> over</c><00:49:45.680><c> the</c><00:49:45.839><c> last</c><00:49:46.079><c> 50,000</c><00:49:46.880><c> years.</c>

48:14.493 --> 48:14.503 align:start position:0%
especially over the last 50,000 years.
 

48:14.503 --> 48:16.733 align:start position:0%
especially over the last 50,000 years.
And<00:49:47.920><c> interestingly,</c><00:49:48.880><c> our</c><00:49:49.200><c> teeth</c><00:49:49.599><c> are</c>

48:16.733 --> 48:16.743 align:start position:0%
And interestingly, our teeth are
 

48:16.743 --> 48:22.412 align:start position:0%
And interestingly, our teeth are
continuing<00:49:50.319><c> to</c><00:49:50.559><c> evolve</c><00:49:51.200><c> as</c><00:49:51.520><c> well.</c>

48:22.412 --> 48:22.422 align:start position:0%
 
 

48:22.422 --> 48:24.733 align:start position:0%
 
As<00:49:55.839><c> recently</c><00:49:56.160><c> as</c><00:49:56.400><c> 12,000</c><00:49:57.040><c> years</c><00:49:57.200><c> ago,</c><00:49:57.680><c> the</c>

48:24.733 --> 48:24.743 align:start position:0%
As recently as 12,000 years ago, the
 

48:24.743 --> 48:27.773 align:start position:0%
As recently as 12,000 years ago, the
human<00:49:58.240><c> diet</c><00:49:58.640><c> underwent</c><00:49:59.200><c> a</c><00:49:59.440><c> dramatic</c><00:50:00.000><c> shift.</c>

48:27.773 --> 48:27.783 align:start position:0%
human diet underwent a dramatic shift.
 

48:27.783 --> 48:30.172 align:start position:0%
human diet underwent a dramatic shift.
When<00:50:01.280><c> humans</c><00:50:01.680><c> began</c><00:50:02.079><c> farming,</c><00:50:02.720><c> we</c><00:50:02.960><c> shifted</c>

48:30.172 --> 48:30.182 align:start position:0%
When humans began farming, we shifted
 

48:30.182 --> 48:32.093 align:start position:0%
When humans began farming, we shifted
from<00:50:03.599><c> the</c><00:50:03.760><c> foods</c><00:50:04.000><c> we</c><00:50:04.240><c> foraged,</c><00:50:04.880><c> which</c><00:50:05.119><c> were</c>

48:32.093 --> 48:32.103 align:start position:0%
from the foods we foraged, which were
 

48:32.103 --> 48:34.253 align:start position:0%
from the foods we foraged, which were
coarse<00:50:05.680><c> and</c><00:50:05.839><c> hard</c><00:50:06.079><c> to</c><00:50:06.240><c> chew,</c><00:50:06.640><c> to</c><00:50:06.880><c> foods</c><00:50:07.280><c> that</c>

48:34.253 --> 48:34.263 align:start position:0%
coarse and hard to chew, to foods that
 

48:34.263 --> 48:36.973 align:start position:0%
coarse and hard to chew, to foods that
we<00:50:07.760><c> grew.</c><00:50:08.720><c> Cereals</c><00:50:09.200><c> and</c><00:50:09.440><c> fruits</c><00:50:09.839><c> became</c>

48:36.973 --> 48:36.983 align:start position:0%
we grew. Cereals and fruits became
 

48:36.983 --> 48:38.892 align:start position:0%
we grew. Cereals and fruits became
softer<00:50:10.559><c> as</c><00:50:10.800><c> we</c><00:50:10.960><c> bred</c><00:50:11.200><c> them</c><00:50:11.359><c> for</c><00:50:11.520><c> taste</c><00:50:11.839><c> and</c>

48:38.892 --> 48:38.902 align:start position:0%
softer as we bred them for taste and
 

48:38.902 --> 48:41.853 align:start position:0%
softer as we bred them for taste and
ease<00:50:12.319><c> of</c><00:50:12.559><c> eating.</c><00:50:13.280><c> And</c><00:50:13.599><c> our</c><00:50:13.920><c> teeth</c><00:50:14.160><c> and</c><00:50:14.400><c> jaws</c>

48:41.853 --> 48:41.863 align:start position:0%
ease of eating. And our teeth and jaws
 

48:41.863 --> 48:45.053 align:start position:0%
ease of eating. And our teeth and jaws
changed<00:50:15.760><c> with</c><00:50:15.920><c> our</c><00:50:16.240><c> food.</c><00:50:17.200><c> In</c><00:50:17.440><c> Argentina,</c>

48:45.053 --> 48:45.063 align:start position:0%
changed with our food. In Argentina,
 

48:45.063 --> 48:46.973 align:start position:0%
changed with our food. In Argentina,
researchers<00:50:18.720><c> have</c><00:50:18.960><c> investigated</c><00:50:19.520><c> the</c><00:50:19.839><c> dental</c>

48:46.973 --> 48:46.983 align:start position:0%
researchers have investigated the dental
 

48:46.983 --> 48:49.932 align:start position:0%
researchers have investigated the dental
and<00:50:20.400><c> jaw</c><00:50:20.720><c> differences</c><00:50:21.200><c> in</c><00:50:21.520><c> two</c><00:50:21.839><c> populations.</c>

48:49.932 --> 48:49.942 align:start position:0%
and jaw differences in two populations.
 

48:49.942 --> 48:51.693 align:start position:0%
and jaw differences in two populations.
One<00:50:23.359><c> group</c><00:50:23.520><c> in</c><00:50:23.680><c> the</c><00:50:23.760><c> Andes</c><00:50:24.319><c> mountains</c><00:50:24.720><c> that</c>

48:51.693 --> 48:51.703 align:start position:0%
One group in the Andes mountains that
 

48:51.703 --> 48:53.932 align:start position:0%
One group in the Andes mountains that
had<00:50:25.040><c> turned</c><00:50:25.280><c> to</c><00:50:25.440><c> farming</c><00:50:25.839><c> generations</c><00:50:26.480><c> before</c>

48:53.932 --> 48:53.942 align:start position:0%
had turned to farming generations before
 

48:53.942 --> 48:55.853 align:start position:0%
had turned to farming generations before
and<00:50:27.359><c> another</c><00:50:27.680><c> group</c><00:50:27.839><c> in</c><00:50:28.000><c> the</c><00:50:28.079><c> Andes</c><00:50:28.640><c> that</c><00:50:28.880><c> had</c>

48:55.853 --> 48:55.863 align:start position:0%
and another group in the Andes that had
 

48:55.863 --> 48:58.573 align:start position:0%
and another group in the Andes that had
maintained<00:50:29.520><c> a</c><00:50:29.760><c> huntergatherer</c><00:50:30.559><c> lifestyle.</c>

48:58.573 --> 48:58.583 align:start position:0%
maintained a huntergatherer lifestyle.
 

48:58.583 --> 49:00.493 align:start position:0%
maintained a huntergatherer lifestyle.
They<00:50:32.160><c> found</c><00:50:32.480><c> that</c><00:50:32.720><c> there</c><00:50:32.960><c> was</c><00:50:33.040><c> a</c><00:50:33.200><c> notable</c>

49:00.493 --> 49:00.503 align:start position:0%
They found that there was a notable
 

49:00.503 --> 49:03.372 align:start position:0%
They found that there was a notable
difference<00:50:34.160><c> in</c><00:50:34.400><c> their</c><00:50:34.640><c> jaws</c><00:50:35.119><c> and</c><00:50:35.440><c> teeth.</c><00:50:36.319><c> When</c>

49:03.372 --> 49:03.382 align:start position:0%
difference in their jaws and teeth. When
 

49:03.382 --> 49:05.533 align:start position:0%
difference in their jaws and teeth. When
there<00:50:36.720><c> is</c><00:50:36.880><c> less</c><00:50:37.119><c> stress</c><00:50:37.440><c> on</c><00:50:37.680><c> the</c><00:50:37.920><c> jaw,</c><00:50:38.480><c> it</c>

49:05.533 --> 49:05.543 align:start position:0%
there is less stress on the jaw, it
 

49:05.543 --> 49:07.372 align:start position:0%
there is less stress on the jaw, it
begins<00:50:38.960><c> to</c><00:50:39.200><c> shrink.</c><00:50:40.000><c> And</c><00:50:40.160><c> it</c><00:50:40.400><c> doesn't</c>

49:07.372 --> 49:07.382 align:start position:0%
begins to shrink. And it doesn't
 

49:07.382 --> 49:09.453 align:start position:0%
begins to shrink. And it doesn't
necessarily<00:50:41.280><c> take</c><00:50:41.520><c> millennia</c><00:50:42.079><c> for</c><00:50:42.319><c> human</c>

49:09.453 --> 49:09.463 align:start position:0%
necessarily take millennia for human
 

49:09.463 --> 49:11.773 align:start position:0%
necessarily take millennia for human
jaws<00:50:42.880><c> and</c><00:50:43.119><c> teeth</c><00:50:43.359><c> to</c><00:50:43.599><c> adapt,</c><00:50:44.480><c> with</c><00:50:44.720><c> some</c>

49:11.773 --> 49:11.783 align:start position:0%
jaws and teeth to adapt, with some
 

49:11.783 --> 49:13.693 align:start position:0%
jaws and teeth to adapt, with some
research<00:50:45.440><c> suggesting</c><00:50:45.920><c> that</c><00:50:46.160><c> it</c><00:50:46.319><c> can</c><00:50:46.480><c> happen</c>

49:13.693 --> 49:13.703 align:start position:0%
research suggesting that it can happen
 

49:13.703 --> 49:16.253 align:start position:0%
research suggesting that it can happen
within<00:50:47.200><c> a</c><00:50:47.440><c> generation.</c><00:50:48.640><c> Some</c><00:50:48.960><c> scientists</c>

49:16.253 --> 49:16.263 align:start position:0%
within a generation. Some scientists
 

49:16.263 --> 49:17.773 align:start position:0%
within a generation. Some scientists
think<00:50:49.599><c> that</c><00:50:49.839><c> this</c><00:50:50.000><c> is</c><00:50:50.160><c> even</c><00:50:50.319><c> why</c><00:50:50.559><c> crooked</c>

49:17.773 --> 49:17.783 align:start position:0%
think that this is even why crooked
 

49:17.783 --> 49:20.013 align:start position:0%
think that this is even why crooked
teeth<00:50:51.200><c> are</c><00:50:51.359><c> becoming</c><00:50:51.760><c> more</c><00:50:52.000><c> common.</c><00:50:52.720><c> Jaws</c><00:50:53.040><c> are</c>

49:20.013 --> 49:20.023 align:start position:0%
teeth are becoming more common. Jaws are
 

49:20.023 --> 49:21.853 align:start position:0%
teeth are becoming more common. Jaws are
getting<00:50:53.440><c> smaller</c><00:50:53.839><c> and</c><00:50:54.079><c> weaker,</c><00:50:54.559><c> but</c><00:50:54.800><c> the</c>

49:21.853 --> 49:21.863 align:start position:0%
getting smaller and weaker, but the
 

49:21.863 --> 49:23.533 align:start position:0%
getting smaller and weaker, but the
number<00:50:55.200><c> of</c><00:50:55.359><c> teeth</c><00:50:55.760><c> people</c><00:50:56.000><c> develop</c><00:50:56.480><c> has</c>

49:23.533 --> 49:23.543 align:start position:0%
number of teeth people develop has
 

49:23.543 --> 49:25.693 align:start position:0%
number of teeth people develop has
remained<00:50:57.119><c> the</c><00:50:57.359><c> same.</c><00:50:58.160><c> This</c><00:50:58.319><c> results</c><00:50:58.640><c> in</c>

49:25.693 --> 49:25.703 align:start position:0%
remained the same. This results in
 

49:25.703 --> 49:27.932 align:start position:0%
remained the same. This results in
overcrowding<00:50:59.440><c> in</c><00:50:59.599><c> their</c><00:50:59.839><c> mouths</c><00:51:00.480><c> and</c><00:51:00.720><c> teeth</c>

49:27.932 --> 49:27.942 align:start position:0%
overcrowding in their mouths and teeth
 

49:27.942 --> 49:29.853 align:start position:0%
overcrowding in their mouths and teeth
jostling<00:51:01.599><c> for</c><00:51:01.839><c> space</c><00:51:02.240><c> and</c><00:51:02.559><c> starting</c><00:51:02.800><c> to</c>

49:29.853 --> 49:29.863 align:start position:0%
jostling for space and starting to
 

49:29.863 --> 49:32.573 align:start position:0%
jostling for space and starting to
overlap<00:51:03.680><c> or</c><00:51:03.920><c> go</c><00:51:04.079><c> crooked.</c><00:51:04.880><c> And</c><00:51:05.040><c> as</c><00:51:05.280><c> time</c><00:51:05.520><c> goes</c>

49:32.573 --> 49:32.583 align:start position:0%
overlap or go crooked. And as time goes
 

49:32.583 --> 49:34.652 align:start position:0%
overlap or go crooked. And as time goes
on,<00:51:06.079><c> it's</c><00:51:06.319><c> likely</c><00:51:06.640><c> that</c><00:51:06.800><c> our</c><00:51:07.040><c> teeth</c><00:51:07.280><c> and</c><00:51:07.440><c> jaws</c>

49:34.652 --> 49:34.662 align:start position:0%
on, it's likely that our teeth and jaws
 

49:34.662 --> 49:36.253 align:start position:0%
on, it's likely that our teeth and jaws
will<00:51:08.160><c> continue</c><00:51:08.559><c> to</c><00:51:08.720><c> adapt</c><00:51:09.040><c> to</c><00:51:09.280><c> our</c>

49:36.253 --> 49:36.263 align:start position:0%
will continue to adapt to our
 

49:36.263 --> 49:38.493 align:start position:0%
will continue to adapt to our
environment<00:51:09.920><c> and</c><00:51:10.160><c> lifestyle,</c><00:51:11.040><c> just</c><00:51:11.280><c> as</c><00:51:11.440><c> the</c>

49:38.493 --> 49:38.503 align:start position:0%
environment and lifestyle, just as the
 

49:38.503 --> 49:41.213 align:start position:0%
environment and lifestyle, just as the
rest<00:51:11.839><c> of</c><00:51:12.000><c> our</c><00:51:12.160><c> bodies,</c><00:51:12.800><c> our</c><00:51:13.119><c> brains,</c><00:51:13.839><c> and</c><00:51:14.160><c> our</c>

49:41.213 --> 49:41.223 align:start position:0%
rest of our bodies, our brains, and our
 

49:41.223 --> 49:47.773 align:start position:0%
rest of our bodies, our brains, and our
mental<00:51:14.800><c> capabilities</c><00:51:15.440><c> will.</c>

49:47.773 --> 49:47.783 align:start position:0%
 
 

49:47.783 --> 49:50.333 align:start position:0%
 
The<00:51:21.200><c> ability</c><00:51:21.599><c> to</c><00:51:21.839><c> adapt</c><00:51:22.480><c> has</c><00:51:22.800><c> always</c><00:51:23.119><c> been</c>

49:50.333 --> 49:50.343 align:start position:0%
The ability to adapt has always been
 

49:50.343 --> 49:52.493 align:start position:0%
The ability to adapt has always been
humans<00:51:24.000><c> greatest</c><00:51:24.400><c> strength</c><00:51:24.960><c> and</c><00:51:25.280><c> has</c><00:51:25.440><c> seen</c>

49:52.493 --> 49:52.503 align:start position:0%
humans greatest strength and has seen
 

49:52.503 --> 49:54.652 align:start position:0%
humans greatest strength and has seen
Homo<00:51:26.079><c> sapiens</c><00:51:26.559><c> emerge</c><00:51:26.960><c> as</c><00:51:27.200><c> the</c><00:51:27.359><c> dominant</c>

49:54.652 --> 49:54.662 align:start position:0%
Homo sapiens emerge as the dominant
 

49:54.662 --> 49:56.412 align:start position:0%
Homo sapiens emerge as the dominant
animal<00:51:28.160><c> on</c><00:51:28.480><c> the</c><00:51:28.640><c> planet.</c><00:51:29.359><c> While</c>

49:56.412 --> 49:56.422 align:start position:0%
animal on the planet. While
 

49:56.422 --> 49:58.813 align:start position:0%
animal on the planet. While
Paranthropus'<00:51:30.400><c> robust</c><00:51:30.800><c> teeth</c><00:51:31.119><c> and</c><00:51:31.359><c> jaws</c><00:51:31.839><c> made</c>

49:58.813 --> 49:58.823 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus' robust teeth and jaws made
 

49:58.823 --> 50:00.253 align:start position:0%
Paranthropus' robust teeth and jaws made
them<00:51:32.240><c> perfect</c><00:51:32.559><c> inhabitants</c><00:51:33.119><c> of</c><00:51:33.280><c> their</c>

50:00.253 --> 50:00.263 align:start position:0%
them perfect inhabitants of their
 

50:00.263 --> 50:02.093 align:start position:0%
them perfect inhabitants of their
southern<00:51:33.760><c> and</c><00:51:34.000><c> eastern</c><00:51:34.319><c> African</c><00:51:34.720><c> homes</c><00:51:35.040><c> for</c>

50:02.093 --> 50:02.103 align:start position:0%
southern and eastern African homes for
 

50:02.103 --> 50:04.412 align:start position:0%
southern and eastern African homes for
millions<00:51:35.680><c> of</c><00:51:35.839><c> years</c><00:51:36.480><c> when</c><00:51:36.720><c> the</c><00:51:36.880><c> world</c><00:51:37.280><c> started</c>

50:04.412 --> 50:04.422 align:start position:0%
millions of years when the world started
 

50:04.422 --> 50:06.733 align:start position:0%
millions of years when the world started
to<00:51:37.920><c> change,</c><00:51:38.480><c> they</c><00:51:38.720><c> were</c><00:51:38.880><c> left</c><00:51:39.200><c> stranded</c><00:51:39.680><c> by</c>

50:06.733 --> 50:06.743 align:start position:0%
to change, they were left stranded by
 

50:06.743 --> 50:09.213 align:start position:0%
to change, they were left stranded by
these<00:51:40.240><c> features.</c><00:51:40.960><c> Unable</c><00:51:41.440><c> to</c><00:51:41.680><c> adapt</c><00:51:42.079><c> fast</c>

50:09.213 --> 50:09.223 align:start position:0%
these features. Unable to adapt fast
 

50:09.223 --> 50:11.693 align:start position:0%
these features. Unable to adapt fast
enough,<00:51:43.200><c> our</c><00:51:43.599><c> grassile</c><00:51:44.160><c> ancestors</c>

50:11.693 --> 50:11.703 align:start position:0%
enough, our grassile ancestors
 

50:11.703 --> 50:14.013 align:start position:0%
enough, our grassile ancestors
generalized<00:51:45.520><c> teeth</c><00:51:45.760><c> and</c><00:51:46.000><c> jaws</c><00:51:46.480><c> were</c><00:51:46.720><c> just</c><00:51:46.960><c> one</c>

50:14.013 --> 50:14.023 align:start position:0%
generalized teeth and jaws were just one
 

50:14.023 --> 50:15.932 align:start position:0%
generalized teeth and jaws were just one
of<00:51:47.359><c> the</c><00:51:47.440><c> weapons</c><00:51:47.839><c> in</c><00:51:48.000><c> their</c><00:51:48.160><c> arsenal,</c><00:51:48.880><c> giving</c>

50:15.932 --> 50:15.942 align:start position:0%
of the weapons in their arsenal, giving
 

50:15.942 --> 50:17.853 align:start position:0%
of the weapons in their arsenal, giving
them<00:51:49.280><c> the</c><00:51:49.520><c> flexibility</c><00:51:50.079><c> to</c><00:51:50.319><c> adapt</c><00:51:50.640><c> and</c><00:51:50.800><c> cope</c>

50:17.853 --> 50:17.863 align:start position:0%
them the flexibility to adapt and cope
 

50:17.863 --> 50:20.013 align:start position:0%
them the flexibility to adapt and cope
when<00:51:51.359><c> times</c><00:51:51.599><c> were</c><00:51:51.760><c> hardest,</c><00:51:52.640><c> helping</c><00:51:52.960><c> them</c>

50:20.013 --> 50:20.023 align:start position:0%
when times were hardest, helping them
 

50:20.023 --> 50:21.853 align:start position:0%
when times were hardest, helping them
pass<00:51:53.520><c> their</c><00:51:53.680><c> genes</c><00:51:54.079><c> from</c><00:51:54.319><c> generation</c><00:51:54.800><c> to</c>

50:21.853 --> 50:21.863 align:start position:0%
pass their genes from generation to
 

50:21.863 --> 50:24.573 align:start position:0%
pass their genes from generation to
generation<00:51:56.079><c> until</c><00:51:56.720><c> they</c><00:51:56.960><c> were</c><00:51:57.119><c> passed</c><00:51:57.440><c> on</c><00:51:57.599><c> to</c>

50:24.573 --> 50:24.583 align:start position:0%
generation until they were passed on to
 

50:24.583 --> 50:33.613 align:start position:0%
generation until they were passed on to
us.

50:24.583 --> 50:24.593 align:start position:0%
us what you think. Thanks for watching
 

50:24.583 --> 50:29.262 align:start position:0%
us what you think. Thanks for watching
and<00:52:15.119><c> we'll</c><00:52:15.280><c> see</c><00:52:15.440><c> you</c><00:52:16.240><c> next</c><00:52:16.559><c> time.</c>