WEBVTT 00:00.160 --> 00:03.350 align:start position:0% On<00:00:00.400> December<00:00:00.800> the<00:00:00.960> 2nd,<00:00:01.600> 1942,<00:00:02.720> the<00:00:02.960> modern 00:03.350 --> 00:03.360 align:start position:0% On December the 2nd, 1942, the modern 00:03.360 --> 00:07.269 align:start position:0% On December the 2nd, 1942, the modern world<00:00:03.840> changed<00:00:04.560> forever.<00:00:05.839> 49<00:00:06.480> of<00:00:06.640> the<00:00:06.799> world's 00:07.269 --> 00:07.279 align:start position:0% world changed forever. 49 of the world's 00:07.279 --> 00:09.750 align:start position:0% world changed forever. 49 of the world's greatest<00:00:07.839> minds<00:00:08.320> had<00:00:08.559> come<00:00:08.880> together<00:00:09.519> and 00:09.750 --> 00:09.760 align:start position:0% greatest minds had come together and 00:09.760 --> 00:11.589 align:start position:0% greatest minds had come together and achieved<00:00:10.240> something<00:00:10.559> they<00:00:10.880> believed<00:00:11.280> no 00:11.589 --> 00:11.599 align:start position:0% achieved something they believed no 00:11.599 --> 00:14.549 align:start position:0% achieved something they believed no force<00:00:12.000> in<00:00:12.240> the<00:00:12.480> universe<00:00:13.440> had<00:00:13.759> ever<00:00:14.240> done 00:14.549 --> 00:14.559 align:start position:0% force in the universe had ever done 00:14.559 --> 00:17.510 align:start position:0% force in the universe had ever done before.<00:00:15.839> They<00:00:16.160> had<00:00:16.480> just<00:00:16.800> created<00:00:17.199> the 00:17.510 --> 00:17.520 align:start position:0% before. They had just created the 00:17.520 --> 00:21.990 align:start position:0% before. They had just created the world's<00:00:17.920> first<00:00:18.400> ever<00:00:19.359> nuclear<00:00:20.320> reactor. 00:21.990 --> 00:22.000 align:start position:0% world's first ever nuclear reactor. 00:22.000 --> 00:26.310 align:start position:0% world's first ever nuclear reactor. Except<00:00:23.359> they<00:00:23.680> hadn't<00:00:24.640> because<00:00:25.199> something<00:00:25.760> or 00:26.310 --> 00:26.320 align:start position:0% Except they hadn't because something or 00:26.320 --> 00:30.230 align:start position:0% Except they hadn't because something or someone<00:00:27.199> had<00:00:27.439> beaten<00:00:27.840> them<00:00:28.080> to<00:00:28.320> it<00:00:29.199> by<00:00:29.679> 2 00:30.230 --> 00:30.240 align:start position:0% someone had beaten them to it by 2 00:30.240 --> 00:34.069 align:start position:0% someone had beaten them to it by 2 billion<00:00:31.119> years.<00:00:32.320> So<00:00:32.719> who<00:00:32.960> or<00:00:33.280> what<00:00:33.680> could<00:00:33.840> have 00:34.069 --> 00:34.079 align:start position:0% billion years. So who or what could have 00:34.079 --> 00:37.430 align:start position:0% billion years. So who or what could have built<00:00:34.320> a<00:00:34.559> nuclear<00:00:35.120> reactor<00:00:35.600> that<00:00:36.079> long<00:00:36.480> ago? 00:37.430 --> 00:37.440 align:start position:0% built a nuclear reactor that long ago? 00:37.440 --> 00:39.270 align:start position:0% built a nuclear reactor that long ago? Well,<00:00:37.680> the<00:00:37.920> answer<00:00:38.160> reaches<00:00:38.640> back<00:00:38.879> to<00:00:39.040> the 00:39.270 --> 00:39.280 align:start position:0% Well, the answer reaches back to the 00:39.280 --> 00:42.150 align:start position:0% Well, the answer reaches back to the death<00:00:39.600> of<00:00:39.920> stars,<00:00:40.800> the<00:00:41.040> formation<00:00:41.680> of<00:00:41.920> the 00:42.150 --> 00:42.160 align:start position:0% death of stars, the formation of the 00:42.160 --> 00:45.030 align:start position:0% death of stars, the formation of the solar<00:00:42.559> system,<00:00:42.960> and<00:00:43.200> the<00:00:43.360> birth<00:00:44.160> of<00:00:44.480> life 00:45.030 --> 00:45.040 align:start position:0% solar system, and the birth of life 00:45.040 --> 00:46.630 align:start position:0% solar system, and the birth of life itself. 00:46.630 --> 00:46.640 align:start position:0% itself. 00:46.640 --> 00:49.590 align:start position:0% itself. This<00:00:46.960> is<00:00:47.120> the<00:00:47.360> remarkable<00:00:48.079> mystery<00:00:48.480> of<00:00:48.879> Olllo, 00:49.590 --> 00:49.600 align:start position:0% This is the remarkable mystery of Olllo, 00:49.600 --> 00:52.950 align:start position:0% This is the remarkable mystery of Olllo, the<00:00:49.840> ancient<00:00:50.480> nuclear<00:00:51.280> reactor.<00:00:52.399> I'm<00:00:52.640> James 00:52.950 --> 00:52.960 align:start position:0% the ancient nuclear reactor. I'm James 00:52.960 --> 00:54.389 align:start position:0% the ancient nuclear reactor. I'm James Stewart<00:00:53.280> and<00:00:53.440> you're<00:00:53.600> watching<00:00:53.840> Astramm 00:54.389 --> 00:54.399 align:start position:0% Stewart and you're watching Astramm 00:54.399 --> 00:56.790 align:start position:0% Stewart and you're watching Astramm Earth.<00:00:55.199> Join<00:00:55.440> me<00:00:55.600> today<00:00:55.840> as<00:00:56.079> we<00:00:56.239> travel<00:00:56.559> to 00:56.790 --> 00:56.800 align:start position:0% Earth. Join me today as we travel to 00:56.800 --> 01:00.310 align:start position:0% Earth. Join me today as we travel to Gabon,<00:00:57.600> the<00:00:57.840> home<00:00:58.160> of<00:00:58.399> the<00:00:58.640> Olllo<00:00:59.280> reactor. 01:00.310 --> 01:00.320 align:start position:0% Gabon, the home of the Olllo reactor. 01:00.320 --> 01:02.229 align:start position:0% Gabon, the home of the Olllo reactor. We'll<00:01:00.640> delve<00:01:00.879> into<00:01:01.120> the<00:01:01.280> physics<00:01:01.680> of<00:01:01.840> what<00:01:02.079> it 01:02.229 --> 01:02.239 align:start position:0% We'll delve into the physics of what it 01:02.239 --> 01:05.590 align:start position:0% We'll delve into the physics of what it takes<00:01:02.559> to<00:01:02.879> build<00:01:03.199> a<00:01:03.600> nuclear<00:01:04.239> reactor<00:01:05.119> and<00:01:05.360> get 01:05.590 --> 01:05.600 align:start position:0% takes to build a nuclear reactor and get 01:05.600 --> 01:08.390 align:start position:0% takes to build a nuclear reactor and get to<00:01:05.760> the<00:01:05.920> bottom<00:01:06.159> of<00:01:06.400> how<00:01:06.720> Earth<00:01:07.119> itself<00:01:07.920> held 01:08.390 --> 01:08.400 align:start position:0% to the bottom of how Earth itself held 01:08.400 --> 01:14.230 align:start position:0% to the bottom of how Earth itself held such<00:01:08.880> power<00:01:09.760> some<00:01:10.240> 2<00:01:10.560> billion<00:01:11.040> years<00:01:11.439> ago. 01:14.230 --> 01:14.240 align:start position:0% such power some 2 billion years ago. 01:14.240 --> 01:16.469 align:start position:0% such power some 2 billion years ago. If<00:01:14.560> we're<00:01:14.799> saying<00:01:14.960> that<00:01:15.200> our<00:01:15.600> planet<00:01:16.000> had<00:01:16.159> a 01:16.469 --> 01:16.479 align:start position:0% If we're saying that our planet had a 01:16.479 --> 01:19.109 align:start position:0% If we're saying that our planet had a natural<00:01:16.960> nuclear<00:01:17.520> reactor<00:01:18.080> 2<00:01:18.479> billion<00:01:18.880> years 01:19.109 --> 01:19.119 align:start position:0% natural nuclear reactor 2 billion years 01:19.119 --> 01:21.429 align:start position:0% natural nuclear reactor 2 billion years ago,<00:01:19.680> which<00:01:19.920> we<00:01:20.159> are,<00:01:20.640> the<00:01:20.880> first<00:01:21.040> thing<00:01:21.200> I 01:21.429 --> 01:21.439 align:start position:0% ago, which we are, the first thing I 01:21.439 --> 01:23.590 align:start position:0% ago, which we are, the first thing I want<00:01:21.520> to<00:01:21.680> know<00:01:21.759> is<00:01:22.320> how<00:01:22.560> on<00:01:22.799> earth<00:01:23.040> do<00:01:23.200> we<00:01:23.439> know 01:23.590 --> 01:23.600 align:start position:0% want to know is how on earth do we know 01:23.600 --> 01:27.190 align:start position:0% want to know is how on earth do we know that?<00:01:24.400> Well,<00:01:24.640> it<00:01:24.880> all<00:01:25.040> started<00:01:25.360> in<00:01:25.600> June<00:01:26.080> 1972 01:27.190 --> 01:27.200 align:start position:0% that? Well, it all started in June 1972 01:27.200 --> 01:30.390 align:start position:0% that? Well, it all started in June 1972 at<00:01:27.439> a<00:01:27.680> nuclear<00:01:28.240> plant<00:01:28.720> called<00:01:29.119> Pilat<00:01:30.000> in<00:01:30.240> the 01:30.390 --> 01:30.400 align:start position:0% at a nuclear plant called Pilat in the 01:30.400 --> 01:32.550 align:start position:0% at a nuclear plant called Pilat in the south<00:01:30.720> of<00:01:30.960> France.<00:01:31.680> A<00:01:31.920> technician<00:01:32.320> was 01:32.550 --> 01:32.560 align:start position:0% south of France. A technician was 01:32.560 --> 01:34.630 align:start position:0% south of France. A technician was running<00:01:32.720> a<00:01:32.960> routine<00:01:33.360> check<00:01:33.600> on<00:01:33.759> a<00:01:33.920> batch<00:01:34.240> of 01:34.630 --> 01:34.640 align:start position:0% running a routine check on a batch of 01:34.640 --> 01:36.950 align:start position:0% running a routine check on a batch of uranium.<00:01:35.119> And<00:01:35.280> on<00:01:35.520> this<00:01:35.759> particular<00:01:36.240> day,<00:01:36.720> the 01:36.950 --> 01:36.960 align:start position:0% uranium. And on this particular day, the 01:36.960 --> 01:39.910 align:start position:0% uranium. And on this particular day, the readings<00:01:37.360> were<00:01:37.840> off.<00:01:38.960> Now,<00:01:39.280> there<00:01:39.439> are<00:01:39.680> three 01:39.910 --> 01:39.920 align:start position:0% readings were off. Now, there are three 01:39.920 --> 01:42.550 align:start position:0% readings were off. Now, there are three main<00:01:40.240> isotopes<00:01:40.880> of<00:01:41.280> uranium.<00:01:41.759> The<00:01:42.000> atoms<00:01:42.400> have 01:42.550 --> 01:42.560 align:start position:0% main isotopes of uranium. The atoms have 01:42.560 --> 01:44.390 align:start position:0% main isotopes of uranium. The atoms have the<00:01:42.720> same<00:01:42.880> number<00:01:43.119> of<00:01:43.280> protons<00:01:43.759> but<00:01:44.079> different 01:44.390 --> 01:44.400 align:start position:0% the same number of protons but different 01:44.400 --> 01:47.350 align:start position:0% the same number of protons but different number<00:01:44.720> of<00:01:44.960> neutrons<00:01:45.600> in<00:01:45.840> the<00:01:46.079> nucleus.<00:01:47.119> And 01:47.350 --> 01:47.360 align:start position:0% number of neutrons in the nucleus. And 01:47.360 --> 01:50.389 align:start position:0% number of neutrons in the nucleus. And in<00:01:47.600> this<00:01:48.079> uranium<00:01:48.479> ore,<00:01:48.799> the<00:01:49.040> uranium<00:01:49.520> 235 01:50.389 --> 01:50.399 align:start position:0% in this uranium ore, the uranium 235 01:50.399 --> 01:53.350 align:start position:0% in this uranium ore, the uranium 235 came<00:01:50.640> back<00:01:50.880> as<00:01:51.200> slightly<00:01:51.600> but<00:01:52.000> unmistakably 01:53.350 --> 01:53.360 align:start position:0% came back as slightly but unmistakably 01:53.360 --> 01:55.030 align:start position:0% came back as slightly but unmistakably depleted. 01:55.030 --> 01:55.040 align:start position:0% depleted. 01:55.040 --> 01:57.749 align:start position:0% depleted. It<00:01:55.280> made<00:01:55.520> up<00:01:55.759> 0.717% 01:57.749 --> 01:57.759 align:start position:0% It made up 0.717% 01:57.759 --> 02:00.310 align:start position:0% It made up 0.717% of<00:01:58.000> the<00:01:58.240> ore<00:01:58.640> when<00:01:58.799> it<00:01:59.119> should<00:01:59.280> have<00:01:59.439> made<00:01:59.680> up 02:00.310 --> 02:00.320 align:start position:0% of the ore when it should have made up 02:00.320 --> 02:03.429 align:start position:0% of the ore when it should have made up 0.720%. 02:03.429 --> 02:03.439 align:start position:0% 02:03.439 --> 02:06.469 align:start position:0% Now<00:02:03.680> this<00:02:03.920> set<00:02:04.159> off<00:02:04.640> major<00:02:05.360> alarm<00:02:05.680> bells<00:02:06.159> both 02:06.469 --> 02:06.479 align:start position:0% Now this set off major alarm bells both 02:06.479 --> 02:09.669 align:start position:0% Now this set off major alarm bells both metaphorically<00:02:07.280> and<00:02:07.759> in<00:02:08.080> reality.<00:02:09.200> A<00:02:09.440> mere 02:09.669 --> 02:09.679 align:start position:0% metaphorically and in reality. A mere 02:09.679 --> 02:13.510 align:start position:0% metaphorically and in reality. A mere 0.003%<00:02:10.399> 003%<00:02:11.360> of<00:02:11.599> missing<00:02:12.000> uranium<00:02:12.480> 235<00:02:13.280> may 02:13.510 --> 02:13.520 align:start position:0% 0.003% 003% of missing uranium 235 may 02:13.520 --> 02:15.990 align:start position:0% 0.003% 003% of missing uranium 235 may sound<00:02:13.760> like<00:02:14.080> nothing<00:02:14.480> to<00:02:14.800> worry<00:02:15.120> about.<00:02:15.760> But 02:15.990 --> 02:16.000 align:start position:0% sound like nothing to worry about. But 02:16.000 --> 02:19.030 align:start position:0% sound like nothing to worry about. But this<00:02:16.239> was<00:02:16.560> in<00:02:16.720> fact<00:02:17.040> a<00:02:17.360> massive<00:02:17.920> deal<00:02:18.640> because 02:19.030 --> 02:19.040 align:start position:0% this was in fact a massive deal because 02:19.040 --> 02:20.550 align:start position:0% this was in fact a massive deal because 0.72% 02:20.550 --> 02:20.560 align:start position:0% 0.72% 02:20.560 --> 02:23.270 align:start position:0% 0.72% is<00:02:20.800> one<00:02:21.040> of<00:02:21.120> the<00:02:21.360> most<00:02:21.680> sacred<00:02:22.400> unbreakable 02:23.270 --> 02:23.280 align:start position:0% is one of the most sacred unbreakable 02:23.280 --> 02:27.190 align:start position:0% is one of the most sacred unbreakable numbers<00:02:24.080> in<00:02:24.480> all<00:02:24.879> of<00:02:25.120> nature.<00:02:26.480> To<00:02:26.800> understand 02:27.190 --> 02:27.200 align:start position:0% numbers in all of nature. To understand 02:27.200 --> 02:29.830 align:start position:0% numbers in all of nature. To understand why<00:02:27.440> that<00:02:27.680> is,<00:02:27.920> we<00:02:28.080> need<00:02:28.239> to<00:02:28.400> go<00:02:28.800> back.<00:02:29.440> And<00:02:29.599> I 02:29.830 --> 02:29.840 align:start position:0% why that is, we need to go back. And I 02:29.840 --> 02:32.390 align:start position:0% why that is, we need to go back. And I mean<00:02:30.239> way<00:02:30.879> back. 02:32.390 --> 02:32.400 align:start position:0% mean way back. 02:32.400 --> 02:35.030 align:start position:0% mean way back. Our<00:02:32.720> story<00:02:33.040> starts<00:02:33.440> in<00:02:33.680> the<00:02:33.840> endless<00:02:34.480> expanse 02:35.030 --> 02:35.040 align:start position:0% Our story starts in the endless expanse 02:35.040 --> 02:37.990 align:start position:0% Our story starts in the endless expanse of<00:02:35.280> the<00:02:35.599> early<00:02:36.080> Milky<00:02:36.640> Way.<00:02:37.120> I<00:02:37.280> I<00:02:37.519> did<00:02:37.680> tell<00:02:37.760> you 02:37.990 --> 02:38.000 align:start position:0% of the early Milky Way. I I did tell you 02:38.000 --> 02:40.550 align:start position:0% of the early Milky Way. I I did tell you this<00:02:38.160> is<00:02:38.319> quite<00:02:38.640> a<00:02:38.800> journey.<00:02:39.280> Strap<00:02:39.599> in<00:02:40.239> our 02:40.550 --> 02:40.560 align:start position:0% this is quite a journey. Strap in our 02:40.560 --> 02:44.790 align:start position:0% this is quite a journey. Strap in our galaxy<00:02:41.200> around<00:02:41.760> 6<00:02:42.319> billion<00:02:42.959> years<00:02:43.440> ago.<00:02:44.560> This 02:44.790 --> 02:44.800 align:start position:0% galaxy around 6 billion years ago. This 02:44.800 --> 02:47.030 align:start position:0% galaxy around 6 billion years ago. This is<00:02:45.040> where<00:02:45.280> Earth's<00:02:45.760> uranium<00:02:46.239> was<00:02:46.560> first 02:47.030 --> 02:47.040 align:start position:0% is where Earth's uranium was first 02:47.040 --> 02:50.229 align:start position:0% is where Earth's uranium was first created.<00:02:47.840> Born<00:02:48.160> of<00:02:48.400> violence<00:02:49.040> on<00:02:49.280> a<00:02:49.519> cosmic 02:50.229 --> 02:50.239 align:start position:0% created. Born of violence on a cosmic 02:50.239 --> 02:52.550 align:start position:0% created. Born of violence on a cosmic scale.<00:02:51.200> The<00:02:51.440> only<00:02:51.599> two<00:02:51.840> events<00:02:52.160> that<00:02:52.319> are 02:52.550 --> 02:52.560 align:start position:0% scale. The only two events that are 02:52.560 --> 02:54.229 align:start position:0% scale. The only two events that are powerful<00:02:52.879> enough<00:02:53.120> to<00:02:53.360> make<00:02:53.519> it<00:02:53.760> are<00:02:53.920> either 02:54.229 --> 02:54.239 align:start position:0% powerful enough to make it are either 02:54.239 --> 02:56.470 align:start position:0% powerful enough to make it are either the<00:02:54.480> catastrophic<00:02:55.200> collapse<00:02:55.599> of<00:02:55.760> a<00:02:56.000> massive 02:56.470 --> 02:56.480 align:start position:0% the catastrophic collapse of a massive 02:56.480 --> 03:00.229 align:start position:0% the catastrophic collapse of a massive stars<00:02:57.040> caught<00:02:57.360> in<00:02:57.519> a<00:02:57.840> supernova<00:02:59.040> or<00:02:59.519> when<00:02:59.840> two 03:00.229 --> 03:00.239 align:start position:0% stars caught in a supernova or when two 03:00.239 --> 03:02.550 align:start position:0% stars caught in a supernova or when two neutron<00:03:00.800> stars<00:03:01.440> spiral<00:03:01.840> around<00:03:02.159> each<00:03:02.319> other 03:02.550 --> 03:02.560 align:start position:0% neutron stars spiral around each other 03:02.560 --> 03:05.830 align:start position:0% neutron stars spiral around each other and<00:03:03.040> collide.<00:03:04.400> These<00:03:04.720> are<00:03:04.879> both<00:03:05.280> essentially 03:05.830 --> 03:05.840 align:start position:0% and collide. These are both essentially 03:05.840 --> 03:08.149 align:start position:0% and collide. These are both essentially colossal<00:03:06.400> cosmic<00:03:06.959> explosions<00:03:07.519> that<00:03:07.760> flood 03:08.149 --> 03:08.159 align:start position:0% colossal cosmic explosions that flood 03:08.159 --> 03:11.030 align:start position:0% colossal cosmic explosions that flood space<00:03:08.480> with<00:03:08.879> free<00:03:09.280> neutrons.<00:03:10.239> Tiny<00:03:10.640> atomic 03:11.030 --> 03:11.040 align:start position:0% space with free neutrons. Tiny atomic 03:11.040 --> 03:14.149 align:start position:0% space with free neutrons. Tiny atomic particles<00:03:11.519> with<00:03:11.760> no<00:03:12.080> or<00:03:12.480> neutral<00:03:13.519> electric 03:14.149 --> 03:14.159 align:start position:0% particles with no or neutral electric 03:14.159 --> 03:16.630 align:start position:0% particles with no or neutral electric charge.<00:03:15.280> Now,<00:03:15.440> these<00:03:15.760> neutrons<00:03:16.239> are<00:03:16.400> the 03:16.630 --> 03:16.640 align:start position:0% charge. Now, these neutrons are the 03:16.640 --> 03:20.229 align:start position:0% charge. Now, these neutrons are the important<00:03:17.360> parts.<00:03:18.400> In<00:03:18.800> seconds,<00:03:19.440> atoms<00:03:19.920> are 03:20.229 --> 03:20.239 align:start position:0% important parts. In seconds, atoms are 03:20.239 --> 03:22.390 align:start position:0% important parts. In seconds, atoms are bombarded<00:03:20.879> with<00:03:21.120> a<00:03:21.360> tsunami<00:03:21.840> of<00:03:22.000> them<00:03:22.159> in 03:22.390 --> 03:22.400 align:start position:0% bombarded with a tsunami of them in 03:22.400 --> 03:24.390 align:start position:0% bombarded with a tsunami of them in staggering<00:03:22.879> numbers.<00:03:23.519> Estimates<00:03:24.080> range 03:24.390 --> 03:24.400 align:start position:0% staggering numbers. Estimates range 03:24.400 --> 03:27.910 align:start position:0% staggering numbers. Estimates range between<00:03:24.800> 10<00:03:25.200> the^<00:03:25.519> of<00:03:25.760> 20<00:03:26.000> or<00:03:26.239> 10<00:03:26.800> ^<00:03:27.280> 24 03:27.910 --> 03:27.920 align:start position:0% between 10 the^ of 20 or 10 ^ 24 03:27.920 --> 03:32.630 align:start position:0% between 10 the^ of 20 or 10 ^ 24 neutrons<00:03:28.800> per<00:03:29.120> cubic<00:03:29.920> cm.<00:03:31.120> Loads.<00:03:32.159> As<00:03:32.400> soon<00:03:32.480> as 03:32.630 --> 03:32.640 align:start position:0% neutrons per cubic cm. Loads. As soon as 03:32.640 --> 03:34.229 align:start position:0% neutrons per cubic cm. Loads. As soon as one<00:03:32.799> of<00:03:32.799> these<00:03:32.959> neutrons<00:03:33.440> gets<00:03:33.760> close<00:03:34.000> enough 03:34.229 --> 03:34.239 align:start position:0% one of these neutrons gets close enough 03:34.239 --> 03:36.869 align:start position:0% one of these neutrons gets close enough to<00:03:34.400> the<00:03:34.560> nucleus<00:03:34.879> of<00:03:35.040> an<00:03:35.280> atom,<00:03:36.159> the<00:03:36.400> strong 03:36.869 --> 03:36.879 align:start position:0% to the nucleus of an atom, the strong 03:36.879 --> 03:38.710 align:start position:0% to the nucleus of an atom, the strong force,<00:03:37.280> that's<00:03:37.599> the<00:03:37.840> most<00:03:38.080> powerful<00:03:38.400> of<00:03:38.560> the 03:38.710 --> 03:38.720 align:start position:0% force, that's the most powerful of the 03:38.720 --> 03:41.430 align:start position:0% force, that's the most powerful of the four<00:03:38.959> fundamental<00:03:39.440> forces<00:03:39.840> of<00:03:40.080> nature,<00:03:41.040> binds 03:41.430 --> 03:41.440 align:start position:0% four fundamental forces of nature, binds 03:41.440 --> 03:44.789 align:start position:0% four fundamental forces of nature, binds it<00:03:41.760> into<00:03:42.080> the<00:03:42.239> nucleus<00:03:42.959> itself.<00:03:44.319> Now,<00:03:44.560> this 03:44.789 --> 03:44.799 align:start position:0% it into the nucleus itself. Now, this 03:44.799 --> 03:46.550 align:start position:0% it into the nucleus itself. Now, this happens<00:03:45.120> over<00:03:45.360> and<00:03:45.599> over<00:03:45.760> again<00:03:46.000> until<00:03:46.319> an 03:46.550 --> 03:46.560 align:start position:0% happens over and over again until an 03:46.560 --> 03:48.630 align:start position:0% happens over and over again until an atom<00:03:46.959> physically<00:03:47.519> can't<00:03:47.840> hold<00:03:48.080> anymore 03:48.630 --> 03:48.640 align:start position:0% atom physically can't hold anymore 03:48.640 --> 03:51.670 align:start position:0% atom physically can't hold anymore because<00:03:48.879> it's<00:03:49.200> too<00:03:49.680> unstable.<00:03:50.959> So,<00:03:51.200> to<00:03:51.440> get 03:51.670 --> 03:51.680 align:start position:0% because it's too unstable. So, to get 03:51.680 --> 03:54.309 align:start position:0% because it's too unstable. So, to get out<00:03:51.920> of<00:03:52.159> this<00:03:52.400> precarious<00:03:53.040> situation,<00:03:54.080> a 03:54.309 --> 03:54.319 align:start position:0% out of this precarious situation, a 03:54.319 --> 03:57.030 align:start position:0% out of this precarious situation, a neutron<00:03:54.799> underos<00:03:55.360> what's<00:03:55.680> called<00:03:55.920> beta<00:03:56.480> minus 03:57.030 --> 03:57.040 align:start position:0% neutron underos what's called beta minus 03:57.040 --> 04:00.309 align:start position:0% neutron underos what's called beta minus decay.<00:03:58.159> It<00:03:58.400> basically<00:03:58.879> emits<00:03:59.439> an<00:03:59.760> electron 04:00.309 --> 04:00.319 align:start position:0% decay. It basically emits an electron 04:00.319 --> 04:03.589 align:start position:0% decay. It basically emits an electron and<00:04:00.720> an<00:04:00.959> electron<00:04:01.599> anti-utrino<00:04:02.799> and<00:04:03.040> in<00:04:03.280> the 04:03.589 --> 04:03.599 align:start position:0% and an electron anti-utrino and in the 04:03.599 --> 04:07.270 align:start position:0% and an electron anti-utrino and in the process<00:04:04.560> changes<00:04:05.120> into<00:04:05.519> a<00:04:05.840> proton.<00:04:06.879> By<00:04:07.120> doing 04:07.270 --> 04:07.280 align:start position:0% process changes into a proton. By doing 04:07.280 --> 04:09.589 align:start position:0% process changes into a proton. By doing this,<00:04:07.519> it<00:04:07.840> increases<00:04:08.319> the<00:04:08.480> atomic<00:04:08.959> number<00:04:09.280> of 04:09.589 --> 04:09.599 align:start position:0% this, it increases the atomic number of 04:09.599 --> 04:13.190 align:start position:0% this, it increases the atomic number of the<00:04:09.920> atom<00:04:10.480> making<00:04:10.799> it<00:04:11.120> a<00:04:11.439> different<00:04:12.000> element. 04:13.190 --> 04:13.200 align:start position:0% the atom making it a different element. 04:13.200 --> 04:14.949 align:start position:0% the atom making it a different element. This<00:04:13.439> process<00:04:13.920> continues<00:04:14.480> eventually 04:14.949 --> 04:14.959 align:start position:0% This process continues eventually 04:14.959 --> 04:17.270 align:start position:0% This process continues eventually building<00:04:15.280> up<00:04:15.439> into<00:04:15.680> the<00:04:15.920> heavier<00:04:16.400> and<00:04:16.799> heavier 04:17.270 --> 04:17.280 align:start position:0% building up into the heavier and heavier 04:17.280 --> 04:20.629 align:start position:0% building up into the heavier and heavier elements<00:04:17.840> including<00:04:18.959> uranium.<00:04:19.919> That<00:04:20.320> uranium 04:20.629 --> 04:20.639 align:start position:0% elements including uranium. That uranium 04:20.639 --> 04:23.030 align:start position:0% elements including uranium. That uranium was<00:04:20.880> then<00:04:21.199> blasted<00:04:21.680> across<00:04:22.240> ancient<00:04:22.720> space 04:23.030 --> 04:23.040 align:start position:0% was then blasted across ancient space 04:23.040 --> 04:25.110 align:start position:0% was then blasted across ancient space thanks<00:04:23.280> to<00:04:23.440> the<00:04:23.600> sheer<00:04:23.919> force<00:04:24.400> of<00:04:24.639> these 04:25.110 --> 04:25.120 align:start position:0% thanks to the sheer force of these 04:25.120 --> 04:28.390 align:start position:0% thanks to the sheer force of these events,<00:04:26.000> adding<00:04:26.320> to<00:04:26.479> a<00:04:26.720> slow<00:04:27.199> accumulation<00:04:28.080> of 04:28.390 --> 04:28.400 align:start position:0% events, adding to a slow accumulation of 04:28.400 --> 04:30.950 align:start position:0% events, adding to a slow accumulation of heavy<00:04:28.800> elements<00:04:29.360> built<00:04:29.680> up<00:04:29.919> over<00:04:30.320> billions<00:04:30.720> of 04:30.950 --> 04:30.960 align:start position:0% heavy elements built up over billions of 04:30.960 --> 04:34.310 align:start position:0% heavy elements built up over billions of years<00:04:31.520> of<00:04:31.840> galactic<00:04:32.560> history.<00:04:33.680> So<00:04:34.080> coming 04:34.310 --> 04:34.320 align:start position:0% years of galactic history. So coming 04:34.320 --> 04:36.870 align:start position:0% years of galactic history. So coming back<00:04:34.560> closer<00:04:34.960> to<00:04:35.120> home,<00:04:35.840> by<00:04:36.080> the<00:04:36.320> time<00:04:36.479> our 04:36.870 --> 04:36.880 align:start position:0% back closer to home, by the time our 04:36.880 --> 04:39.270 align:start position:0% back closer to home, by the time our solar<00:04:37.199> system<00:04:37.520> began<00:04:37.840> to<00:04:38.080> form,<00:04:38.800> that 04:39.270 --> 04:39.280 align:start position:0% solar system began to form, that 04:39.280 --> 04:41.590 align:start position:0% solar system began to form, that uranium,<00:04:39.840> the<00:04:40.000> debris<00:04:40.320> of<00:04:40.560> multiple<00:04:41.199> stellar 04:41.590 --> 04:41.600 align:start position:0% uranium, the debris of multiple stellar 04:41.600 --> 04:44.550 align:start position:0% uranium, the debris of multiple stellar deaths<00:04:42.479> layered<00:04:42.720> together<00:04:43.040> over<00:04:43.360> eons,<00:04:44.320> had 04:44.550 --> 04:44.560 align:start position:0% deaths layered together over eons, had 04:44.560 --> 04:47.350 align:start position:0% deaths layered together over eons, had become<00:04:44.960> part<00:04:45.199> of<00:04:45.440> a<00:04:45.680> vast<00:04:46.080> cloud<00:04:46.400> of<00:04:46.560> dust<00:04:46.960> and 04:47.350 --> 04:47.360 align:start position:0% become part of a vast cloud of dust and 04:47.360 --> 04:50.310 align:start position:0% become part of a vast cloud of dust and gas<00:04:47.840> drifting<00:04:48.400> through<00:04:48.720> the<00:04:48.960> galaxy.<00:04:49.840> Roughly 04:50.310 --> 04:50.320 align:start position:0% gas drifting through the galaxy. Roughly 04:50.320 --> 04:53.430 align:start position:0% gas drifting through the galaxy. Roughly 4.6<00:04:51.120> billion<00:04:51.520> years<00:04:51.759> ago,<00:04:52.479> gravity<00:04:53.040> pulled 04:53.430 --> 04:53.440 align:start position:0% 4.6 billion years ago, gravity pulled 04:53.440 --> 04:56.550 align:start position:0% 4.6 billion years ago, gravity pulled that<00:04:53.680> cloud<00:04:54.080> in<00:04:54.400> on<00:04:54.639> itself,<00:04:55.680> collapsing<00:04:56.240> into 04:56.550 --> 04:56.560 align:start position:0% that cloud in on itself, collapsing into 04:56.560 --> 04:59.590 align:start position:0% that cloud in on itself, collapsing into our<00:04:56.880> solar<00:04:57.280> system<00:04:57.600> and<00:04:57.919> eventually<00:04:59.040> planet 04:59.590 --> 04:59.600 align:start position:0% our solar system and eventually planet 04:59.600 --> 05:02.710 align:start position:0% our solar system and eventually planet Earth.<00:05:01.040> Now,<00:05:01.520> because<00:05:01.840> all<00:05:02.080> of<00:05:02.160> the<00:05:02.320> Earth's 05:02.710 --> 05:02.720 align:start position:0% Earth. Now, because all of the Earth's 05:02.720 --> 05:05.030 align:start position:0% Earth. Now, because all of the Earth's uranium<00:05:03.199> came<00:05:03.440> from<00:05:03.680> the<00:05:03.840> same<00:05:04.080> cosmic<00:05:04.560> source 05:05.030 --> 05:05.040 align:start position:0% uranium came from the same cosmic source 05:05.040 --> 05:07.270 align:start position:0% uranium came from the same cosmic source material<00:05:06.000> stirred<00:05:06.400> into<00:05:06.639> the<00:05:06.800> same<00:05:07.039> cloud 05:07.270 --> 05:07.280 align:start position:0% material stirred into the same cloud 05:07.280 --> 05:09.430 align:start position:0% material stirred into the same cloud that<00:05:07.520> made<00:05:07.759> all<00:05:07.919> the<00:05:08.160> planets,<00:05:08.560> basically<00:05:09.280> it 05:09.430 --> 05:09.440 align:start position:0% that made all the planets, basically it 05:09.440 --> 05:11.670 align:start position:0% that made all the planets, basically it all<00:05:09.600> carries<00:05:10.000> the<00:05:10.240> same<00:05:10.560> constituent<00:05:11.199> parts 05:11.670 --> 05:11.680 align:start position:0% all carries the same constituent parts 05:11.680 --> 05:14.710 align:start position:0% all carries the same constituent parts right<00:05:12.000> across<00:05:12.320> the<00:05:12.560> solar<00:05:12.880> system.<00:05:14.080> That<00:05:14.320> is 05:14.710 --> 05:14.720 align:start position:0% right across the solar system. That is 05:14.720 --> 05:16.230 align:start position:0% right across the solar system. That is 99.27% 05:16.230 --> 05:16.240 align:start position:0% 99.27% 05:16.240 --> 05:21.830 align:start position:0% 99.27% for<00:05:16.639> uranium<00:05:17.120> 238,<00:05:18.320> 0.72%<00:05:19.759> for<00:05:20.160> uranium<00:05:20.720> 235 05:21.830 --> 05:21.840 align:start position:0% for uranium 238, 0.72% for uranium 235 05:21.840 --> 05:24.710 align:start position:0% for uranium 238, 0.72% for uranium 235 and<00:05:22.080> 0.0054% 05:24.710 --> 05:24.720 align:start position:0% and 0.0054% 05:24.720 --> 05:27.909 align:start position:0% and 0.0054% for<00:05:25.199> uranium<00:05:25.840> 234. 05:27.909 --> 05:27.919 align:start position:0% for uranium 234. 05:27.919 --> 05:30.310 align:start position:0% for uranium 234. These<00:05:28.240> are<00:05:28.320> called<00:05:28.560> the<00:05:28.880> natural<00:05:29.600> abundance 05:30.310 --> 05:30.320 align:start position:0% These are called the natural abundance 05:30.320 --> 05:32.469 align:start position:0% These are called the natural abundance and<00:05:30.639> tell<00:05:30.800> us<00:05:30.960> the<00:05:31.280> percentage<00:05:31.680> of<00:05:32.000> uranium 05:32.469 --> 05:32.479 align:start position:0% and tell us the percentage of uranium 05:32.479 --> 05:35.350 align:start position:0% and tell us the percentage of uranium atoms<00:05:33.039> belonging<00:05:33.520> to<00:05:33.759> each<00:05:34.160> isotope<00:05:34.800> in<00:05:35.120> any 05:35.350 --> 05:35.360 align:start position:0% atoms belonging to each isotope in any 05:35.360 --> 05:37.510 align:start position:0% atoms belonging to each isotope in any given<00:05:35.759> naturally<00:05:36.320> occurring<00:05:36.880> uranium 05:37.510 --> 05:37.520 align:start position:0% given naturally occurring uranium 05:37.520 --> 05:40.629 align:start position:0% given naturally occurring uranium sample.<00:05:38.960> So<00:05:39.199> you<00:05:39.440> could<00:05:39.600> scoop<00:05:39.919> up<00:05:40.240> uranium 05:40.629 --> 05:40.639 align:start position:0% sample. So you could scoop up uranium 05:40.639 --> 05:42.469 align:start position:0% sample. So you could scoop up uranium anywhere<00:05:40.960> on<00:05:41.199> Earth,<00:05:41.440> the<00:05:41.680> moon<00:05:41.840> or<00:05:42.000> even<00:05:42.160> on<00:05:42.320> a 05:42.469 --> 05:42.479 align:start position:0% anywhere on Earth, the moon or even on a 05:42.479 --> 05:44.790 align:start position:0% anywhere on Earth, the moon or even on a meteorite<00:05:42.960> and<00:05:43.120> it<00:05:43.280> will<00:05:43.440> always<00:05:43.759> be<00:05:44.000> the<00:05:44.320> same 05:44.790 --> 05:44.800 align:start position:0% meteorite and it will always be the same 05:44.800 --> 05:47.830 align:start position:0% meteorite and it will always be the same ratio.<00:05:45.759> It<00:05:46.000> is<00:05:46.240> as<00:05:46.560> far<00:05:46.720> as<00:05:46.960> we<00:05:47.199> know<00:05:47.600> one<00:05:47.759> of 05:47.830 --> 05:47.840 align:start position:0% ratio. It is as far as we know one of 05:47.840 --> 05:50.469 align:start position:0% ratio. It is as far as we know one of the<00:05:48.160> most<00:05:48.400> reliable<00:05:48.960> numbers<00:05:49.360> in<00:05:49.600> the<00:05:49.840> entire 05:50.469 --> 05:50.479 align:start position:0% the most reliable numbers in the entire 05:50.479 --> 05:53.189 align:start position:0% the most reliable numbers in the entire solar<00:05:51.039> system.<00:05:51.919> Which<00:05:52.160> is<00:05:52.400> exactly<00:05:52.720> why<00:05:52.960> in 05:53.189 --> 05:53.199 align:start position:0% solar system. Which is exactly why in 05:53.199 --> 05:56.310 align:start position:0% solar system. Which is exactly why in 1972<00:05:54.080> the<00:05:54.240> scientists<00:05:54.639> at<00:05:54.960> Patt<00:05:55.600> were<00:05:55.840> baffled 05:56.310 --> 05:56.320 align:start position:0% 1972 the scientists at Patt were baffled 05:56.320 --> 05:59.110 align:start position:0% 1972 the scientists at Patt were baffled when<00:05:56.639> their<00:05:56.880> readings<00:05:57.280> for<00:05:57.600> uranium<00:05:58.000> 235<00:05:58.800> were 05:59.110 --> 05:59.120 align:start position:0% when their readings for uranium 235 were 05:59.120 --> 06:02.469 align:start position:0% when their readings for uranium 235 were not<00:05:59.520> exactly<00:06:00.240> 0.72%. 06:02.469 --> 06:02.479 align:start position:0% not exactly 0.72%. 06:02.479 --> 06:05.189 align:start position:0% not exactly 0.72%. But<00:06:02.639> that's<00:06:02.880> not<00:06:03.039> even<00:06:03.199> the<00:06:03.360> worst<00:06:03.600> of<00:06:03.759> it. 06:05.189 --> 06:05.199 align:start position:0% But that's not even the worst of it. 06:05.199 --> 06:07.670 align:start position:0% But that's not even the worst of it. This<00:06:05.360> was<00:06:05.520> no<00:06:05.840> mere<00:06:06.240> scientific<00:06:06.880> curiosity<00:06:07.520> in 06:07.670 --> 06:07.680 align:start position:0% This was no mere scientific curiosity in 06:07.680 --> 06:09.909 align:start position:0% This was no mere scientific curiosity in a<00:06:07.919> jolly<00:06:08.400> chemistry<00:06:08.880> department<00:06:09.440> somewhere 06:09.909 --> 06:09.919 align:start position:0% a jolly chemistry department somewhere 06:09.919 --> 06:12.870 align:start position:0% a jolly chemistry department somewhere obscure.<00:06:10.560> No.<00:06:11.039> Pilat<00:06:11.680> was<00:06:11.919> France's<00:06:12.479> most 06:12.870 --> 06:12.880 align:start position:0% obscure. No. Pilat was France's most 06:12.880 --> 06:15.670 align:start position:0% obscure. No. Pilat was France's most secret<00:06:13.520> nuclear<00:06:14.160> facility<00:06:14.960> where<00:06:15.360> uranium 06:15.670 --> 06:15.680 align:start position:0% secret nuclear facility where uranium 06:15.680 --> 06:18.390 align:start position:0% secret nuclear facility where uranium was<00:06:15.919> enriched<00:06:16.319> into<00:06:16.800> fuel<00:06:17.440> for<00:06:17.680> the<00:06:17.919> nation's 06:18.390 --> 06:18.400 align:start position:0% was enriched into fuel for the nation's 06:18.400 --> 06:21.670 align:start position:0% was enriched into fuel for the nation's atomic<00:06:19.120> bombs.<00:06:20.160> And<00:06:20.479> while<00:06:20.800> missing<00:06:21.360> uranium 06:21.670 --> 06:21.680 align:start position:0% atomic bombs. And while missing uranium 06:21.680 --> 06:23.909 align:start position:0% atomic bombs. And while missing uranium from<00:06:21.919> a<00:06:22.160> secret<00:06:22.639> nuclear<00:06:23.120> facility<00:06:23.600> might 06:23.909 --> 06:23.919 align:start position:0% from a secret nuclear facility might 06:23.919 --> 06:26.629 align:start position:0% from a secret nuclear facility might sound<00:06:24.240> bad<00:06:24.560> enough,<00:06:25.840> this<00:06:26.080> couldn't<00:06:26.400> have 06:26.629 --> 06:26.639 align:start position:0% sound bad enough, this couldn't have 06:26.639 --> 06:29.510 align:start position:0% sound bad enough, this couldn't have struck<00:06:27.039> at<00:06:27.280> a<00:06:27.520> worse<00:06:28.000> time.<00:06:28.880> Cold<00:06:29.199> War 06:29.510 --> 06:29.520 align:start position:0% struck at a worse time. Cold War 06:29.520 --> 06:32.070 align:start position:0% struck at a worse time. Cold War paranoia<00:06:30.080> was<00:06:30.319> at<00:06:30.479> fever<00:06:30.880> pitch.<00:06:31.440> Rumors<00:06:31.840> were 06:32.070 --> 06:32.080 align:start position:0% paranoia was at fever pitch. Rumors were 06:32.080 --> 06:34.309 align:start position:0% paranoia was at fever pitch. Rumors were already<00:06:32.400> swirling<00:06:32.880> about<00:06:33.280> Soviet<00:06:33.759> agents 06:34.309 --> 06:34.319 align:start position:0% already swirling about Soviet agents 06:34.319 --> 06:37.029 align:start position:0% already swirling about Soviet agents inside<00:06:34.800> the<00:06:35.120> French<00:06:35.520> government,<00:06:36.639> and<00:06:36.880> there 06:37.029 --> 06:37.039 align:start position:0% inside the French government, and there 06:37.039 --> 06:39.189 align:start position:0% inside the French government, and there had<00:06:37.280> been<00:06:37.440> unconfirmed<00:06:38.240> reports<00:06:38.560> of<00:06:38.880> spy 06:39.189 --> 06:39.199 align:start position:0% had been unconfirmed reports of spy 06:39.199 --> 06:42.550 align:start position:0% had been unconfirmed reports of spy planes<00:06:39.600> flying<00:06:40.080> over<00:06:40.479> Patt<00:06:41.199> itself. 06:42.550 --> 06:42.560 align:start position:0% planes flying over Patt itself. 06:42.560 --> 06:44.550 align:start position:0% planes flying over Patt itself. Physicist<00:06:43.120> Pierre<00:06:43.520> Corb<00:06:44.080> led<00:06:44.400> the 06:44.550 --> 06:44.560 align:start position:0% Physicist Pierre Corb led the 06:44.560 --> 06:47.110 align:start position:0% Physicist Pierre Corb led the investigation<00:06:45.120> into<00:06:45.440> what<00:06:45.759> went<00:06:46.000> wrong. 06:47.110 --> 06:47.120 align:start position:0% investigation into what went wrong. 06:47.120 --> 06:49.110 align:start position:0% investigation into what went wrong. Resisting<00:06:47.680> jumping<00:06:48.080> to<00:06:48.240> a<00:06:48.479> worstc<00:06:48.880> case 06:49.110 --> 06:49.120 align:start position:0% Resisting jumping to a worstc case 06:49.120 --> 06:52.070 align:start position:0% Resisting jumping to a worstc case scenario<00:06:49.680> of<00:06:50.000> nuclear<00:06:50.479> theft<00:06:50.880> by<00:06:51.120> a<00:06:51.280> bad<00:06:51.600> actor 06:52.070 --> 06:52.080 align:start position:0% scenario of nuclear theft by a bad actor 06:52.080 --> 06:54.629 align:start position:0% scenario of nuclear theft by a bad actor intent<00:06:52.560> on<00:06:52.880> constructing<00:06:53.520> their<00:06:53.759> own<00:06:54.080> atomic 06:54.629 --> 06:54.639 align:start position:0% intent on constructing their own atomic 06:54.639 --> 06:57.270 align:start position:0% intent on constructing their own atomic bomb,<00:06:55.520> Corb<00:06:56.080> started<00:06:56.400> with<00:06:56.560> a<00:06:56.800> simpler 06:57.270 --> 06:57.280 align:start position:0% bomb, Corb started with a simpler 06:57.280 --> 07:00.870 align:start position:0% bomb, Corb started with a simpler explanation.<00:06:58.400> Someone<00:06:58.720> had<00:06:58.960> made<00:06:59.199> a<00:06:59.440> mistake. 07:00.870 --> 07:00.880 align:start position:0% explanation. Someone had made a mistake. 07:00.880 --> 07:03.270 align:start position:0% explanation. Someone had made a mistake. The<00:07:01.120> deeper<00:07:01.360> they<00:07:01.599> dug,<00:07:01.919> the<00:07:02.080> worse<00:07:02.400> it<00:07:02.720> got. 07:03.270 --> 07:03.280 align:start position:0% The deeper they dug, the worse it got. 07:03.280 --> 07:05.270 align:start position:0% The deeper they dug, the worse it got. Some<00:07:03.599> batches<00:07:04.080> weren't<00:07:04.400> just<00:07:04.720> slightly 07:05.270 --> 07:05.280 align:start position:0% Some batches weren't just slightly 07:05.280 --> 07:08.150 align:start position:0% Some batches weren't just slightly depleted,<00:07:05.919> they<00:07:06.160> were<00:07:06.400> far<00:07:06.720> more<00:07:07.199> depleted, 07:08.150 --> 07:08.160 align:start position:0% depleted, they were far more depleted, 07:08.160 --> 07:10.870 align:start position:0% depleted, they were far more depleted, reading<00:07:08.479> as<00:07:08.639> low<00:07:08.800> as<00:07:09.039> 0.44% 07:10.870 --> 07:10.880 align:start position:0% reading as low as 0.44% 07:10.880 --> 07:15.270 align:start position:0% reading as low as 0.44% in<00:07:11.199> some<00:07:11.520> cases.<00:07:12.880> So,<00:07:13.120> where<00:07:13.440> was<00:07:13.919> uranium<00:07:14.479> 235 07:15.270 --> 07:15.280 align:start position:0% in some cases. So, where was uranium 235 07:15.280 --> 07:17.749 align:start position:0% in some cases. So, where was uranium 235 disappearing<00:07:15.919> to?<00:07:16.400> And<00:07:16.639> why<00:07:16.960> was<00:07:17.199> there<00:07:17.440> so 07:17.749 --> 07:17.759 align:start position:0% disappearing to? And why was there so 07:17.759 --> 07:20.469 align:start position:0% disappearing to? And why was there so much<00:07:18.000> less<00:07:18.479> than<00:07:18.800> there<00:07:19.039> should<00:07:19.280> be? 07:20.469 --> 07:20.479 align:start position:0% much less than there should be? 07:20.479 --> 07:22.230 align:start position:0% much less than there should be? Eventually,<00:07:21.039> they<00:07:21.280> traced<00:07:21.599> the<00:07:21.840> uranium 07:22.230 --> 07:22.240 align:start position:0% Eventually, they traced the uranium 07:22.240 --> 07:24.870 align:start position:0% Eventually, they traced the uranium sample<00:07:22.720> back<00:07:22.960> to<00:07:23.120> its<00:07:23.440> source.<00:07:24.240> And<00:07:24.400> that<00:07:24.639> was 07:24.870 --> 07:24.880 align:start position:0% sample back to its source. And that was 07:24.880 --> 07:27.990 align:start position:0% sample back to its source. And that was at<00:07:25.120> Munana<00:07:25.759> in<00:07:26.000> Gabon<00:07:26.720> on<00:07:26.880> the<00:07:27.039> west<00:07:27.280> coast<00:07:27.680> of 07:27.990 --> 07:28.000 align:start position:0% at Munana in Gabon on the west coast of 07:28.000 --> 07:30.469 align:start position:0% at Munana in Gabon on the west coast of central<00:07:28.400> Africa.<00:07:29.520> This<00:07:29.680> is<00:07:29.759> a<00:07:30.000> place<00:07:30.240> known 07:30.469 --> 07:30.479 align:start position:0% central Africa. This is a place known 07:30.479 --> 07:32.469 align:start position:0% central Africa. This is a place known for<00:07:30.639> its<00:07:30.960> kilome<00:07:31.520> thick<00:07:32.000> layers<00:07:32.240> of 07:32.469 --> 07:32.479 align:start position:0% for its kilome thick layers of 07:32.479 --> 07:35.430 align:start position:0% for its kilome thick layers of sedimentary<00:07:33.199> rock<00:07:34.080> laid<00:07:34.400> down<00:07:34.639> more<00:07:34.880> than<00:07:35.120> 2 07:35.430 --> 07:35.440 align:start position:0% sedimentary rock laid down more than 2 07:35.440 --> 07:37.990 align:start position:0% sedimentary rock laid down more than 2 billion<00:07:35.919> years<00:07:36.160> ago.<00:07:36.960> And<00:07:37.199> France<00:07:37.599> Villian 07:37.990 --> 07:38.000 align:start position:0% billion years ago. And France Villian 07:38.000 --> 07:40.309 align:start position:0% billion years ago. And France Villian Biotaa,<00:07:38.880> some<00:07:39.039> of<00:07:39.199> Earth's<00:07:39.680> earliest 07:40.309 --> 07:40.319 align:start position:0% Biotaa, some of Earth's earliest 07:40.319 --> 07:43.270 align:start position:0% Biotaa, some of Earth's earliest multisellular<00:07:41.360> life<00:07:41.680> forms.<00:07:42.800> And<00:07:42.960> within 07:43.270 --> 07:43.280 align:start position:0% multisellular life forms. And within 07:43.280 --> 07:45.830 align:start position:0% multisellular life forms. And within this<00:07:43.520> vast<00:07:44.000> area,<00:07:44.400> the<00:07:44.639> depleted<00:07:45.280> uranium<00:07:45.599> was 07:45.830 --> 07:45.840 align:start position:0% this vast area, the depleted uranium was 07:45.840 --> 07:48.390 align:start position:0% this vast area, the depleted uranium was eventually<00:07:46.319> tracked<00:07:46.639> down<00:07:46.880> to<00:07:47.199> one<00:07:47.520> place<00:07:48.000> in 07:48.390 --> 07:48.400 align:start position:0% eventually tracked down to one place in 07:48.400 --> 07:49.990 align:start position:0% eventually tracked down to one place in particular, 07:49.990 --> 07:50.000 align:start position:0% particular, 07:50.000 --> 07:52.390 align:start position:0% particular, the<00:07:50.240> northern<00:07:50.639> end<00:07:50.960> of<00:07:51.120> a<00:07:51.440> uranium<00:07:51.919> mine 07:52.390 --> 07:52.400 align:start position:0% the northern end of a uranium mine 07:52.400 --> 07:54.869 align:start position:0% the northern end of a uranium mine called<00:07:52.800> Olo.<00:07:53.840> By<00:07:54.160> comparing<00:07:54.560> their 07:54.869 --> 07:54.879 align:start position:0% called Olo. By comparing their 07:54.879 --> 07:57.270 align:start position:0% called Olo. By comparing their measurements<00:07:55.280> with<00:07:55.440> Oclo's<00:07:56.160> mining<00:07:56.560> records, 07:57.270 --> 07:57.280 align:start position:0% measurements with Oclo's mining records, 07:57.280 --> 07:59.270 align:start position:0% measurements with Oclo's mining records, the<00:07:57.520> French<00:07:57.840> team<00:07:58.160> calculated<00:07:58.720> that<00:07:58.960> between 07:59.270 --> 07:59.280 align:start position:0% the French team calculated that between 07:59.280 --> 08:03.350 align:start position:0% the French team calculated that between December<00:07:59.919> 1970<00:08:00.879> and<00:08:01.199> May<00:08:01.680> 1972, 08:03.350 --> 08:03.360 align:start position:0% December 1970 and May 1972, 08:03.360 --> 08:06.710 align:start position:0% December 1970 and May 1972, the<00:08:03.599> ore<00:08:03.919> was<00:08:04.160> short<00:08:04.560> by<00:08:04.800> about<00:08:05.280> 200<00:08:05.840> kg<00:08:06.400> of 08:06.710 --> 08:06.720 align:start position:0% the ore was short by about 200 kg of 08:06.720 --> 08:08.790 align:start position:0% the ore was short by about 200 kg of uranium<00:08:07.280> 235, 08:08.790 --> 08:08.800 align:start position:0% uranium 235, 08:08.800 --> 08:12.390 align:start position:0% uranium 235, enough<00:08:09.120> to<00:08:09.280> build<00:08:09.680> several<00:08:10.240> atomic<00:08:10.879> bombs. 08:12.390 --> 08:12.400 align:start position:0% enough to build several atomic bombs. 08:12.400 --> 08:14.469 align:start position:0% enough to build several atomic bombs. But<00:08:12.560> with<00:08:12.800> no<00:08:12.960> clear<00:08:13.280> evidence<00:08:13.599> of<00:08:13.840> foul<00:08:14.240> play 08:14.469 --> 08:14.479 align:start position:0% But with no clear evidence of foul play 08:14.479 --> 08:16.309 align:start position:0% But with no clear evidence of foul play in<00:08:14.639> the<00:08:14.879> supply<00:08:15.199> chain,<00:08:15.680> they<00:08:16.000> considered 08:16.309 --> 08:16.319 align:start position:0% in the supply chain, they considered 08:16.319 --> 08:19.189 align:start position:0% in the supply chain, they considered what<00:08:16.560> Corbay<00:08:17.199> himself<00:08:17.599> would<00:08:17.840> later<00:08:18.160> call<00:08:18.800> the 08:19.189 --> 08:19.199 align:start position:0% what Corbay himself would later call the 08:19.199 --> 08:22.710 align:start position:0% what Corbay himself would later call the most<00:08:19.520> outrageous<00:08:20.400> idea<00:08:20.960> of<00:08:21.280> all<00:08:22.080> that<00:08:22.400> some<00:08:22.639> of 08:22.710 --> 08:22.720 align:start position:0% most outrageous idea of all that some of 08:22.720 --> 08:25.990 align:start position:0% most outrageous idea of all that some of the<00:08:23.039> uranium<00:08:23.440> had<00:08:23.840> somehow<00:08:24.400> been<00:08:24.639> used<00:08:25.039> up<00:08:25.599> or 08:25.990 --> 08:26.000 align:start position:0% the uranium had somehow been used up or 08:26.000 --> 08:29.029 align:start position:0% the uranium had somehow been used up or burnt.<00:08:27.280> In<00:08:27.599> other<00:08:27.840> words,<00:08:28.160> the<00:08:28.560> uranium 08:29.029 --> 08:29.039 align:start position:0% burnt. In other words, the uranium 08:29.039 --> 08:32.550 align:start position:0% burnt. In other words, the uranium really<00:08:29.440> was<00:08:30.319> depleted.<00:08:31.599> To<00:08:31.919> investigate, 08:32.550 --> 08:32.560 align:start position:0% really was depleted. To investigate, 08:32.560 --> 08:34.949 align:start position:0% really was depleted. To investigate, they<00:08:32.800> put<00:08:33.039> the<00:08:33.279> uranium<00:08:33.760> ore<00:08:34.000> from<00:08:34.159> Ollo<00:08:34.719> under 08:34.949 --> 08:34.959 align:start position:0% they put the uranium ore from Ollo under 08:34.959 --> 08:37.990 align:start position:0% they put the uranium ore from Ollo under extensive<00:08:35.839> isotope<00:08:36.399> analysis.<00:08:37.519> What<00:08:37.760> they 08:37.990 --> 08:38.000 align:start position:0% extensive isotope analysis. What they 08:38.000 --> 08:40.070 align:start position:0% extensive isotope analysis. What they found<00:08:38.240> were<00:08:38.399> the<00:08:38.640> unmistakable<00:08:39.599> chemical 08:40.070 --> 08:40.080 align:start position:0% found were the unmistakable chemical 08:40.080 --> 08:42.870 align:start position:0% found were the unmistakable chemical leftovers<00:08:40.800> from<00:08:41.039> when<00:08:41.440> a<00:08:41.760> uranium<00:08:42.240> nucleus 08:42.870 --> 08:42.880 align:start position:0% leftovers from when a uranium nucleus 08:42.880 --> 08:45.750 align:start position:0% leftovers from when a uranium nucleus splits<00:08:44.000> signatures<00:08:44.640> of<00:08:44.959> elements<00:08:45.440> like 08:45.750 --> 08:45.760 align:start position:0% splits signatures of elements like 08:45.760 --> 08:49.190 align:start position:0% splits signatures of elements like neodymium<00:08:46.720> and<00:08:47.040> zenon.<00:08:48.160> The<00:08:48.480> only<00:08:48.720> thing<00:08:48.880> in 08:49.190 --> 08:49.200 align:start position:0% neodymium and zenon. The only thing in 08:49.200 --> 08:52.230 align:start position:0% neodymium and zenon. The only thing in the<00:08:49.360> universe<00:08:49.839> that<00:08:50.080> depletes<00:08:50.720> uranium<00:08:51.200> 235 08:52.230 --> 08:52.240 align:start position:0% the universe that depletes uranium 235 08:52.240 --> 08:55.269 align:start position:0% the universe that depletes uranium 235 like<00:08:52.640> this<00:08:53.360> with<00:08:53.680> this<00:08:54.160> chemical<00:08:54.720> signature 08:55.269 --> 08:55.279 align:start position:0% like this with this chemical signature 08:55.279 --> 08:59.030 align:start position:0% like this with this chemical signature is<00:08:56.000> a<00:08:56.320> nuclear<00:08:56.880> chain<00:08:57.279> reaction.<00:08:58.320> The<00:08:58.640> exact 08:59.030 --> 08:59.040 align:start position:0% is a nuclear chain reaction. The exact 08:59.040 --> 09:01.509 align:start position:0% is a nuclear chain reaction. The exact reaction<00:08:59.680> Fermy<00:09:00.080> had<00:09:00.320> sweated<00:09:00.800> over<00:09:01.040> in<00:09:01.279> that 09:01.509 --> 09:01.519 align:start position:0% reaction Fermy had sweated over in that 09:01.519 --> 09:05.990 align:start position:0% reaction Fermy had sweated over in that squash<00:09:01.920> court<00:09:02.800> 30<00:09:03.360> years<00:09:03.839> before. 09:05.990 --> 09:06.000 align:start position:0% squash court 30 years before. 09:06.000 --> 09:08.389 align:start position:0% squash court 30 years before. Sure<00:09:06.320> enough,<00:09:06.720> when<00:09:07.040> Corb's<00:09:07.760> team<00:09:08.080> checked 09:08.389 --> 09:08.399 align:start position:0% Sure enough, when Corb's team checked 09:08.399 --> 09:10.230 align:start position:0% Sure enough, when Corb's team checked the<00:09:08.640> isotopic<00:09:09.360> pattern<00:09:09.680> against<00:09:10.000> the 09:10.230 --> 09:10.240 align:start position:0% the isotopic pattern against the 09:10.240 --> 09:13.110 align:start position:0% the isotopic pattern against the fingerprint<00:09:10.720> of<00:09:10.959> spent<00:09:11.360> fuel<00:09:11.760> from<00:09:12.399> a<00:09:12.720> real 09:13.110 --> 09:13.120 align:start position:0% fingerprint of spent fuel from a real 09:13.120 --> 09:15.910 align:start position:0% fingerprint of spent fuel from a real nuclear<00:09:13.680> reactor,<00:09:14.640> it<00:09:14.880> matched<00:09:15.360> almost 09:15.910 --> 09:15.920 align:start position:0% nuclear reactor, it matched almost 09:15.920 --> 09:19.190 align:start position:0% nuclear reactor, it matched almost perfectly.<00:09:17.360> Yes,<00:09:17.839> this<00:09:18.320> uranium<00:09:18.880> had 09:19.190 --> 09:19.200 align:start position:0% perfectly. Yes, this uranium had 09:19.200 --> 09:22.389 align:start position:0% perfectly. Yes, this uranium had undergone<00:09:20.080> fishing.<00:09:21.360> What's<00:09:21.680> more<00:09:22.000> is<00:09:22.240> that 09:22.389 --> 09:22.399 align:start position:0% undergone fishing. What's more is that 09:22.399 --> 09:24.310 align:start position:0% undergone fishing. What's more is that when<00:09:22.560> the<00:09:22.800> investigations<00:09:23.680> dated<00:09:24.080> the 09:24.310 --> 09:24.320 align:start position:0% when the investigations dated the 09:24.320 --> 09:26.790 align:start position:0% when the investigations dated the reaction<00:09:24.800> using<00:09:25.200> isotope<00:09:25.839> measurements, 09:26.790 --> 09:26.800 align:start position:0% reaction using isotope measurements, 09:26.800 --> 09:28.550 align:start position:0% reaction using isotope measurements, they<00:09:27.040> found<00:09:27.200> the<00:09:27.440> fishing<00:09:27.839> reaction<00:09:28.240> had 09:28.550 --> 09:28.560 align:start position:0% they found the fishing reaction had 09:28.560 --> 09:31.110 align:start position:0% they found the fishing reaction had started<00:09:28.959> not<00:09:29.279> in<00:09:29.440> the<00:09:29.600> atomic<00:09:30.160> age,<00:09:30.800> but 09:31.110 --> 09:31.120 align:start position:0% started not in the atomic age, but 09:31.120 --> 09:34.630 align:start position:0% started not in the atomic age, but around<00:09:31.680> 2<00:09:32.240> billion<00:09:32.959> years<00:09:33.200> ago.<00:09:34.320> We're 09:34.630 --> 09:34.640 align:start position:0% around 2 billion years ago. We're 09:34.640 --> 09:37.110 align:start position:0% around 2 billion years ago. We're talking<00:09:34.959> about<00:09:35.200> a<00:09:35.600> 2<00:09:36.000> billion-year-old 09:37.110 --> 09:37.120 align:start position:0% talking about a 2 billion-year-old 09:37.120 --> 09:40.389 align:start position:0% talking about a 2 billion-year-old nuclear<00:09:37.839> fishision<00:09:38.399> reaction<00:09:39.279> without<00:09:40.000> any 09:40.389 --> 09:40.399 align:start position:0% nuclear fishision reaction without any 09:40.399 --> 09:43.110 align:start position:0% nuclear fishision reaction without any human<00:09:40.959> technology.<00:09:42.320> This<00:09:42.480> was<00:09:42.720> something 09:43.110 --> 09:43.120 align:start position:0% human technology. This was something 09:43.120 --> 09:45.590 align:start position:0% human technology. This was something much<00:09:43.519> weird<00:09:44.000> and<00:09:44.399> far<00:09:44.720> more<00:09:44.959> interesting,<00:09:45.360> I 09:45.590 --> 09:45.600 align:start position:0% much weird and far more interesting, I 09:45.600 --> 09:48.230 align:start position:0% much weird and far more interesting, I think,<00:09:45.839> than<00:09:46.080> some<00:09:46.480> secret<00:09:47.040> Soviet<00:09:47.600> Cold<00:09:47.839> War 09:48.230 --> 09:48.240 align:start position:0% think, than some secret Soviet Cold War 09:48.240 --> 09:50.389 align:start position:0% think, than some secret Soviet Cold War plot.<00:09:49.120> Stop<00:09:49.440> right<00:09:49.519> there,<00:09:49.760> all<00:09:49.920> you<00:09:50.080> ancient 09:50.389 --> 09:50.399 align:start position:0% plot. Stop right there, all you ancient 09:50.399 --> 09:52.310 align:start position:0% plot. Stop right there, all you ancient alien<00:09:50.800> conspiracy<00:09:51.279> theorists,<00:09:51.760> I<00:09:51.920> can<00:09:52.080> see 09:52.310 --> 09:52.320 align:start position:0% alien conspiracy theorists, I can see 09:52.320 --> 09:54.949 align:start position:0% alien conspiracy theorists, I can see your<00:09:52.560> minds<00:09:53.040> working.<00:09:53.600> The<00:09:53.920> real<00:09:54.320> answer<00:09:54.720> as 09:54.949 --> 09:54.959 align:start position:0% your minds working. The real answer as 09:54.959 --> 09:57.269 align:start position:0% your minds working. The real answer as to<00:09:55.200> how<00:09:55.519> this<00:09:55.760> is<00:09:56.000> even<00:09:56.240> possible,<00:09:56.800> I<00:09:56.959> promise 09:57.269 --> 09:57.279 align:start position:0% to how this is even possible, I promise 09:57.279 --> 09:59.350 align:start position:0% to how this is even possible, I promise you,<00:09:57.519> is<00:09:57.839> so<00:09:58.080> much<00:09:58.399> cooler<00:09:58.800> than<00:09:58.959> you<00:09:59.120> are 09:59.350 --> 09:59.360 align:start position:0% you, is so much cooler than you are 09:59.360 --> 10:00.870 align:start position:0% you, is so much cooler than you are thinking. 10:00.870 --> 10:00.880 align:start position:0% thinking. 10:00.880 --> 10:03.590 align:start position:0% thinking. And<00:10:01.200> amazingly,<00:10:01.839> a<00:10:02.160> geocchemist<00:10:02.959> called<00:10:03.200> Paul 10:03.590 --> 10:03.600 align:start position:0% And amazingly, a geocchemist called Paul 10:03.600 --> 10:06.630 align:start position:0% And amazingly, a geocchemist called Paul Curoda<00:10:04.320> had<00:10:04.560> predicted<00:10:04.959> it<00:10:05.440> 16<00:10:05.839> years<00:10:06.240> before 10:06.630 --> 10:06.640 align:start position:0% Curoda had predicted it 16 years before 10:06.640 --> 10:09.590 align:start position:0% Curoda had predicted it 16 years before we<00:10:06.959> knew<00:10:07.680> about<00:10:07.920> the<00:10:08.160> mystery<00:10:08.560> of<00:10:08.720> the<00:10:08.959> Ocllo 10:09.590 --> 10:09.600 align:start position:0% we knew about the mystery of the Ocllo 10:09.600 --> 10:13.829 align:start position:0% we knew about the mystery of the Ocllo mine.<00:10:10.959> In<00:10:11.279> 1956<00:10:12.399> in<00:10:12.560> the<00:10:12.720> journal<00:10:13.040> of<00:10:13.279> chemical 10:13.829 --> 10:13.839 align:start position:0% mine. In 1956 in the journal of chemical 10:13.839 --> 10:16.389 align:start position:0% mine. In 1956 in the journal of chemical physics<00:10:14.320> under<00:10:14.640> the<00:10:14.880> title<00:10:15.360> on<00:10:15.600> the<00:10:15.760> nuclear 10:16.389 --> 10:16.399 align:start position:0% physics under the title on the nuclear 10:16.399 --> 10:18.310 align:start position:0% physics under the title on the nuclear physical<00:10:16.880> stability<00:10:17.360> of<00:10:17.600> the<00:10:17.839> uranium 10:18.310 --> 10:18.320 align:start position:0% physical stability of the uranium 10:18.320 --> 10:21.910 align:start position:0% physical stability of the uranium minerals,<00:10:19.360> he<00:10:19.600> laid<00:10:19.839> out<00:10:20.079> in<00:10:20.480> full<00:10:21.120> the<00:10:21.440> exact 10:21.910 --> 10:21.920 align:start position:0% minerals, he laid out in full the exact 10:21.920 --> 10:24.310 align:start position:0% minerals, he laid out in full the exact conditions<00:10:22.480> under<00:10:22.800> which<00:10:23.040> he<00:10:23.360> believed<00:10:24.079> the 10:24.310 --> 10:24.320 align:start position:0% conditions under which he believed the 10:24.320 --> 10:27.670 align:start position:0% conditions under which he believed the planet<00:10:24.720> could<00:10:24.959> build<00:10:25.279> its<00:10:25.680> own<00:10:26.160> reactor.<00:10:27.360> It 10:27.670 --> 10:27.680 align:start position:0% planet could build its own reactor. It 10:27.680 --> 10:30.470 align:start position:0% planet could build its own reactor. It was<00:10:27.920> an<00:10:28.160> enormously<00:10:28.880> bold<00:10:29.440> idea<00:10:30.000> and<00:10:30.240> the 10:30.470 --> 10:30.480 align:start position:0% was an enormously bold idea and the 10:30.480 --> 10:33.670 align:start position:0% was an enormously bold idea and the reception<00:10:31.120> was<00:10:31.519> equally<00:10:32.079> robust.<00:10:33.200> As<00:10:33.519> he 10:33.670 --> 10:33.680 align:start position:0% reception was equally robust. As he 10:33.680 --> 10:35.670 align:start position:0% reception was equally robust. As he himself<00:10:34.160> remembers,<00:10:34.720> fellow<00:10:35.120> scientists 10:35.670 --> 10:35.680 align:start position:0% himself remembers, fellow scientists 10:35.680 --> 10:38.949 align:start position:0% himself remembers, fellow scientists said,<00:10:36.480> "If<00:10:36.880> this<00:10:37.440> idiot<00:10:37.839> is<00:10:38.079> an<00:10:38.320> indication<00:10:38.720> of 10:38.949 --> 10:38.959 align:start position:0% said, "If this idiot is an indication of 10:38.959 --> 10:40.550 align:start position:0% said, "If this idiot is an indication of the<00:10:39.279> program<00:10:39.600> at<00:10:39.839> the<00:10:40.000> University<00:10:40.320> of 10:40.550 --> 10:40.560 align:start position:0% the program at the University of 10:40.560 --> 10:42.630 align:start position:0% the program at the University of Arkansas,<00:10:41.360> then<00:10:41.680> there<00:10:41.920> must<00:10:42.160> be<00:10:42.320> nothing 10:42.630 --> 10:42.640 align:start position:0% Arkansas, then there must be nothing 10:42.640 --> 10:45.350 align:start position:0% Arkansas, then there must be nothing there<00:10:43.279> at<00:10:43.519> all."<00:10:44.079> He<00:10:44.320> even<00:10:44.560> went<00:10:44.880> looking<00:10:45.120> for 10:45.350 --> 10:45.360 align:start position:0% there at all." He even went looking for 10:45.360 --> 10:48.230 align:start position:0% there at all." He even went looking for proof<00:10:45.760> of<00:10:46.000> his<00:10:46.320> natural<00:10:46.880> nuclear<00:10:47.519> reactor, 10:48.230 --> 10:48.240 align:start position:0% proof of his natural nuclear reactor, 10:48.240 --> 10:50.790 align:start position:0% proof of his natural nuclear reactor, analyzing<00:10:48.959> uranium<00:10:49.440> ores<00:10:49.680> for<00:10:49.839> the<00:10:50.000> telltale 10:50.790 --> 10:50.800 align:start position:0% analyzing uranium ores for the telltale 10:50.800 --> 10:53.590 align:start position:0% analyzing uranium ores for the telltale scars<00:10:51.360> of<00:10:51.680> an<00:10:51.920> ancient<00:10:52.399> reaction,<00:10:53.040> but<00:10:53.279> he 10:53.590 --> 10:53.600 align:start position:0% scars of an ancient reaction, but he 10:53.600 --> 10:56.710 align:start position:0% scars of an ancient reaction, but he found<00:10:54.079> nothing.<00:10:55.200> No<00:10:55.600> natural<00:10:56.000> reactor<00:10:56.480> had 10:56.710 --> 10:56.720 align:start position:0% found nothing. No natural reactor had 10:56.720 --> 10:59.750 align:start position:0% found nothing. No natural reactor had ever<00:10:57.120> been<00:10:57.440> seen.<00:10:58.160> Koda<00:10:58.640> himself<00:10:59.360> couldn't 10:59.750 --> 10:59.760 align:start position:0% ever been seen. Koda himself couldn't 10:59.760 --> 11:01.829 align:start position:0% ever been seen. Koda himself couldn't find<00:11:00.000> one.<00:11:00.560> The<00:11:00.800> scientific<00:11:01.360> community 11:01.829 --> 11:01.839 align:start position:0% find one. The scientific community 11:01.839 --> 11:05.670 align:start position:0% find one. The scientific community assumed<00:11:02.560> it<00:11:02.880> was<00:11:03.279> impossible.<00:11:04.399> So<00:11:04.800> game<00:11:05.120> over, 11:05.670 --> 11:05.680 align:start position:0% assumed it was impossible. So game over, 11:05.680 --> 11:08.230 align:start position:0% assumed it was impossible. So game over, right?<00:11:06.320> Well,<00:11:06.880> 16<00:11:07.279> years<00:11:07.519> later,<00:11:07.920> that 11:08.230 --> 11:08.240 align:start position:0% right? Well, 16 years later, that 11:08.240 --> 11:10.949 align:start position:0% right? Well, 16 years later, that routine<00:11:08.720> measurement<00:11:09.200> in<00:11:09.519> Pilat<00:11:10.240> would<00:11:10.560> prove 11:10.949 --> 11:10.959 align:start position:0% routine measurement in Pilat would prove 11:10.959 --> 11:13.910 align:start position:0% routine measurement in Pilat would prove every<00:11:11.360> single<00:11:11.680> one<00:11:11.920> of<00:11:12.079> them<00:11:12.560> wrong<00:11:13.360> and<00:11:13.680> show 11:13.910 --> 11:13.920 align:start position:0% every single one of them wrong and show 11:13.920 --> 11:16.870 align:start position:0% every single one of them wrong and show that<00:11:14.160> Paul<00:11:14.399> Cura<00:11:14.959> was<00:11:15.200> spot<00:11:15.519> on<00:11:15.839> this<00:11:16.320> entire 11:16.870 --> 11:16.880 align:start position:0% that Paul Cura was spot on this entire 11:16.880 --> 11:18.550 align:start position:0% that Paul Cura was spot on this entire time.<00:11:17.279> I<00:11:17.440> do<00:11:17.600> love<00:11:17.760> it<00:11:17.920> when<00:11:18.079> the<00:11:18.160> good<00:11:18.320> guys 11:18.550 --> 11:18.560 align:start position:0% time. I do love it when the good guys 11:18.560 --> 11:21.670 align:start position:0% time. I do love it when the good guys win<00:11:19.279> and<00:11:19.680> he'd<00:11:20.079> written<00:11:20.320> them<00:11:20.480> down<00:11:20.880> before<00:11:21.360> it 11:21.670 --> 11:21.680 align:start position:0% win and he'd written them down before it 11:21.680 --> 11:23.910 align:start position:0% win and he'd written them down before it was<00:11:21.920> even<00:11:22.399> discovered. 11:23.910 --> 11:23.920 align:start position:0% was even discovered. 11:23.920 --> 11:26.230 align:start position:0% was even discovered. So,<00:11:24.240> what<00:11:24.480> were<00:11:24.720> they?<00:11:25.360> First,<00:11:25.839> you<00:11:26.079> need 11:26.230 --> 11:26.240 align:start position:0% So, what were they? First, you need 11:26.240 --> 11:29.269 align:start position:0% So, what were they? First, you need enough<00:11:26.640> uranium<00:11:27.200> 235<00:11:28.079> packed<00:11:28.560> into<00:11:28.959> one 11:29.269 --> 11:29.279 align:start position:0% enough uranium 235 packed into one 11:29.279 --> 11:31.670 align:start position:0% enough uranium 235 packed into one place.<00:11:29.760> That's<00:11:30.000> the<00:11:30.320> fuel.<00:11:30.959> Uranium<00:11:31.440> is 11:31.670 --> 11:31.680 align:start position:0% place. That's the fuel. Uranium is 11:31.680 --> 11:33.430 align:start position:0% place. That's the fuel. Uranium is scattered<00:11:32.079> all<00:11:32.320> over<00:11:32.480> the<00:11:32.640> Earth.<00:11:32.959> So,<00:11:33.200> that's 11:33.430 --> 11:33.440 align:start position:0% scattered all over the Earth. So, that's 11:33.440 --> 11:35.269 align:start position:0% scattered all over the Earth. So, that's not<00:11:33.680> the<00:11:33.920> problem.<00:11:34.399> But<00:11:34.560> remember, 11:35.269 --> 11:35.279 align:start position:0% not the problem. But remember, 11:35.279 --> 11:38.470 align:start position:0% not the problem. But remember, everywhere<00:11:35.839> you<00:11:36.079> dig,<00:11:36.640> uranium<00:11:37.120> 235<00:11:37.920> sits<00:11:38.240> at 11:38.470 --> 11:38.480 align:start position:0% everywhere you dig, uranium 235 sits at 11:38.480 --> 11:42.230 align:start position:0% everywhere you dig, uranium 235 sits at the<00:11:38.720> same<00:11:39.120> locked<00:11:39.600> 0.72<00:11:40.800> ratio.<00:11:41.600> This<00:11:41.760> is<00:11:41.920> far 11:42.230 --> 11:42.240 align:start position:0% the same locked 0.72 ratio. This is far 11:42.240 --> 11:44.790 align:start position:0% the same locked 0.72 ratio. This is far too<00:11:42.399> weak<00:11:42.720> a<00:11:42.880> concentration<00:11:43.600> to<00:11:43.920> sustain<00:11:44.399> a 11:44.790 --> 11:44.800 align:start position:0% too weak a concentration to sustain a 11:44.800 --> 11:47.430 align:start position:0% too weak a concentration to sustain a typical<00:11:45.440> nuclear<00:11:46.079> fishing<00:11:46.480> reaction.<00:11:47.279> And 11:47.430 --> 11:47.440 align:start position:0% typical nuclear fishing reaction. And 11:47.440 --> 11:49.110 align:start position:0% typical nuclear fishing reaction. And that's<00:11:47.680> actually<00:11:47.839> why<00:11:48.079> we<00:11:48.240> have<00:11:48.320> to<00:11:48.480> enrich 11:49.110 --> 11:49.120 align:start position:0% that's actually why we have to enrich 11:49.120 --> 11:51.509 align:start position:0% that's actually why we have to enrich uranium<00:11:49.519> up<00:11:49.680> to<00:11:49.839> around<00:11:50.160> 3%<00:11:50.720> before<00:11:51.040> it's<00:11:51.279> of 11:51.509 --> 11:51.519 align:start position:0% uranium up to around 3% before it's of 11:51.519 --> 11:54.310 align:start position:0% uranium up to around 3% before it's of any<00:11:51.760> use<00:11:52.000> at<00:11:52.320> all.<00:11:52.880> So,<00:11:53.120> how<00:11:53.360> did<00:11:53.600> nature<00:11:54.079> get 11:54.310 --> 11:54.320 align:start position:0% any use at all. So, how did nature get 11:54.320 --> 11:57.910 align:start position:0% any use at all. So, how did nature get hold<00:11:54.640> of<00:11:54.800> a<00:11:55.040> reactor<00:11:56.000> fuel?<00:11:57.279> Well,<00:11:57.519> it<00:11:57.680> turns 11:57.910 --> 11:57.920 align:start position:0% hold of a reactor fuel? Well, it turns 11:57.920 --> 12:00.150 align:start position:0% hold of a reactor fuel? Well, it turns out<00:11:58.160> nature<00:11:58.560> can<00:11:58.720> do<00:11:58.959> some<00:11:59.200> pretty<00:11:59.519> amazing 12:00.150 --> 12:00.160 align:start position:0% out nature can do some pretty amazing 12:00.160 --> 12:02.630 align:start position:0% out nature can do some pretty amazing stuff,<00:12:00.720> especially<00:12:01.279> when<00:12:01.600> left<00:12:01.839> to<00:12:02.079> its<00:12:02.320> own 12:02.630 --> 12:02.640 align:start position:0% stuff, especially when left to its own 12:02.640 --> 12:05.509 align:start position:0% stuff, especially when left to its own devices.<00:12:03.600> But<00:12:04.000> some<00:12:04.240> of<00:12:04.320> us<00:12:04.640> pesky<00:12:05.120> humans 12:03.341 --> 12:04.690 align:start position:0% Paradise video. Honestly, it's amazing. Anyway,<00:13:39.440> let's<00:13:39.600> get<00:13:39.760> back<00:13:39.839> to<00:13:40.000> seeing<00:13:40.240> how 12:04.690 --> 12:04.700 align:start position:0% Anyway, let's get back to seeing how 12:04.700 --> 12:08.051 align:start position:0% Anyway, let's get back to seeing how nature<00:13:40.800> itself<00:13:41.760> managed<00:13:42.160> nuclear<00:13:42.720> fishision 12:08.051 --> 12:08.061 align:start position:0% nature itself managed nuclear fishision 12:08.061 --> 12:10.771 align:start position:0% nature itself managed nuclear fishision without<00:13:44.240> us.<00:13:45.440> Well,<00:13:45.680> as<00:13:45.839> with<00:13:46.079> many<00:13:46.240> things, 12:10.771 --> 12:10.781 align:start position:0% without us. Well, as with many things, 12:10.781 --> 12:13.331 align:start position:0% without us. Well, as with many things, it<00:13:46.639> all<00:13:46.800> comes<00:13:46.959> down<00:13:47.200> to<00:13:47.680> time<00:13:48.399> really. 12:13.331 --> 12:13.341 align:start position:0% it all comes down to time really. 12:13.341 --> 12:16.531 align:start position:0% it all comes down to time really. Uranium<00:13:49.680> 235<00:13:50.480> is<00:13:50.800> far<00:13:51.200> less<00:13:51.600> stable<00:13:52.000> and 12:16.531 --> 12:16.541 align:start position:0% Uranium 235 is far less stable and 12:16.541 --> 12:18.930 align:start position:0% Uranium 235 is far less stable and decays<00:13:52.880> six<00:13:53.200> times<00:13:53.760> faster<00:13:54.160> than<00:13:54.399> its 12:18.930 --> 12:18.940 align:start position:0% decays six times faster than its 12:18.940 --> 12:22.611 align:start position:0% decays six times faster than its heavyweight<00:13:55.200> cousin,<00:13:56.079> uranium<00:13:56.720> 238,<00:13:58.000> which 12:22.611 --> 12:22.621 align:start position:0% heavyweight cousin, uranium 238, which 12:22.621 --> 12:24.930 align:start position:0% heavyweight cousin, uranium 238, which means<00:13:58.560> if<00:13:58.800> you<00:13:58.959> run<00:13:59.120> the<00:13:59.279> clock<00:13:59.680> backwards, 12:24.930 --> 12:24.940 align:start position:0% means if you run the clock backwards, 12:24.940 --> 12:28.291 align:start position:0% means if you run the clock backwards, that<00:14:00.959> universal<00:14:01.680> ratio<00:14:02.240> changes<00:14:03.360> with<00:14:03.600> more 12:28.291 --> 12:28.301 align:start position:0% that universal ratio changes with more 12:28.301 --> 12:32.531 align:start position:0% that universal ratio changes with more uranium<00:14:04.480> 235<00:14:05.360> relative<00:14:05.760> to<00:14:06.079> uranium<00:14:06.639> 238. 12:32.531 --> 12:32.541 align:start position:0% uranium 235 relative to uranium 238. 12:32.541 --> 12:35.011 align:start position:0% uranium 235 relative to uranium 238. Wind<00:14:08.560> back<00:14:08.800> to<00:14:08.959> Earth's<00:14:09.600> birth<00:14:10.160> 4<00:14:10.320> and<00:14:10.399> a<00:14:10.560> half 12:35.011 --> 12:35.021 align:start position:0% Wind back to Earth's birth 4 and a half 12:35.021 --> 12:37.331 align:start position:0% Wind back to Earth's birth 4 and a half billion<00:14:11.120> years<00:14:11.279> ago<00:14:11.839> and<00:14:12.160> you<00:14:12.320> get<00:14:12.560> uranium 12:37.331 --> 12:37.341 align:start position:0% billion years ago and you get uranium 12:37.341 --> 12:41.490 align:start position:0% billion years ago and you get uranium 235<00:14:13.839> in<00:14:14.079> concentrations<00:14:14.959> around<00:14:15.519> 17% 12:41.490 --> 12:41.500 align:start position:0% 235 in concentrations around 17% 12:41.500 --> 12:43.891 align:start position:0% 235 in concentrations around 17% and<00:14:17.440> two<00:14:17.680> billion<00:14:18.000> years<00:14:18.160> ago<00:14:18.560> the<00:14:18.800> moment<00:14:19.199> our 12:43.891 --> 12:43.901 align:start position:0% and two billion years ago the moment our 12:43.901 --> 12:46.690 align:start position:0% and two billion years ago the moment our ocllo<00:14:20.000> reactor<00:14:20.480> switched<00:14:20.959> on<00:14:21.680> the<00:14:21.920> planet's 12:46.690 --> 12:46.700 align:start position:0% ocllo reactor switched on the planet's 12:46.700 --> 12:50.130 align:start position:0% ocllo reactor switched on the planet's natural<00:14:22.959> uranium<00:14:23.440> sat<00:14:23.760> around<00:14:24.079> 3.1% 12:50.130 --> 12:50.140 align:start position:0% natural uranium sat around 3.1% 12:50.140 --> 12:52.130 align:start position:0% natural uranium sat around 3.1% roughly<00:14:26.160> the<00:14:26.480> same<00:14:26.720> grade<00:14:27.040> we<00:14:27.199> enrich<00:14:27.680> our 12:52.130 --> 12:52.140 align:start position:0% roughly the same grade we enrich our 12:52.140 --> 12:55.011 align:start position:0% roughly the same grade we enrich our fuel<00:14:28.160> at<00:14:28.880> today.<00:14:29.600> So<00:14:29.839> yeah,<00:14:30.000> there<00:14:30.240> we<00:14:30.320> go.<00:14:30.560> The 12:55.011 --> 12:55.021 align:start position:0% fuel at today. So yeah, there we go. The 12:55.021 --> 12:57.891 align:start position:0% fuel at today. So yeah, there we go. The first<00:14:31.040> element<00:14:31.519> in<00:14:31.760> place<00:14:32.560> but<00:14:32.880> rich<00:14:33.199> fuel 12:57.891 --> 12:57.901 align:start position:0% first element in place but rich fuel 12:57.901 --> 12:59.810 align:start position:0% first element in place but rich fuel scattered<00:14:34.000> disparently<00:14:34.639> through<00:14:34.880> solid<00:14:35.199> rock 12:59.810 --> 12:59.820 align:start position:0% scattered disparently through solid rock 12:59.820 --> 13:02.771 align:start position:0% scattered disparently through solid rock isn't<00:14:36.000> going<00:14:36.160> to<00:14:36.320> cut<00:14:36.639> it.<00:14:37.199> So<00:14:37.839> the<00:14:38.160> second 13:02.771 --> 13:02.781 align:start position:0% isn't going to cut it. So the second 13:02.781 --> 13:05.011 align:start position:0% isn't going to cut it. So the second condition<00:14:39.279> was<00:14:39.440> that<00:14:39.680> the<00:14:39.839> ore<00:14:40.160> needed<00:14:40.480> to 13:05.011 --> 13:05.021 align:start position:0% condition was that the ore needed to 13:05.021 --> 13:08.051 align:start position:0% condition was that the ore needed to average<00:14:41.120> around<00:14:41.519> 10%<00:14:42.399> uranium<00:14:42.880> in<00:14:43.199> seams<00:14:43.680> at 13:08.051 --> 13:08.061 align:start position:0% average around 10% uranium in seams at 13:08.061 --> 13:11.570 align:start position:0% average around 10% uranium in seams at least<00:14:44.399> half<00:14:44.720> a<00:14:45.040> meter<00:14:45.440> thick.<00:14:46.480> Essentially<00:14:46.959> a 13:11.570 --> 13:11.580 align:start position:0% least half a meter thick. Essentially a 13:11.580 --> 13:13.171 align:start position:0% least half a meter thick. Essentially a big<00:14:47.440> chunk<00:14:47.680> of<00:14:47.839> it<00:14:48.000> needs<00:14:48.160> to<00:14:48.240> be<00:14:48.399> gathered<00:14:48.639> and 13:13.171 --> 13:13.181 align:start position:0% big chunk of it needs to be gathered and 13:13.181 --> 13:15.810 align:start position:0% big chunk of it needs to be gathered and concentrated<00:14:49.440> into<00:14:49.760> one<00:14:50.160> dense<00:14:50.639> pocket.<00:14:51.360> And 13:15.810 --> 13:15.820 align:start position:0% concentrated into one dense pocket. And 13:15.820 --> 13:18.130 align:start position:0% concentrated into one dense pocket. And that<00:14:51.760> took<00:14:52.079> the<00:14:52.320> most<00:14:52.560> unlikely<00:14:53.199> collaborator 13:18.130 --> 13:18.140 align:start position:0% that took the most unlikely collaborator 13:18.140 --> 13:22.130 align:start position:0% that took the most unlikely collaborator of<00:14:54.079> all<00:14:54.959> life.<00:14:56.399> For<00:14:56.639> about<00:14:56.959> two<00:14:57.199> billion<00:14:57.600> years 13:22.130 --> 13:22.140 align:start position:0% of all life. For about two billion years 13:22.140 --> 13:24.291 align:start position:0% of all life. For about two billion years after<00:14:58.240> forming,<00:14:58.800> our<00:14:58.959> atmosphere<00:14:59.519> was 13:24.291 --> 13:24.301 align:start position:0% after forming, our atmosphere was 13:24.301 --> 13:27.331 align:start position:0% after forming, our atmosphere was unbreathable.<00:15:01.199> Until<00:15:01.920> some<00:15:02.160> of<00:15:02.240> the<00:15:02.480> earliest 13:27.331 --> 13:27.341 align:start position:0% unbreathable. Until some of the earliest 13:27.341 --> 13:29.731 align:start position:0% unbreathable. Until some of the earliest life<00:15:03.440> called<00:15:03.680> cyanobacteria 13:29.731 --> 13:29.741 align:start position:0% life called cyanobacteria 13:29.741 --> 13:32.690 align:start position:0% life called cyanobacteria did<00:15:05.680> us<00:15:05.920> a<00:15:06.160> massive<00:15:06.639> favor.<00:15:07.360> These<00:15:07.760> first<00:15:08.079> life 13:32.690 --> 13:32.700 align:start position:0% did us a massive favor. These first life 13:32.700 --> 13:34.690 align:start position:0% did us a massive favor. These first life forms<00:15:08.880> harvested<00:15:09.360> their<00:15:09.680> energy<00:15:10.000> from 13:34.690 --> 13:34.700 align:start position:0% forms harvested their energy from 13:34.700 --> 13:37.490 align:start position:0% forms harvested their energy from photosynthesis<00:15:11.839> and<00:15:12.000> they<00:15:12.240> released<00:15:12.639> oxygen 13:37.490 --> 13:37.500 align:start position:0% photosynthesis and they released oxygen 13:37.500 --> 13:41.250 align:start position:0% photosynthesis and they released oxygen as<00:15:13.519> a<00:15:13.839> byproduct.<00:15:15.120> Then<00:15:15.360> around<00:15:15.760> 2.4<00:15:16.560> billion 13:41.250 --> 13:41.260 align:start position:0% as a byproduct. Then around 2.4 billion 13:41.260 --> 13:43.810 align:start position:0% as a byproduct. Then around 2.4 billion years<00:15:17.120> ago,<00:15:17.760> these<00:15:18.160> microbes<00:15:18.720> had<00:15:18.959> pumped<00:15:19.279> out 13:43.810 --> 13:43.820 align:start position:0% years ago, these microbes had pumped out 13:43.820 --> 13:45.490 align:start position:0% years ago, these microbes had pumped out so<00:15:19.839> much<00:15:20.000> of<00:15:20.240> it<00:15:20.320> into<00:15:20.560> the<00:15:20.720> air<00:15:20.880> that<00:15:21.040> it 13:45.490 --> 13:45.500 align:start position:0% so much of it into the air that it 13:45.500 --> 13:47.810 align:start position:0% so much of it into the air that it became<00:15:21.519> a<00:15:21.760> permanent<00:15:22.160> fixture<00:15:22.720> across<00:15:23.199> the 13:47.810 --> 13:47.820 align:start position:0% became a permanent fixture across the 13:47.820 --> 13:50.851 align:start position:0% became a permanent fixture across the world.<00:15:24.480> That<00:15:24.800> flood<00:15:25.199> of<00:15:25.440> oxygen,<00:15:26.079> suitably 13:50.851 --> 13:50.861 align:start position:0% world. That flood of oxygen, suitably 13:50.861 --> 13:53.250 align:start position:0% world. That flood of oxygen, suitably dubbed<00:15:26.800> the<00:15:26.959> great<00:15:27.279> oxygenation<00:15:28.160> event, 13:53.250 --> 13:53.260 align:start position:0% dubbed the great oxygenation event, 13:53.260 --> 13:55.810 align:start position:0% dubbed the great oxygenation event, transformed<00:15:29.680> our<00:15:30.000> planet<00:15:30.240> in<00:15:30.480> a<00:15:30.639> multitude<00:15:31.199> of 13:55.810 --> 13:55.820 align:start position:0% transformed our planet in a multitude of 13:55.820 --> 13:58.051 align:start position:0% transformed our planet in a multitude of profound<00:15:32.079> ways,<00:15:32.880> triggering<00:15:33.360> mass 13:58.051 --> 13:58.061 align:start position:0% profound ways, triggering mass 13:58.061 --> 14:01.011 align:start position:0% profound ways, triggering mass extinction,<00:15:34.639> sparking<00:15:35.199> a<00:15:35.519> global<00:15:36.000> ice<00:15:36.320> age 14:01.011 --> 14:01.021 align:start position:0% extinction, sparking a global ice age 14:01.021 --> 14:03.011 align:start position:0% extinction, sparking a global ice age and<00:15:36.959> making<00:15:37.279> our<00:15:37.600> planet<00:15:38.000> capable<00:15:38.480> of 14:03.011 --> 14:03.021 align:start position:0% and making our planet capable of 14:03.021 --> 14:06.370 align:start position:0% and making our planet capable of supporting<00:15:39.440> complex<00:15:40.160> multisellular<00:15:41.120> life. 14:06.370 --> 14:06.380 align:start position:0% supporting complex multisellular life. 14:06.380 --> 14:08.690 align:start position:0% supporting complex multisellular life. But<00:15:42.320> for<00:15:42.560> our<00:15:42.880> story,<00:15:43.360> the<00:15:43.680> crucial<00:15:44.079> impact 14:08.690 --> 14:08.700 align:start position:0% But for our story, the crucial impact 14:08.700 --> 14:10.690 align:start position:0% But for our story, the crucial impact was<00:15:44.560> that<00:15:44.880> oxygen<00:15:45.360> in<00:15:45.519> the<00:15:45.680> atmosphere 14:10.690 --> 14:10.700 align:start position:0% was that oxygen in the atmosphere 14:10.700 --> 14:13.971 align:start position:0% was that oxygen in the atmosphere changed<00:15:46.720> the<00:15:46.959> chemistry<00:15:47.440> of<00:15:48.079> uranium.<00:15:49.360> Locked 14:13.971 --> 14:13.981 align:start position:0% changed the chemistry of uranium. Locked 14:13.981 --> 14:16.611 align:start position:0% changed the chemistry of uranium. Locked in<00:15:49.920> rock,<00:15:50.320> uranium<00:15:50.720> is<00:15:51.040> stubborn,<00:15:51.600> insoluble, 14:16.611 --> 14:16.621 align:start position:0% in rock, uranium is stubborn, insoluble, 14:16.621 --> 14:19.171 align:start position:0% in rock, uranium is stubborn, insoluble, and<00:15:52.639> quite<00:15:52.880> frankly<00:15:53.199> going<00:15:53.519> nowhere.<00:15:54.560> But 14:19.171 --> 14:19.181 align:start position:0% and quite frankly going nowhere. But 14:19.181 --> 14:22.531 align:start position:0% and quite frankly going nowhere. But when<00:15:55.199> mixed<00:15:55.519> with<00:15:55.839> oxygen,<00:15:56.560> aka<00:15:57.120> oxidized,<00:15:58.000> it 14:22.531 --> 14:22.541 align:start position:0% when mixed with oxygen, aka oxidized, it 14:22.541 --> 14:25.490 align:start position:0% when mixed with oxygen, aka oxidized, it becomes<00:15:58.639> soluble<00:15:59.199> in<00:15:59.680> water.<00:16:00.639> Suddenly, 14:25.490 --> 14:25.500 align:start position:0% becomes soluble in water. Suddenly, 14:25.500 --> 14:27.971 align:start position:0% becomes soluble in water. Suddenly, thanks<00:16:01.440> to<00:16:01.600> an<00:16:01.759> oxygenated<00:16:02.639> atmosphere, 14:27.971 --> 14:27.981 align:start position:0% thanks to an oxygenated atmosphere, 14:27.981 --> 14:30.370 align:start position:0% thanks to an oxygenated atmosphere, groundwater<00:16:04.399> could<00:16:04.720> dissolve<00:16:05.360> uranium<00:16:05.839> and 14:30.370 --> 14:30.380 align:start position:0% groundwater could dissolve uranium and 14:30.380 --> 14:33.731 align:start position:0% groundwater could dissolve uranium and move<00:16:06.320> it<00:16:06.639> around<00:16:06.959> the<00:16:07.360> planet.<00:16:08.639> Now<00:16:08.959> when<00:16:09.120> that 14:33.731 --> 14:33.741 align:start position:0% move it around the planet. Now when that 14:33.741 --> 14:36.851 align:start position:0% move it around the planet. Now when that water<00:16:09.759> hit<00:16:10.079> rock<00:16:10.560> rich<00:16:10.800> in<00:16:11.040> organic<00:16:11.759> carbon, 14:36.851 --> 14:36.861 align:start position:0% water hit rock rich in organic carbon, 14:36.861 --> 14:39.011 align:start position:0% water hit rock rich in organic carbon, the<00:16:12.800> carbon<00:16:13.199> reduced<00:16:13.600> the<00:16:13.839> uranium<00:16:14.320> back<00:16:14.560> to 14:39.011 --> 14:39.021 align:start position:0% the carbon reduced the uranium back to 14:39.021 --> 14:41.490 align:start position:0% the carbon reduced the uranium back to an<00:16:14.880> insoluble<00:16:15.680> form,<00:16:16.320> dropping<00:16:16.639> it<00:16:16.800> out<00:16:17.040> of 14:41.490 --> 14:41.500 align:start position:0% an insoluble form, dropping it out of 14:41.500 --> 14:43.810 align:start position:0% an insoluble form, dropping it out of the<00:16:17.440> solution<00:16:17.920> and<00:16:18.320> concentrating<00:16:18.959> it<00:16:19.199> into 14:43.810 --> 14:43.820 align:start position:0% the solution and concentrating it into 14:43.820 --> 14:47.490 align:start position:0% the solution and concentrating it into dense<00:16:20.160> orgrade<00:16:21.040> seams.<00:16:22.240> The<00:16:22.480> effect<00:16:22.720> was<00:16:22.880> that 14:47.490 --> 14:47.500 align:start position:0% dense orgrade seams. The effect was that 14:47.500 --> 14:49.971 align:start position:0% dense orgrade seams. The effect was that uranium<00:16:23.600> naturally<00:16:24.160> moved<00:16:24.560> and<00:16:24.880> pulled<00:16:25.360> into 14:49.971 --> 14:49.981 align:start position:0% uranium naturally moved and pulled into 14:49.981 --> 14:53.091 align:start position:0% uranium naturally moved and pulled into the<00:16:25.920> same<00:16:26.240> place<00:16:26.639> at<00:16:26.959> concentrations<00:16:28.079> prime 14:53.091 --> 14:53.101 align:start position:0% the same place at concentrations prime 14:53.101 --> 14:55.490 align:start position:0% the same place at concentrations prime for<00:16:29.040> a<00:16:29.199> chain<00:16:29.600> reaction. 14:55.490 --> 14:55.500 align:start position:0% for a chain reaction. 14:55.500 --> 14:58.050 align:start position:0% for a chain reaction. Now<00:16:31.440> what<00:16:31.600> we<00:16:31.839> needed<00:16:32.079> next<00:16:32.320> was<00:16:32.639> a<00:16:32.959> moderator. 14:58.050 --> 14:58.060 align:start position:0% Now what we needed next was a moderator. 14:58.060 --> 15:00.690 align:start position:0% Now what we needed next was a moderator. In<00:16:34.000> a<00:16:34.160> nuclear<00:16:34.560> reaction,<00:16:35.360> uranium<00:16:35.759> atoms<00:16:36.160> are 15:00.690 --> 15:00.700 align:start position:0% In a nuclear reaction, uranium atoms are 15:00.700 --> 15:03.490 align:start position:0% In a nuclear reaction, uranium atoms are split<00:16:36.720> apart<00:16:37.040> to<00:16:37.360> release<00:16:37.839> energy<00:16:38.480> and<00:16:38.800> in<00:16:39.040> the 15:03.490 --> 15:03.500 align:start position:0% split apart to release energy and in the 15:03.500 --> 15:06.531 align:start position:0% split apart to release energy and in the process<00:16:39.759> they<00:16:40.000> spit<00:16:40.320> out<00:16:40.720> two<00:16:40.959> to<00:16:41.360> three<00:16:41.759> extra 15:06.531 --> 15:06.541 align:start position:0% process they spit out two to three extra 15:06.541 --> 15:08.771 align:start position:0% process they spit out two to three extra neutrons.<00:16:43.120> These<00:16:43.440> neutrons<00:16:43.920> travel<00:16:44.160> at 15:08.771 --> 15:08.781 align:start position:0% neutrons. These neutrons travel at 15:08.781 --> 15:11.810 align:start position:0% neutrons. These neutrons travel at blistering<00:16:45.199> speeds,<00:16:45.680> more<00:16:45.920> than<00:16:46.160> 10,000<00:16:46.880> km 15:11.810 --> 15:11.820 align:start position:0% blistering speeds, more than 10,000 km 15:11.820 --> 15:14.771 align:start position:0% blistering speeds, more than 10,000 km per<00:16:47.839> second.<00:16:48.880> The<00:16:49.120> next<00:16:49.440> uranium<00:16:49.839> atom<00:16:50.160> must 15:14.771 --> 15:14.781 align:start position:0% per second. The next uranium atom must 15:14.781 --> 15:17.411 align:start position:0% per second. The next uranium atom must absorb<00:16:50.959> these<00:16:51.360> incoming<00:16:51.839> neutrons<00:16:52.320> to<00:16:52.639> become 15:17.411 --> 15:17.421 align:start position:0% absorb these incoming neutrons to become 15:17.421 --> 15:20.050 align:start position:0% absorb these incoming neutrons to become unstable,<00:16:54.079> which<00:16:54.399> then<00:16:54.720> causes<00:16:55.040> it<00:16:55.279> to<00:16:55.440> split 15:20.050 --> 15:20.060 align:start position:0% unstable, which then causes it to split 15:20.060 --> 15:22.851 align:start position:0% unstable, which then causes it to split and<00:16:56.000> produce<00:16:56.480> its<00:16:56.800> own<00:16:57.199> excess<00:16:57.680> neutrons<00:16:58.320> and 15:22.851 --> 15:22.861 align:start position:0% and produce its own excess neutrons and 15:22.861 --> 15:25.651 align:start position:0% and produce its own excess neutrons and so<00:16:58.720> on<00:16:58.959> and<00:16:59.279> so<00:16:59.519> forth.<00:17:00.399> However,<00:17:00.959> if<00:17:01.120> the 15:25.651 --> 15:25.661 align:start position:0% so on and so forth. However, if the 15:25.661 --> 15:28.050 align:start position:0% so on and so forth. However, if the neutron<00:17:01.759> is<00:17:02.000> traveling<00:17:02.399> too<00:17:02.720> fast,<00:17:03.120> it<00:17:03.360> simply 15:28.050 --> 15:28.060 align:start position:0% neutron is traveling too fast, it simply 15:28.060 --> 15:30.451 align:start position:0% neutron is traveling too fast, it simply bounces<00:17:04.400> off<00:17:04.640> the<00:17:04.880> nucleus<00:17:05.439> or<00:17:05.760> flies 15:30.451 --> 15:30.461 align:start position:0% bounces off the nucleus or flies 15:30.461 --> 15:32.130 align:start position:0% bounces off the nucleus or flies straight<00:17:06.480> through<00:17:06.720> it<00:17:06.959> without<00:17:07.439> getting 15:32.130 --> 15:32.140 align:start position:0% straight through it without getting 15:32.140 --> 15:34.691 align:start position:0% straight through it without getting caught.<00:17:08.959> So,<00:17:09.199> to<00:17:09.520> increase<00:17:09.760> the<00:17:10.000> chances<00:17:10.319> of 15:34.691 --> 15:34.701 align:start position:0% caught. So, to increase the chances of 15:34.701 --> 15:36.610 align:start position:0% caught. So, to increase the chances of these<00:17:10.640> neutrons<00:17:11.199> being<00:17:11.520> trapped,<00:17:12.000> you<00:17:12.240> need 15:36.610 --> 15:36.620 align:start position:0% these neutrons being trapped, you need 15:36.620 --> 15:39.090 align:start position:0% these neutrons being trapped, you need to<00:17:12.480> slow<00:17:12.799> them<00:17:13.120> down.<00:17:13.760> And<00:17:14.000> that<00:17:14.160> is<00:17:14.319> done<00:17:14.559> by 15:39.090 --> 15:39.100 align:start position:0% to slow them down. And that is done by 15:39.100 --> 15:42.771 align:start position:0% to slow them down. And that is done by something<00:17:15.199> called<00:17:15.520> a<00:17:15.919> moderator. 15:42.771 --> 15:42.781 align:start position:0% something called a moderator. 15:42.781 --> 15:45.090 align:start position:0% something called a moderator. In<00:17:18.720> a<00:17:18.959> natural<00:17:19.439> nuclear<00:17:19.919> reactor,<00:17:20.559> he 15:45.090 --> 15:45.100 align:start position:0% In a natural nuclear reactor, he 15:45.100 --> 15:47.090 align:start position:0% In a natural nuclear reactor, he assigned<00:17:21.199> that<00:17:21.439> moderator<00:17:22.000> role<00:17:22.240> to<00:17:22.480> another 15:47.090 --> 15:47.100 align:start position:0% assigned that moderator role to another 15:47.100 --> 15:49.651 align:start position:0% assigned that moderator role to another molecule<00:17:23.199> that's<00:17:23.520> already<00:17:23.919> played<00:17:24.160> a<00:17:24.400> part, 15:49.651 --> 15:49.661 align:start position:0% molecule that's already played a part, 15:49.661 --> 15:51.250 align:start position:0% molecule that's already played a part, water. 15:51.250 --> 15:51.260 align:start position:0% water. 15:51.260 --> 15:53.811 align:start position:0% water. In<00:17:27.280> water,<00:17:27.600> the<00:17:27.839> hydrogen<00:17:28.400> nuclei<00:17:28.960> are<00:17:29.200> just 15:53.811 --> 15:53.821 align:start position:0% In water, the hydrogen nuclei are just 15:53.821 --> 15:56.291 align:start position:0% In water, the hydrogen nuclei are just single<00:17:30.000> protons.<00:17:30.640> And<00:17:30.799> a<00:17:31.039> proton<00:17:31.440> has<00:17:31.679> almost 15:56.291 --> 15:56.301 align:start position:0% single protons. And a proton has almost 15:56.301 --> 15:59.090 align:start position:0% single protons. And a proton has almost the<00:17:32.320> same<00:17:32.480> mass<00:17:32.799> as<00:17:33.120> a<00:17:33.360> neutron.<00:17:34.320> That<00:17:34.559> means 15:59.090 --> 15:59.100 align:start position:0% the same mass as a neutron. That means 15:59.100 --> 16:01.571 align:start position:0% the same mass as a neutron. That means that<00:17:35.039> when<00:17:35.200> a<00:17:35.520> fast<00:17:35.919> uranium<00:17:36.320> neutron<00:17:36.799> bumps 16:01.571 --> 16:01.581 align:start position:0% that when a fast uranium neutron bumps 16:01.581 --> 16:04.611 align:start position:0% that when a fast uranium neutron bumps into<00:17:37.760> hydrogen,<00:17:38.720> it<00:17:38.960> can<00:17:39.200> transfer<00:17:39.679> a<00:17:40.000> large 16:04.611 --> 16:04.621 align:start position:0% into hydrogen, it can transfer a large 16:04.621 --> 16:07.411 align:start position:0% into hydrogen, it can transfer a large fraction<00:17:40.720> of<00:17:40.880> its<00:17:41.120> kinetic<00:17:41.600> energy<00:17:42.320> in<00:17:42.720> one 16:07.411 --> 16:07.421 align:start position:0% fraction of its kinetic energy in one 16:07.421 --> 16:09.491 align:start position:0% fraction of its kinetic energy in one collision.<00:17:43.919> So<00:17:44.080> the<00:17:44.240> final<00:17:44.559> thing<00:17:44.720> we<00:17:44.960> really 16:09.491 --> 16:09.501 align:start position:0% collision. So the final thing we really 16:09.501 --> 16:12.691 align:start position:0% collision. So the final thing we really need<00:17:45.360> is<00:17:45.600> the<00:17:45.840> absence<00:17:46.320> of<00:17:46.640> neutron<00:17:47.440> poisons. 16:12.691 --> 16:12.701 align:start position:0% need is the absence of neutron poisons. 16:12.701 --> 16:14.291 align:start position:0% need is the absence of neutron poisons. Elements<00:17:48.720> that<00:17:48.960> are<00:17:49.120> especially<00:17:49.600> good<00:17:49.760> at 16:14.291 --> 16:14.301 align:start position:0% Elements that are especially good at 16:14.301 --> 16:17.651 align:start position:0% Elements that are especially good at absorbing<00:17:50.960> neutrons.<00:17:52.320> They<00:17:52.559> would<00:17:52.720> greedily 16:17.651 --> 16:17.661 align:start position:0% absorbing neutrons. They would greedily 16:17.661 --> 16:19.970 align:start position:0% absorbing neutrons. They would greedily capture<00:17:53.760> these<00:17:54.000> neutrons<00:17:54.640> which<00:17:54.880> would<00:17:55.200> again 16:19.970 --> 16:19.980 align:start position:0% capture these neutrons which would again 16:19.980 --> 16:21.811 align:start position:0% capture these neutrons which would again prevent<00:17:56.080> the<00:17:56.240> uranium<00:17:56.640> atoms<00:17:57.039> catching<00:17:57.440> them 16:21.811 --> 16:21.821 align:start position:0% prevent the uranium atoms catching them 16:21.821 --> 16:23.811 align:start position:0% prevent the uranium atoms catching them and<00:17:57.760> starting<00:17:58.000> a<00:17:58.240> chain<00:17:58.559> reaction.<00:17:59.120> But<00:17:59.280> at 16:23.811 --> 16:23.821 align:start position:0% and starting a chain reaction. But at 16:23.821 --> 16:25.491 align:start position:0% and starting a chain reaction. But at Ollo<00:18:00.080> there<00:18:00.240> weren't<00:18:00.559> enough<00:18:00.799> of<00:18:00.960> these 16:25.491 --> 16:25.501 align:start position:0% Ollo there weren't enough of these 16:25.501 --> 16:27.571 align:start position:0% Ollo there weren't enough of these poisons<00:18:01.760> to<00:18:02.000> stop<00:18:02.240> the<00:18:02.400> reaction<00:18:02.880> getting 16:27.571 --> 16:27.581 align:start position:0% poisons to stop the reaction getting 16:27.581 --> 16:30.210 align:start position:0% poisons to stop the reaction getting going.<00:18:04.000> So<00:18:04.240> now<00:18:04.480> we<00:18:04.640> had<00:18:04.880> fuel<00:18:05.280> rich<00:18:05.440> enough<00:18:05.679> to 16:30.210 --> 16:30.220 align:start position:0% going. So now we had fuel rich enough to 16:30.220 --> 16:32.051 align:start position:0% going. So now we had fuel rich enough to burn<00:18:06.240> thanks<00:18:06.400> to<00:18:06.559> the<00:18:06.720> slow<00:18:06.960> decay<00:18:07.200> of<00:18:07.360> a<00:18:07.520> dying 16:32.051 --> 16:32.061 align:start position:0% burn thanks to the slow decay of a dying 16:32.061 --> 16:34.611 align:start position:0% burn thanks to the slow decay of a dying stars<00:18:08.240> leftovers<00:18:08.960> gathered<00:18:09.360> into<00:18:09.679> a<00:18:09.919> single 16:34.611 --> 16:34.621 align:start position:0% stars leftovers gathered into a single 16:34.621 --> 16:36.691 align:start position:0% stars leftovers gathered into a single pile<00:18:10.720> thanks<00:18:10.960> to<00:18:11.120> the<00:18:11.280> first<00:18:11.600> life<00:18:11.919> ever<00:18:12.160> to 16:36.691 --> 16:36.701 align:start position:0% pile thanks to the first life ever to 16:36.701 --> 16:39.411 align:start position:0% pile thanks to the first life ever to exhale<00:18:12.799> oxygen<00:18:13.520> and<00:18:13.840> all<00:18:14.080> moderated<00:18:14.720> by 16:39.411 --> 16:39.421 align:start position:0% exhale oxygen and all moderated by 16:39.421 --> 16:41.811 align:start position:0% exhale oxygen and all moderated by simple<00:18:15.760> groundwater. 16:41.811 --> 16:41.821 align:start position:0% simple groundwater. 16:41.821 --> 16:44.131 align:start position:0% simple groundwater. According<00:18:17.919> to<00:18:18.080> Koda's<00:18:18.720> calculations,<00:18:19.520> given 16:44.131 --> 16:44.141 align:start position:0% According to Koda's calculations, given 16:44.141 --> 16:46.051 align:start position:0% According to Koda's calculations, given the<00:18:20.080> right<00:18:20.320> amount<00:18:20.559> of<00:18:20.720> moderating<00:18:21.360> water 16:46.051 --> 16:46.061 align:start position:0% the right amount of moderating water 16:46.061 --> 16:48.531 align:start position:0% the right amount of moderating water seeping<00:18:22.240> through,<00:18:22.960> a<00:18:23.200> uranium<00:18:23.679> deposit<00:18:24.080> just 16:48.531 --> 16:48.541 align:start position:0% seeping through, a uranium deposit just 16:48.541 --> 16:51.411 align:start position:0% seeping through, a uranium deposit just a<00:18:24.480> few<00:18:24.640> feet<00:18:25.039> thick<00:18:25.600> could<00:18:25.919> sustain<00:18:26.480> a<00:18:26.799> chain 16:51.411 --> 16:51.421 align:start position:0% a few feet thick could sustain a chain 16:51.421 --> 16:54.531 align:start position:0% a few feet thick could sustain a chain reaction<00:18:27.679> all<00:18:28.000> by<00:18:28.240> itself<00:18:29.200> for<00:18:29.440> as<00:18:29.679> long<00:18:29.840> as<00:18:30.080> it 16:54.531 --> 16:54.541 align:start position:0% reaction all by itself for as long as it 16:54.541 --> 16:57.491 align:start position:0% reaction all by itself for as long as it had<00:18:30.480> fuel<00:18:30.960> to<00:18:31.200> burn.<00:18:32.400> Now,<00:18:32.640> in<00:18:32.799> the<00:18:32.960> case<00:18:33.039> of 16:57.491 --> 16:57.501 align:start position:0% had fuel to burn. Now, in the case of 16:57.501 --> 16:59.891 align:start position:0% had fuel to burn. Now, in the case of Ollo,<00:18:33.760> that<00:18:33.919> was<00:18:34.000> somewhere<00:18:34.320> between<00:18:34.880> 100,000 16:59.891 --> 16:59.901 align:start position:0% Ollo, that was somewhere between 100,000 16:59.901 --> 17:04.531 align:start position:0% Ollo, that was somewhere between 100,000 and<00:18:36.080> 600,000<00:18:37.440> years.<00:18:38.799> 16<00:18:39.200> years<00:18:39.440> later,<00:18:40.000> there 17:04.531 --> 17:04.541 align:start position:0% and 600,000 years. 16 years later, there 17:04.541 --> 17:08.371 align:start position:0% and 600,000 years. 16 years later, there it<00:18:40.559> was<00:18:40.799> in<00:18:41.120> Olllo,<00:18:41.840> exactly<00:18:42.400> as<00:18:42.720> the<00:18:43.200> idiot 17:08.371 --> 17:08.381 align:start position:0% it was in Olllo, exactly as the idiot 17:08.381 --> 17:10.291 align:start position:0% it was in Olllo, exactly as the idiot had<00:18:44.400> predicted. 17:10.291 --> 17:10.301 align:start position:0% had predicted. 17:10.301 --> 17:12.691 align:start position:0% had predicted. One<00:18:46.320> person's<00:18:46.720> theory<00:18:47.200> accurately<00:18:47.760> explained 17:12.691 --> 17:12.701 align:start position:0% One person's theory accurately explained 17:12.701 --> 17:15.090 align:start position:0% One person's theory accurately explained how<00:18:48.720> a<00:18:49.120> natural<00:18:49.600> nuclear<00:18:50.080> reactor<00:18:50.480> could 17:15.090 --> 17:15.100 align:start position:0% how a natural nuclear reactor could 17:15.100 --> 17:17.970 align:start position:0% how a natural nuclear reactor could ignite,<00:18:51.280> and<00:18:51.520> here<00:18:51.760> it<00:18:52.000> was<00:18:52.559> in<00:18:52.799> the<00:18:53.039> flesh. 17:17.970 --> 17:17.980 align:start position:0% ignite, and here it was in the flesh. 17:17.980 --> 17:19.970 align:start position:0% ignite, and here it was in the flesh. But<00:18:53.840> what<00:18:54.080> his<00:18:54.240> theory<00:18:54.640> couldn't<00:18:55.039> explain<00:18:55.360> was 17:19.970 --> 17:19.980 align:start position:0% But what his theory couldn't explain was 17:19.980 --> 17:23.011 align:start position:0% But what his theory couldn't explain was how<00:18:55.919> this<00:18:56.240> one<00:18:56.559> didn't<00:18:56.960> tear<00:18:57.280> itself<00:18:57.919> apart, 17:23.011 --> 17:23.021 align:start position:0% how this one didn't tear itself apart, 17:23.021 --> 17:25.011 align:start position:0% how this one didn't tear itself apart, and<00:18:58.960> how<00:18:59.120> it<00:18:59.280> kept<00:18:59.520> itself<00:18:59.919> running<00:19:00.080> on<00:19:00.320> a<00:19:00.480> time 17:25.011 --> 17:25.021 align:start position:0% and how it kept itself running on a time 17:25.021 --> 17:27.330 align:start position:0% and how it kept itself running on a time scale<00:19:01.039> no<00:19:01.440> human<00:19:01.760> machine<00:19:02.080> has<00:19:02.320> ever<00:19:02.559> come 17:27.330 --> 17:27.340 align:start position:0% scale no human machine has ever come 17:27.340 --> 17:30.850 align:start position:0% scale no human machine has ever come close<00:19:03.360> to.<00:19:04.240> And<00:19:04.400> it<00:19:04.640> did<00:19:04.880> it<00:19:05.520> by<00:19:05.840> learning<00:19:06.240> to 17:30.850 --> 17:30.860 align:start position:0% close to. And it did it by learning to 17:30.860 --> 17:33.251 align:start position:0% close to. And it did it by learning to breathe.<00:19:07.600> Let's<00:19:07.919> go<00:19:08.080> back<00:19:08.160> to<00:19:08.320> that<00:19:08.559> squash 17:33.251 --> 17:33.261 align:start position:0% breathe. Let's go back to that squash 17:33.261 --> 17:36.691 align:start position:0% breathe. Let's go back to that squash court<00:19:09.200> in<00:19:09.440> Chicago<00:19:10.240> 1942<00:19:11.600> where<00:19:11.760> the<00:19:12.000> first 17:36.691 --> 17:36.701 align:start position:0% court in Chicago 1942 where the first 17:36.701 --> 17:39.171 align:start position:0% court in Chicago 1942 where the first humanmade<00:19:13.200> nuclear<00:19:13.679> chain<00:19:14.000> reaction<00:19:14.480> was 17:39.171 --> 17:39.181 align:start position:0% humanmade nuclear chain reaction was 17:39.181 --> 17:40.850 align:start position:0% humanmade nuclear chain reaction was started.<00:19:15.679> Now,<00:19:15.840> I'm<00:19:16.000> going<00:19:16.080> to<00:19:16.240> say<00:19:16.400> something 17:40.850 --> 17:40.860 align:start position:0% started. Now, I'm going to say something 17:40.860 --> 17:43.731 align:start position:0% started. Now, I'm going to say something that<00:19:16.880> might<00:19:17.120> sound<00:19:17.679> surprising.<00:19:18.799> Starting<00:19:19.200> a 17:43.731 --> 17:43.741 align:start position:0% that might sound surprising. Starting a 17:43.741 --> 17:46.051 align:start position:0% that might sound surprising. Starting a chain<00:19:19.760> reaction,<00:19:20.480> well,<00:19:20.880> that<00:19:21.120> was<00:19:21.280> the<00:19:21.520> easy 17:46.051 --> 17:46.061 align:start position:0% chain reaction, well, that was the easy 17:46.061 --> 17:48.210 align:start position:0% chain reaction, well, that was the easy part.<00:19:22.480> Yeah.<00:19:22.720> The<00:19:22.880> thing<00:19:23.039> that<00:19:23.280> actually<00:19:23.520> kept 17:48.210 --> 17:48.220 align:start position:0% part. Yeah. The thing that actually kept 17:48.220 --> 17:50.210 align:start position:0% part. Yeah. The thing that actually kept 49<00:19:24.400> of<00:19:24.559> the<00:19:24.640> world's<00:19:24.960> greatest<00:19:25.280> minds<00:19:25.679> awake 17:50.210 --> 17:50.220 align:start position:0% 49 of the world's greatest minds awake 17:50.220 --> 17:53.251 align:start position:0% 49 of the world's greatest minds awake at<00:19:26.160> night<00:19:26.400> was<00:19:26.960> stopping<00:19:27.600> one.<00:19:28.400> A<00:19:28.640> chain 17:53.251 --> 17:53.261 align:start position:0% at night was stopping one. A chain 17:53.261 --> 17:55.731 align:start position:0% at night was stopping one. A chain reaction<00:19:29.520> by<00:19:29.760> its<00:19:30.000> very<00:19:30.240> nature<00:19:30.720> wants<00:19:31.039> to<00:19:31.200> run 17:55.731 --> 17:55.741 align:start position:0% reaction by its very nature wants to run 17:55.741 --> 17:58.210 align:start position:0% reaction by its very nature wants to run away<00:19:31.679> with<00:19:31.840> itself.<00:19:32.720> Each<00:19:33.120> split<00:19:33.520> atom 17:58.210 --> 17:58.220 align:start position:0% away with itself. Each split atom 17:58.220 --> 18:00.291 align:start position:0% away with itself. Each split atom feeding<00:19:34.240> the<00:19:34.400> next<00:19:34.720> faster<00:19:35.120> and<00:19:35.360> faster<00:19:35.760> and 18:00.291 --> 18:00.301 align:start position:0% feeding the next faster and faster and 18:00.301 --> 18:03.491 align:start position:0% feeding the next faster and faster and faster.<00:19:37.120> Fermy<00:19:37.600> and<00:19:37.760> his<00:19:37.919> team<00:19:38.240> did<00:19:38.480> not<00:19:38.880> want 18:03.491 --> 18:03.501 align:start position:0% faster. Fermy and his team did not want 18:03.501 --> 18:05.811 align:start position:0% faster. Fermy and his team did not want this<00:19:39.440> to<00:19:39.760> happen.<00:19:40.240> A<00:19:40.480> runaway<00:19:40.960> reaction<00:19:41.360> would 18:05.811 --> 18:05.821 align:start position:0% this to happen. A runaway reaction would 18:05.821 --> 18:08.131 align:start position:0% this to happen. A runaway reaction would have<00:19:41.679> drenched<00:19:42.080> the<00:19:42.240> team<00:19:42.480> in<00:19:42.799> radiation<00:19:43.440> and 18:08.131 --> 18:08.141 align:start position:0% have drenched the team in radiation and 18:08.141 --> 18:10.531 align:start position:0% have drenched the team in radiation and heat,<00:19:44.400> but<00:19:44.720> also<00:19:44.960> would<00:19:45.200> have<00:19:45.360> quickly<00:19:45.840> burned 18:10.531 --> 18:10.541 align:start position:0% heat, but also would have quickly burned 18:10.541 --> 18:13.411 align:start position:0% heat, but also would have quickly burned itself<00:19:46.799> out.<00:19:47.600> His<00:19:48.000> nuclear<00:19:48.480> reactor<00:19:48.880> was 18:13.411 --> 18:13.421 align:start position:0% itself out. His nuclear reactor was 18:13.421 --> 18:15.251 align:start position:0% itself out. His nuclear reactor was stuffed<00:19:49.440> to<00:19:49.600> the<00:19:49.760> hilt<00:19:50.160> with<00:19:50.400> various 18:15.251 --> 18:15.261 align:start position:0% stuffed to the hilt with various 18:15.261 --> 18:17.171 align:start position:0% stuffed to the hilt with various mechanisms<00:19:51.520> to<00:19:51.760> hit<00:19:51.919> the<00:19:52.080> brakes<00:19:52.480> on<00:19:52.720> the 18:17.171 --> 18:17.181 align:start position:0% mechanisms to hit the brakes on the 18:17.181 --> 18:20.051 align:start position:0% mechanisms to hit the brakes on the chain<00:19:53.200> reaction.<00:19:54.080> The<00:19:54.240> cadmium<00:19:54.880> control<00:19:55.280> rods 18:20.051 --> 18:20.061 align:start position:0% chain reaction. The cadmium control rods 18:20.061 --> 18:22.131 align:start position:0% chain reaction. The cadmium control rods absorbed<00:19:56.240> neutrons<00:19:56.799> through<00:19:57.039> their<00:19:57.280> graphite 18:22.131 --> 18:22.141 align:start position:0% absorbed neutrons through their graphite 18:22.141 --> 18:24.931 align:start position:0% absorbed neutrons through their graphite exterior,<00:19:58.880> slowing<00:19:59.280> the<00:19:59.520> reaction<00:20:00.000> more<00:20:00.400> the 18:24.931 --> 18:24.941 align:start position:0% exterior, slowing the reaction more the 18:24.941 --> 18:27.090 align:start position:0% exterior, slowing the reaction more the further<00:20:00.960> they<00:20:01.200> were<00:20:01.360> inserted.<00:20:02.480> There<00:20:02.640> was 18:27.090 --> 18:27.100 align:start position:0% further they were inserted. There was 18:27.100 --> 18:29.330 align:start position:0% further they were inserted. There was even<00:20:02.960> a<00:20:03.120> squad<00:20:03.440> of<00:20:03.600> men<00:20:03.919> standing<00:20:04.240> by<00:20:04.480> to<00:20:04.720> drown 18:29.330 --> 18:29.340 align:start position:0% even a squad of men standing by to drown 18:29.340 --> 18:32.051 align:start position:0% even a squad of men standing by to drown the<00:20:05.280> whole<00:20:05.600> pile<00:20:06.080> in<00:20:06.400> cadmium<00:20:07.039> salt<00:20:07.360> solution 18:32.051 --> 18:32.061 align:start position:0% the whole pile in cadmium salt solution 18:32.061 --> 18:34.931 align:start position:0% the whole pile in cadmium salt solution if<00:20:08.080> everything<00:20:08.480> else<00:20:08.880> failed.<00:20:09.840> Ollo,<00:20:10.400> on<00:20:10.559> the 18:34.931 --> 18:34.941 align:start position:0% if everything else failed. Ollo, on the 18:34.941 --> 18:37.330 align:start position:0% if everything else failed. Ollo, on the other<00:20:10.799> hand,<00:20:11.120> had<00:20:11.440> no<00:20:11.760> such<00:20:12.160> failed<00:20:12.559> safes, 18:37.330 --> 18:37.340 align:start position:0% other hand, had no such failed safes, 18:37.340 --> 18:39.651 align:start position:0% other hand, had no such failed safes, but<00:20:13.280> it<00:20:13.440> lasted<00:20:14.000> hundreds<00:20:14.480> of<00:20:14.720> thousands<00:20:15.120> of 18:39.651 --> 18:39.661 align:start position:0% but it lasted hundreds of thousands of 18:39.661 --> 18:42.131 align:start position:0% but it lasted hundreds of thousands of years.<00:20:15.840> So,<00:20:16.320> how<00:20:16.559> did<00:20:16.720> it<00:20:16.880> not<00:20:17.120> burn<00:20:17.360> itself 18:42.131 --> 18:42.141 align:start position:0% years. So, how did it not burn itself 18:42.141 --> 18:46.371 align:start position:0% years. So, how did it not burn itself out<00:20:18.080> in<00:20:18.720> hours? 18:46.371 --> 18:46.381 align:start position:0% 18:46.381 --> 18:48.850 align:start position:0% Scientists<00:20:22.559> had<00:20:22.880> one<00:20:23.120> prime<00:20:23.600> suspect<00:20:24.160> almost 18:48.850 --> 18:48.860 align:start position:0% Scientists had one prime suspect almost 18:48.860 --> 18:52.771 align:start position:0% Scientists had one prime suspect almost from<00:20:24.799> the<00:20:25.120> start,<00:20:25.840> and<00:20:26.080> that<00:20:26.400> was<00:20:26.799> water.<00:20:28.159> The 18:52.771 --> 18:52.781 align:start position:0% from the start, and that was water. The 18:52.781 --> 18:54.691 align:start position:0% from the start, and that was water. The same<00:20:28.720> ground<00:20:29.039> water<00:20:29.280> that<00:20:29.600> moderated<00:20:30.159> the 18:54.691 --> 18:54.701 align:start position:0% same ground water that moderated the 18:54.701 --> 18:57.251 align:start position:0% same ground water that moderated the reaction<00:20:31.039> should<00:20:31.440> in<00:20:31.760> theory<00:20:32.480> after<00:20:32.720> the 18:57.251 --> 18:57.261 align:start position:0% reaction should in theory after the 18:57.261 --> 19:00.131 align:start position:0% reaction should in theory after the reaction<00:20:33.360> gets<00:20:33.600> hot<00:20:33.840> enough<00:20:34.640> boil<00:20:35.120> away<00:20:35.520> and 19:00.131 --> 19:00.141 align:start position:0% reaction gets hot enough boil away and 19:00.141 --> 19:01.970 align:start position:0% reaction gets hot enough boil away and stop<00:20:36.159> the<00:20:36.320> reaction<00:20:36.720> by<00:20:37.039> effectively 19:01.970 --> 19:01.980 align:start position:0% stop the reaction by effectively 19:01.980 --> 19:04.371 align:start position:0% stop the reaction by effectively withdrawing<00:20:38.240> the<00:20:38.400> moderator.<00:20:39.440> This<00:20:39.679> acted 19:04.371 --> 19:04.381 align:start position:0% withdrawing the moderator. This acted 19:04.381 --> 19:07.571 align:start position:0% withdrawing the moderator. This acted like<00:20:40.240> a<00:20:40.559> builtin<00:20:41.440> thermostat<00:20:42.159> and<00:20:42.559> regulator 19:07.571 --> 19:07.581 align:start position:0% like a builtin thermostat and regulator 19:07.581 --> 19:11.330 align:start position:0% like a builtin thermostat and regulator allinone.<00:20:44.480> It<00:20:44.720> was<00:20:44.880> an<00:20:45.120> elegant<00:20:45.760> idea<00:20:46.240> but<00:20:46.559> for 19:11.330 --> 19:11.340 align:start position:0% allinone. It was an elegant idea but for 19:11.340 --> 19:14.931 align:start position:0% allinone. It was an elegant idea but for 30<00:20:47.440> years<00:20:48.240> nobody<00:20:48.720> could<00:20:48.960> prove<00:20:49.280> it.<00:20:50.080> That<00:20:50.400> is 19:14.931 --> 19:14.941 align:start position:0% 30 years nobody could prove it. That is 19:14.941 --> 19:17.811 align:start position:0% 30 years nobody could prove it. That is until<00:20:50.960> a<00:20:51.280> physicist<00:20:51.760> named<00:20:52.240> Alex<00:20:52.720> Meshik<00:20:53.280> and 19:17.811 --> 19:17.821 align:start position:0% until a physicist named Alex Meshik and 19:17.821 --> 19:19.651 align:start position:0% until a physicist named Alex Meshik and his<00:20:53.679> colleagues<00:20:54.000> at<00:20:54.240> Washington<00:20:54.880> University 19:19.651 --> 19:19.661 align:start position:0% his colleagues at Washington University 19:19.661 --> 19:22.771 align:start position:0% his colleagues at Washington University in<00:20:55.679> St.<00:20:56.000> Lewis<00:20:56.799> went<00:20:57.120> looking<00:20:57.440> for<00:20:57.760> answers, 19:22.771 --> 19:22.781 align:start position:0% in St. Lewis went looking for answers, 19:22.781 --> 19:27.171 align:start position:0% in St. Lewis went looking for answers, not<00:20:59.120> in<00:20:59.600> water,<00:21:00.480> but<00:21:00.720> in<00:21:00.880> a<00:21:01.039> gas<00:21:01.440> called<00:21:01.919> zenon. 19:27.171 --> 19:27.181 align:start position:0% not in water, but in a gas called zenon. 19:27.181 --> 19:29.491 align:start position:0% not in water, but in a gas called zenon. When<00:21:03.280> uranium<00:21:03.919> splits,<00:21:04.640> one<00:21:04.799> of<00:21:04.880> the<00:21:05.039> things 19:29.491 --> 19:29.501 align:start position:0% When uranium splits, one of the things 19:29.501 --> 19:32.051 align:start position:0% When uranium splits, one of the things it<00:21:05.440> leaves<00:21:05.760> behind<00:21:06.080> is<00:21:06.320> a<00:21:06.559> range<00:21:06.880> of<00:21:07.200> zenon 19:32.051 --> 19:32.061 align:start position:0% it leaves behind is a range of zenon 19:32.061 --> 19:34.691 align:start position:0% it leaves behind is a range of zenon isotopes.<00:21:08.880> But<00:21:08.960> these<00:21:09.280> don't<00:21:09.520> appear<00:21:09.919> all<00:21:10.159> at 19:34.691 --> 19:34.701 align:start position:0% isotopes. But these don't appear all at 19:34.701 --> 19:37.811 align:start position:0% isotopes. But these don't appear all at once.<00:21:11.280> Each<00:21:11.600> zenon<00:21:12.159> isotope<00:21:12.640> is<00:21:12.880> produced<00:21:13.280> at 19:37.811 --> 19:37.821 align:start position:0% once. Each zenon isotope is produced at 19:37.821 --> 19:39.731 align:start position:0% once. Each zenon isotope is produced at different<00:21:13.840> times<00:21:14.320> during<00:21:14.720> the<00:21:14.960> nuclear 19:39.731 --> 19:39.741 align:start position:0% different times during the nuclear 19:39.741 --> 19:42.771 align:start position:0% different times during the nuclear reaction.<00:21:16.320> Zenon<00:21:16.960> 136<00:21:17.440> shows<00:21:17.760> up<00:21:18.000> almost 19:42.771 --> 19:42.781 align:start position:0% reaction. Zenon 136 shows up almost 19:42.781 --> 19:44.850 align:start position:0% reaction. Zenon 136 shows up almost immediately,<00:21:19.360> about<00:21:19.600> a<00:21:19.919> minute<00:21:20.159> after 19:44.850 --> 19:44.860 align:start position:0% immediately, about a minute after 19:44.860 --> 19:47.491 align:start position:0% immediately, about a minute after fishing<00:21:21.039> begins.<00:21:22.000> And<00:21:22.240> because<00:21:22.480> it's<00:21:22.720> a<00:21:22.880> gas 19:47.491 --> 19:47.501 align:start position:0% fishing begins. And because it's a gas 19:47.501 --> 19:49.651 align:start position:0% fishing begins. And because it's a gas born<00:21:23.520> into<00:21:23.679> the<00:21:23.840> heat<00:21:24.080> of<00:21:24.240> an<00:21:24.400> active<00:21:24.880> nuclear 19:49.651 --> 19:49.661 align:start position:0% born into the heat of an active nuclear 19:49.661 --> 19:53.330 align:start position:0% born into the heat of an active nuclear reaction,<00:21:26.320> it<00:21:26.559> escapes.<00:21:27.520> Zenon<00:21:28.159> 134<00:21:28.720> follows 19:53.330 --> 19:53.340 align:start position:0% reaction, it escapes. Zenon 134 follows 19:53.340 --> 19:55.891 align:start position:0% reaction, it escapes. Zenon 134 follows about<00:21:29.280> an<00:21:29.520> hour<00:21:29.840> later,<00:21:30.400> still<00:21:30.799> in<00:21:30.960> the<00:21:31.200> hot 19:55.891 --> 19:55.901 align:start position:0% about an hour later, still in the hot 19:55.901 --> 19:59.891 align:start position:0% about an hour later, still in the hot furnace.<00:21:32.480> But<00:21:32.720> Zenon<00:21:33.440> 131<00:21:33.919> and<00:21:34.240> Zenon<00:21:34.960> 132, 19:59.891 --> 19:59.901 align:start position:0% furnace. But Zenon 131 and Zenon 132, 19:59.901 --> 20:03.651 align:start position:0% furnace. But Zenon 131 and Zenon 132, take<00:21:36.000> days<00:21:36.400> to<00:21:36.720> appear.<00:21:37.760> Their<00:21:38.159> parent<00:21:38.640> atoms, 20:03.651 --> 20:03.661 align:start position:0% take days to appear. Their parent atoms, 20:03.661 --> 20:06.291 align:start position:0% take days to appear. Their parent atoms, radioactive<00:21:40.000> iodine<00:21:40.559> and<00:21:40.799> tourum,<00:21:41.600> have<00:21:41.760> to 20:06.291 --> 20:06.301 align:start position:0% radioactive iodine and tourum, have to 20:06.301 --> 20:09.731 align:start position:0% radioactive iodine and tourum, have to decay<00:21:42.480> first.<00:21:43.280> So<00:21:43.600> Meshik<00:21:44.159> reasoned<00:21:44.640> if<00:21:44.960> Olllo 20:09.731 --> 20:09.741 align:start position:0% decay first. So Meshik reasoned if Olllo 20:09.741 --> 20:11.970 align:start position:0% decay first. So Meshik reasoned if Olllo didn't<00:21:45.760> cycle<00:21:46.080> on<00:21:46.320> and<00:21:46.559> off<00:21:46.720> but<00:21:47.039> burned 20:11.970 --> 20:11.980 align:start position:0% didn't cycle on and off but burned 20:11.980 --> 20:14.691 align:start position:0% didn't cycle on and off but burned continuously<00:21:48.960> the<00:21:49.280> surrounding<00:21:49.760> rock<00:21:50.159> would 20:14.691 --> 20:14.701 align:start position:0% continuously the surrounding rock would 20:14.701 --> 20:18.131 align:start position:0% continuously the surrounding rock would never<00:21:50.720> cool<00:21:51.039> down.<00:21:51.919> So<00:21:52.240> therefore<00:21:52.799> all<00:21:53.200> Zenon 20:18.131 --> 20:18.141 align:start position:0% never cool down. So therefore all Zenon 20:18.141 --> 20:20.771 align:start position:0% never cool down. So therefore all Zenon no<00:21:54.000> matter<00:21:54.400> what<00:21:54.799> isotope<00:21:55.679> should<00:21:56.240> have 20:20.771 --> 20:20.781 align:start position:0% no matter what isotope should have 20:20.781 --> 20:23.891 align:start position:0% no matter what isotope should have escaped<00:21:57.200> alike.<00:21:58.240> But<00:21:58.480> that's<00:21:58.720> not<00:21:58.960> what<00:21:59.200> he 20:23.891 --> 20:23.901 align:start position:0% escaped alike. But that's not what he 20:23.901 --> 20:27.891 align:start position:0% escaped alike. But that's not what he found.<00:22:00.320> The<00:22:00.640> early<00:22:00.960> isotopes<00:22:01.840> 136<00:22:02.320> and<00:22:02.880> 134 20:27.891 --> 20:27.901 align:start position:0% found. The early isotopes 136 and 134 20:27.901 --> 20:30.371 align:start position:0% found. The early isotopes 136 and 134 were<00:22:03.919> depleted<00:22:04.799> exactly<00:22:05.360> as<00:22:05.600> if<00:22:05.840> they'd 20:30.371 --> 20:30.381 align:start position:0% were depleted exactly as if they'd 20:30.381 --> 20:32.771 align:start position:0% were depleted exactly as if they'd escaped<00:22:06.559> midburn<00:22:07.280> when<00:22:07.520> the<00:22:07.760> temperature<00:22:08.159> was 20:32.771 --> 20:32.781 align:start position:0% escaped midburn when the temperature was 20:32.781 --> 20:36.450 align:start position:0% escaped midburn when the temperature was hot.<00:22:09.120> The<00:22:09.360> later<00:22:09.760> Zenon<00:22:10.400> isotopes<00:22:11.360> 131<00:22:11.760> and 20:36.450 --> 20:36.460 align:start position:0% hot. The later Zenon isotopes 131 and 20:36.460 --> 20:40.051 align:start position:0% hot. The later Zenon isotopes 131 and 132<00:22:12.880> were<00:22:13.280> still<00:22:13.600> there,<00:22:14.240> locked<00:22:14.720> in<00:22:15.120> place, 20:40.051 --> 20:40.061 align:start position:0% 132 were still there, locked in place, 20:40.061 --> 20:42.051 align:start position:0% 132 were still there, locked in place, as<00:22:15.919> if<00:22:16.080> they<00:22:16.159> had<00:22:16.320> been<00:22:16.559> born<00:22:16.880> into<00:22:17.120> a<00:22:17.360> react 20:42.051 --> 20:42.061 align:start position:0% as if they had been born into a react 20:42.061 --> 20:45.171 align:start position:0% as if they had been born into a react that<00:22:17.919> had<00:22:18.240> already<00:22:18.720> gone<00:22:19.280> cold.<00:22:20.400> Now,<00:22:20.640> that 20:45.171 --> 20:45.181 align:start position:0% that had already gone cold. Now, that 20:45.181 --> 20:47.811 align:start position:0% that had already gone cold. Now, that only<00:22:21.120> makes<00:22:21.360> sense<00:22:21.600> if<00:22:21.919> the<00:22:22.080> heat<00:22:22.400> itself<00:22:23.120> kept 20:47.811 --> 20:47.821 align:start position:0% only makes sense if the heat itself kept 20:47.821 --> 20:51.251 align:start position:0% only makes sense if the heat itself kept switching<00:22:24.080> on<00:22:24.559> and<00:22:24.960> off.<00:22:25.840> Mhik<00:22:26.400> had<00:22:26.640> his 20:51.251 --> 20:51.261 align:start position:0% switching on and off. Mhik had his 20:51.261 --> 20:54.611 align:start position:0% switching on and off. Mhik had his smoking<00:22:27.520> gun.<00:22:28.320> The<00:22:28.559> reactor<00:22:29.039> was<00:22:29.280> pulsing, 20:54.611 --> 20:54.621 align:start position:0% smoking gun. The reactor was pulsing, 20:54.621 --> 20:56.850 align:start position:0% smoking gun. The reactor was pulsing, turning<00:22:30.720> on<00:22:31.039> long<00:22:31.360> enough<00:22:31.600> to<00:22:31.840> spin<00:22:32.080> up<00:22:32.320> a 20:56.850 --> 20:56.860 align:start position:0% turning on long enough to spin up a 20:56.860 --> 20:59.970 align:start position:0% turning on long enough to spin up a nuclear<00:22:33.120> reaction<00:22:34.000> and<00:22:34.240> then<00:22:34.559> stopping<00:22:35.039> again 20:59.970 --> 20:59.980 align:start position:0% nuclear reaction and then stopping again 20:59.980 --> 21:02.931 align:start position:0% nuclear reaction and then stopping again before<00:22:36.000> it<00:22:36.240> burnt<00:22:36.559> itself<00:22:37.120> out.<00:22:38.000> Meshik's 21:02.931 --> 21:02.941 align:start position:0% before it burnt itself out. Meshik's 21:02.941 --> 21:05.411 align:start position:0% before it burnt itself out. Meshik's measurements<00:22:39.120> were<00:22:39.360> so<00:22:39.760> precise<00:22:40.640> that<00:22:40.880> the 21:05.411 --> 21:05.421 align:start position:0% measurements were so precise that the 21:05.421 --> 21:08.450 align:start position:0% measurements were so precise that the team<00:22:41.360> could<00:22:41.600> even<00:22:41.840> add<00:22:42.080> a<00:22:42.400> timestamp<00:22:43.200> to<00:22:43.360> it. 21:08.450 --> 21:08.460 align:start position:0% team could even add a timestamp to it. 21:08.460 --> 21:11.571 align:start position:0% team could even add a timestamp to it. Ollo<00:22:44.720> was<00:22:44.960> on<00:22:45.360> for<00:22:45.679> roughly<00:22:46.240> 30<00:22:46.559> minutes<00:22:46.960> and 21:11.571 --> 21:11.581 align:start position:0% Ollo was on for roughly 30 minutes and 21:11.581 --> 21:13.970 align:start position:0% Ollo was on for roughly 30 minutes and dormant<00:22:47.760> for<00:22:47.919> at<00:22:47.919> least<00:22:48.320> 2<00:22:48.559> and<00:22:48.720> 1/2<00:22:49.120> hours 21:13.970 --> 21:13.980 align:start position:0% dormant for at least 2 and 1/2 hours 21:13.980 --> 21:16.691 align:start position:0% dormant for at least 2 and 1/2 hours over<00:22:50.000> and<00:22:50.320> over<00:22:50.720> again.<00:22:51.679> The<00:22:51.919> reactor's 21:16.691 --> 21:16.701 align:start position:0% over and over again. The reactor's 21:16.701 --> 21:19.011 align:start position:0% over and over again. The reactor's moderator<00:22:52.960> and<00:22:53.200> its<00:22:53.520> off<00:22:53.840> switch<00:22:54.240> were<00:22:54.480> the 21:19.011 --> 21:19.021 align:start position:0% moderator and its off switch were the 21:19.021 --> 21:21.891 align:start position:0% moderator and its off switch were the same<00:22:55.039> thing.<00:22:55.760> Oklo<00:22:56.240> was<00:22:56.400> a<00:22:56.640> nuclear<00:22:57.200> old 21:21.891 --> 21:21.901 align:start position:0% same thing. Oklo was a nuclear old 21:21.901 --> 21:24.051 align:start position:0% same thing. Oklo was a nuclear old faithful,<00:22:58.400> heating,<00:22:59.039> erupting,<00:22:59.440> and 21:24.051 --> 21:24.061 align:start position:0% faithful, heating, erupting, and 21:24.061 --> 21:26.691 align:start position:0% faithful, heating, erupting, and refilling<00:23:00.559> completely<00:23:01.280> automatically<00:23:02.080> for 21:26.691 --> 21:26.701 align:start position:0% refilling completely automatically for 21:26.701 --> 21:30.131 align:start position:0% refilling completely automatically for hundreds<00:23:03.039> of<00:23:03.280> thousands<00:23:03.919> of<00:23:04.159> years.<00:23:05.440> Over 21:30.131 --> 21:30.141 align:start position:0% hundreds of thousands of years. Over 21:30.141 --> 21:32.291 align:start position:0% hundreds of thousands of years. Over that<00:23:06.080> lifetime,<00:23:06.720> scientists<00:23:07.280> estimate<00:23:07.760> it 21:32.291 --> 21:32.301 align:start position:0% that lifetime, scientists estimate it 21:32.301 --> 21:36.531 align:start position:0% that lifetime, scientists estimate it released<00:23:08.240> around<00:23:08.799> 15,000<00:23:10.000> megawatt<00:23:10.960> years<00:23:12.000> of 21:36.531 --> 21:36.541 align:start position:0% released around 15,000 megawatt years of 21:36.541 --> 21:39.090 align:start position:0% released around 15,000 megawatt years of energy.<00:23:13.120> That's<00:23:13.360> a<00:23:13.679> large<00:23:14.080> modern<00:23:14.559> power 21:39.090 --> 21:39.100 align:start position:0% energy. That's a large modern power 21:39.100 --> 21:42.131 align:start position:0% energy. That's a large modern power plant<00:23:15.200> running<00:23:15.520> flat<00:23:15.919> out<00:23:16.240> for<00:23:16.480> a<00:23:16.799> decade.<00:23:17.679> But 21:42.131 --> 21:42.141 align:start position:0% plant running flat out for a decade. But 21:42.141 --> 21:45.330 align:start position:0% plant running flat out for a decade. But Ollo<00:23:18.400> had<00:23:18.640> one<00:23:18.960> more<00:23:19.200> trick<00:23:19.520> up<00:23:19.840> its<00:23:20.159> sleeve 21:45.330 --> 21:45.340 align:start position:0% Ollo had one more trick up its sleeve 21:45.340 --> 21:47.330 align:start position:0% Ollo had one more trick up its sleeve because<00:23:21.360> it<00:23:21.600> just<00:23:21.760> so<00:23:22.080> happens<00:23:22.400> that<00:23:22.640> as<00:23:22.880> well 21:47.330 --> 21:47.340 align:start position:0% because it just so happens that as well 21:47.340 --> 21:49.811 align:start position:0% because it just so happens that as well as<00:23:23.200> being<00:23:23.440> a<00:23:23.760> 100,000-year-old<00:23:24.960> nuclear 21:49.811 --> 21:49.821 align:start position:0% as being a 100,000-year-old nuclear 21:49.821 --> 21:52.371 align:start position:0% as being a 100,000-year-old nuclear reactor,<00:23:26.400> it's<00:23:26.640> also<00:23:26.880> the<00:23:27.200> longest<00:23:27.679> running 21:52.371 --> 21:52.381 align:start position:0% reactor, it's also the longest running 21:52.381 --> 21:55.811 align:start position:0% reactor, it's also the longest running physics<00:23:28.559> experiment<00:23:29.360> in<00:23:29.679> existence.<00:23:30.880> The<00:23:31.039> Olo 21:55.811 --> 21:55.821 align:start position:0% physics experiment in existence. The Olo 21:55.821 --> 21:57.970 align:start position:0% physics experiment in existence. The Olo reactor<00:23:31.919> began<00:23:32.320> operating<00:23:32.880> 2<00:23:33.200> billion<00:23:33.520> years 21:57.970 --> 21:57.980 align:start position:0% reactor began operating 2 billion years 21:57.980 --> 22:00.371 align:start position:0% reactor began operating 2 billion years ago.<00:23:34.000> So<00:23:34.240> the<00:23:34.400> theory<00:23:34.720> is<00:23:34.960> that<00:23:35.120> by<00:23:35.520> comparing 22:00.371 --> 22:00.381 align:start position:0% ago. So the theory is that by comparing 22:00.381 --> 22:02.450 align:start position:0% ago. So the theory is that by comparing rocks<00:23:36.400> from<00:23:36.640> the<00:23:36.799> time<00:23:36.960> it<00:23:37.200> started<00:23:37.520> with<00:23:37.760> Oclo 22:02.450 --> 22:02.460 align:start position:0% rocks from the time it started with Oclo 22:02.460 --> 22:05.011 align:start position:0% rocks from the time it started with Oclo deposits<00:23:38.720> today,<00:23:39.520> we<00:23:39.760> can<00:23:39.919> see<00:23:40.080> how<00:23:40.320> physics 22:05.011 --> 22:05.021 align:start position:0% deposits today, we can see how physics 22:05.021 --> 22:06.931 align:start position:0% deposits today, we can see how physics on<00:23:40.960> Earth<00:23:41.280> might<00:23:41.520> have<00:23:41.760> changed<00:23:42.159> over<00:23:42.400> an 22:06.931 --> 22:06.941 align:start position:0% on Earth might have changed over an 22:06.941 --> 22:08.691 align:start position:0% on Earth might have changed over an extremely<00:23:43.039> long<00:23:43.280> period<00:23:43.520> of<00:23:43.760> time. 22:08.691 --> 22:08.701 align:start position:0% extremely long period of time. 22:08.701 --> 22:11.090 align:start position:0% extremely long period of time. Physicists<00:23:44.960> decided<00:23:45.360> to<00:23:45.520> go<00:23:45.840> big<00:23:46.240> on<00:23:46.480> this<00:23:46.640> one 22:11.090 --> 22:11.100 align:start position:0% Physicists decided to go big on this one 22:11.100 --> 22:13.411 align:start position:0% Physicists decided to go big on this one and<00:23:47.039> put<00:23:47.280> one<00:23:47.440> of<00:23:47.600> the<00:23:47.919> fundamental<00:23:48.640> constants 22:13.411 --> 22:13.421 align:start position:0% and put one of the fundamental constants 22:13.421 --> 22:16.450 align:start position:0% and put one of the fundamental constants in<00:23:49.360> the<00:23:49.520> universe<00:23:50.000> to<00:23:50.240> the<00:23:50.400> test.<00:23:51.440> A<00:23:51.760> fine 22:16.450 --> 22:16.460 align:start position:0% in the universe to the test. A fine 22:16.460 --> 22:19.330 align:start position:0% in the universe to the test. A fine structure<00:23:52.720> constant<00:23:53.360> called<00:23:53.760> alpha.<00:23:54.799> It 22:19.330 --> 22:19.340 align:start position:0% structure constant called alpha. It 22:19.340 --> 22:20.691 align:start position:0% structure constant called alpha. It dictates<00:23:55.520> the<00:23:55.840> strength<00:23:56.080> of 22:20.691 --> 22:20.701 align:start position:0% dictates the strength of 22:20.701 --> 22:22.850 align:start position:0% dictates the strength of electromagnetism.<00:23:57.760> So<00:23:57.919> it's<00:23:58.159> responsible 22:22.850 --> 22:22.860 align:start position:0% electromagnetism. So it's responsible 22:22.860 --> 22:25.330 align:start position:0% electromagnetism. So it's responsible for<00:23:58.880> things<00:23:59.120> like<00:23:59.360> holding<00:23:59.760> DNA<00:24:00.320> together, 22:25.330 --> 22:25.340 align:start position:0% for things like holding DNA together, 22:25.340 --> 22:27.251 align:start position:0% for things like holding DNA together, controlling<00:24:01.520> the<00:24:01.679> lifespan<00:24:02.159> of<00:24:02.400> stars,<00:24:02.799> and 22:27.251 --> 22:27.261 align:start position:0% controlling the lifespan of stars, and 22:27.261 --> 22:28.931 align:start position:0% controlling the lifespan of stars, and generally<00:24:03.360> keeping<00:24:03.679> universe<00:24:04.080> from<00:24:04.320> falling 22:28.931 --> 22:28.941 align:start position:0% generally keeping universe from falling 22:28.941 --> 22:30.291 align:start position:0% generally keeping universe from falling apart,<00:24:05.120> you<00:24:05.200> know,<00:24:05.360> all<00:24:05.520> the<00:24:05.679> important 22:30.291 --> 22:30.301 align:start position:0% apart, you know, all the important 22:30.301 --> 22:33.090 align:start position:0% apart, you know, all the important things.<00:24:06.880> The<00:24:07.120> question<00:24:07.440> was<00:24:07.919> simple<00:24:08.240> and<00:24:08.480> a 22:33.090 --> 22:33.100 align:start position:0% things. The question was simple and a 22:33.100 --> 22:34.850 align:start position:0% things. The question was simple and a tiny<00:24:09.039> bit<00:24:09.280> existentially<00:24:09.919> terrifying,<00:24:10.400> I 22:34.850 --> 22:34.860 align:start position:0% tiny bit existentially terrifying, I 22:34.860 --> 22:37.731 align:start position:0% tiny bit existentially terrifying, I must<00:24:10.720> admit.<00:24:11.440> Was<00:24:11.600> this<00:24:12.000> constant<00:24:12.559> really<00:24:12.960> a 22:37.731 --> 22:37.741 align:start position:0% must admit. Was this constant really a 22:37.741 --> 22:40.291 align:start position:0% must admit. Was this constant really a constant?<00:24:14.080> Or<00:24:14.799> do<00:24:15.039> the<00:24:15.200> laws<00:24:15.440> of<00:24:15.600> physics 22:40.291 --> 22:40.301 align:start position:0% constant? Or do the laws of physics 22:40.301 --> 22:43.251 align:start position:0% constant? Or do the laws of physics change<00:24:16.400> over<00:24:16.720> deep<00:24:17.039> time?<00:24:18.320> To<00:24:18.559> find<00:24:18.720> the 22:43.251 --> 22:43.261 align:start position:0% change over deep time? To find the 22:43.261 --> 22:46.931 align:start position:0% change over deep time? To find the answer,<00:24:19.279> they<00:24:19.600> turn<00:24:19.840> to<00:24:20.080> a<00:24:20.320> samarium<00:24:21.279> isotope, 22:46.931 --> 22:46.941 align:start position:0% answer, they turn to a samarium isotope, 22:46.941 --> 22:50.931 align:start position:0% answer, they turn to a samarium isotope, samarium<00:24:23.840> 149.<00:24:25.120> It<00:24:25.360> absorbs<00:24:25.919> neutrons, 22:50.931 --> 22:50.941 align:start position:0% samarium 149. It absorbs neutrons, 22:50.941 --> 22:54.450 align:start position:0% samarium 149. It absorbs neutrons, turning<00:24:26.880> itself<00:24:27.279> into<00:24:27.760> samarium<00:24:28.880> 150<00:24:29.600> in<00:24:29.919> the 22:54.450 --> 22:54.460 align:start position:0% turning itself into samarium 150 in the 22:54.460 --> 22:56.611 align:start position:0% turning itself into samarium 150 in the process,<00:24:30.880> but<00:24:31.120> it's<00:24:31.360> especially<00:24:31.919> good<00:24:32.080> at 22:56.611 --> 22:56.621 align:start position:0% process, but it's especially good at 22:56.621 --> 22:59.011 align:start position:0% process, but it's especially good at absorbing<00:24:32.960> neutrons<00:24:33.600> around<00:24:34.000> one<00:24:34.320> very 22:59.011 --> 22:59.021 align:start position:0% absorbing neutrons around one very 22:59.021 --> 23:01.251 align:start position:0% absorbing neutrons around one very specific<00:24:35.440> energy. 23:01.251 --> 23:01.261 align:start position:0% specific energy. 23:01.261 --> 23:02.771 align:start position:0% specific energy. 97.3 23:02.771 --> 23:02.781 align:start position:0% 97.3 23:02.781 --> 23:06.450 align:start position:0% 97.3 mill<00:24:39.200> electron<00:24:39.840> volts.<00:24:40.720> That's<00:24:41.039> a<00:24:41.200> range<00:24:41.760> so 23:06.450 --> 23:06.460 align:start position:0% mill electron volts. That's a range so 23:06.460 --> 23:09.011 align:start position:0% mill electron volts. That's a range so narrow<00:24:42.640> it's<00:24:42.960> measured<00:24:43.360> in<00:24:43.679> thousands<00:24:44.320> of 23:09.011 --> 23:09.021 align:start position:0% narrow it's measured in thousands of 23:09.021 --> 23:11.171 align:start position:0% narrow it's measured in thousands of electron<00:24:45.360> volt. 23:11.171 --> 23:11.181 align:start position:0% electron volt. 23:11.181 --> 23:13.970 align:start position:0% electron volt. And<00:24:47.120> where<00:24:47.360> that<00:24:47.600> range<00:24:48.080> sits<00:24:48.400> is<00:24:48.799> set<00:24:49.120> by 23:13.970 --> 23:13.980 align:start position:0% And where that range sits is set by 23:13.980 --> 23:16.611 align:start position:0% And where that range sits is set by alpha.<00:24:50.559> So<00:24:50.799> if<00:24:51.039> alpha<00:24:51.440> moves<00:24:51.679> by<00:24:51.919> even<00:24:52.159> a 23:16.611 --> 23:16.621 align:start position:0% alpha. So if alpha moves by even a 23:16.621 --> 23:19.011 align:start position:0% alpha. So if alpha moves by even a whisker,<00:24:52.960> the<00:24:53.279> range<00:24:53.600> moves.<00:24:54.080> And<00:24:54.320> the<00:24:54.480> amount 23:19.011 --> 23:19.021 align:start position:0% whisker, the range moves. And the amount 23:19.021 --> 23:22.291 align:start position:0% whisker, the range moves. And the amount of<00:24:54.960> samarium<00:24:55.840> 149A<00:24:56.480> reactor<00:24:56.880> absorbs<00:24:57.600> moves 23:22.291 --> 23:22.301 align:start position:0% of samarium 149A reactor absorbs moves 23:22.301 --> 23:25.251 align:start position:0% of samarium 149A reactor absorbs moves with<00:24:58.240> it.<00:24:59.440> Which<00:24:59.679> is<00:25:00.000> lucky<00:25:00.480> because<00:25:00.720> the 23:25.251 --> 23:25.261 align:start position:0% with it. Which is lucky because the 23:25.261 --> 23:27.651 align:start position:0% with it. Which is lucky because the waste<00:25:01.360> materials<00:25:01.760> of<00:25:01.919> the<00:25:02.080> Oll<00:25:02.559> reactor<00:25:03.039> are 23:27.651 --> 23:27.661 align:start position:0% waste materials of the Oll reactor are 23:27.661 --> 23:30.371 align:start position:0% waste materials of the Oll reactor are still<00:25:03.760> sitting<00:25:04.080> in<00:25:04.320> the<00:25:04.559> ore.<00:25:05.440> Measure<00:25:05.840> how 23:30.371 --> 23:30.381 align:start position:0% still sitting in the ore. Measure how 23:30.381 --> 23:33.570 align:start position:0% still sitting in the ore. Measure how much<00:25:06.400> shamarium<00:25:07.279> 149<00:25:07.679> is<00:25:08.000> left<00:25:08.480> calibrated<00:25:09.120> to 23:33.570 --> 23:33.580 align:start position:0% much shamarium 149 is left calibrated to 23:33.580 --> 23:36.450 align:start position:0% much shamarium 149 is left calibrated to gates<00:25:09.600> how<00:25:09.840> many<00:25:10.000> total<00:25:10.480> neutrons<00:25:11.039> went<00:25:11.360> past 23:36.450 --> 23:36.460 align:start position:0% gates how many total neutrons went past 23:36.460 --> 23:39.011 align:start position:0% gates how many total neutrons went past and<00:25:12.400> the<00:25:12.640> specific<00:25:13.200> energy<00:25:13.600> range<00:25:14.000> comes<00:25:14.320> out 23:39.011 --> 23:39.021 align:start position:0% and the specific energy range comes out 23:39.021 --> 23:41.570 align:start position:0% and the specific energy range comes out almost<00:25:15.200> exactly<00:25:16.320> where<00:25:16.480> our<00:25:16.720> laboratories 23:41.570 --> 23:41.580 align:start position:0% almost exactly where our laboratories 23:41.580 --> 23:43.970 align:start position:0% almost exactly where our laboratories find<00:25:17.520> it<00:25:17.840> today.<00:25:18.640> So,<00:25:18.880> you'll<00:25:19.120> be<00:25:19.279> glad<00:25:19.520> to 23:43.970 --> 23:43.980 align:start position:0% find it today. So, you'll be glad to 23:43.980 --> 23:45.811 align:start position:0% find it today. So, you'll be glad to hear<00:25:19.760> that<00:25:20.080> as<00:25:20.320> far<00:25:20.480> as<00:25:20.640> we<00:25:20.799> can<00:25:21.039> measure, 23:45.811 --> 23:45.821 align:start position:0% hear that as far as we can measure, 23:45.821 --> 23:48.210 align:start position:0% hear that as far as we can measure, alpha<00:25:21.919> has<00:25:22.159> stayed<00:25:22.480> the<00:25:22.720> same<00:25:23.039> even<00:25:23.360> across 23:48.210 --> 23:48.220 align:start position:0% alpha has stayed the same even across 23:48.220 --> 23:51.731 align:start position:0% alpha has stayed the same even across half<00:25:24.159> the<00:25:24.480> age<00:25:24.880> of<00:25:25.360> Earth.<00:25:26.320> Thank<00:25:26.559> goodness. 23:51.731 --> 23:51.741 align:start position:0% half the age of Earth. Thank goodness. 23:51.741 --> 23:53.970 align:start position:0% half the age of Earth. Thank goodness. Olllo<00:25:28.000> tells<00:25:28.159> us<00:25:28.320> that<00:25:28.480> the<00:25:28.640> laws<00:25:28.880> of<00:25:29.120> physics, 23:53.970 --> 23:53.980 align:start position:0% Olllo tells us that the laws of physics, 23:53.980 --> 23:55.651 align:start position:0% Olllo tells us that the laws of physics, well,<00:25:30.000> they<00:25:30.240> really<00:25:30.480> are<00:25:30.640> the<00:25:30.880> laws<00:25:31.200> of 23:55.651 --> 23:55.661 align:start position:0% well, they really are the laws of 23:55.661 --> 23:58.850 align:start position:0% well, they really are the laws of physics.<00:25:32.480> And<00:25:32.720> yet,<00:25:33.120> Olllo<00:25:33.840> still<00:25:34.159> hasn't 23:58.850 --> 23:58.860 align:start position:0% physics. And yet, Olllo still hasn't 23:58.860 --> 24:02.450 align:start position:0% physics. And yet, Olllo still hasn't given<00:25:34.799> up<00:25:35.039> its<00:25:35.440> most<00:25:35.840> valuable<00:25:36.720> secret. 24:02.450 --> 24:02.460 align:start position:0% given up its most valuable secret. 24:02.460 --> 24:04.691 align:start position:0% given up its most valuable secret. Running<00:25:38.480> a<00:25:38.720> reactor<00:25:39.120> for<00:25:39.440> that<00:25:39.679> long<00:25:39.919> produces 24:04.691 --> 24:04.701 align:start position:0% Running a reactor for that long produces 24:04.701 --> 24:06.771 align:start position:0% Running a reactor for that long produces the<00:25:40.720> one<00:25:40.960> thing<00:25:41.120> that<00:25:41.360> remains<00:25:41.760> a<00:25:42.080> massive 24:06.771 --> 24:06.781 align:start position:0% the one thing that remains a massive 24:06.781 --> 24:08.450 align:start position:0% the one thing that remains a massive environmental<00:25:43.039> and<00:25:43.279> indeed<00:25:43.600> political 24:08.450 --> 24:08.460 align:start position:0% environmental and indeed political 24:08.460 --> 24:11.570 align:start position:0% environmental and indeed political challenge.<00:25:45.120> Nuclear<00:25:45.679> waste,<00:25:46.400> specifically 24:11.570 --> 24:11.580 align:start position:0% challenge. Nuclear waste, specifically 24:11.580 --> 24:14.131 align:start position:0% challenge. Nuclear waste, specifically plutonium.<00:25:48.480> One<00:25:48.640> of<00:25:48.799> the<00:25:49.039> most<00:25:49.279> toxic 24:14.131 --> 24:14.141 align:start position:0% plutonium. One of the most toxic 24:14.141 --> 24:17.411 align:start position:0% plutonium. One of the most toxic substances<00:25:50.720> known<00:25:51.039> to<00:25:51.360> us.<00:25:52.320> Modern<00:25:52.720> nuclear 24:17.411 --> 24:17.421 align:start position:0% substances known to us. Modern nuclear 24:17.421 --> 24:19.491 align:start position:0% substances known to us. Modern nuclear engineers<00:25:53.520> treat<00:25:53.760> it<00:25:54.000> extremely<00:25:54.799> carefully 24:19.491 --> 24:19.501 align:start position:0% engineers treat it extremely carefully 24:19.501 --> 24:21.570 align:start position:0% engineers treat it extremely carefully and<00:25:55.440> have<00:25:55.600> all<00:25:55.760> sorts<00:25:56.080> of<00:25:56.240> methods<00:25:56.640> for<00:25:56.960> safe 24:21.570 --> 24:21.580 align:start position:0% and have all sorts of methods for safe 24:21.580 --> 24:24.291 align:start position:0% and have all sorts of methods for safe disposal.<00:25:58.640> It's<00:25:58.880> converted<00:25:59.279> into<00:25:59.600> stable 24:24.291 --> 24:24.301 align:start position:0% disposal. It's converted into stable 24:24.301 --> 24:26.291 align:start position:0% disposal. It's converted into stable ceramic<00:26:00.480> form,<00:26:00.960> sealed<00:26:01.200> in<00:26:01.440> engineered 24:26.291 --> 24:26.301 align:start position:0% ceramic form, sealed in engineered 24:26.301 --> 24:28.611 align:start position:0% ceramic form, sealed in engineered containers,<00:26:02.960> sometimes<00:26:03.440> even<00:26:03.760> blended<00:26:04.159> with 24:28.611 --> 24:28.621 align:start position:0% containers, sometimes even blended with 24:28.621 --> 24:30.450 align:start position:0% containers, sometimes even blended with inert<00:26:04.799> material<00:26:05.120> so<00:26:05.279> it<00:26:05.440> can't<00:26:05.600> be<00:26:05.760> recovered 24:30.450 --> 24:30.460 align:start position:0% inert material so it can't be recovered 24:30.460 --> 24:32.771 align:start position:0% inert material so it can't be recovered and<00:26:06.480> misused,<00:26:07.200> and<00:26:07.360> then<00:26:07.520> buried<00:26:07.840> in<00:26:08.080> the<00:26:08.240> most 24:32.771 --> 24:32.781 align:start position:0% and misused, and then buried in the most 24:32.781 --> 24:35.411 align:start position:0% and misused, and then buried in the most impermeable,<00:26:09.520> impenetrable<00:26:10.240> rock<00:26:10.559> they<00:26:10.880> can 24:35.411 --> 24:35.421 align:start position:0% impermeable, impenetrable rock they can 24:35.421 --> 24:38.611 align:start position:0% impermeable, impenetrable rock they can find.<00:26:12.400> However,<00:26:12.960> plutonium<00:26:13.600> stays<00:26:13.840> reactive 24:38.611 --> 24:38.621 align:start position:0% find. However, plutonium stays reactive 24:38.621 --> 24:41.011 align:start position:0% find. However, plutonium stays reactive for<00:26:14.559> tens<00:26:14.960> of<00:26:15.200> thousands<00:26:15.679> of<00:26:15.919> years. 24:41.011 --> 24:41.021 align:start position:0% for tens of thousands of years. 24:41.021 --> 24:45.570 align:start position:0% for tens of thousands of years. Plutonium<00:26:17.440> 239<00:26:18.159> has<00:26:18.400> a<00:26:18.640> halflife<00:26:19.279> of<00:26:19.679> 24,000 24:45.570 --> 24:45.580 align:start position:0% Plutonium 239 has a halflife of 24,000 24:45.580 --> 24:48.210 align:start position:0% Plutonium 239 has a halflife of 24,000 years.<00:26:22.159> So<00:26:22.480> given<00:26:22.799> these<00:26:23.039> time<00:26:23.279> spans<00:26:23.679> are 24:48.210 --> 24:48.220 align:start position:0% years. So given these time spans are 24:48.220 --> 24:50.771 align:start position:0% years. So given these time spans are longer<00:26:24.240> than<00:26:24.400> recorded<00:26:24.880> human<00:26:25.200> history,<00:26:26.159> we 24:50.771 --> 24:50.781 align:start position:0% longer than recorded human history, we 24:50.781 --> 24:52.850 align:start position:0% longer than recorded human history, we have<00:26:26.640> no<00:26:27.039> long-term<00:26:27.679> evidence<00:26:28.000> that<00:26:28.240> any<00:26:28.400> of 24:52.850 --> 24:52.860 align:start position:0% have no long-term evidence that any of 24:52.860 --> 24:55.011 align:start position:0% have no long-term evidence that any of these<00:26:28.799> containment<00:26:29.279> methods<00:26:29.760> will<00:26:30.080> actually 24:55.011 --> 24:55.021 align:start position:0% these containment methods will actually 24:55.021 --> 24:57.731 align:start position:0% these containment methods will actually work.<00:26:31.760> Throw<00:26:32.080> in<00:26:32.320> unpredictable<00:26:33.120> natural 24:57.731 --> 24:57.741 align:start position:0% work. Throw in unpredictable natural 24:57.741 --> 24:59.651 align:start position:0% work. Throw in unpredictable natural disasters<00:26:33.919> and<00:26:34.080> the<00:26:34.240> climate<00:26:34.559> crisis<00:26:34.960> and<00:26:35.200> all 24:59.651 --> 24:59.661 align:start position:0% disasters and the climate crisis and all 24:59.661 --> 25:00.931 align:start position:0% disasters and the climate crisis and all those<00:26:35.600> sort<00:26:35.760> of<00:26:35.840> things<00:26:36.000> and<00:26:36.159> you<00:26:36.320> start<00:26:36.480> to 25:00.931 --> 25:00.941 align:start position:0% those sort of things and you start to 25:00.941 --> 25:03.171 align:start position:0% those sort of things and you start to see<00:26:36.799> how<00:26:37.120> guaranteed<00:26:37.760> long-term<00:26:38.480> stable 25:03.171 --> 25:03.181 align:start position:0% see how guaranteed long-term stable 25:03.181 --> 25:05.411 align:start position:0% see how guaranteed long-term stable containment<00:26:39.360> solutions<00:26:39.760> are<00:26:40.000> a<00:26:40.400> challenge 25:05.411 --> 25:05.421 align:start position:0% containment solutions are a challenge 25:05.421 --> 25:07.731 align:start position:0% containment solutions are a challenge for<00:26:41.360> us<00:26:41.600> and<00:26:41.919> for<00:26:42.080> many<00:26:42.400> future<00:26:42.720> generations, 25:07.731 --> 25:07.741 align:start position:0% for us and for many future generations, 25:07.741 --> 25:10.291 align:start position:0% for us and for many future generations, too.<00:26:44.320> In<00:26:44.480> other<00:26:44.640> words,<00:26:44.960> any<00:26:45.200> tips<00:26:45.600> from<00:26:45.760> the 25:10.291 --> 25:10.301 align:start position:0% too. In other words, any tips from the 25:10.301 --> 25:12.051 align:start position:0% too. In other words, any tips from the natural<00:26:46.320> world,<00:26:46.640> well,<00:26:46.880> they'd<00:26:47.200> be<00:26:47.440> pretty 25:12.051 --> 25:12.061 align:start position:0% natural world, well, they'd be pretty 25:12.061 --> 25:14.531 align:start position:0% natural world, well, they'd be pretty welcome<00:26:48.080> about<00:26:48.400> now.<00:26:48.960> Unfortunately<00:26:49.840> though, 25:14.531 --> 25:14.541 align:start position:0% welcome about now. Unfortunately though, 25:14.541 --> 25:16.531 align:start position:0% welcome about now. Unfortunately though, if<00:26:50.480> you<00:26:50.640> set<00:26:50.799> out<00:26:51.039> to<00:26:51.200> design<00:26:51.520> the<00:26:51.840> worst 25:16.531 --> 25:16.541 align:start position:0% if you set out to design the worst 25:16.541 --> 25:20.131 align:start position:0% if you set out to design the worst possible<00:26:52.799> place<00:26:53.120> to<00:26:53.520> contain<00:26:54.320> nuclear<00:26:54.880> waste, 25:20.131 --> 25:20.141 align:start position:0% possible place to contain nuclear waste, 25:20.141 --> 25:23.090 align:start position:0% possible place to contain nuclear waste, you<00:26:56.080> might<00:26:56.240> well<00:26:56.480> come<00:26:56.720> up<00:26:56.960> with<00:26:57.279> Olo.<00:26:58.559> It's 25:23.090 --> 25:23.100 align:start position:0% you might well come up with Olo. It's 25:23.100 --> 25:25.171 align:start position:0% you might well come up with Olo. It's more<00:26:58.960> or<00:26:59.039> less<00:26:59.200> the<00:26:59.520> total<00:26:59.919> opposite<00:27:00.320> of<00:27:00.559> what 25:25.171 --> 25:25.181 align:start position:0% more or less the total opposite of what 25:25.181 --> 25:27.411 align:start position:0% more or less the total opposite of what you're<00:27:01.200> supposed<00:27:01.520> to<00:27:01.760> do.<00:27:02.400> The<00:27:02.640> rock<00:27:02.880> is 25:27.411 --> 25:27.421 align:start position:0% you're supposed to do. The rock is 25:27.421 --> 25:29.330 align:start position:0% you're supposed to do. The rock is porous<00:27:03.600> and<00:27:03.840> fractured.<00:27:04.480> Water<00:27:04.799> moves 25:29.330 --> 25:29.340 align:start position:0% porous and fractured. Water moves 25:29.340 --> 25:31.011 align:start position:0% porous and fractured. Water moves through<00:27:05.279> it<00:27:05.520> constantly,<00:27:06.159> some<00:27:06.320> of<00:27:06.480> it 25:31.011 --> 25:31.021 align:start position:0% through it constantly, some of it 25:31.021 --> 25:33.651 align:start position:0% through it constantly, some of it scolding<00:27:07.279> hydrothermal<00:27:08.240> fluid,<00:27:08.720> creating 25:33.651 --> 25:33.661 align:start position:0% scolding hydrothermal fluid, creating 25:33.661 --> 25:36.931 align:start position:0% scolding hydrothermal fluid, creating steam<00:27:09.760> and<00:27:10.080> gases.<00:27:11.360> I<00:27:11.600> mean,<00:27:11.760> on<00:27:12.080> paper,<00:27:12.400> this 25:36.931 --> 25:36.941 align:start position:0% steam and gases. I mean, on paper, this 25:36.941 --> 25:39.570 align:start position:0% steam and gases. I mean, on paper, this is<00:27:12.880> really<00:27:13.200> a<00:27:13.440> nuclear<00:27:13.840> engineer's<00:27:14.640> worst 25:39.570 --> 25:39.580 align:start position:0% is really a nuclear engineer's worst 25:39.580 --> 25:42.371 align:start position:0% is really a nuclear engineer's worst nightmare.<00:27:16.559> Calculated<00:27:17.039> from<00:27:17.279> the<00:27:17.440> reactor's 25:42.371 --> 25:42.381 align:start position:0% nightmare. Calculated from the reactor's 25:42.381 --> 25:44.691 align:start position:0% nightmare. Calculated from the reactor's leftovers,<00:27:18.880> scientists<00:27:19.440> estimate<00:27:19.840> Oklo 25:44.691 --> 25:44.701 align:start position:0% leftovers, scientists estimate Oklo 25:44.701 --> 25:47.891 align:start position:0% leftovers, scientists estimate Oklo produced<00:27:20.720> around<00:27:20.960> 1,800<00:27:22.000> kg<00:27:22.559> of<00:27:22.799> plutonium 25:47.891 --> 25:47.901 align:start position:0% produced around 1,800 kg of plutonium 25:47.901 --> 25:50.931 align:start position:0% produced around 1,800 kg of plutonium over<00:27:23.919> its<00:27:24.240> lifetime<00:27:25.279> with<00:27:25.600> no<00:27:26.000> humanmade 25:50.931 --> 25:50.941 align:start position:0% over its lifetime with no humanmade 25:50.941 --> 25:53.570 align:start position:0% over its lifetime with no humanmade containment<00:27:27.200> measures<00:27:27.840> at<00:27:28.159> all.<00:27:28.880> Yeah,<00:27:29.120> that 25:53.570 --> 25:53.580 align:start position:0% containment measures at all. Yeah, that 25:53.580 --> 25:56.131 align:start position:0% containment measures at all. Yeah, that is<00:27:29.440> 1,800<00:27:30.080> kg<00:27:30.480> of<00:27:30.720> one<00:27:30.880> of<00:27:30.960> the<00:27:31.120> most<00:27:31.360> toxic 25:56.131 --> 25:56.141 align:start position:0% is 1,800 kg of one of the most toxic 25:56.141 --> 25:59.090 align:start position:0% is 1,800 kg of one of the most toxic materials<00:27:32.320> we<00:27:32.720> know<00:27:33.120> just<00:27:33.600> released<00:27:34.240> into<00:27:34.559> the 25:59.090 --> 25:59.100 align:start position:0% materials we know just released into the 25:59.100 --> 26:01.090 align:start position:0% materials we know just released into the earth.<00:27:35.919> Don't<00:27:36.080> worry<00:27:36.320> too<00:27:36.480> much<00:27:36.640> though 26:01.090 --> 26:01.100 align:start position:0% earth. Don't worry too much though 26:01.100 --> 26:03.651 align:start position:0% earth. Don't worry too much though because<00:27:37.039> by<00:27:37.279> now<00:27:37.520> it<00:27:37.760> has<00:27:37.919> all<00:27:38.240> decayed<00:27:38.880> away. 26:03.651 --> 26:03.661 align:start position:0% because by now it has all decayed away. 26:03.661 --> 26:06.131 align:start position:0% because by now it has all decayed away. But<00:27:39.679> given<00:27:40.000> our<00:27:40.240> present-day<00:27:40.880> waste<00:27:41.200> disposal 26:06.131 --> 26:06.141 align:start position:0% But given our present-day waste disposal 26:06.141 --> 26:08.291 align:start position:0% But given our present-day waste disposal conundrum,<00:27:42.880> scientists<00:27:43.360> were<00:27:43.520> extremely 26:08.291 --> 26:08.301 align:start position:0% conundrum, scientists were extremely 26:08.301 --> 26:10.691 align:start position:0% conundrum, scientists were extremely keen<00:27:44.240> to<00:27:44.559> find<00:27:44.799> out<00:27:45.360> what<00:27:45.760> happened<00:27:46.159> to 26:10.691 --> 26:10.701 align:start position:0% keen to find out what happened to 26:10.701 --> 26:13.970 align:start position:0% keen to find out what happened to Olllo's<00:27:47.120> nuclear<00:27:47.600> waste.<00:27:48.960> We<00:27:49.200> know<00:27:49.279> that<00:27:49.520> some 26:13.970 --> 26:13.980 align:start position:0% Olllo's nuclear waste. We know that some 26:13.980 --> 26:15.811 align:start position:0% Olllo's nuclear waste. We know that some of<00:27:49.760> the<00:27:50.000> plutonium<00:27:50.559> Olo<00:27:51.039> produced 26:15.811 --> 26:15.821 align:start position:0% of the plutonium Olo produced 26:15.821 --> 26:18.051 align:start position:0% of the plutonium Olo produced immediately<00:27:52.159> fished<00:27:52.640> as<00:27:52.880> a<00:27:53.039> natural<00:27:53.440> part<00:27:53.600> of 26:18.051 --> 26:18.061 align:start position:0% immediately fished as a natural part of 26:18.061 --> 26:20.371 align:start position:0% immediately fished as a natural part of that<00:27:54.000> chain<00:27:54.320> reaction.<00:27:55.200> There's<00:27:55.440> neutrons 26:20.371 --> 26:20.381 align:start position:0% that chain reaction. There's neutrons 26:20.381 --> 26:22.771 align:start position:0% that chain reaction. There's neutrons flying<00:27:56.399> about<00:27:56.799> everywhere<00:27:57.279> during<00:27:57.679> a<00:27:57.919> nuclear 26:22.771 --> 26:22.781 align:start position:0% flying about everywhere during a nuclear 26:22.781 --> 26:25.011 align:start position:0% flying about everywhere during a nuclear reaction.<00:27:59.360> And<00:27:59.600> when<00:27:59.760> one<00:28:00.000> of<00:28:00.080> them<00:28:00.240> hits<00:28:00.480> a 26:25.011 --> 26:25.021 align:start position:0% reaction. And when one of them hits a 26:25.021 --> 26:27.970 align:start position:0% reaction. And when one of them hits a plutonium<00:28:01.360> atom,<00:28:01.840> right,<00:28:02.480> it<00:28:02.880> splits, 26:27.970 --> 26:27.980 align:start position:0% plutonium atom, right, it splits, 26:27.980 --> 26:30.690 align:start position:0% plutonium atom, right, it splits, releasing<00:28:04.240> more<00:28:04.720> explosive<00:28:05.360> energy,<00:28:06.080> leaving 26:30.690 --> 26:30.700 align:start position:0% releasing more explosive energy, leaving 26:30.700 --> 26:33.651 align:start position:0% releasing more explosive energy, leaving behind<00:28:06.960> elements<00:28:07.440> like<00:28:07.760> zenon.<00:28:08.720> So<00:28:08.960> we<00:28:09.200> can 26:33.651 --> 26:33.661 align:start position:0% behind elements like zenon. So we can 26:33.661 --> 26:35.330 align:start position:0% behind elements like zenon. So we can think<00:28:09.440> of<00:28:09.600> that<00:28:09.840> plutonium<00:28:10.480> as<00:28:10.720> being 26:35.330 --> 26:35.340 align:start position:0% think of that plutonium as being 26:35.340 --> 26:37.970 align:start position:0% think of that plutonium as being basically<00:28:11.760> burned<00:28:12.240> off.<00:28:12.880> The<00:28:13.120> rest<00:28:13.360> of<00:28:13.520> the 26:37.970 --> 26:37.980 align:start position:0% basically burned off. The rest of the 26:37.980 --> 26:40.611 align:start position:0% basically burned off. The rest of the plutonium<00:28:14.320> that<00:28:14.559> didn't<00:28:14.880> fish<00:28:15.279> away<00:28:15.679> went 26:40.611 --> 26:40.621 align:start position:0% plutonium that didn't fish away went 26:40.621 --> 26:43.411 align:start position:0% plutonium that didn't fish away went undercover<00:28:17.440> chemically<00:28:17.919> speaking. 26:43.411 --> 26:43.421 align:start position:0% undercover chemically speaking. 26:43.421 --> 26:46.131 align:start position:0% undercover chemically speaking. Plutonium<00:28:19.679> and<00:28:20.000> uranium<00:28:20.399> atoms<00:28:20.880> are<00:28:21.120> so<00:28:21.440> alike 26:46.131 --> 26:46.141 align:start position:0% Plutonium and uranium atoms are so alike 26:46.141 --> 26:49.090 align:start position:0% Plutonium and uranium atoms are so alike in<00:28:22.240> size<00:28:22.640> and<00:28:23.039> chemistry<00:28:23.919> that<00:28:24.320> uranium 26:49.090 --> 26:49.100 align:start position:0% in size and chemistry that uranium 26:49.100 --> 26:51.011 align:start position:0% in size and chemistry that uranium crystals<00:28:25.360> essentially<00:28:25.760> treated<00:28:26.159> plutonium 26:51.011 --> 26:51.021 align:start position:0% crystals essentially treated plutonium 26:51.021 --> 26:52.850 align:start position:0% crystals essentially treated plutonium as<00:28:26.960> one<00:28:27.120> of<00:28:27.279> their<00:28:27.520> own<00:28:27.760> and<00:28:28.000> after<00:28:28.320> the 26:52.850 --> 26:52.860 align:start position:0% as one of their own and after the 26:52.860 --> 26:56.051 align:start position:0% as one of their own and after the reaction<00:28:29.440> wo<00:28:29.840> them<00:28:30.080> into<00:28:30.320> their<00:28:30.640> own<00:28:31.120> mineral 26:56.051 --> 26:56.061 align:start position:0% reaction wo them into their own mineral 26:56.061 --> 26:59.491 align:start position:0% reaction wo them into their own mineral latis.<00:28:32.960> And<00:28:33.200> there<00:28:33.520> the<00:28:33.679> plutonium<00:28:34.480> stayed 26:59.491 --> 26:59.501 align:start position:0% latis. And there the plutonium stayed 26:59.501 --> 27:01.651 align:start position:0% latis. And there the plutonium stayed locked<00:28:35.520> in<00:28:35.760> place<00:28:36.000> until<00:28:36.399> over<00:28:36.799> hundreds<00:28:37.200> of 27:01.651 --> 27:01.661 align:start position:0% locked in place until over hundreds of 27:01.661 --> 27:03.970 align:start position:0% locked in place until over hundreds of thousands<00:28:37.679> of<00:28:37.840> years<00:28:38.080> it<00:28:38.320> decayed<00:28:38.799> away<00:28:39.200> into 27:03.970 --> 27:03.980 align:start position:0% thousands of years it decayed away into 27:03.980 --> 27:06.450 align:start position:0% thousands of years it decayed away into uranium<00:28:40.320> 235. 27:06.450 --> 27:06.460 align:start position:0% uranium 235. 27:06.460 --> 27:08.690 align:start position:0% uranium 235. Some<00:28:42.399> nearby<00:28:42.880> minerals<00:28:43.279> today<00:28:43.679> still<00:28:44.000> carry 27:08.690 --> 27:08.700 align:start position:0% Some nearby minerals today still carry 27:08.700 --> 27:11.570 align:start position:0% Some nearby minerals today still carry this<00:28:44.720> ghost<00:28:45.200> of<00:28:45.600> plutonium.<00:28:46.720> We<00:28:46.880> know<00:28:47.039> this 27:11.570 --> 27:11.580 align:start position:0% this ghost of plutonium. We know this 27:11.580 --> 27:14.450 align:start position:0% this ghost of plutonium. We know this because<00:28:47.520> when<00:28:48.000> sampled<00:28:48.799> its<00:28:49.120> ratio<00:28:49.520> is<00:28:49.679> nudged 27:14.450 --> 27:14.460 align:start position:0% because when sampled its ratio is nudged 27:14.460 --> 27:17.731 align:start position:0% because when sampled its ratio is nudged above<00:28:50.559> the<00:28:50.880> sacred<00:28:51.360> 0.72%<00:28:52.640> we<00:28:52.880> talked<00:28:53.120> about 27:17.731 --> 27:17.741 align:start position:0% above the sacred 0.72% we talked about 27:17.741 --> 27:20.210 align:start position:0% above the sacred 0.72% we talked about earlier.<00:28:54.480> Some<00:28:54.720> of<00:28:54.799> the<00:28:55.039> lighter<00:28:55.520> fish<00:28:55.679> and 27:20.210 --> 27:20.220 align:start position:0% earlier. Some of the lighter fish and 27:20.220 --> 27:22.131 align:start position:0% earlier. Some of the lighter fish and products<00:28:56.240> did<00:28:56.480> travel<00:28:56.799> a<00:28:56.960> bit<00:28:57.120> further<00:28:57.520> but 27:22.131 --> 27:22.141 align:start position:0% products did travel a bit further but 27:22.141 --> 27:24.450 align:start position:0% products did travel a bit further but not<00:28:58.000> by<00:28:58.320> much.<00:28:58.960> It<00:28:59.200> was<00:28:59.279> all<00:28:59.520> caught<00:28:59.760> within 27:24.450 --> 27:24.460 align:start position:0% not by much. It was all caught within 27:24.460 --> 27:27.330 align:start position:0% not by much. It was all caught within meters,<00:29:01.039> fixed<00:29:01.360> into<00:29:01.600> the<00:29:01.760> clays<00:29:02.159> and<00:29:02.399> sulfide 27:27.330 --> 27:27.340 align:start position:0% meters, fixed into the clays and sulfide 27:27.340 --> 27:29.251 align:start position:0% meters, fixed into the clays and sulfide minerals<00:29:03.520> wrapped<00:29:03.919> around<00:29:04.159> the<00:29:04.399> core<00:29:04.720> like 27:29.251 --> 27:29.261 align:start position:0% minerals wrapped around the core like 27:29.261 --> 27:31.570 align:start position:0% minerals wrapped around the core like the<00:29:05.279> layers<00:29:05.440> of<00:29:05.600> an<00:29:05.760> onion.<00:29:06.559> Even<00:29:06.880> some<00:29:07.039> of<00:29:07.120> the 27:31.570 --> 27:31.580 align:start position:0% the layers of an onion. Even some of the 27:31.580 --> 27:34.291 align:start position:0% the layers of an onion. Even some of the escaping<00:29:07.760> gas<00:29:08.159> didn't<00:29:08.480> make<00:29:08.640> it<00:29:08.880> out<00:29:09.520> as<00:29:09.760> we 27:34.291 --> 27:34.301 align:start position:0% escaping gas didn't make it out as we 27:34.301 --> 27:36.771 align:start position:0% escaping gas didn't make it out as we saw.<00:29:10.559> A<00:29:10.799> portion<00:29:11.120> of<00:29:11.279> that<00:29:11.440> zenon<00:29:11.919> is<00:29:12.159> still 27:36.771 --> 27:36.781 align:start position:0% saw. A portion of that zenon is still 27:36.781 --> 27:39.251 align:start position:0% saw. A portion of that zenon is still sitting<00:29:12.880> in<00:29:13.120> grains<00:29:13.440> of<00:29:13.600> aluminium<00:29:14.240> phosphate 27:39.251 --> 27:39.261 align:start position:0% sitting in grains of aluminium phosphate 27:39.261 --> 27:43.570 align:start position:0% sitting in grains of aluminium phosphate today<00:29:16.080> 2<00:29:16.399> billion<00:29:16.880> years<00:29:17.200> later.<00:29:18.640> So<00:29:18.880> what<00:29:19.120> was 27:43.570 --> 27:43.580 align:start position:0% today 2 billion years later. So what was 27:43.580 --> 27:46.611 align:start position:0% today 2 billion years later. So what was holding<00:29:19.760> non-plutonium<00:29:20.880> waste<00:29:21.279> so<00:29:21.679> tightly 27:46.611 --> 27:46.621 align:start position:0% holding non-plutonium waste so tightly 27:46.621 --> 27:49.811 align:start position:0% holding non-plutonium waste so tightly in<00:29:22.640> place?<00:29:23.919> Well,<00:29:24.240> think<00:29:24.480> back<00:29:24.640> to<00:29:24.960> how<00:29:25.200> that 27:49.811 --> 27:49.821 align:start position:0% in place? Well, think back to how that 27:49.821 --> 27:52.131 align:start position:0% in place? Well, think back to how that fuel<00:29:25.840> was<00:29:26.000> gathered<00:29:26.399> in<00:29:26.720> the<00:29:26.960> first<00:29:27.200> place. 27:52.131 --> 27:52.141 align:start position:0% fuel was gathered in the first place. 27:52.141 --> 27:54.611 align:start position:0% fuel was gathered in the first place. Oxygen<00:29:28.480> created<00:29:28.880> by<00:29:29.039> some<00:29:29.279> of<00:29:29.360> the<00:29:29.600> first<00:29:29.919> life 27:54.611 --> 27:54.621 align:start position:0% Oxygen created by some of the first life 27:54.621 --> 27:58.531 align:start position:0% Oxygen created by some of the first life on<00:29:30.720> Earth<00:29:31.279> made<00:29:31.919> uranium<00:29:32.559> soluble<00:29:33.440> and<00:29:33.760> water 27:58.531 --> 27:58.541 align:start position:0% on Earth made uranium soluble and water 27:58.541 --> 28:01.090 align:start position:0% on Earth made uranium soluble and water carried<00:29:34.640> it<00:29:34.880> until<00:29:35.279> the<00:29:35.520> oxygen<00:29:36.080> ran<00:29:36.320> out 28:01.090 --> 28:01.100 align:start position:0% carried it until the oxygen ran out 28:01.100 --> 28:02.931 align:start position:0% carried it until the oxygen ran out where<00:29:37.039> it<00:29:37.200> dropped<00:29:37.440> from<00:29:37.760> solution<00:29:38.240> into 28:02.931 --> 28:02.941 align:start position:0% where it dropped from solution into 28:02.941 --> 28:06.210 align:start position:0% where it dropped from solution into dense<00:29:39.279> ore.<00:29:40.240> Well,<00:29:40.640> down<00:29:40.880> in<00:29:41.120> the<00:29:41.279> deep<00:29:41.520> rock, 28:06.210 --> 28:06.220 align:start position:0% dense ore. Well, down in the deep rock, 28:06.220 --> 28:09.411 align:start position:0% dense ore. Well, down in the deep rock, that<00:29:42.159> same<00:29:42.480> chemistry<00:29:42.960> ran<00:29:43.360> in<00:29:43.679> reverse.<00:29:44.799> In 28:09.411 --> 28:09.421 align:start position:0% that same chemistry ran in reverse. In 28:09.421 --> 28:12.291 align:start position:0% that same chemistry ran in reverse. In those<00:29:45.360> airless<00:29:45.919> oxygen-free<00:29:46.880> conditions, 28:12.291 --> 28:12.301 align:start position:0% those airless oxygen-free conditions, 28:12.301 --> 28:14.371 align:start position:0% those airless oxygen-free conditions, uranium<00:29:48.399> and<00:29:48.559> its<00:29:48.799> byproducts<00:29:49.520> can<00:29:49.760> barely 28:14.371 --> 28:14.381 align:start position:0% uranium and its byproducts can barely 28:14.381 --> 28:18.051 align:start position:0% uranium and its byproducts can barely move<00:29:50.320> at<00:29:50.559> all.<00:29:51.120> They<00:29:51.440> lock<00:29:51.919> into<00:29:52.399> place. 28:18.051 --> 28:18.061 align:start position:0% move at all. They lock into place. 28:18.061 --> 28:20.051 align:start position:0% move at all. They lock into place. So<00:29:53.919> the<00:29:54.159> same<00:29:54.399> chemistry<00:29:54.799> that<00:29:55.039> assembled<00:29:55.520> the 28:20.051 --> 28:20.061 align:start position:0% So the same chemistry that assembled the 28:20.061 --> 28:23.011 align:start position:0% So the same chemistry that assembled the reactor<00:29:56.240> then<00:29:56.640> in<00:29:56.880> tuned<00:29:57.360> it<00:29:58.080> securing<00:29:58.559> the 28:23.011 --> 28:23.021 align:start position:0% reactor then in tuned it securing the 28:23.021 --> 28:25.491 align:start position:0% reactor then in tuned it securing the plutonium<00:29:59.279> waste<00:29:59.679> safely<00:30:00.159> along<00:30:00.480> with<00:30:00.720> it. 28:25.491 --> 28:25.501 align:start position:0% plutonium waste safely along with it. 28:25.501 --> 28:28.611 align:start position:0% plutonium waste safely along with it. Olllo<00:30:01.679> is<00:30:01.919> the<00:30:02.159> only<00:30:02.640> fullcale<00:30:03.600> multi 28:28.611 --> 28:28.621 align:start position:0% Olllo is the only fullcale multi 28:28.621 --> 28:31.491 align:start position:0% Olllo is the only fullcale multi 100,000year<00:30:05.520> test<00:30:05.919> of<00:30:06.159> geological<00:30:06.880> waste 28:31.491 --> 28:31.501 align:start position:0% 100,000year test of geological waste 28:31.501 --> 28:34.450 align:start position:0% 100,000year test of geological waste storage<00:30:07.520> that<00:30:07.760> has<00:30:08.000> ever<00:30:08.480> existed.<00:30:09.679> So<00:30:09.919> that 28:34.450 --> 28:34.460 align:start position:0% storage that has ever existed. So that 28:34.460 --> 28:37.491 align:start position:0% storage that has ever existed. So that lesson<00:30:10.559> is<00:30:10.880> invaluable<00:30:11.679> for<00:30:12.000> modern<00:30:12.559> nuclear 28:37.491 --> 28:37.501 align:start position:0% lesson is invaluable for modern nuclear 28:37.501 --> 28:39.891 align:start position:0% lesson is invaluable for modern nuclear engineers,<00:30:14.240> providing<00:30:14.720> hope<00:30:14.960> that<00:30:15.200> it<00:30:15.360> is 28:39.891 --> 28:39.901 align:start position:0% engineers, providing hope that it is 28:39.901 --> 28:42.450 align:start position:0% engineers, providing hope that it is possible<00:30:16.080> to<00:30:16.399> store<00:30:16.799> our<00:30:17.120> modern<00:30:17.600> nuclear 28:42.450 --> 28:42.460 align:start position:0% possible to store our modern nuclear 28:42.460 --> 28:45.411 align:start position:0% possible to store our modern nuclear waste<00:30:19.039> safely.<00:30:19.919> Because<00:30:20.320> natural<00:30:20.720> fish<00:30:20.960> and 28:45.411 --> 28:45.421 align:start position:0% waste safely. Because natural fish and 28:45.421 --> 28:48.291 align:start position:0% waste safely. Because natural fish and sites<00:30:21.520> like<00:30:21.760> Ollo<00:30:22.240> are<00:30:22.480> unparallel<00:30:23.520> natural 28:48.291 --> 28:48.301 align:start position:0% sites like Ollo are unparallel natural 28:48.301 --> 28:50.291 align:start position:0% sites like Ollo are unparallel natural laboratories<00:30:24.799> capable<00:30:25.200> of<00:30:25.360> addressing<00:30:25.760> all 28:50.291 --> 28:50.301 align:start position:0% laboratories capable of addressing all 28:50.301 --> 28:52.690 align:start position:0% laboratories capable of addressing all sorts<00:30:26.320> of<00:30:26.559> questions,<00:30:27.360> scientists<00:30:27.840> are<00:30:28.080> keen 28:52.690 --> 28:52.700 align:start position:0% sorts of questions, scientists are keen 28:52.700 --> 28:55.251 align:start position:0% sorts of questions, scientists are keen to<00:30:28.559> find<00:30:28.880> additional<00:30:29.520> sites.<00:30:30.320> But<00:30:30.480> there's<00:30:30.720> a 28:55.251 --> 28:55.261 align:start position:0% to find additional sites. But there's a 28:55.261 --> 28:57.251 align:start position:0% to find additional sites. But there's a problem. 28:57.251 --> 28:57.261 align:start position:0% problem. 28:57.261 --> 29:00.210 align:start position:0% problem. The<00:30:33.200> Olo<00:30:33.760> site<00:30:34.159> so<00:30:34.480> far<00:30:34.799> has<00:30:35.039> revealed<00:30:35.440> around 29:00.210 --> 29:00.220 align:start position:0% The Olo site so far has revealed around 29:00.220 --> 29:04.051 align:start position:0% The Olo site so far has revealed around 16<00:30:36.720> separate<00:30:37.440> natural<00:30:38.159> cores.<00:30:39.039> all<00:30:39.279> buried<00:30:39.600> in 29:04.051 --> 29:04.061 align:start position:0% 16 separate natural cores. all buried in 29:04.061 --> 29:06.690 align:start position:0% 16 separate natural cores. all buried in the<00:30:40.000> same<00:30:40.240> stretch<00:30:40.559> of<00:30:40.720> Africa,<00:30:41.279> but<00:30:41.679> no<00:30:42.000> more 29:06.690 --> 29:06.700 align:start position:0% the same stretch of Africa, but no more 29:06.700 --> 29:09.651 align:start position:0% the same stretch of Africa, but no more have<00:30:42.720> ever<00:30:43.039> been<00:30:43.279> found<00:30:43.679> on<00:30:43.919> Earth.<00:30:45.039> Given 29:09.651 --> 29:09.661 align:start position:0% have ever been found on Earth. Given 29:09.661 --> 29:12.210 align:start position:0% have ever been found on Earth. Given that<00:30:45.600> Olo<00:30:46.080> is<00:30:46.240> a<00:30:46.480> result<00:30:46.720> of<00:30:47.200> uranium<00:30:47.679> or 29:12.210 --> 29:12.220 align:start position:0% that Olo is a result of uranium or 29:12.220 --> 29:14.931 align:start position:0% that Olo is a result of uranium or deposits,<00:30:48.799> water<00:30:49.200> and<00:30:49.440> geology<00:30:50.000> as<00:30:50.159> outlined 29:14.931 --> 29:14.941 align:start position:0% deposits, water and geology as outlined 29:14.941 --> 29:17.491 align:start position:0% deposits, water and geology as outlined by<00:30:50.880> Paul<00:30:51.200> Koda,<00:30:52.080> it's<00:30:52.399> likely<00:30:52.640> that<00:30:52.880> these 29:17.491 --> 29:17.501 align:start position:0% by Paul Koda, it's likely that these 29:17.501 --> 29:19.411 align:start position:0% by Paul Koda, it's likely that these conditions<00:30:53.679> could<00:30:53.919> have<00:30:54.080> occurred<00:30:54.399> in<00:30:54.720> other 29:19.411 --> 29:19.421 align:start position:0% conditions could have occurred in other 29:19.421 --> 29:23.171 align:start position:0% conditions could have occurred in other places.<00:30:56.000> So<00:30:56.320> why<00:30:56.559> can't<00:30:56.799> we<00:30:56.960> find<00:30:57.200> them?<00:30:58.559> The 29:23.171 --> 29:23.181 align:start position:0% places. So why can't we find them? The 29:23.181 --> 29:25.330 align:start position:0% places. So why can't we find them? The reason<00:30:59.279> once<00:30:59.520> again<00:30:59.840> lies<00:31:00.240> in<00:31:00.399> the<00:31:00.640> Earth 29:25.330 --> 29:25.340 align:start position:0% reason once again lies in the Earth 29:25.340 --> 29:28.210 align:start position:0% reason once again lies in the Earth itself.<00:31:02.240> As<00:31:02.559> we<00:31:02.720> established<00:31:03.279> earlier, 29:28.210 --> 29:28.220 align:start position:0% itself. As we established earlier, 29:28.220 --> 29:30.531 align:start position:0% itself. As we established earlier, uranium<00:31:04.320> 235<00:31:04.960> has<00:31:05.120> been<00:31:05.279> decaying<00:31:05.760> since<00:31:06.000> it 29:30.531 --> 29:30.541 align:start position:0% uranium 235 has been decaying since it 29:30.541 --> 29:33.811 align:start position:0% uranium 235 has been decaying since it was<00:31:06.399> born<00:31:06.799> during<00:31:07.200> violent<00:31:07.760> cosmic<00:31:08.399> events. 29:33.811 --> 29:33.821 align:start position:0% was born during violent cosmic events. 29:33.821 --> 29:36.450 align:start position:0% was born during violent cosmic events. Then<00:31:09.919> oxygen<00:31:10.559> steadily<00:31:11.039> rises<00:31:11.440> as<00:31:11.679> early<00:31:11.919> life 29:36.450 --> 29:36.460 align:start position:0% Then oxygen steadily rises as early life 29:36.460 --> 29:38.771 align:start position:0% Then oxygen steadily rises as early life produces<00:31:12.640> it,<00:31:12.960> finally<00:31:13.440> able<00:31:13.679> to<00:31:13.919> gather 29:38.771 --> 29:38.781 align:start position:0% produces it, finally able to gather 29:38.781 --> 29:42.051 align:start position:0% produces it, finally able to gather uranium<00:31:14.880> into<00:31:15.279> ore.<00:31:16.480> The<00:31:16.720> two<00:31:16.960> curves<00:31:17.440> cross 29:42.051 --> 29:42.061 align:start position:0% uranium into ore. The two curves cross 29:42.061 --> 29:44.771 align:start position:0% uranium into ore. The two curves cross for<00:31:18.080> one<00:31:18.399> brief<00:31:18.960> geological<00:31:19.520> moment<00:31:19.919> about<00:31:20.240> 2 29:44.771 --> 29:44.781 align:start position:0% for one brief geological moment about 2 29:44.781 --> 29:47.171 align:start position:0% for one brief geological moment about 2 billion<00:31:20.880> years<00:31:21.039> ago.<00:31:21.679> And<00:31:21.919> around<00:31:22.240> that<00:31:22.559> time, 29:47.171 --> 29:47.181 align:start position:0% billion years ago. And around that time, 29:47.181 --> 29:49.011 align:start position:0% billion years ago. And around that time, there<00:31:23.039> were<00:31:23.279> probably<00:31:23.600> quite<00:31:23.919> a<00:31:24.080> few<00:31:24.240> sites 29:49.011 --> 29:49.021 align:start position:0% there were probably quite a few sites 29:49.021 --> 29:52.051 align:start position:0% there were probably quite a few sites like<00:31:25.039> Olo<00:31:25.520> dotted<00:31:26.000> all<00:31:26.159> over<00:31:26.399> the<00:31:26.720> planet.<00:31:27.600> But 29:52.051 --> 29:52.061 align:start position:0% like Olo dotted all over the planet. But 29:52.061 --> 29:54.450 align:start position:0% like Olo dotted all over the planet. But after<00:31:28.080> that<00:31:28.320> window<00:31:28.720> slammed<00:31:29.279> shuts,<00:31:29.919> our 29:54.450 --> 29:54.460 align:start position:0% after that window slammed shuts, our 29:54.460 --> 29:56.931 align:start position:0% after that window slammed shuts, our planet<00:31:30.480> has<00:31:30.720> changed<00:31:31.039> an<00:31:31.279> awful<00:31:31.760> lot.<00:31:32.320> In 29:56.931 --> 29:56.941 align:start position:0% planet has changed an awful lot. In 29:56.941 --> 29:59.090 align:start position:0% planet has changed an awful lot. In particular,<00:31:33.039> plate<00:31:33.360> tectonics<00:31:34.000> have<00:31:34.240> redrawn 29:59.090 --> 29:59.100 align:start position:0% particular, plate tectonics have redrawn 29:59.100 --> 30:01.330 align:start position:0% particular, plate tectonics have redrawn and<00:31:35.120> recycled<00:31:35.679> the<00:31:35.840> surface<00:31:36.159> of<00:31:36.240> the<00:31:36.399> Earth<00:31:36.720> so 30:01.330 --> 30:01.340 align:start position:0% and recycled the surface of the Earth so 30:01.340 --> 30:04.371 align:start position:0% and recycled the surface of the Earth so many<00:31:37.279> times<00:31:37.679> over.<00:31:38.640> So<00:31:39.039> all<00:31:39.279> evidence<00:31:39.679> of 30:04.371 --> 30:04.381 align:start position:0% many times over. So all evidence of 30:04.381 --> 30:06.931 align:start position:0% many times over. So all evidence of other<00:31:40.559> nuclear<00:31:41.120> reactors<00:31:41.679> has<00:31:41.919> likely<00:31:42.320> been 30:06.931 --> 30:06.941 align:start position:0% other nuclear reactors has likely been 30:06.941 --> 30:10.450 align:start position:0% other nuclear reactors has likely been subducted<00:31:43.440> out<00:31:43.679> of<00:31:43.919> existence. 30:10.450 --> 30:10.460 align:start position:0% subducted out of existence. 30:10.460 --> 30:12.931 align:start position:0% subducted out of existence. The<00:31:46.480> only<00:31:46.720> reason<00:31:47.120> Olllo<00:31:47.760> endured<00:31:48.240> was<00:31:48.480> it 30:12.931 --> 30:12.941 align:start position:0% The only reason Olllo endured was it 30:12.941 --> 30:15.810 align:start position:0% The only reason Olllo endured was it happened<00:31:48.880> to<00:31:49.039> form<00:31:49.279> in<00:31:49.519> the<00:31:49.760> Congo, 30:15.810 --> 30:15.820 align:start position:0% happened to form in the Congo, 30:15.820 --> 30:17.970 align:start position:0% happened to form in the Congo, a<00:31:51.760> slab<00:31:52.000> of<00:31:52.240> continent<00:31:52.640> so<00:31:52.960> stable<00:31:53.279> that<00:31:53.519> it 30:17.970 --> 30:17.980 align:start position:0% a slab of continent so stable that it 30:17.980 --> 30:20.931 align:start position:0% a slab of continent so stable that it sat<00:31:54.080> essentially<00:31:54.559> undisturbed<00:31:55.440> in<00:31:55.760> all<00:31:56.159> those 30:20.931 --> 30:20.941 align:start position:0% sat essentially undisturbed in all those 30:20.941 --> 30:24.371 align:start position:0% sat essentially undisturbed in all those years<00:31:57.120> since.<00:31:58.480> All<00:31:58.720> in<00:31:58.799> all,<00:31:59.039> Olllo<00:31:59.519> has<00:31:59.760> quite 30:24.371 --> 30:24.381 align:start position:0% years since. All in all, Olllo has quite 30:24.381 --> 30:26.291 align:start position:0% years since. All in all, Olllo has quite the<00:32:00.320> origin<00:32:00.720> story,<00:32:01.120> doesn't<00:32:01.279> it?<00:32:01.440> The<00:32:01.679> fuel 30:26.291 --> 30:26.301 align:start position:0% the origin story, doesn't it? The fuel 30:26.301 --> 30:29.411 align:start position:0% the origin story, doesn't it? The fuel forged<00:32:02.480> from<00:32:02.720> dying<00:32:03.279> stars,<00:32:04.240> gathered<00:32:04.720> by<00:32:04.880> the 30:29.411 --> 30:29.421 align:start position:0% forged from dying stars, gathered by the 30:29.421 --> 30:32.291 align:start position:0% forged from dying stars, gathered by the first<00:32:05.440> life<00:32:05.840> ever<00:32:06.240> to<00:32:06.480> breathe<00:32:06.799> out<00:32:07.039> oxygen, 30:32.291 --> 30:32.301 align:start position:0% first life ever to breathe out oxygen, 30:32.301 --> 30:34.531 align:start position:0% first life ever to breathe out oxygen, moderated<00:32:08.640> by<00:32:08.960> simple<00:32:09.440> groundwater, 30:34.531 --> 30:34.541 align:start position:0% moderated by simple groundwater, 30:34.541 --> 30:36.690 align:start position:0% moderated by simple groundwater, switched<00:32:10.559> on<00:32:10.720> and<00:32:10.880> off<00:32:11.120> by<00:32:11.279> its<00:32:11.519> own<00:32:11.760> boiling, 30:36.690 --> 30:36.700 align:start position:0% switched on and off by its own boiling, 30:36.700 --> 30:40.131 align:start position:0% switched on and off by its own boiling, and<00:32:12.720> finally<00:32:13.840> sealing<00:32:14.240> away<00:32:14.559> the<00:32:14.880> most<00:32:15.200> toxic 30:40.131 --> 30:40.141 align:start position:0% and finally sealing away the most toxic 30:40.141 --> 30:43.651 align:start position:0% and finally sealing away the most toxic substance<00:32:16.480> on<00:32:16.799> the<00:32:17.039> planet<00:32:18.080> safely.<00:32:19.039> On<00:32:19.200> top 30:43.651 --> 30:43.661 align:start position:0% substance on the planet safely. On top 30:43.661 --> 30:45.891 align:start position:0% substance on the planet safely. On top of<00:32:19.519> all<00:32:19.600> that,<00:32:19.840> it<00:32:20.000> survived<00:32:20.320> for<00:32:20.640> 2<00:32:21.039> billion 30:45.891 --> 30:45.901 align:start position:0% of all that, it survived for 2 billion 30:45.901 --> 30:47.810 align:start position:0% of all that, it survived for 2 billion years<00:32:22.000> while<00:32:22.240> all<00:32:22.320> its<00:32:22.559> sister<00:32:22.960> sites<00:32:23.279> were 30:47.810 --> 30:47.820 align:start position:0% years while all its sister sites were 30:47.820 --> 30:51.011 align:start position:0% years while all its sister sites were gobbled<00:32:23.919> up<00:32:24.080> by<00:32:24.320> the<00:32:24.559> planet.<00:32:25.600> It<00:32:25.840> is<00:32:26.000> the<00:32:26.320> last 30:51.011 --> 30:51.021 align:start position:0% gobbled up by the planet. It is the last 30:51.021 --> 30:54.291 align:start position:0% gobbled up by the planet. It is the last of<00:32:26.960> its<00:32:27.279> kind.<00:32:28.559> Today,<00:32:28.880> as<00:32:29.120> the<00:32:29.360> world<00:32:29.600> turns 30:54.291 --> 30:54.301 align:start position:0% of its kind. Today, as the world turns 30:54.301 --> 30:57.090 align:start position:0% of its kind. Today, as the world turns back<00:32:30.240> towards<00:32:30.960> nuclear<00:32:31.600> power<00:32:31.919> and<00:32:32.240> we<00:32:32.480> strive 30:57.090 --> 30:57.100 align:start position:0% back towards nuclear power and we strive 30:57.100 --> 30:59.570 align:start position:0% back towards nuclear power and we strive to<00:32:33.039> reach<00:32:33.279> net<00:32:33.600> zero<00:32:34.000> around<00:32:34.320> the<00:32:34.559> planet, 30:59.570 --> 30:59.580 align:start position:0% to reach net zero around the planet, 30:59.580 --> 31:02.210 align:start position:0% to reach net zero around the planet, this<00:32:35.519> patch<00:32:35.840> of<00:32:36.000> Gabon<00:32:36.640> has<00:32:36.880> never<00:32:37.360> mattered 31:02.210 --> 31:02.220 align:start position:0% this patch of Gabon has never mattered 31:02.220 --> 31:05.330 align:start position:0% this patch of Gabon has never mattered more.<00:32:38.880> Olllo<00:32:39.440> is<00:32:39.679> proof<00:32:39.919> that<00:32:40.240> radioactive 31:05.330 --> 31:05.340 align:start position:0% more. Olllo is proof that radioactive 31:05.340 --> 31:08.690 align:start position:0% more. Olllo is proof that radioactive waste<00:32:41.519> can<00:32:41.919> stay<00:32:42.240> locked<00:32:42.559> in<00:32:42.799> rock<00:32:43.200> for<00:32:43.600> eons, 31:08.690 --> 31:08.700 align:start position:0% waste can stay locked in rock for eons, 31:08.700 --> 31:10.690 align:start position:0% waste can stay locked in rock for eons, and<00:32:44.559> it's<00:32:44.799> the<00:32:45.120> closest<00:32:45.440> thing<00:32:45.679> we<00:32:45.919> will<00:32:46.080> ever 31:10.690 --> 31:10.700 align:start position:0% and it's the closest thing we will ever 31:10.700 --> 31:12.131 align:start position:0% and it's the closest thing we will ever have<00:32:46.640> to<00:32:46.799> a<00:32:47.039> field<00:32:47.279> test<00:32:47.519> for<00:32:47.679> the 31:12.131 --> 31:12.141 align:start position:0% have to a field test for the 31:12.141 --> 31:14.131 align:start position:0% have to a field test for the repositories<00:32:48.480> now<00:32:48.799> being<00:32:49.039> carved<00:32:49.440> out<00:32:49.600> of 31:14.131 --> 31:14.141 align:start position:0% repositories now being carved out of 31:14.141 --> 31:17.090 align:start position:0% repositories now being carved out of bedrock<00:32:50.559> around<00:32:50.880> the<00:32:51.200> world.<00:32:52.080> It<00:32:52.399> ran<00:32:52.640> the 31:17.090 --> 31:17.100 align:start position:0% bedrock around the world. It ran the 31:17.100 --> 31:19.491 align:start position:0% bedrock around the world. It ran the physics<00:32:53.200> of<00:32:53.440> passive<00:32:53.919> safety<00:32:54.480> 2<00:32:54.720> billion 31:19.491 --> 31:19.501 align:start position:0% physics of passive safety 2 billion 31:19.501 --> 31:22.051 align:start position:0% physics of passive safety 2 billion years<00:32:55.440> ago.<00:32:56.320> A<00:32:56.559> reactor<00:32:57.039> held<00:32:57.360> back<00:32:57.519> from 31:22.051 --> 31:22.061 align:start position:0% years ago. A reactor held back from 31:22.061 --> 31:24.291 align:start position:0% years ago. A reactor held back from running<00:32:58.000> away<00:32:58.240> by<00:32:58.559> nothing<00:32:58.880> more<00:32:59.200> than<00:32:59.600> water 31:24.291 --> 31:24.301 align:start position:0% running away by nothing more than water 31:24.301 --> 31:27.011 align:start position:0% running away by nothing more than water boiling<00:33:00.399> off<00:33:00.640> and<00:33:00.880> seeping<00:33:01.360> back<00:33:01.679> into<00:33:02.080> it. 31:27.011 --> 31:27.021 align:start position:0% boiling off and seeping back into it. 31:27.021 --> 31:29.491 align:start position:0% boiling off and seeping back into it. Its<00:33:03.039> ashes<00:33:03.519> even<00:33:03.919> settle<00:33:04.320> one<00:33:04.480> of<00:33:04.559> the<00:33:04.720> deepest 31:29.491 --> 31:29.501 align:start position:0% Its ashes even settle one of the deepest 31:29.501 --> 31:32.531 align:start position:0% Its ashes even settle one of the deepest questions<00:33:05.600> we<00:33:05.840> know<00:33:06.080> how<00:33:06.320> to<00:33:06.559> ask,<00:33:07.679> confirming 31:32.531 --> 31:32.541 align:start position:0% questions we know how to ask, confirming 31:32.541 --> 31:34.450 align:start position:0% questions we know how to ask, confirming that<00:33:08.399> the<00:33:08.640> laws<00:33:08.960> of<00:33:09.120> physics<00:33:09.519> have<00:33:09.840> held 31:34.450 --> 31:34.460 align:start position:0% that the laws of physics have held 31:34.460 --> 31:38.371 align:start position:0% that the laws of physics have held steady<00:33:10.640> across<00:33:11.120> half<00:33:11.440> the<00:33:11.760> age<00:33:12.159> of<00:33:12.480> Earth.<00:33:13.840> All 31:38.371 --> 31:38.381 align:start position:0% steady across half the age of Earth. All 31:38.381 --> 31:40.450 align:start position:0% steady across half the age of Earth. All of<00:33:14.159> this<00:33:14.480> is<00:33:14.720> written<00:33:15.120> into<00:33:15.440> the<00:33:15.679> ground, 31:40.450 --> 31:40.460 align:start position:0% of this is written into the ground, 31:40.460 --> 31:43.011 align:start position:0% of this is written into the ground, which<00:33:16.399> leaves<00:33:16.880> one<00:33:17.200> last<00:33:17.679> question.<00:33:18.399> If 31:43.011 --> 31:43.021 align:start position:0% which leaves one last question. If 31:43.021 --> 31:45.251 align:start position:0% which leaves one last question. If something<00:33:19.120> this<00:33:19.679> extraordinary<00:33:20.399> could<00:33:20.640> sit 31:45.251 --> 31:45.261 align:start position:0% something this extraordinary could sit 31:45.261 --> 31:47.491 align:start position:0% something this extraordinary could sit hidden<00:33:21.360> beneath<00:33:21.679> an<00:33:22.000> ordinary<00:33:22.559> uranium<00:33:22.880> mine 31:47.491 --> 31:47.501 align:start position:0% hidden beneath an ordinary uranium mine 31:47.501 --> 31:50.850 align:start position:0% hidden beneath an ordinary uranium mine for<00:33:23.519> 2<00:33:23.840> billion<00:33:24.320> years,<00:33:25.440> what<00:33:25.760> other<00:33:26.080> secrets 31:50.850 --> 31:50.860 align:start position:0% for 2 billion years, what other secrets 31:50.860 --> 31:53.330 align:start position:0% for 2 billion years, what other secrets does<00:33:26.799> the<00:33:27.039> Earth<00:33:27.360> hold?<00:33:28.399> Let<00:33:28.559> me<00:33:28.640> know<00:33:28.799> in<00:33:28.880> the 31:53.330 --> 31:53.340 align:start position:0% does the Earth hold? Let me know in the 31:53.340 --> 31:54.771 align:start position:0% does the Earth hold? Let me know in the comments<00:33:29.279> what<00:33:29.600> you<00:33:29.760> think<00:33:29.919> of<00:33:30.159> this 31:54.771 --> 31:54.781 align:start position:0% comments what you think of this 31:54.781 --> 31:56.611 align:start position:0% comments what you think of this discovery.<00:33:31.360> Do<00:33:31.519> you<00:33:31.600> think<00:33:31.760> there's<00:33:32.080> more 31:56.611 --> 31:56.621 align:start position:0% discovery. Do you think there's more 31:56.621 --> 31:59.171 align:start position:0% discovery. Do you think there's more lessons<00:33:32.720> to<00:33:32.960> be<00:33:33.120> learned<00:33:33.440> from<00:33:33.679> Olllo?<00:33:34.640> What 31:59.171 --> 31:59.181 align:start position:0% lessons to be learned from Olllo? What 31:59.181 --> 32:01.491 align:start position:0% lessons to be learned from Olllo? What other<00:33:35.200> geological<00:33:35.919> curiosities<00:33:36.640> might<00:33:36.880> be 32:01.491 --> 32:01.501 align:start position:0% other geological curiosities might be 32:01.501 --> 32:04.051 align:start position:0% other geological curiosities might be hiding<00:33:37.679> answers<00:33:38.159> to<00:33:38.480> modern<00:33:39.039> problems? 32:04.051 --> 32:04.061 align:start position:0% hiding answers to modern problems? 32:04.061 --> 32:06.210 align:start position:0% hiding answers to modern problems? Finally,<00:33:40.240> and<00:33:40.480> I<00:33:40.720> might<00:33:40.880> regret<00:33:41.200> this,<00:33:41.679> what 32:06.210 --> 32:06.220 align:start position:0% Finally, and I might regret this, what 32:06.220 --> 32:08.690 align:start position:0% Finally, and I might regret this, what are<00:33:42.080> your<00:33:42.480> thoughts<00:33:42.799> on<00:33:43.120> nuclear<00:33:43.760> power<00:33:44.159> and 32:08.690 --> 32:08.700 align:start position:0% are your thoughts on nuclear power and 32:08.700 --> 32:10.611 align:start position:0% are your thoughts on nuclear power and whether<00:33:44.640> we<00:33:44.880> should<00:33:45.039> be<00:33:45.200> using<00:33:45.440> it<00:33:45.679> more<00:33:46.000> or 32:10.611 --> 32:10.621 align:start position:0% whether we should be using it more or 32:10.621 --> 32:13.251 align:start position:0% whether we should be using it more or indeed<00:33:46.960> not<00:33:47.200> at<00:33:47.440> all?<00:33:48.159> Let<00:33:48.399> me<00:33:48.559> know<00:33:48.720> down 32:13.251 --> 32:13.261 align:start position:0% indeed not at all? Let me know down 32:13.261 --> 32:15.731 align:start position:0% indeed not at all? Let me know down below<00:33:49.519> and<00:33:49.760> I'll<00:33:50.000> see<00:33:50.159> you<00:33:50.480> in<00:33:50.720> the<00:33:50.880> next<00:33:51.039> one. 32:15.731 --> 32:15.741 align:start position:0% below and I'll see you in the next one. 32:15.741 --> 32:17.171 align:start position:0% below and I'll see you in the next one. Don't<00:33:51.679> forget<00:33:52.000> before<00:33:52.159> you<00:33:52.320> go,<00:33:52.480> we<00:33:52.640> have<00:33:52.720> that 32:17.171 --> 32:17.181 align:start position:0% Don't forget before you go, we have that 32:17.181 --> 32:18.850 align:start position:0% Don't forget before you go, we have that great<00:33:53.120> offer<00:33:53.360> for<00:33:53.519> you<00:33:53.760> right<00:33:54.080> now<00:33:54.240> with 32:18.850 --> 32:18.860 align:start position:0% great offer for you right now with 32:18.860 --> 32:20.931 align:start position:0% great offer for you right now with Planet<00:33:55.039> World.<00:33:55.360> First<00:33:55.760> 100<00:33:56.000> people<00:33:56.240> to<00:33:56.480> sign 32:20.931 --> 32:20.941 align:start position:0% Planet World. First 100 people to sign 32:20.941 --> 32:23.970 align:start position:0% Planet World. First 100 people to sign up<00:33:56.880> get<00:33:57.039> their<00:33:57.279> first<00:33:57.600> month<00:33:57.919> paid<00:33:58.159> for<00:33:58.480> by<00:33:58.880> me 32:23.970 --> 32:23.980 align:start position:0% up get their first month paid for by me 32:23.980 --> 32:25.731 align:start position:0% up get their first month paid for by me if<00:33:59.919> you<00:34:00.159> want<00:34:00.240> to<00:34:00.399> do<00:34:00.559> something<00:34:00.880> right<00:34:01.120> now 32:25.731 --> 32:25.741 align:start position:0% if you want to do something right now 32:25.741 --> 32:28.690 align:start position:0% if you want to do something right now after<00:34:01.760> this<00:34:02.000> video<00:34:02.559> to<00:34:02.880> help<00:34:03.120> the<00:34:03.360> planet.<00:34:04.159> Or 32:28.690 --> 32:28.700 align:start position:0% after this video to help the planet. Or 32:28.700 --> 32:30.131 align:start position:0% after this video to help the planet. Or check<00:34:04.559> them<00:34:04.720> out<00:34:04.880> first<00:34:05.120> by<00:34:05.360> watching<00:34:05.600> their 32:30.131 --> 32:30.141 align:start position:0% check them out first by watching their 32:30.141 --> 32:34.340 align:start position:0% check them out first by watching their Beaver<00:34:06.240> video<00:34:06.720> right<00:34:07.039> here.