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Winter<00:00:07.440><c> is</c><00:00:07.680><c> coming,</c><00:00:08.480><c> said</c><00:00:08.720><c> Edard</c><00:00:09.200><c> Stark.</c><00:00:10.480><c> When</c>

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Winter is coming, said Edard Stark. When
 

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Winter is coming, said Edard Stark. When
he<00:00:10.960><c> uttered</c><00:00:11.280><c> his</c><00:00:11.519><c> famous</c><00:00:11.920><c> words</c><00:00:12.240><c> in</c><00:00:12.400><c> the</c><00:00:12.639><c> TV</c>

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he uttered his famous words in the TV
 

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he uttered his famous words in the TV
series<00:00:13.360><c> of</c><00:00:13.519><c> Game</c><00:00:13.759><c> of</c><00:00:13.920><c> Thrones,</c><00:00:14.639><c> it</c><00:00:14.880><c> was</c><00:00:14.960><c> more</c>

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series of Game of Thrones, it was more
 

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series of Game of Thrones, it was more
than<00:00:15.360><c> just</c><00:00:15.519><c> a</c><00:00:15.759><c> pronouncement</c><00:00:16.240><c> of</c><00:00:16.480><c> the</c><00:00:16.640><c> normal</c>

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than just a pronouncement of the normal
 

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than just a pronouncement of the normal
passing<00:00:17.359><c> of</c><00:00:17.520><c> the</c><00:00:17.760><c> seasons.</c><00:00:18.880><c> Rather</c><00:00:19.199><c> than</c>

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passing of the seasons. Rather than
 

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passing of the seasons. Rather than
lasting<00:00:19.760><c> a</c><00:00:20.000><c> mere</c><00:00:20.320><c> 4</c><00:00:20.480><c> months,</c><00:00:21.199><c> winter</c><00:00:21.520><c> in</c><00:00:21.760><c> the</c>

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lasting a mere 4 months, winter in the
 

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lasting a mere 4 months, winter in the
fantasy<00:00:22.240><c> realm</c><00:00:22.480><c> of</c><00:00:22.640><c> Westeros</c><00:00:23.439><c> could</c><00:00:23.680><c> be</c><00:00:23.840><c> a</c><00:00:24.160><c> big</c>

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fantasy realm of Westeros could be a big
 

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fantasy realm of Westeros could be a big
problem.<00:00:25.199><c> It</c><00:00:25.439><c> could</c><00:00:25.760><c> potentially</c><00:00:26.320><c> last</c><00:00:26.560><c> for</c>

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problem. It could potentially last for
 

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problem. It could potentially last for
years,<00:00:27.599><c> even</c><00:00:27.920><c> up</c><00:00:28.080><c> to</c><00:00:28.240><c> a</c><00:00:28.480><c> decade.</c><00:00:29.519><c> Crops</c><00:00:30.000><c> would</c>

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years, even up to a decade. Crops would
 

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years, even up to a decade. Crops would
be<00:00:30.320><c> harder</c><00:00:30.560><c> to</c><00:00:30.800><c> grow.</c><00:00:31.359><c> The</c><00:00:31.519><c> weather</c><00:00:31.760><c> would</c><00:00:32.000><c> be</c>

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be harder to grow. The weather would be
 

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be harder to grow. The weather would be
colder.<00:00:32.880><c> The</c><00:00:33.040><c> arrival</c><00:00:33.440><c> of</c><00:00:33.600><c> winter</c><00:00:34.160><c> was</c><00:00:34.399><c> the</c>

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colder. The arrival of winter was the
 

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colder. The arrival of winter was the
harbinger<00:00:35.200><c> of</c><00:00:35.440><c> an</c><00:00:35.760><c> era</c><00:00:36.000><c> of</c><00:00:36.239><c> hardship.</c>

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harbinger of an era of hardship.
 

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harbinger of an era of hardship.
Of<00:00:38.320><c> course,</c><00:00:38.719><c> while</c><00:00:39.040><c> Westeros</c><00:00:39.680><c> is</c><00:00:40.000><c> pure</c>

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Of course, while Westeros is pure
 

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Of course, while Westeros is pure
fantasy,<00:00:41.280><c> seasons</c><00:00:41.680><c> that</c><00:00:41.840><c> last</c><00:00:42.160><c> for</c><00:00:42.399><c> years</c><00:00:42.640><c> on</c>

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fantasy, seasons that last for years on
 

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fantasy, seasons that last for years on
end<00:00:43.200><c> are</c><00:00:43.520><c> not</c><00:00:43.760><c> limited</c><00:00:44.079><c> to</c><00:00:44.320><c> fictional</c>

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end are not limited to fictional
 

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end are not limited to fictional
stories,<00:00:45.760><c> we</c><00:00:46.160><c> experience</c><00:00:46.719><c> them</c><00:00:46.960><c> on</c><00:00:47.280><c> Earth.</c>

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stories, we experience them on Earth.
 

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stories, we experience them on Earth.
Various<00:00:48.879><c> cycles</c><00:00:49.360><c> are</c><00:00:49.600><c> playing</c><00:00:49.840><c> out</c><00:00:50.079><c> on</c><00:00:50.239><c> our</c>

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Various cycles are playing out on our
 

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Various cycles are playing out on our
planet.<00:00:51.039><c> And</c><00:00:51.200><c> when</c><00:00:51.360><c> they</c><00:00:51.520><c> are</c><00:00:51.680><c> in</c><00:00:51.920><c> conflict,</c>

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planet. And when they are in conflict,
 

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planet. And when they are in conflict,
we<00:00:52.960><c> experience</c><00:00:53.440><c> a</c><00:00:53.760><c> period</c><00:00:54.000><c> of</c><00:00:54.320><c> stability.</c>

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we experience a period of stability.
 

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we experience a period of stability.
It's<00:00:55.680><c> worth</c><00:00:55.840><c> noting</c><00:00:56.320><c> though</c><00:00:56.559><c> that</c><00:00:56.879><c> they</c><00:00:57.039><c> will</c>

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It's worth noting though that they will
 

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It's worth noting though that they will
not<00:00:57.440><c> be</c><00:00:57.520><c> in</c><00:00:57.760><c> conflict</c><00:00:58.160><c> forever.</c><00:00:59.039><c> In</c><00:00:59.280><c> our</c>

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not be in conflict forever. In our
 

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not be in conflict forever. In our
future,<00:01:00.239><c> winter</c><00:01:00.640><c> is</c><00:01:00.879><c> coming</c><00:01:01.199><c> too.</c><00:01:02.559><c> But</c><00:01:02.879><c> what</c>

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future, winter is coming too. But what
 

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future, winter is coming too. But what
are<00:01:03.359><c> these</c><00:01:03.680><c> cycles?</c><00:01:04.640><c> How</c><00:01:04.799><c> can</c><00:01:05.040><c> better</c>

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are these cycles? How can better
 

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are these cycles? How can better
understanding<00:01:06.080><c> them</c><00:01:06.400><c> help</c><00:01:06.640><c> us</c><00:01:06.880><c> prepare</c><00:01:07.200><c> for</c>

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understanding them help us prepare for
 

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understanding them help us prepare for
our<00:01:07.760><c> future?</c>

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our future?
 

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our future?
I'm<00:01:10.080><c> Alex</c><00:01:10.400><c> Mccoan</c><00:01:11.119><c> and</c><00:01:11.280><c> you're</c><00:01:11.520><c> watching</c>

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I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
 

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I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
Astramm.<00:01:12.720><c> Join</c><00:01:12.960><c> me</c><00:01:13.200><c> today</c><00:01:13.520><c> in</c><00:01:13.840><c> exploring</c><00:01:14.320><c> the</c>

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Astramm. Join me today in exploring the
 

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Astramm. Join me today in exploring the
different<00:01:14.880><c> cycles</c><00:01:15.360><c> that</c><00:01:15.600><c> affect</c><00:01:15.920><c> our</c>

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different cycles that affect our
 

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different cycles that affect our
planet's<00:01:16.640><c> weather</c><00:01:16.960><c> and</c><00:01:17.280><c> warmth.</c>

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planet's weather and warmth.
 

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planet's weather and warmth.
To<00:01:19.520><c> begin,</c><00:01:20.000><c> we</c><00:01:20.240><c> should</c><00:01:20.479><c> probably</c><00:01:20.960><c> ask</c><00:01:21.200><c> a</c>

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To begin, we should probably ask a
 

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To begin, we should probably ask a
simple<00:01:21.840><c> question.</c><00:01:22.799><c> What</c><00:01:23.040><c> causes</c><00:01:23.520><c> the</c><00:01:23.759><c> seasons</c>

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simple question. What causes the seasons
 

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simple question. What causes the seasons
that<00:01:24.400><c> we</c><00:01:24.640><c> are</c><00:01:24.880><c> familiar</c><00:01:25.200><c> with?</c><00:01:26.320><c> You</c><00:01:26.560><c> may</c><00:01:26.799><c> well</c>

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that we are familiar with? You may well
 

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that we are familiar with? You may well
already<00:01:27.439><c> know</c><00:01:27.680><c> the</c><00:01:27.840><c> answer</c><00:01:28.080><c> to</c><00:01:28.240><c> this</c>

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already know the answer to this
 

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already know the answer to this
question,<00:01:29.200><c> but</c><00:01:29.360><c> as</c><00:01:29.600><c> it</c><00:01:29.759><c> will</c><00:01:29.920><c> provide</c><00:01:30.240><c> the</c>

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question, but as it will provide the
 

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question, but as it will provide the
starting<00:01:30.880><c> point</c><00:01:31.119><c> for</c><00:01:31.360><c> what</c><00:01:31.600><c> comes</c><00:01:31.920><c> later,</c>

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starting point for what comes later,
 

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starting point for what comes later,
it's<00:01:32.799><c> worth</c><00:01:33.119><c> reviewing.</c><00:01:34.320><c> Besides,</c><00:01:35.200><c> this</c>

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it's worth reviewing. Besides, this
 

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it's worth reviewing. Besides, this
question<00:01:35.840><c> is</c><00:01:36.079><c> not</c><00:01:36.320><c> entirely</c>

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question is not entirely
 

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question is not entirely
straightforward.<00:01:38.000><c> Depending</c><00:01:38.320><c> on</c><00:01:38.560><c> where</c><00:01:38.799><c> you</c>

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straightforward. Depending on where you
 

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straightforward. Depending on where you
are<00:01:39.119><c> on</c><00:01:39.360><c> the</c><00:01:39.520><c> planet,</c><00:01:40.000><c> you</c><00:01:40.240><c> may</c><00:01:40.479><c> not</c><00:01:40.720><c> actually</c>

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are on the planet, you may not actually
 

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are on the planet, you may not actually
get<00:01:41.439><c> any</c><00:01:41.759><c> seasons.</c>

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get any seasons.
 

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get any seasons.
Generally<00:01:43.759><c> speaking,</c><00:01:44.400><c> seasons</c><00:01:44.880><c> we</c><00:01:45.119><c> know</c><00:01:45.280><c> of</c>

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Generally speaking, seasons we know of
 

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Generally speaking, seasons we know of
are<00:01:45.759><c> caused</c><00:01:46.159><c> as</c><00:01:46.399><c> a</c><00:01:46.640><c> result</c><00:01:46.799><c> of</c><00:01:47.040><c> our</c><00:01:47.360><c> planet's</c>

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are caused as a result of our planet's
 

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are caused as a result of our planet's
tilt.<00:01:48.799><c> Because</c><00:01:49.200><c> our</c><00:01:49.439><c> planet</c><00:01:49.759><c> rotates</c><00:01:50.159><c> at</c><00:01:50.320><c> a</c>

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tilt. Because our planet rotates at a
 

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tilt. Because our planet rotates at a
tilted<00:01:50.880><c> angle</c><00:01:51.200><c> as</c><00:01:51.360><c> it</c><00:01:51.520><c> orbits</c><00:01:51.920><c> the</c><00:01:52.079><c> sun,</c><00:01:52.640><c> one</c>

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tilted angle as it orbits the sun, one
 

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tilted angle as it orbits the sun, one
hemisphere<00:01:53.520><c> will</c><00:01:53.759><c> point</c><00:01:54.000><c> towards</c><00:01:54.399><c> the</c><00:01:54.560><c> sun</c>

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hemisphere will point towards the sun
 

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hemisphere will point towards the sun
during<00:01:55.119><c> part</c><00:01:55.360><c> of</c><00:01:55.439><c> the</c><00:01:55.600><c> year</c><00:01:56.079><c> while</c><00:01:56.320><c> the</c><00:01:56.560><c> other</c>

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during part of the year while the other
 

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during part of the year while the other
will<00:01:57.040><c> point</c><00:01:57.360><c> away.</c><00:01:58.479><c> Naturally,</c><00:01:59.040><c> hemispheres</c>

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will point away. Naturally, hemispheres
 

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will point away. Naturally, hemispheres
that<00:01:59.840><c> are</c><00:02:00.000><c> pointed</c><00:02:00.320><c> towards</c><00:02:00.640><c> the</c><00:02:00.799><c> sun</c><00:02:01.040><c> become</c>

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that are pointed towards the sun become
 

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that are pointed towards the sun become
much<00:02:01.680><c> warmer</c><00:02:02.560><c> while</c><00:02:02.799><c> pointing</c><00:02:03.200><c> away</c><00:02:03.439><c> from</c><00:02:03.600><c> the</c>

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much warmer while pointing away from the
 

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much warmer while pointing away from the
sun<00:02:04.079><c> makes</c><00:02:04.399><c> them</c><00:02:04.640><c> colder,</c><00:02:05.360><c> creating</c><00:02:05.920><c> the</c>

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sun makes them colder, creating the
 

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sun makes them colder, creating the
regular<00:02:06.560><c> seasons,</c><00:02:07.360><c> summer</c><00:02:07.759><c> and</c><00:02:08.080><c> winter.</c><00:02:09.440><c> This</c>

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regular seasons, summer and winter. This
 

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regular seasons, summer and winter. This
effect<00:02:10.160><c> becomes</c><00:02:10.560><c> stronger</c><00:02:10.959><c> the</c><00:02:11.200><c> higher</c><00:02:11.440><c> up</c><00:02:11.680><c> or</c>

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effect becomes stronger the higher up or
 

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effect becomes stronger the higher up or
lower<00:02:12.160><c> down</c><00:02:12.400><c> the</c><00:02:12.560><c> planet</c><00:02:12.800><c> you</c><00:02:13.040><c> go.</c><00:02:14.000><c> Consider</c>

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lower down the planet you go. Consider
 

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lower down the planet you go. Consider
the<00:02:14.640><c> small</c><00:02:14.959><c> Norwegian</c><00:02:15.520><c> town</c><00:02:15.760><c> of</c><00:02:15.920><c> Tonsa.</c>

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the small Norwegian town of Tonsa.
 

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the small Norwegian town of Tonsa.
Because<00:02:17.760><c> of</c><00:02:17.840><c> its</c><00:02:18.080><c> higher</c><00:02:18.400><c> altitude,</c><00:02:19.200><c> Trumpsa</c>

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Because of its higher altitude, Trumpsa
 

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Because of its higher altitude, Trumpsa
isn't<00:02:20.239><c> just</c><00:02:20.480><c> pointed</c><00:02:20.959><c> more</c><00:02:21.280><c> towards</c><00:02:21.680><c> the</c><00:02:21.920><c> sun.</c>

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isn't just pointed more towards the sun.
 

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isn't just pointed more towards the sun.
The<00:02:22.800><c> tilt</c><00:02:23.040><c> of</c><00:02:23.120><c> the</c><00:02:23.280><c> Earth</c><00:02:23.520><c> is</c><00:02:23.760><c> such</c><00:02:24.080><c> that</c><00:02:24.400><c> from</c>

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The tilt of the Earth is such that from
 

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The tilt of the Earth is such that from
its<00:02:24.756><c> [music]</c><00:02:25.040><c> perspective,</c><00:02:25.840><c> the</c><00:02:26.080><c> sun</c><00:02:26.400><c> never</c>

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its [music] perspective, the sun never
 

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its [music] perspective, the sun never
sets<00:02:27.120><c> for</c><00:02:27.440><c> months</c><00:02:27.760><c> in</c><00:02:28.000><c> summer</c><00:02:28.640><c> and</c><00:02:28.959><c> never</c>

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sets for months in summer and never
 

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sets for months in summer and never
rises<00:02:29.680><c> for</c><00:02:29.920><c> a</c><00:02:30.080><c> few</c><00:02:30.239><c> months</c><00:02:30.480><c> in</c><00:02:30.720><c> winter.</c>

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rises for a few months in winter.
 

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rises for a few months in winter.
Naturally,<00:02:32.160><c> this</c><00:02:32.400><c> produces</c><00:02:32.959><c> quite</c><00:02:33.280><c> the</c>

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Naturally, this produces quite the
 

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Naturally, this produces quite the
seasonal<00:02:34.000><c> variance.</c>

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seasonal variance.
 

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seasonal variance.
But<00:02:35.680><c> this</c><00:02:35.920><c> effect</c><00:02:36.239><c> lessens</c><00:02:36.800><c> the</c><00:02:37.040><c> closer</c><00:02:37.280><c> to</c>

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But this effect lessens the closer to
 

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But this effect lessens the closer to
the<00:02:37.519><c> equator</c><00:02:37.920><c> you</c><00:02:38.160><c> get.</c><00:02:39.040><c> There,</c><00:02:39.360><c> the</c><00:02:39.599><c> tilt</c><00:02:39.840><c> of</c>

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the equator you get. There, the tilt of
 

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the equator you get. There, the tilt of
the<00:02:40.080><c> Earth</c><00:02:40.319><c> doesn't</c><00:02:40.640><c> really</c><00:02:40.879><c> change</c><00:02:41.200><c> how</c>

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the Earth doesn't really change how
 

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the Earth doesn't really change how
close<00:02:41.680><c> or</c><00:02:42.000><c> far</c><00:02:42.239><c> away</c><00:02:42.400><c> from</c><00:02:42.560><c> the</c><00:02:42.720><c> sun</c><00:02:42.959><c> the</c><00:02:43.120><c> area</c>

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close or far away from the sun the area
 

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close or far away from the sun the area
is.<00:02:44.239><c> And</c><00:02:44.400><c> as</c><00:02:44.560><c> such,</c><00:02:44.879><c> the</c><00:02:45.040><c> Earth</c><00:02:45.280><c> doesn't</c>

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is. And as such, the Earth doesn't
 

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is. And as such, the Earth doesn't
notice<00:02:45.920><c> much</c><00:02:46.160><c> temperature</c><00:02:46.640><c> variation.</c><00:02:48.000><c> It's</c>

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notice much temperature variation. It's
 

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notice much temperature variation. It's
all<00:02:48.400><c> just</c><00:02:48.560><c> a</c><00:02:48.800><c> question</c><00:02:49.120><c> of</c><00:02:49.440><c> how</c><00:02:49.760><c> close</c><00:02:50.080><c> you</c><00:02:50.319><c> are</c>

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all just a question of how close you are
 

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all just a question of how close you are
to<00:02:50.640><c> the</c><00:02:50.800><c> Sun.</c><00:02:52.239><c> However,</c><00:02:52.959><c> did</c><00:02:53.200><c> you</c><00:02:53.360><c> know</c><00:02:53.599><c> that</c>

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to the Sun. However, did you know that
 

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to the Sun. However, did you know that
the<00:02:54.080><c> tilt</c><00:02:54.319><c> of</c><00:02:54.480><c> the</c><00:02:54.640><c> Earth</c><00:02:55.040><c> isn't</c><00:02:55.519><c> static,</c><00:02:56.800><c> nor</c>

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the tilt of the Earth isn't static, nor
 

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the tilt of the Earth isn't static, nor
is<00:02:57.360><c> it</c><00:02:57.599><c> the</c><00:02:57.840><c> only</c><00:02:58.160><c> thing</c><00:02:58.319><c> about</c><00:02:58.480><c> a</c><00:02:58.720><c> planet's</c>

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is it the only thing about a planet's
 

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is it the only thing about a planet's
orbit<00:02:59.519><c> that</c><00:02:59.760><c> influences</c><00:03:00.400><c> how</c><00:03:00.720><c> warm</c><00:03:01.040><c> or</c><00:03:01.280><c> cold</c>

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orbit that influences how warm or cold
 

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orbit that influences how warm or cold
we<00:03:01.760><c> are.</c><00:03:02.879><c> Imagine</c><00:03:03.200><c> for</c><00:03:03.440><c> a</c><00:03:03.599><c> second</c><00:03:03.840><c> the</c><00:03:04.080><c> model</c>

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we are. Imagine for a second the model
 

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we are. Imagine for a second the model
you<00:03:04.560><c> are</c><00:03:04.800><c> familiar</c><00:03:05.120><c> with</c><00:03:05.599><c> of</c><00:03:05.840><c> the</c><00:03:06.000><c> Earth</c>

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you are familiar with of the Earth
 

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you are familiar with of the Earth
orbiting<00:03:06.800><c> the</c><00:03:06.959><c> Sun</c><00:03:07.200><c> in</c><00:03:07.440><c> a</c><00:03:07.599><c> nice</c><00:03:07.920><c> circle,</c><00:03:08.560><c> flat</c>

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orbiting the Sun in a nice circle, flat
 

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orbiting the Sun in a nice circle, flat
to<00:03:08.959><c> the</c><00:03:09.200><c> plane</c><00:03:09.360><c> of</c><00:03:09.519><c> the</c><00:03:09.680><c> solar</c><00:03:10.000><c> system.</c>

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to the plane of the solar system.
 

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to the plane of the solar system.
[music]<00:03:10.959><c> In</c><00:03:11.200><c> this</c><00:03:11.360><c> model,</c><00:03:11.760><c> we</c><00:03:12.080><c> circle</c><00:03:12.400><c> the</c><00:03:12.560><c> sun</c>

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[music] In this model, we circle the sun
 

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[music] In this model, we circle the sun
because<00:03:13.040><c> of</c><00:03:13.200><c> the</c><00:03:13.360><c> sun's</c><00:03:13.680><c> gravity.</c><00:03:14.959><c> This</c><00:03:15.200><c> model</c>

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because of the sun's gravity. This model
 

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because of the sun's gravity. This model
is<00:03:15.840><c> too</c><00:03:16.159><c> basic.</c><00:03:17.360><c> In</c><00:03:17.680><c> reality,</c><00:03:18.159><c> the</c><00:03:18.400><c> sun</c><00:03:18.720><c> is</c><00:03:18.959><c> not</c>

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is too basic. In reality, the sun is not
 

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is too basic. In reality, the sun is not
the<00:03:19.440><c> only</c><00:03:19.599><c> source</c><00:03:19.920><c> of</c><00:03:20.080><c> gravity</c><00:03:20.480><c> pulling</c><00:03:20.800><c> at</c>

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the only source of gravity pulling at
 

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the only source of gravity pulling at
us,<00:03:21.519><c> although</c><00:03:21.840><c> it</c><00:03:22.080><c> is</c><00:03:22.239><c> the</c><00:03:22.400><c> biggest.</c>

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us, although it is the biggest.
 

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us, although it is the biggest.
Many<00:03:24.239><c> of</c><00:03:24.400><c> the</c><00:03:24.560><c> planets</c><00:03:25.120><c> pull</c><00:03:25.440><c> and</c><00:03:25.680><c> target</c><00:03:26.000><c> us,</c>

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Many of the planets pull and target us,
 

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Many of the planets pull and target us,
particularly<00:03:27.519><c> large</c><00:03:27.840><c> ones</c><00:03:28.319><c> like</c><00:03:28.560><c> Jupiter,</c>

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particularly large ones like Jupiter,
 

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particularly large ones like Jupiter,
which<00:03:29.519><c> has</c><00:03:29.599><c> a</c><00:03:29.840><c> mass</c><00:03:30.319><c> 318</c><00:03:31.200><c> times</c><00:03:31.519><c> the</c><00:03:31.760><c> size</c><00:03:31.920><c> of</c>

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which has a mass 318 times the size of
 

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which has a mass 318 times the size of
our<00:03:32.319><c> own</c><00:03:32.480><c> planet,</c><00:03:33.280><c> or</c><00:03:33.599><c> Saturn,</c><00:03:34.239><c> which</c><00:03:34.560><c> is</c><00:03:34.879><c> 95</c>

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our own planet, or Saturn, which is 95
 

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our own planet, or Saturn, which is 95
times.<00:03:36.560><c> And</c><00:03:36.799><c> we</c><00:03:37.200><c> in</c><00:03:37.440><c> turn</c><00:03:37.680><c> pull</c><00:03:38.000><c> on</c><00:03:38.239><c> them.</c><00:03:39.440><c> As</c>

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times. And we in turn pull on them. As
 

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times. And we in turn pull on them. As
planets<00:03:40.159><c> all</c><00:03:40.400><c> rotate</c><00:03:40.799><c> at</c><00:03:40.959><c> different</c><00:03:41.280><c> speeds</c>

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planets all rotate at different speeds
 

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planets all rotate at different speeds
around<00:03:41.760><c> the</c><00:03:42.000><c> sun,</c><00:03:42.560><c> this</c><00:03:42.879><c> constant</c><00:03:43.360><c> pulling</c>

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around the sun, this constant pulling
 

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around the sun, this constant pulling
and<00:03:44.239><c> releasing</c><00:03:45.040><c> creates</c><00:03:45.440><c> a</c><00:03:45.599><c> delicate</c><00:03:46.080><c> dance</c>

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and releasing creates a delicate dance
 

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and releasing creates a delicate dance
far<00:03:47.200><c> more</c><00:03:47.519><c> complicated</c><00:03:48.000><c> than</c><00:03:48.239><c> a</c><00:03:48.480><c> simple</c>

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far more complicated than a simple
 

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far more complicated than a simple
circle.<00:03:49.920><c> This</c><00:03:50.159><c> interplay</c><00:03:50.720><c> of</c><00:03:51.040><c> increasing</c><00:03:51.680><c> and</c>

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circle. This interplay of increasing and
 

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circle. This interplay of increasing and
lessening<00:03:52.480><c> gravity</c><00:03:53.200><c> has</c><00:03:53.519><c> many</c><00:03:53.920><c> different</c>

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lessening gravity has many different
 

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lessening gravity has many different
effects<00:03:54.480><c> on</c><00:03:54.720><c> our</c><00:03:55.120><c> angle</c><00:03:55.440><c> of</c><00:03:55.599><c> tilt,</c><00:03:56.319><c> our</c><00:03:56.720><c> orbit,</c>

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effects on our angle of tilt, our orbit,
 

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effects on our angle of tilt, our orbit,
and<00:03:57.920><c> even</c><00:03:58.319><c> the</c><00:03:58.560><c> plane</c><00:03:58.879><c> in</c><00:03:59.040><c> which</c><00:03:59.200><c> they</c><00:03:59.519><c> occur.</c>

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and even the plane in which they occur.
 

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and even the plane in which they occur.
Broadly<00:04:01.120><c> speaking,</c><00:04:01.760><c> these</c><00:04:02.080><c> variables</c><00:04:02.640><c> have</c>

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Broadly speaking, these variables have
 

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Broadly speaking, these variables have
stabilized<00:04:03.519><c> into</c><00:04:03.920><c> cycles.</c><00:04:04.799><c> These</c><00:04:05.120><c> cycles</c>

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stabilized into cycles. These cycles
 

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stabilized into cycles. These cycles
were<00:04:05.760><c> first</c><00:04:06.000><c> described</c><00:04:06.480><c> effectively</c><00:04:07.040><c> by</c>

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were first described effectively by
 

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were first described effectively by
Serbian<00:04:07.840><c> geohysicist</c><00:04:08.640><c> and</c><00:04:08.879><c> astronomer</c>

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Serbian geohysicist and astronomer
 

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Serbian geohysicist and astronomer
Milutin<00:04:10.239><c> Milankovich</c><00:04:11.120><c> in</c><00:04:11.439><c> 1920</c><00:04:12.720><c> and</c><00:04:12.959><c> thus</c>

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Milutin Milankovich in 1920 and thus
 

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Milutin Milankovich in 1920 and thus
were<00:04:13.760><c> called</c><00:04:14.239><c> Milankovich</c><00:04:15.040><c> cycles.</c>

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were called Milankovich cycles.
 

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were called Milankovich cycles.
The<00:04:16.959><c> first</c><00:04:17.199><c> such</c><00:04:17.600><c> cycle</c><00:04:17.919><c> I</c><00:04:18.239><c> want</c><00:04:18.320><c> to</c><00:04:18.479><c> look</c><00:04:18.639><c> at</c>

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The first such cycle I want to look at
 

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The first such cycle I want to look at
is<00:04:19.120><c> the</c><00:04:19.440><c> changing</c><00:04:19.919><c> shape</c><00:04:20.239><c> of</c><00:04:20.400><c> our</c><00:04:20.720><c> orbit.</c><00:04:22.000><c> Over</c>

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is the changing shape of our orbit. Over
 

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is the changing shape of our orbit. Over
the<00:04:22.560><c> course</c><00:04:22.880><c> of</c><00:04:23.040><c> a</c><00:04:23.440><c> 100,000year</c><00:04:24.720><c> period,</c><00:04:25.440><c> the</c>

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the course of a 100,000year period, the
 

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the course of a 100,000year period, the
Earth's<00:04:26.000><c> orbit</c><00:04:26.320><c> around</c><00:04:26.560><c> the</c><00:04:26.720><c> sun</c><00:04:26.960><c> becomes</c>

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Earth's orbit around the sun becomes
 

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Earth's orbit around the sun becomes
more<00:04:28.000><c> and</c><00:04:28.240><c> then</c><00:04:28.560><c> less</c><00:04:29.040><c> elliptical.</c>

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more and then less elliptical.
 

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more and then less elliptical.
Naturally,<00:04:31.280><c> if</c><00:04:31.520><c> our</c><00:04:31.828><c> [music]</c><00:04:31.840><c> orbit</c><00:04:32.240><c> is</c>

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Naturally, if our [music] orbit is
 

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Naturally, if our [music] orbit is
closer<00:04:32.800><c> to</c><00:04:32.960><c> that</c><00:04:33.120><c> of</c><00:04:33.280><c> a</c><00:04:33.520><c> circle,</c><00:04:34.160><c> our</c><00:04:34.479><c> distance</c>

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closer to that of a circle, our distance
 

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closer to that of a circle, our distance
from<00:04:34.960><c> the</c><00:04:35.120><c> sun</c><00:04:35.360><c> remains</c><00:04:35.840><c> relatively</c>

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from the sun remains relatively
 

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from the sun remains relatively
consistent<00:04:37.120><c> and</c><00:04:37.360><c> we</c><00:04:37.520><c> get</c><00:04:37.680><c> about</c><00:04:37.919><c> the</c><00:04:38.160><c> same</c>

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consistent and we get about the same
 

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consistent and we get about the same
amount<00:04:38.639><c> of</c><00:04:38.800><c> sunlight</c><00:04:39.199><c> all</c><00:04:39.440><c> year</c><00:04:39.680><c> round.</c>

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amount of sunlight all year round.
 

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amount of sunlight all year round.
However,<00:04:41.520><c> once</c><00:04:41.840><c> our</c><00:04:42.160><c> orbit</c><00:04:42.308><c> [music]</c><00:04:42.560><c> becomes</c>

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However, once our orbit [music] becomes
 

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However, once our orbit [music] becomes
elliptical,<00:04:44.080><c> there</c><00:04:44.320><c> are</c><00:04:44.479><c> parts</c><00:04:44.720><c> of</c><00:04:44.800><c> the</c><00:04:45.040><c> year</c>

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elliptical, there are parts of the year
 

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elliptical, there are parts of the year
where<00:04:45.520><c> we</c><00:04:45.759><c> are</c><00:04:45.919><c> further</c><00:04:46.240><c> from</c><00:04:46.400><c> the</c><00:04:46.560><c> sun</c><00:04:46.800><c> and</c>

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where we are further from the sun and
 

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where we are further from the sun and
thus<00:04:47.280><c> colder</c><00:04:48.080><c> and</c><00:04:48.400><c> parts</c><00:04:48.720><c> where</c><00:04:48.960><c> we're</c><00:04:49.280><c> closer</c>

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thus colder and parts where we're closer
 

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thus colder and parts where we're closer
and<00:04:50.160><c> warmer.</c><00:04:51.600><c> As</c><00:04:51.840><c> it</c><00:04:52.080><c> happens,</c><00:04:52.720><c> the</c>

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and warmer. As it happens, the
 

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and warmer. As it happens, the
perihelion<00:04:53.680><c> of</c><00:04:53.759><c> the</c><00:04:53.919><c> Earth's</c><00:04:54.240><c> orbit,</c><00:04:54.960><c> or</c><00:04:55.199><c> the</c>

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perihelion of the Earth's orbit, or the
 

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perihelion of the Earth's orbit, or the
bit<00:04:55.408><c> [music]</c><00:04:55.600><c> where</c><00:04:55.840><c> we're</c><00:04:56.160><c> closest</c><00:04:56.479><c> to</c><00:04:56.639><c> the</c>

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bit [music] where we're closest to the
 

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bit [music] where we're closest to the
sun,<00:04:57.360><c> happens</c><00:04:57.680><c> roughly</c><00:04:58.160><c> on</c><00:04:58.479><c> January</c><00:04:59.040><c> 3rd,</c>

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sun, happens roughly on January 3rd,
 

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sun, happens roughly on January 3rd,
while<00:05:00.080><c> the</c><00:05:00.240><c> apphelion,</c><00:05:01.280><c> or</c><00:05:01.520><c> the</c><00:05:01.680><c> bit</c><00:05:01.840><c> where</c>

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while the apphelion, or the bit where
 

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while the apphelion, or the bit where
we're<00:05:02.320><c> furthest</c><00:05:02.800><c> away,</c><00:05:03.520><c> happens</c><00:05:03.840><c> on</c><00:05:04.080><c> roughly</c>

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we're furthest away, happens on roughly
 

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we're furthest away, happens on roughly
July<00:05:04.880><c> 4th.</c>

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July 4th.
 

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July 4th.
I'm<00:05:06.720><c> recording</c><00:05:07.039><c> this</c><00:05:07.280><c> in</c><00:05:07.520><c> the</c><00:05:07.680><c> UK,</c><00:05:08.479><c> which</c>

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I'm recording this in the UK, which
 

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I'm recording this in the UK, which
means<00:05:09.120><c> for</c><00:05:09.360><c> my</c><00:05:09.600><c> hemisphere,</c><00:05:10.400><c> January</c><00:05:10.880><c> is</c>

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means for my hemisphere, January is
 

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means for my hemisphere, January is
winter.<00:05:12.160><c> So,</c><00:05:12.320><c> for</c><00:05:12.560><c> me,</c><00:05:12.800><c> this</c><00:05:13.039><c> is</c><00:05:13.199><c> quite</c><00:05:13.440><c> nice.</c>

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winter. So, for me, this is quite nice.
 

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winter. So, for me, this is quite nice.
Although<00:05:14.639><c> we</c><00:05:14.880><c> are</c><00:05:14.960><c> in</c><00:05:15.120><c> a</c><00:05:15.280><c> phase</c><00:05:15.520><c> right</c><00:05:15.759><c> now</c>

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Although we are in a phase right now
 

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Although we are in a phase right now
where<00:05:16.240><c> this</c><00:05:16.479><c> cycle</c><00:05:16.800><c> of</c><00:05:16.880><c> the</c><00:05:17.039><c> Earth's</c><00:05:17.360><c> orbit</c><00:05:17.680><c> is</c>

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where this cycle of the Earth's orbit is
 

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where this cycle of the Earth's orbit is
more<00:05:18.080><c> circular</c><00:05:18.639><c> than</c><00:05:18.800><c> it</c><00:05:18.960><c> is</c><00:05:19.199><c> elliptical,</c><00:05:20.160><c> we</c>

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more circular than it is elliptical, we
 

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more circular than it is elliptical, we
still<00:05:20.953><c> [music]</c><00:05:20.960><c> experience</c><00:05:21.600><c> a</c><00:05:21.919><c> 7%</c><00:05:22.639><c> difference</c>

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still [music] experience a 7% difference
 

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still [music] experience a 7% difference
in<00:05:23.199><c> the</c><00:05:23.360><c> amount</c><00:05:23.600><c> of</c><00:05:23.759><c> sunlight</c><00:05:24.240><c> we</c><00:05:24.479><c> receive</c><00:05:24.800><c> in</c>

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in the amount of sunlight we receive in
 

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in the amount of sunlight we receive in
January<00:05:25.759><c> compared</c><00:05:26.080><c> to</c><00:05:26.320><c> July.</c><00:05:27.600><c> This</c><00:05:27.759><c> sunlight</c>

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January compared to July. This sunlight
 

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January compared to July. This sunlight
difference<00:05:28.800><c> means</c><00:05:28.819><c> [music]</c><00:05:29.039><c> that</c><00:05:29.280><c> my</c>

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difference means [music] that my
 

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difference means [music] that my
northern<00:05:29.919><c> hemisphere's</c><00:05:30.560><c> winters</c><00:05:30.960><c> are</c><00:05:31.199><c> warmer</c>

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northern hemisphere's winters are warmer
 

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northern hemisphere's winters are warmer
while<00:05:32.320><c> our</c><00:05:32.639><c> summers</c><00:05:33.039><c> are</c><00:05:33.280><c> milder.</c><00:05:34.639><c> In</c><00:05:34.800><c> the</c>

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while our summers are milder. In the
 

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while our summers are milder. In the
southern<00:05:35.280><c> hemisphere,</c><00:05:36.000><c> the</c><00:05:36.240><c> reverse</c><00:05:36.560><c> is</c><00:05:36.800><c> true</c>

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southern hemisphere, the reverse is true
 

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southern hemisphere, the reverse is true
because<00:05:38.000><c> they're</c><00:05:38.400><c> experiencing</c><00:05:39.039><c> summer</c>

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because they're experiencing summer
 

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because they're experiencing summer
during<00:05:39.680><c> this</c><00:05:39.840><c> warmer</c><00:05:40.240><c> phase.</c><00:05:40.603><c> [music]</c><00:05:40.800><c> Their</c>

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during this warmer phase. [music] Their
 

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during this warmer phase. [music] Their
summers<00:05:41.520><c> become</c><00:05:41.840><c> even</c><00:05:42.160><c> warmer,</c><00:05:43.120><c> winters</c>

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summers become even warmer, winters
 

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summers become even warmer, winters
become<00:05:44.000><c> colder.</c><00:05:45.360><c> And</c><00:05:45.600><c> that's</c><00:05:45.919><c> just</c><00:05:46.160><c> at</c><00:05:46.479><c> this</c>

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become colder. And that's just at this
 

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become colder. And that's just at this
stage<00:05:47.120><c> of</c><00:05:47.360><c> the</c><00:05:47.680><c> 100,000year</c><00:05:48.880><c> Melankovich</c>

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stage of the 100,000year Melankovich
 

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stage of the 100,000year Melankovich
cycle.<00:05:50.560><c> As</c><00:05:50.800><c> the</c><00:05:50.960><c> Earth's</c><00:05:51.199><c> orbit</c><00:05:51.600><c> becomes</c><00:05:51.919><c> more</c>

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cycle. As the Earth's orbit becomes more
 

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cycle. As the Earth's orbit becomes more
elliptical,<00:05:53.120><c> that</c><00:05:53.440><c> 7%</c><00:05:54.080><c> sunlight</c><00:05:54.639><c> difference</c>

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elliptical, that 7% sunlight difference
 

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elliptical, that 7% sunlight difference
turns<00:05:55.440><c> into</c><00:05:55.840><c> a</c><00:05:56.400><c> 23%</c><00:05:57.634><c> [music]</c><00:05:57.680><c> difference.</c>

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turns into a 23% [music] difference.
 

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turns into a 23% [music] difference.
Quite<00:05:59.039><c> significant.</c>

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Quite significant.
 

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Quite significant.
You<00:06:00.960><c> might</c><00:06:01.120><c> think</c><00:06:01.360><c> this</c><00:06:01.600><c> seems</c><00:06:02.000><c> overall</c><00:06:02.400><c> a</c>

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You might think this seems overall a
 

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You might think this seems overall a
little<00:06:02.880><c> unfair.</c><00:06:03.280><c> air</c><00:06:03.520><c> on</c><00:06:03.680><c> the</c><00:06:03.759><c> southern</c>

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little unfair. air on the southern
 

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little unfair. air on the southern
hemisphere.<00:06:05.120><c> The</c><00:06:05.280><c> northern</c><00:06:05.600><c> hemisphere</c>

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hemisphere. The northern hemisphere
 

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hemisphere. The northern hemisphere
benefits<00:06:06.639><c> from</c><00:06:06.880><c> this</c><00:06:07.120><c> cycle</c><00:06:07.600><c> stabilizing</c><00:06:08.240><c> its</c>

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benefits from this cycle stabilizing its
 

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benefits from this cycle stabilizing its
seasons<00:06:09.280><c> while</c><00:06:09.520><c> the</c><00:06:09.680><c> cycle</c><00:06:10.000><c> makes</c><00:06:10.240><c> the</c>

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seasons while the cycle makes the
 

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seasons while the cycle makes the
southern<00:06:10.720><c> hemisphere</c><00:06:11.360><c> seasons</c><00:06:11.759><c> more</c>

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southern hemisphere seasons more
 

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southern hemisphere seasons more
extreme.<00:06:13.280><c> Don't</c><00:06:13.520><c> worry,</c><00:06:13.840><c> though,</c><00:06:14.160><c> as</c><00:06:14.479><c> another</c>

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extreme. Don't worry, though, as another
 

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extreme. Don't worry, though, as another
cycle<00:06:15.280><c> is</c><00:06:15.440><c> at</c><00:06:15.680><c> play</c><00:06:16.000><c> to</c><00:06:16.240><c> bring</c><00:06:16.479><c> things</c><00:06:16.800><c> full</c>

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cycle is at play to bring things full
 

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cycle is at play to bring things full
circle.

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circle.
 

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circle.
This<00:06:19.120><c> current</c><00:06:19.440><c> seasonal</c><00:06:19.919><c> rotation</c><00:06:20.400><c> happens</c>

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This current seasonal rotation happens
 

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This current seasonal rotation happens
because<00:06:21.120><c> the</c><00:06:21.280><c> Earth's</c><00:06:21.680><c> tilt</c><00:06:22.000><c> is</c><00:06:22.240><c> consistent</c>

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because the Earth's tilt is consistent
 

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because the Earth's tilt is consistent
as<00:06:22.960><c> it</c><00:06:23.120><c> orbits.</c><00:06:24.160><c> Except</c><00:06:24.720><c> it</c><00:06:24.960><c> isn't</c>

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as it orbits. Except it isn't
 

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as it orbits. Except it isn't
consistent.<00:06:26.479><c> Little</c><00:06:26.800><c> by</c><00:06:27.120><c> little,</c><00:06:27.520><c> the</c><00:06:27.759><c> angle</c>

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consistent. Little by little, the angle
 

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consistent. Little by little, the angle
the<00:06:28.319><c> Earth's</c><00:06:28.639><c> axis</c><00:06:29.039><c> is</c><00:06:29.199><c> rotating</c><00:06:29.680><c> along</c><00:06:30.080><c> is</c>

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the Earth's axis is rotating along is
 

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the Earth's axis is rotating along is
changing,<00:06:30.880><c> too.</c><00:06:31.919><c> It</c><00:06:32.240><c> moves</c><00:06:32.560><c> as</c><00:06:32.800><c> if</c><00:06:32.960><c> it</c><00:06:33.199><c> were</c>

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changing, too. It moves as if it were
 

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changing, too. It moves as if it were
drawing<00:06:33.759><c> a</c><00:06:34.080><c> circle</c><00:06:34.400><c> on</c><00:06:34.639><c> the</c><00:06:34.800><c> sky</c><00:06:35.039><c> above</c><00:06:35.360><c> it</c><00:06:35.759><c> in</c>

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drawing a circle on the sky above it in
 

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drawing a circle on the sky above it in
a<00:06:36.160><c> cycle</c><00:06:36.479><c> that</c><00:06:36.720><c> lasts</c><00:06:37.199><c> 26,000</c><00:06:38.240><c> years.</c><00:06:39.440><c> One</c>

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a cycle that lasts 26,000 years. One
 

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a cycle that lasts 26,000 years. One
upshot<00:06:40.160><c> of</c><00:06:40.319><c> this</c><00:06:40.639><c> is</c><00:06:40.880><c> that</c><00:06:41.199><c> while</c><00:06:41.520><c> our</c><00:06:41.759><c> axis</c><00:06:42.240><c> is</c>

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upshot of this is that while our axis is
 

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upshot of this is that while our axis is
currently<00:06:42.800><c> pointing</c><00:06:43.120><c> at</c><00:06:43.280><c> the</c><00:06:43.520><c> North</c><00:06:43.840><c> Star</c><00:06:44.400><c> or</c>

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currently pointing at the North Star or
 

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currently pointing at the North Star or
Polaris,<00:06:45.919><c> this</c><00:06:46.160><c> will</c><00:06:46.400><c> eventually</c><00:06:46.960><c> no</c><00:06:47.199><c> longer</c>

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Polaris, this will eventually no longer
 

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Polaris, this will eventually no longer
be<00:06:47.600><c> the</c><00:06:47.840><c> case.</c><00:06:48.720><c> Over</c><00:06:49.120><c> time,</c><00:06:49.360><c> it</c><00:06:49.600><c> will</c><00:06:49.759><c> point</c><00:06:50.080><c> at</c>

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be the case. Over time, it will point at
 

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be the case. Over time, it will point at
different<00:06:50.880><c> stars</c><00:06:51.759><c> before</c><00:06:52.160><c> eventually</c>

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different stars before eventually
 

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different stars before eventually
circling<00:06:53.199><c> back</c><00:06:53.600><c> to</c><00:06:53.840><c> point</c><00:06:54.080><c> at</c><00:06:54.240><c> Polaris</c><00:06:54.800><c> again.</c>

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circling back to point at Polaris again.
 

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circling back to point at Polaris again.
The<00:06:56.400><c> other</c><00:06:56.639><c> upshot</c><00:06:57.120><c> of</c><00:06:57.280><c> this</c><00:06:57.520><c> is</c><00:06:57.759><c> that</c><00:06:57.919><c> in</c>

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The other upshot of this is that in
 

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The other upshot of this is that in
13,000<00:06:58.960><c> years,</c><00:06:59.440><c> the</c><00:06:59.680><c> northern</c><00:07:00.000><c> hemisphere</c>

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13,000 years, the northern hemisphere
 

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13,000 years, the northern hemisphere
will<00:07:00.720><c> be</c><00:07:00.880><c> having</c><00:07:01.120><c> its</c><00:07:01.440><c> summer</c><00:07:01.759><c> in</c><00:07:02.080><c> January,</c>

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will be having its summer in January,
 

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will be having its summer in January,
while<00:07:03.120><c> the</c><00:07:03.280><c> southern</c><00:07:03.599><c> hemisphere</c><00:07:04.160><c> will</c><00:07:04.400><c> be</c>

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while the southern hemisphere will be
 

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while the southern hemisphere will be
the<00:07:04.720><c> one</c><00:07:04.880><c> with</c><00:07:05.120><c> a</c><00:07:05.280><c> white</c><00:07:05.599><c> Christmas.</c><00:07:06.880><c> So</c>

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the one with a white Christmas. So
 

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the one with a white Christmas. So
[music]<00:07:07.360><c> then</c><00:07:07.599><c> it</c><00:07:07.759><c> will</c><00:07:07.919><c> be</c><00:07:08.080><c> us</c><00:07:08.400><c> experiencing</c>

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[music] then it will be us experiencing
 

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[music] then it will be us experiencing
a<00:07:09.280><c> more</c><00:07:09.520><c> profound</c><00:07:10.000><c> seasonal</c><00:07:10.479><c> variation.</c>

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a more profound seasonal variation.
 

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a more profound seasonal variation.
While<00:07:12.720><c> harsher</c><00:07:13.199><c> winters</c><00:07:13.599><c> are</c><00:07:13.840><c> unpleasant,</c>

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While harsher winters are unpleasant,
 

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While harsher winters are unpleasant,
they're<00:07:15.039><c> not</c><00:07:15.199><c> what</c><00:07:15.440><c> I</c><00:07:15.599><c> promised.</c><00:07:16.560><c> I</c><00:07:16.800><c> started</c>

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they're not what I promised. I started
 

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they're not what I promised. I started
this<00:07:17.360><c> video</c><00:07:17.599><c> by</c><00:07:17.840><c> describing</c><00:07:18.479><c> seasons</c><00:07:18.960><c> that</c>

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this video by describing seasons that
 

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this video by describing seasons that
lasted<00:07:19.759><c> years.</c><00:07:20.880><c> These</c><00:07:21.280><c> exist,</c><00:07:21.759><c> too.</c><00:07:22.800><c> There</c>

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lasted years. These exist, too. There
 

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lasted years. These exist, too. There
are<00:07:23.199><c> Melanchovich</c><00:07:23.919><c> cycles</c><00:07:24.400><c> that</c><00:07:24.720><c> create</c>

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are Melanchovich cycles that create
 

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are Melanchovich cycles that create
winters<00:07:25.440><c> that</c><00:07:25.680><c> last</c><00:07:26.000><c> for</c><00:07:26.060><c> [music]</c><00:07:26.319><c> thousands</c>

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winters that last for [music] thousands
 

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winters that last for [music] thousands
of<00:07:27.039><c> years.</c><00:07:27.919><c> Or</c><00:07:28.240><c> to</c><00:07:28.479><c> speak</c><00:07:28.800><c> more</c><00:07:29.039><c> accurately,</c>

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of years. Or to speak more accurately,
 

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of years. Or to speak more accurately,
there<00:07:30.080><c> are</c><00:07:30.240><c> Milankovic</c><00:07:30.645><c> [music]</c><00:07:30.960><c> cycles</c><00:07:31.360><c> that</c>

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there are Milankovic [music] cycles that
 

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there are Milankovic [music] cycles that
help<00:07:31.840><c> cause</c><00:07:32.319><c> ice</c><00:07:32.720><c> ages.</c>

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help cause ice ages.
 

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help cause ice ages.
We<00:07:34.560><c> don't</c><00:07:34.960><c> fully</c><00:07:35.230><c> [music]</c><00:07:35.520><c> understand</c><00:07:36.080><c> how</c>

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We don't fully [music] understand how
 

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We don't fully [music] understand how
ice<00:07:36.639><c> ages</c><00:07:37.120><c> come</c><00:07:37.360><c> and</c><00:07:37.680><c> go.</c><00:07:38.479><c> There</c><00:07:38.639><c> are</c><00:07:38.880><c> numerous</c>

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ice ages come and go. There are numerous
 

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ice ages come and go. There are numerous
theories.<00:07:40.319><c> However,</c><00:07:40.800><c> it</c><00:07:41.039><c> must</c><00:07:41.199><c> be</c><00:07:41.360><c> noted</c><00:07:41.759><c> that</c>

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theories. However, it must be noted that
 

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theories. However, it must be noted that
some<00:07:42.400><c> of</c><00:07:42.560><c> the</c><00:07:42.960><c> 100,000year</c><00:07:43.745><c> [music]</c><00:07:44.000><c> spans</c><00:07:44.400><c> of</c>

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some of the 100,000year [music] spans of
 

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some of the 100,000year [music] spans of
ice<00:07:44.880><c> ages</c><00:07:45.520><c> line</c><00:07:45.840><c> up</c><00:07:46.160><c> extremely</c><00:07:46.800><c> well</c><00:07:47.199><c> with</c><00:07:47.520><c> the</c>

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ice ages line up extremely well with the
 

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ice ages line up extremely well with the
100,000year<00:07:48.880><c> meal</c><00:07:49.599><c> cycles.</c>

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100,000year meal cycles.
 

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100,000year meal cycles.
For<00:07:51.199><c> instance,</c><00:07:51.919><c> there</c><00:07:52.080><c> is</c><00:07:52.240><c> a</c><00:07:52.479><c> cycle</c><00:07:52.880><c> whereby</c>

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For instance, there is a cycle whereby
 

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For instance, there is a cycle whereby
the<00:07:53.680><c> plane</c><00:07:54.000><c> on</c><00:07:54.160><c> which</c><00:07:54.319><c> the</c><00:07:54.479><c> Earth</c><00:07:54.720><c> rotates</c>

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the plane on which the Earth rotates
 

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the plane on which the Earth rotates
around<00:07:55.360><c> the</c><00:07:55.520><c> Sun</c><00:07:55.919><c> rises</c><00:07:56.400><c> and</c><00:07:56.639><c> falls</c><00:07:56.960><c> over</c><00:07:57.199><c> the</c>

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around the Sun rises and falls over the
 

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around the Sun rises and falls over the
course<00:07:57.599><c> of</c><00:07:57.919><c> 100,000</c><00:07:58.720><c> years.</c><00:07:59.680><c> This</c><00:08:00.000><c> change</c><00:08:00.319><c> in</c>

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course of 100,000 years. This change in
 

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course of 100,000 years. This change in
its<00:08:00.800><c> orbital</c><00:08:01.360><c> inclination</c><00:08:02.400><c> does</c><00:08:02.720><c> not</c>

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its orbital inclination does not
 

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its orbital inclination does not
obviously<00:08:03.759><c> explain</c><00:08:04.240><c> why</c><00:08:04.560><c> it</c><00:08:04.720><c> is</c><00:08:04.879><c> that</c><00:08:05.039><c> the</c>

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obviously explain why it is that the
 

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obviously explain why it is that the
Earth<00:08:05.520><c> would</c><00:08:05.680><c> be</c><00:08:05.840><c> getting</c><00:08:06.160><c> colder</c><00:08:06.639><c> or</c><00:08:06.879><c> warmer.</c>

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Earth would be getting colder or warmer.
 

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Earth would be getting colder or warmer.
After<00:08:08.319><c> all,</c><00:08:08.800><c> the</c><00:08:08.960><c> Earth</c><00:08:09.199><c> is</c><00:08:09.360><c> still</c><00:08:09.599><c> the</c><00:08:09.840><c> same</c>

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After all, the Earth is still the same
 

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After all, the Earth is still the same
distance<00:08:10.240><c> from</c><00:08:10.479><c> the</c><00:08:10.639><c> Sun.</c><00:08:11.759><c> However,</c><00:08:12.400><c> it</c><00:08:12.639><c> lines</c>

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distance from the Sun. However, it lines
 

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distance from the Sun. However, it lines
up<00:08:13.120><c> so</c><00:08:13.360><c> perfectly</c><00:08:13.919><c> with</c><00:08:14.160><c> the</c><00:08:14.400><c> time</c><00:08:14.639><c> periods</c>

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up so perfectly with the time periods
 

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up so perfectly with the time periods
ice<00:08:15.440><c> ages</c><00:08:15.840><c> were</c><00:08:16.000><c> occurring</c><00:08:16.400><c> at</c><00:08:16.639><c> over</c><00:08:16.879><c> the</c><00:08:17.039><c> last</c>

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ice ages were occurring at over the last
 

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ice ages were occurring at over the last
800,000<00:08:18.240><c> years</c><00:08:18.879><c> that</c><00:08:19.199><c> scientists</c><00:08:19.599><c> conclude</c>

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800,000 years that scientists conclude
 

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800,000 years that scientists conclude
that<00:08:20.400><c> there</c><00:08:20.560><c> must</c><00:08:20.800><c> be</c><00:08:20.960><c> a</c><00:08:21.199><c> connection.</c><00:08:22.400><c> Perhaps</c>

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that there must be a connection. Perhaps
 

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that there must be a connection. Perhaps
cosmic<00:08:23.045><c> [music]</c><00:08:23.360><c> dust</c><00:08:23.759><c> lying</c><00:08:24.160><c> in</c><00:08:24.319><c> the</c><00:08:24.479><c> plane</c>

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cosmic [music] dust lying in the plane
 

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cosmic [music] dust lying in the plane
of<00:08:24.879><c> Earth's</c><00:08:25.199><c> orbit</c><00:08:25.599><c> blocks</c><00:08:25.919><c> out</c><00:08:26.080><c> some</c>

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of Earth's orbit blocks out some
 

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of Earth's orbit blocks out some
sunlight<00:08:26.720><c> when</c><00:08:26.879><c> we</c><00:08:27.039><c> are</c><00:08:27.199><c> at</c><00:08:27.360><c> one</c><00:08:27.520><c> inclination,</c>

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sunlight when we are at one inclination,
 

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sunlight when we are at one inclination,
but<00:08:28.560><c> is</c><00:08:28.800><c> not</c><00:08:28.960><c> in</c><00:08:29.120><c> the</c><00:08:29.280><c> way</c><00:08:29.440><c> when</c><00:08:29.599><c> we</c><00:08:29.759><c> are</c><00:08:29.919><c> at</c>

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but is not in the way when we are at
 

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but is not in the way when we are at
another.<00:08:31.199><c> This</c><00:08:31.360><c> could</c><00:08:31.599><c> go</c><00:08:31.840><c> some</c><00:08:32.000><c> way</c><00:08:32.240><c> toward</c>

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another. This could go some way toward
 

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another. This could go some way toward
explaining<00:08:33.120><c> the</c><00:08:33.360><c> occurrence</c><00:08:33.680><c> of</c><00:08:33.839><c> ice</c><00:08:34.080><c> ages</c>

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explaining the occurrence of ice ages
 

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explaining the occurrence of ice ages
during<00:08:34.800><c> these</c><00:08:35.120><c> time</c><00:08:35.360><c> periods.</c>

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during these time periods.
 

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during these time periods.
Whatever<00:08:37.200><c> the</c><00:08:37.440><c> case,</c><00:08:38.000><c> there</c><00:08:38.110><c> [music]</c><00:08:38.320><c> is</c><00:08:38.560><c> at</c>

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Whatever the case, there [music] is at
 

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Whatever the case, there [music] is at
least<00:08:39.120><c> one</c><00:08:39.360><c> other</c><00:08:39.680><c> cycle</c><00:08:40.080><c> that</c><00:08:40.320><c> influences</c>

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least one other cycle that influences
 

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least one other cycle that influences
the<00:08:41.120><c> arrival</c><00:08:41.440><c> of</c><00:08:41.599><c> ice</c><00:08:41.919><c> ages</c><00:08:42.240><c> on</c><00:08:42.479><c> Earth.</c><00:08:43.279><c> And</c>

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the arrival of ice ages on Earth. And
 

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the arrival of ice ages on Earth. And
this<00:08:43.760><c> might</c><00:08:44.000><c> perhaps</c><00:08:44.399><c> be</c><00:08:44.560><c> the</c><00:08:44.800><c> most</c><00:08:45.120><c> important</c>

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this might perhaps be the most important
 

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this might perhaps be the most important
for<00:08:45.839><c> us</c><00:08:46.080><c> today.</c><00:08:47.040><c> It</c><00:08:47.200><c> is</c><00:08:47.360><c> the</c><00:08:47.519><c> tilt</c><00:08:47.920><c> of</c><00:08:48.160><c> Earth's</c>

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for us today. It is the tilt of Earth's
 

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for us today. It is the tilt of Earth's
rotation.

00:08:50.150 --> 00:08:50.160 align:start position:0%
rotation.
 

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rotation.
I<00:08:50.560><c> already</c><00:08:50.959><c> mentioned</c><00:08:51.279><c> that</c><00:08:51.519><c> this</c><00:08:51.760><c> axis</c>

00:08:51.856 --> 00:08:51.866 align:start position:0%
I already mentioned that this axis
 

00:08:51.866 --> 00:08:53.670 align:start position:0%
I already mentioned that this axis
[music]<00:08:52.160><c> of</c><00:08:52.320><c> tilt</c><00:08:52.720><c> rotates</c><00:08:53.200><c> around</c><00:08:53.440><c> the</c>

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[music] of tilt rotates around the
 

00:08:53.680 --> 00:08:56.630 align:start position:0%
[music] of tilt rotates around the
planet,<00:08:54.320><c> but</c><00:08:54.640><c> it</c><00:08:54.880><c> also</c><00:08:55.200><c> changes</c><00:08:55.680><c> the</c><00:08:56.000><c> angle</c><00:08:56.399><c> at</c>

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planet, but it also changes the angle at
 

00:08:56.640 --> 00:08:59.430 align:start position:0%
planet, but it also changes the angle at
which<00:08:56.800><c> it</c><00:08:57.040><c> does</c><00:08:57.279><c> this.</c><00:08:58.240><c> Over</c><00:08:58.640><c> the</c><00:08:58.880><c> course</c><00:08:59.120><c> of</c>

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which it does this. Over the course of
 

00:08:59.440 --> 00:09:02.550 align:start position:0%
which it does this. Over the course of
41,000<00:09:00.560><c> years,</c><00:09:01.120><c> it</c><00:09:01.440><c> alternates</c><00:09:02.080><c> between</c>

00:09:02.550 --> 00:09:02.560 align:start position:0%
41,000 years, it alternates between
 

00:09:02.560 --> 00:09:04.230 align:start position:0%
41,000 years, it alternates between
21.1°

00:09:04.230 --> 00:09:04.240 align:start position:0%
21.1°
 

00:09:04.240 --> 00:09:07.110 align:start position:0%
21.1°
and<00:09:04.640><c> 24.5°.</c>

00:09:07.110 --> 00:09:07.120 align:start position:0%
and 24.5°.
 

00:09:07.120 --> 00:09:10.389 align:start position:0%
and 24.5°.
At<00:09:07.360><c> the</c><00:09:07.519><c> moment,</c><00:09:07.920><c> it</c><00:09:08.160><c> is</c><00:09:08.480><c> 23.4°</c>

00:09:10.389 --> 00:09:10.399 align:start position:0%
At the moment, it is 23.4°
 

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At the moment, it is 23.4°
and<00:09:10.720><c> is</c><00:09:10.959><c> declining.</c>

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and is declining.
 

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and is declining.
You<00:09:12.800><c> might</c><00:09:13.040><c> think</c><00:09:13.279><c> that</c><00:09:13.519><c> this</c><00:09:13.839><c> is</c><00:09:13.920><c> a</c><00:09:14.160><c> good</c>

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You might think that this is a good
 

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You might think that this is a good
thing.<00:09:14.959><c> The</c><00:09:15.200><c> smaller</c><00:09:15.600><c> the</c><00:09:15.839><c> angle</c><00:09:16.080><c> of</c><00:09:16.240><c> tilt,</c>

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thing. The smaller the angle of tilt,
 

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thing. The smaller the angle of tilt,
the<00:09:17.040><c> less</c><00:09:17.279><c> extreme</c><00:09:17.760><c> our</c><00:09:18.080><c> seasonal</c>

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the less extreme our seasonal
 

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the less extreme our seasonal
temperature<00:09:18.880><c> variations</c><00:09:19.519><c> might</c><00:09:19.760><c> be</c><00:09:20.240><c> and</c><00:09:20.480><c> the</c>

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temperature variations might be and the
 

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temperature variations might be and the
warmer<00:09:21.120><c> our</c><00:09:21.440><c> winters</c><00:09:21.839><c> will</c><00:09:22.080><c> become.</c><00:09:23.120><c> Surely,</c>

00:09:23.509 --> 00:09:23.519 align:start position:0%
warmer our winters will become. Surely,
 

00:09:23.519 --> 00:09:25.269 align:start position:0%
warmer our winters will become. Surely,
that<00:09:23.760><c> is</c><00:09:23.839><c> a</c><00:09:24.000><c> good</c><00:09:24.160><c> thing</c><00:09:24.320><c> for</c><00:09:24.560><c> avoiding</c><00:09:25.040><c> ice</c>

00:09:25.269 --> 00:09:25.279 align:start position:0%
that is a good thing for avoiding ice
 

00:09:25.279 --> 00:09:28.536 align:start position:0%
that is a good thing for avoiding ice
ages.<00:09:26.720><c> Surprisingly,</c><00:09:27.600><c> it</c><00:09:27.839><c> is</c><00:09:28.080><c> quite</c><00:09:28.320><c> the</c>

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ages. Surprisingly, it is quite the
 

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ages. Surprisingly, it is quite the
[music]<00:09:28.560><c> opposite.</c><00:09:29.600><c> Left</c><00:09:29.920><c> to</c><00:09:30.080><c> its</c><00:09:30.240><c> own</c>

00:09:30.389 --> 00:09:30.399 align:start position:0%
[music] opposite. Left to its own
 

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[music] opposite. Left to its own
devices,<00:09:31.279><c> this</c><00:09:31.440><c> lessening</c><00:09:32.000><c> tilt</c><00:09:32.399><c> would</c><00:09:32.560><c> lead</c>

00:09:32.790 --> 00:09:32.800 align:start position:0%
devices, this lessening tilt would lead
 

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devices, this lessening tilt would lead
us<00:09:32.959><c> into</c><00:09:33.279><c> another</c><00:09:33.680><c> spreading</c><00:09:34.080><c> of</c><00:09:34.240><c> the</c><00:09:34.320><c> ice</c>

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us into another spreading of the ice
 

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us into another spreading of the ice
sheets<00:09:34.959><c> and</c><00:09:35.279><c> cooling</c><00:09:35.600><c> of</c><00:09:35.760><c> the</c><00:09:35.920><c> planet</c><00:09:36.320><c> that</c>

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sheets and cooling of the planet that
 

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sheets and cooling of the planet that
would<00:09:36.720><c> hit</c><00:09:36.880><c> its</c><00:09:37.120><c> peak</c><00:09:37.440><c> in</c><00:09:37.760><c> 9,800</c><00:09:39.040><c> years.</c><00:09:40.080><c> It</c><00:09:40.320><c> is</c>

00:09:40.470 --> 00:09:40.480 align:start position:0%
would hit its peak in 9,800 years. It is
 

00:09:40.480 --> 00:09:41.990 align:start position:0%
would hit its peak in 9,800 years. It is
not<00:09:40.640><c> the</c><00:09:40.800><c> harshness</c><00:09:41.279><c> of</c><00:09:41.440><c> the</c><00:09:41.519><c> winter</c><00:09:41.839><c> that</c>

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not the harshness of the winter that
 

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not the harshness of the winter that
causes<00:09:42.320><c> this</c><00:09:42.560><c> spread.</c><00:09:43.279><c> But</c><00:09:43.519><c> strangely</c>

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causes this spread. But strangely
 

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causes this spread. But strangely
enough,<00:09:44.560><c> it</c><00:09:44.800><c> is</c><00:09:44.959><c> the</c><00:09:45.120><c> mildness</c><00:09:45.680><c> of</c><00:09:45.839><c> the</c>

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enough, it is the mildness of the
 

00:09:46.000 --> 00:09:47.509 align:start position:0%
enough, it is the mildness of the
summers.

00:09:47.509 --> 00:09:47.519 align:start position:0%
summers.
 

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summers.
You<00:09:47.680><c> see,</c><00:09:47.920><c> when</c><00:09:48.160><c> winters</c><00:09:48.560><c> occur,</c><00:09:49.120><c> snow</c><00:09:49.440><c> builds</c>

00:09:49.750 --> 00:09:49.760 align:start position:0%
You see, when winters occur, snow builds
 

00:09:49.760 --> 00:09:52.310 align:start position:0%
You see, when winters occur, snow builds
up<00:09:50.000><c> at</c><00:09:50.160><c> the</c><00:09:50.320><c> top</c><00:09:50.480><c> of</c><00:09:50.720><c> mountains</c><00:09:51.360><c> and</c><00:09:51.600><c> in</c><00:09:51.839><c> cold</c>

00:09:52.310 --> 00:09:52.320 align:start position:0%
up at the top of mountains and in cold
 

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up at the top of mountains and in cold
polar<00:09:52.720><c> regions.</c><00:09:53.920><c> In</c><00:09:54.160><c> warm</c><00:09:54.560><c> summers,</c><00:09:55.200><c> this</c>

00:09:55.430 --> 00:09:55.440 align:start position:0%
polar regions. In warm summers, this
 

00:09:55.440 --> 00:09:58.310 align:start position:0%
polar regions. In warm summers, this
snow<00:09:55.760><c> tends</c><00:09:56.080><c> to</c><00:09:56.160><c> melt</c><00:09:56.480><c> away.</c><00:09:57.440><c> However,</c><00:09:57.839><c> if</c><00:09:58.080><c> the</c>

00:09:58.310 --> 00:09:58.320 align:start position:0%
snow tends to melt away. However, if the
 

00:09:58.320 --> 00:10:00.790 align:start position:0%
snow tends to melt away. However, if the
summer<00:09:58.640><c> is</c><00:09:58.880><c> mild</c><00:09:59.200><c> enough,</c><00:09:59.760><c> the</c><00:10:00.000><c> snow</c><00:10:00.399><c> sticks</c>

00:10:00.790 --> 00:10:00.800 align:start position:0%
summer is mild enough, the snow sticks
 

00:10:00.800 --> 00:10:02.710 align:start position:0%
summer is mild enough, the snow sticks
around,<00:10:01.440><c> becoming</c><00:10:01.839><c> a</c><00:10:02.080><c> more</c><00:10:02.240><c> permanent</c>

00:10:02.710 --> 00:10:02.720 align:start position:0%
around, becoming a more permanent
 

00:10:02.720 --> 00:10:05.750 align:start position:0%
around, becoming a more permanent
feature<00:10:02.959><c> of</c><00:10:03.120><c> the</c><00:10:03.279><c> landscape.</c><00:10:04.720><c> Icy</c><00:10:05.120><c> snow</c><00:10:05.440><c> is</c>

00:10:05.750 --> 00:10:05.760 align:start position:0%
feature of the landscape. Icy snow is
 

00:10:05.760 --> 00:10:07.910 align:start position:0%
feature of the landscape. Icy snow is
white<00:10:06.000><c> in</c><00:10:06.240><c> color</c><00:10:06.560><c> and</c><00:10:06.880><c> reflective,</c><00:10:07.680><c> which</c>

00:10:07.910 --> 00:10:07.920 align:start position:0%
white in color and reflective, which
 

00:10:07.920 --> 00:10:09.750 align:start position:0%
white in color and reflective, which
means<00:10:08.160><c> that</c><00:10:08.320><c> light</c><00:10:08.640><c> has</c><00:10:08.800><c> a</c><00:10:08.959><c> tendency</c><00:10:09.440><c> to</c>

00:10:09.750 --> 00:10:09.760 align:start position:0%
means that light has a tendency to
 

00:10:09.760 --> 00:10:11.990 align:start position:0%
means that light has a tendency to
bounce<00:10:10.080><c> off</c><00:10:10.320><c> it</c><00:10:10.640><c> rather</c><00:10:11.040><c> than</c><00:10:11.200><c> be</c><00:10:11.440><c> absorbed</c><00:10:11.839><c> by</c>

00:10:11.990 --> 00:10:12.000 align:start position:0%
bounce off it rather than be absorbed by
 

00:10:12.000 --> 00:10:14.069 align:start position:0%
bounce off it rather than be absorbed by
it.<00:10:12.800><c> This</c><00:10:13.040><c> means</c><00:10:13.279><c> that</c><00:10:13.440><c> if</c><00:10:13.680><c> the</c><00:10:13.742><c> [music]</c><00:10:13.839><c> Earth</c>

00:10:14.069 --> 00:10:14.079 align:start position:0%
it. This means that if the [music] Earth
 

00:10:14.079 --> 00:10:16.069 align:start position:0%
it. This means that if the [music] Earth
is<00:10:14.240><c> covered</c><00:10:14.560><c> with</c><00:10:14.800><c> ice,</c><00:10:15.360><c> it</c><00:10:15.600><c> reflects</c>

00:10:16.069 --> 00:10:16.079 align:start position:0%
is covered with ice, it reflects
 

00:10:16.079 --> 00:10:18.630 align:start position:0%
is covered with ice, it reflects
sunlight<00:10:16.640><c> back</c><00:10:16.880><c> into</c><00:10:17.279><c> space</c><00:10:17.760><c> and</c><00:10:18.079><c> actively</c>

00:10:18.630 --> 00:10:18.640 align:start position:0%
sunlight back into space and actively
 

00:10:18.640 --> 00:10:21.269 align:start position:0%
sunlight back into space and actively
becomes<00:10:19.200><c> even</c><00:10:19.600><c> colder,</c><00:10:20.480><c> thus</c><00:10:20.800><c> creating</c>

00:10:21.269 --> 00:10:21.279 align:start position:0%
becomes even colder, thus creating
 

00:10:21.279 --> 00:10:24.710 align:start position:0%
becomes even colder, thus creating
conditions<00:10:21.920><c> for</c><00:10:22.240><c> even</c><00:10:22.640><c> more</c><00:10:22.959><c> ice.</c><00:10:24.320><c> In</c><00:10:24.560><c> more</c>

00:10:24.710 --> 00:10:24.720 align:start position:0%
conditions for even more ice. In more
 

00:10:24.720 --> 00:10:26.949 align:start position:0%
conditions for even more ice. In more
than<00:10:24.880><c> one</c><00:10:25.120><c> sense</c><00:10:25.360><c> of</c><00:10:25.519><c> the</c><00:10:25.680><c> word,</c><00:10:26.399><c> this</c><00:10:26.640><c> is</c><00:10:26.800><c> a</c>

00:10:26.949 --> 00:10:26.959 align:start position:0%
than one sense of the word, this is a
 

00:10:26.959 --> 00:10:28.949 align:start position:0%
than one sense of the word, this is a
snowball<00:10:27.440><c> effect.</c>

00:10:28.949 --> 00:10:28.959 align:start position:0%
snowball effect.
 

00:10:28.959 --> 00:10:31.350 align:start position:0%
snowball effect.
We<00:10:29.200><c> are</c><00:10:29.360><c> right</c><00:10:29.600><c> now</c><00:10:29.920><c> in</c><00:10:30.240><c> an</c><00:10:30.480><c> interglacial</c>

00:10:31.350 --> 00:10:31.360 align:start position:0%
We are right now in an interglacial
 

00:10:31.360 --> 00:10:34.310 align:start position:0%
We are right now in an interglacial
period.<00:10:32.560><c> This</c><00:10:32.800><c> is</c><00:10:32.880><c> a</c><00:10:33.120><c> brief</c><00:10:33.440><c> moment</c><00:10:33.760><c> of</c><00:10:33.920><c> warmth</c>

00:10:34.310 --> 00:10:34.320 align:start position:0%
period. This is a brief moment of warmth
 

00:10:34.320 --> 00:10:36.310 align:start position:0%
period. This is a brief moment of warmth
that<00:10:34.640><c> lasts</c><00:10:34.959><c> a</c><00:10:35.200><c> few</c><00:10:35.360><c> tens</c><00:10:35.680><c> of</c><00:10:35.839><c> thousands</c><00:10:36.160><c> of</c>

00:10:36.310 --> 00:10:36.320 align:start position:0%
that lasts a few tens of thousands of
 

00:10:36.320 --> 00:10:39.190 align:start position:0%
that lasts a few tens of thousands of
years<00:10:36.560><c> or</c><00:10:36.800><c> so,</c><00:10:37.360><c> interpersing</c><00:10:38.160><c> a</c><00:10:38.399><c> deeper,</c><00:10:38.959><c> more</c>

00:10:39.190 --> 00:10:39.200 align:start position:0%
years or so, interpersing a deeper, more
 

00:10:39.200 --> 00:10:41.829 align:start position:0%
years or so, interpersing a deeper, more
general<00:10:39.760><c> cold</c><00:10:40.079><c> trend.</c><00:10:41.040><c> If</c><00:10:41.279><c> it</c><00:10:41.440><c> wasn't</c><00:10:41.680><c> for</c>

00:10:41.829 --> 00:10:41.839 align:start position:0%
general cold trend. If it wasn't for
 

00:10:41.839 --> 00:10:44.230 align:start position:0%
general cold trend. If it wasn't for
this<00:10:42.000><c> warmer</c><00:10:42.399><c> uptick,</c><00:10:43.120><c> we</c><00:10:43.360><c> would</c><00:10:43.600><c> actually</c><00:10:44.000><c> be</c>

00:10:44.230 --> 00:10:44.240 align:start position:0%
this warmer uptick, we would actually be
 

00:10:44.240 --> 00:10:46.630 align:start position:0%
this warmer uptick, we would actually be
in<00:10:44.399><c> an</c><00:10:44.560><c> ice</c><00:10:44.800><c> age</c><00:10:45.120><c> right</c><00:10:45.360><c> now.</c><00:10:46.079><c> And</c><00:10:46.240><c> from</c><00:10:46.480><c> a</c>

00:10:46.630 --> 00:10:46.640 align:start position:0%
in an ice age right now. And from a
 

00:10:46.640 --> 00:10:48.870 align:start position:0%
in an ice age right now. And from a
technical<00:10:47.040><c> perspective,</c><00:10:48.000><c> actually</c><00:10:48.480><c> are</c><00:10:48.720><c> in</c>

00:10:48.870 --> 00:10:48.880 align:start position:0%
technical perspective, actually are in
 

00:10:48.880 --> 00:10:51.030 align:start position:0%
technical perspective, actually are in
an<00:10:49.120><c> ice</c><00:10:49.279><c> age,</c><00:10:49.839><c> just</c><00:10:50.079><c> one</c><00:10:50.320><c> we're</c><00:10:50.560><c> not</c><00:10:50.720><c> fully</c>

00:10:51.030 --> 00:10:51.040 align:start position:0%
an ice age, just one we're not fully
 

00:10:51.040 --> 00:10:53.670 align:start position:0%
an ice age, just one we're not fully
noticing.<00:10:52.160><c> If</c><00:10:52.399><c> it</c><00:10:52.560><c> wasn't</c><00:10:52.800><c> for</c><00:10:52.959><c> this</c><00:10:53.200><c> briefly</c>

00:10:53.670 --> 00:10:53.680 align:start position:0%
noticing. If it wasn't for this briefly
 

00:10:53.680 --> 00:10:56.310 align:start position:0%
noticing. If it wasn't for this briefly
warm<00:10:54.000><c> interglacial</c><00:10:54.800><c> period,</c><00:10:55.600><c> mankind</c><00:10:56.079><c> would</c>

00:10:56.310 --> 00:10:56.320 align:start position:0%
warm interglacial period, mankind would
 

00:10:56.320 --> 00:10:58.150 align:start position:0%
warm interglacial period, mankind would
have<00:10:56.480><c> experienced</c><00:10:56.959><c> ice</c><00:10:57.279><c> across</c><00:10:57.680><c> the</c><00:10:57.920><c> history</c>

00:10:58.150 --> 00:10:58.160 align:start position:0%
have experienced ice across the history
 

00:10:58.160 --> 00:11:00.630 align:start position:0%
have experienced ice across the history
of<00:10:58.399><c> its</c><00:10:58.640><c> entire</c><00:10:59.040><c> existence.</c><00:11:00.160><c> Thanks</c><00:11:00.399><c> to</c><00:11:00.480><c> the</c>

00:11:00.630 --> 00:11:00.640 align:start position:0%
of its entire existence. Thanks to the
 

00:11:00.640 --> 00:11:03.350 align:start position:0%
of its entire existence. Thanks to the
Melankovich<00:11:01.279><c> cycles,</c><00:11:02.079><c> that</c><00:11:02.399><c> brief</c><00:11:02.800><c> period</c><00:11:03.120><c> of</c>

00:11:03.350 --> 00:11:03.360 align:start position:0%
Melankovich cycles, that brief period of
 

00:11:03.360 --> 00:11:06.069 align:start position:0%
Melankovich cycles, that brief period of
warmth<00:11:03.760><c> will</c><00:11:04.079><c> someday</c><00:11:04.560><c> end.</c><00:11:05.360><c> Then</c><00:11:05.680><c> winter</c>

00:11:06.069 --> 00:11:06.079 align:start position:0%
warmth will someday end. Then winter
 

00:11:06.079 --> 00:11:09.269 align:start position:0%
warmth will someday end. Then winter
will<00:11:06.320><c> truly</c><00:11:06.720><c> come.</c><00:11:07.920><c> Of</c><00:11:08.240><c> course,</c><00:11:08.800><c> this</c><00:11:09.040><c> is</c>

00:11:09.269 --> 00:11:09.279 align:start position:0%
will truly come. Of course, this is
 

00:11:09.279 --> 00:11:11.269 align:start position:0%
will truly come. Of course, this is
under<00:11:09.519><c> the</c><00:11:09.760><c> assumption</c><00:11:10.240><c> that</c><00:11:10.560><c> Meankovich</c>

00:11:11.269 --> 00:11:11.279 align:start position:0%
under the assumption that Meankovich
 

00:11:11.279 --> 00:11:13.350 align:start position:0%
under the assumption that Meankovich
cycles<00:11:11.760><c> are</c><00:11:12.000><c> the</c><00:11:12.320><c> only</c><00:11:12.720><c> factors</c><00:11:13.120><c> that</c>

00:11:13.350 --> 00:11:13.360 align:start position:0%
cycles are the only factors that
 

00:11:13.360 --> 00:11:15.990 align:start position:0%
cycles are the only factors that
influence<00:11:13.839><c> global</c><00:11:14.240><c> temperatures.</c><00:11:15.440><c> And</c><00:11:15.600><c> while</c>

00:11:15.990 --> 00:11:16.000 align:start position:0%
influence global temperatures. And while
 

00:11:16.000 --> 00:11:18.577 align:start position:0%
influence global temperatures. And while
broad<00:11:16.320><c> trends</c><00:11:16.720><c> lasting</c><00:11:17.360><c> 100,000</c><00:11:18.240><c> years</c>

00:11:18.577 --> 00:11:18.587 align:start position:0%
broad trends lasting 100,000 years
 

00:11:18.587 --> 00:11:20.710 align:start position:0%
broad trends lasting 100,000 years
[music]<00:11:18.800><c> and</c><00:11:19.120><c> interspersing</c><00:11:19.920><c> upticks</c><00:11:20.399><c> every</c>

00:11:20.710 --> 00:11:20.720 align:start position:0%
[music] and interspersing upticks every
 

00:11:20.720 --> 00:11:24.069 align:start position:0%
[music] and interspersing upticks every
41,000<00:11:21.600><c> years</c><00:11:22.079><c> are</c><00:11:22.320><c> indeed</c><00:11:22.800><c> demonstrable</c><00:11:23.760><c> and</c>

00:11:24.069 --> 00:11:24.079 align:start position:0%
41,000 years are indeed demonstrable and
 

00:11:24.079 --> 00:11:26.550 align:start position:0%
41,000 years are indeed demonstrable and
consistent<00:11:24.560><c> in</c><00:11:24.800><c> parts</c><00:11:25.040><c> of</c><00:11:25.200><c> fossil</c><00:11:25.680><c> record.</c>

00:11:26.550 --> 00:11:26.560 align:start position:0%
consistent in parts of fossil record.
 

00:11:26.560 --> 00:11:28.630 align:start position:0%
consistent in parts of fossil record.
The<00:11:26.800><c> location</c><00:11:27.279><c> and</c><00:11:27.600><c> orientation</c><00:11:28.160><c> of</c><00:11:28.399><c> our</c>

00:11:28.630 --> 00:11:28.640 align:start position:0%
The location and orientation of our
 

00:11:28.640 --> 00:11:30.230 align:start position:0%
The location and orientation of our
planet<00:11:28.959><c> are</c><00:11:29.279><c> not</c><00:11:29.440><c> the</c><00:11:29.680><c> only</c><00:11:29.839><c> thing</c><00:11:30.000><c> that</c>

00:11:30.230 --> 00:11:30.240 align:start position:0%
planet are not the only thing that
 

00:11:30.240 --> 00:11:33.110 align:start position:0%
planet are not the only thing that
matters.<00:11:31.279><c> CO2</c><00:11:31.920><c> and</c><00:11:32.160><c> methane</c><00:11:32.560><c> levels</c><00:11:32.800><c> in</c><00:11:32.959><c> the</c>

00:11:33.110 --> 00:11:33.120 align:start position:0%
matters. CO2 and methane levels in the
 

00:11:33.120 --> 00:11:35.269 align:start position:0%
matters. CO2 and methane levels in the
atmosphere<00:11:33.760><c> are</c><00:11:34.079><c> also</c><00:11:34.480><c> driving</c><00:11:34.800><c> forces</c>

00:11:35.269 --> 00:11:35.279 align:start position:0%
atmosphere are also driving forces
 

00:11:35.279 --> 00:11:38.150 align:start position:0%
atmosphere are also driving forces
behind<00:11:35.760><c> global</c><00:11:36.160><c> temperature</c><00:11:36.560><c> fluctuations.</c>

00:11:38.150 --> 00:11:38.160 align:start position:0%
behind global temperature fluctuations.
 

00:11:38.160 --> 00:11:40.870 align:start position:0%
behind global temperature fluctuations.
And<00:11:38.399><c> if</c><00:11:38.640><c> we're</c><00:11:38.880><c> not</c><00:11:39.120><c> careful,</c><00:11:40.079><c> just</c><00:11:40.320><c> as</c><00:11:40.480><c> an</c><00:11:40.640><c> ice</c>

00:11:40.870 --> 00:11:40.880 align:start position:0%
And if we're not careful, just as an ice
 

00:11:40.880 --> 00:11:43.509 align:start position:0%
And if we're not careful, just as an ice
age<00:11:41.200><c> can</c><00:11:41.440><c> build</c><00:11:41.680><c> up</c><00:11:41.839><c> with</c><00:11:42.000><c> a</c><00:11:42.240><c> snowball</c><00:11:42.720><c> effect,</c>

00:11:43.509 --> 00:11:43.519 align:start position:0%
age can build up with a snowball effect,
 

00:11:43.519 --> 00:11:45.350 align:start position:0%
age can build up with a snowball effect,
stripping<00:11:43.920><c> away</c><00:11:44.240><c> of</c><00:11:44.399><c> ice</c><00:11:44.640><c> can</c><00:11:44.800><c> happen</c><00:11:45.040><c> in</c><00:11:45.200><c> the</c>

00:11:45.350 --> 00:11:45.360 align:start position:0%
stripping away of ice can happen in the
 

00:11:45.360 --> 00:11:48.710 align:start position:0%
stripping away of ice can happen in the
same<00:11:45.600><c> way,</c><00:11:46.000><c> but</c><00:11:46.320><c> in</c><00:11:46.480><c> reverse.</c><00:11:47.600><c> Less</c><00:11:47.920><c> ice</c><00:11:48.320><c> means</c>

00:11:48.710 --> 00:11:48.720 align:start position:0%
same way, but in reverse. Less ice means
 

00:11:48.720 --> 00:11:50.870 align:start position:0%
same way, but in reverse. Less ice means
less<00:11:49.120><c> reflection</c><00:11:49.519><c> of</c><00:11:49.680><c> sunlight,</c><00:11:50.560><c> making</c>

00:11:50.870 --> 00:11:50.880 align:start position:0%
less reflection of sunlight, making
 

00:11:50.880 --> 00:11:53.110 align:start position:0%
less reflection of sunlight, making
things<00:11:51.279><c> overall</c><00:11:51.760><c> warmer,</c><00:11:52.399><c> which</c><00:11:52.720><c> leads</c><00:11:52.959><c> to</c>

00:11:53.110 --> 00:11:53.120 align:start position:0%
things overall warmer, which leads to
 

00:11:53.120 --> 00:11:55.030 align:start position:0%
things overall warmer, which leads to
less<00:11:53.440><c> ice.</c>

00:11:55.030 --> 00:11:55.040 align:start position:0%
less ice.
 

00:11:55.040 --> 00:11:57.430 align:start position:0%
less ice.
Still,<00:11:55.440><c> if</c><00:11:55.680><c> Melanchovich</c><00:11:56.480><c> cycles</c><00:11:56.880><c> are</c><00:11:57.120><c> the</c>

00:11:57.430 --> 00:11:57.440 align:start position:0%
Still, if Melanchovich cycles are the
 

00:11:57.440 --> 00:11:59.990 align:start position:0%
Still, if Melanchovich cycles are the
only<00:11:57.839><c> factor</c><00:11:58.160><c> in</c><00:11:58.480><c> action,</c><00:11:59.040><c> we</c><00:11:59.279><c> are</c><00:11:59.440><c> in</c><00:11:59.680><c> for</c><00:11:59.839><c> a</c>

00:11:59.990 --> 00:12:00.000 align:start position:0%
only factor in action, we are in for a
 

00:12:00.000 --> 00:12:02.630 align:start position:0%
only factor in action, we are in for a
cold<00:12:00.320><c> future.</c><00:12:01.360><c> The</c><00:12:01.600><c> Melankovich</c><00:12:02.240><c> cycles</c>

00:12:02.630 --> 00:12:02.640 align:start position:0%
cold future. The Melankovich cycles
 

00:12:02.640 --> 00:12:04.230 align:start position:0%
cold future. The Melankovich cycles
affecting<00:12:03.040><c> the</c><00:12:03.279><c> planet</c><00:12:03.600><c> currently</c><00:12:03.783><c> [music]</c>

00:12:04.230 --> 00:12:04.240 align:start position:0%
affecting the planet currently [music]
 

00:12:04.240 --> 00:12:06.150 align:start position:0%
affecting the planet currently [music]
are<00:12:04.480><c> mostly</c><00:12:04.880><c> working</c><00:12:05.200><c> to</c><00:12:05.440><c> stabilize</c><00:12:05.920><c> the</c>

00:12:06.150 --> 00:12:06.160 align:start position:0%
are mostly working to stabilize the
 

00:12:06.160 --> 00:12:08.550 align:start position:0%
are mostly working to stabilize the
system,<00:12:06.880><c> leaving</c><00:12:07.120><c> us</c><00:12:07.360><c> in</c><00:12:07.519><c> a</c><00:12:07.760><c> temperate,</c>

00:12:08.550 --> 00:12:08.560 align:start position:0%
system, leaving us in a temperate,
 

00:12:08.560 --> 00:12:11.269 align:start position:0%
system, leaving us in a temperate,
relatively<00:12:09.200><c> even</c><00:12:09.760><c> temperature</c><00:12:10.240><c> zone.</c>

00:12:11.269 --> 00:12:11.279 align:start position:0%
relatively even temperature zone.
 

00:12:11.279 --> 00:12:13.030 align:start position:0%
relatively even temperature zone.
However,<00:12:11.760><c> there</c><00:12:12.000><c> will</c><00:12:12.160><c> come</c><00:12:12.320><c> a</c><00:12:12.560><c> time</c><00:12:12.800><c> when</c>

00:12:13.030 --> 00:12:13.040 align:start position:0%
However, there will come a time when
 

00:12:13.040 --> 00:12:15.110 align:start position:0%
However, there will come a time when
they<00:12:13.279><c> will</c><00:12:13.440><c> make</c><00:12:13.760><c> temperatures,</c><00:12:14.560><c> hot</c><00:12:14.880><c> and</c>

00:12:15.110 --> 00:12:15.120 align:start position:0%
they will make temperatures, hot and
 

00:12:15.120 --> 00:12:18.310 align:start position:0%
they will make temperatures, hot and
cold,<00:12:15.839><c> more</c><00:12:16.160><c> extreme.</c><00:12:17.279><c> We</c><00:12:17.519><c> would</c><00:12:17.680><c> do</c><00:12:17.839><c> well</c><00:12:18.079><c> to</c>

00:12:18.310 --> 00:12:18.320 align:start position:0%
cold, more extreme. We would do well to
 

00:12:18.320 --> 00:12:20.790 align:start position:0%
cold, more extreme. We would do well to
keep<00:12:18.480><c> these</c><00:12:18.800><c> cycles</c><00:12:19.120><c> in</c><00:12:19.360><c> mind.</c><00:12:20.079><c> Milankovich</c>

00:12:20.790 --> 00:12:20.800 align:start position:0%
keep these cycles in mind. Milankovich
 

00:12:20.800 --> 00:12:23.350 align:start position:0%
keep these cycles in mind. Milankovich
cycles<00:12:21.120><c> are</c><00:12:21.279><c> in</c><00:12:21.440><c> it</c><00:12:21.600><c> for</c><00:12:21.760><c> the</c><00:12:21.920><c> long</c><00:12:22.079><c> haul.</c>

00:12:23.350 --> 00:12:23.360 align:start position:0%
cycles are in it for the long haul.
 

00:12:23.360 --> 00:12:25.509 align:start position:0%
cycles are in it for the long haul.
Winter<00:12:23.920><c> might</c><00:12:24.160><c> not</c><00:12:24.399><c> be</c><00:12:24.560><c> coming</c><00:12:24.880><c> for</c><00:12:25.120><c> a</c><00:12:25.279><c> long</c>

00:12:25.509 --> 00:12:25.519 align:start position:0%
Winter might not be coming for a long
 

00:12:25.519 --> 00:12:28.550 align:start position:0%
Winter might not be coming for a long
time,<00:12:26.320><c> but</c><00:12:26.560><c> one</c><00:12:26.800><c> day</c><00:12:27.279><c> our</c><00:12:27.600><c> planet</c><00:12:28.000><c> will</c><00:12:28.240><c> face</c>

00:12:28.550 --> 00:12:28.560 align:start position:0%
time, but one day our planet will face
 

00:12:28.560 --> 00:12:35.030 align:start position:0%
time, but one day our planet will face
winter<00:12:29.040><c> again.</c>

00:12:35.030 --> 00:12:35.040 align:start position:0%
 
 

00:12:35.040 --> 00:12:37.430 align:start position:0%
 
When<00:12:35.360><c> you</c><00:12:35.519><c> think</c><00:12:35.680><c> about</c><00:12:35.839><c> the</c><00:12:36.079><c> North</c><00:12:36.320><c> Pole,</c><00:12:37.040><c> you</c>

00:12:37.430 --> 00:12:37.440 align:start position:0%
When you think about the North Pole, you
 

00:12:37.440 --> 00:12:40.310 align:start position:0%
When you think about the North Pole, you
don't<00:12:37.839><c> expect</c><00:12:38.160><c> it</c><00:12:38.399><c> to</c><00:12:38.560><c> go</c><00:12:38.720><c> anywhere,</c><00:12:39.760><c> and</c><00:12:40.000><c> you</c>

00:12:40.310 --> 00:12:40.320 align:start position:0%
don't expect it to go anywhere, and you
 

00:12:40.320 --> 00:12:42.150 align:start position:0%
don't expect it to go anywhere, and you
certainly<00:12:40.880><c> don't</c><00:12:41.120><c> expect</c><00:12:41.440><c> it</c><00:12:41.600><c> to</c><00:12:41.839><c> change</c>

00:12:42.150 --> 00:12:42.160 align:start position:0%
certainly don't expect it to change
 

00:12:42.160 --> 00:12:44.310 align:start position:0%
certainly don't expect it to change
places<00:12:42.480><c> with</c><00:12:42.639><c> the</c><00:12:42.880><c> South</c><00:12:43.120><c> Pole.</c><00:12:43.920><c> That</c><00:12:44.160><c> would</c>

00:12:44.310 --> 00:12:44.320 align:start position:0%
places with the South Pole. That would
 

00:12:44.320 --> 00:12:46.949 align:start position:0%
places with the South Pole. That would
just<00:12:44.639><c> be</c><00:12:44.800><c> wrong.</c><00:12:45.600><c> Our</c><00:12:45.920><c> magnetic</c><00:12:46.399><c> compasses</c>

00:12:46.949 --> 00:12:46.959 align:start position:0%
just be wrong. Our magnetic compasses
 

00:12:46.959 --> 00:12:49.030 align:start position:0%
just be wrong. Our magnetic compasses
would<00:12:47.200><c> all</c><00:12:47.440><c> point</c><00:12:47.600><c> the</c><00:12:47.839><c> wrong</c><00:12:48.000><c> way.</c><00:12:48.560><c> We'd</c><00:12:48.880><c> need</c>

00:12:49.030 --> 00:12:49.040 align:start position:0%
would all point the wrong way. We'd need
 

00:12:49.040 --> 00:12:51.750 align:start position:0%
would all point the wrong way. We'd need
to<00:12:49.200><c> update</c><00:12:49.519><c> our</c><00:12:49.839><c> maps.</c><00:12:50.639><c> birds</c><00:12:51.040><c> would</c><00:12:51.360><c> probably</c>

00:12:51.750 --> 00:12:51.760 align:start position:0%
to update our maps. birds would probably
 

00:12:51.760 --> 00:12:54.710 align:start position:0%
to update our maps. birds would probably
be<00:12:52.000><c> horribly</c><00:12:52.480><c> confused.</c><00:12:53.680><c> And</c><00:12:53.920><c> yet,</c><00:12:54.399><c> although</c>

00:12:54.710 --> 00:12:54.720 align:start position:0%
be horribly confused. And yet, although
 

00:12:54.720 --> 00:12:56.310 align:start position:0%
be horribly confused. And yet, although
they<00:12:54.959><c> sound</c><00:12:55.200><c> like</c><00:12:55.440><c> something</c><00:12:55.760><c> out</c><00:12:56.079><c> of</c><00:12:56.183><c> [music]</c>

00:12:56.310 --> 00:12:56.320 align:start position:0%
they sound like something out of [music]
 

00:12:56.320 --> 00:12:59.030 align:start position:0%
they sound like something out of [music]
science<00:12:56.639><c> fiction,</c><00:12:57.519><c> geomagnetic</c><00:12:58.399><c> reversals</c>

00:12:59.030 --> 00:12:59.040 align:start position:0%
science fiction, geomagnetic reversals
 

00:12:59.040 --> 00:13:01.750 align:start position:0%
science fiction, geomagnetic reversals
like<00:12:59.279><c> this</c><00:12:59.680><c> are</c><00:13:00.000><c> real.</c><00:13:00.959><c> They've</c><00:13:01.360><c> happened</c>

00:13:01.750 --> 00:13:01.760 align:start position:0%
like this are real. They've happened
 

00:13:01.760 --> 00:13:04.470 align:start position:0%
like this are real. They've happened
before,<00:13:02.639><c> and</c><00:13:02.959><c> the</c><00:13:03.200><c> process</c><00:13:03.600><c> behind</c><00:13:03.920><c> it</c><00:13:04.240><c> might</c>

00:13:04.470 --> 00:13:04.480 align:start position:0%
before, and the process behind it might
 

00:13:04.480 --> 00:13:06.150 align:start position:0%
before, and the process behind it might
be<00:13:04.720><c> a</c><00:13:04.959><c> lot</c><00:13:05.120><c> more</c><00:13:05.360><c> dangerous</c><00:13:05.760><c> than</c><00:13:05.920><c> you'd</c>

00:13:06.150 --> 00:13:06.160 align:start position:0%
be a lot more dangerous than you'd
 

00:13:06.160 --> 00:13:08.710 align:start position:0%
be a lot more dangerous than you'd
think.<00:13:07.200><c> To</c><00:13:07.440><c> be</c><00:13:07.600><c> clear,</c><00:13:08.079><c> it's</c><00:13:08.399><c> not</c><00:13:08.480><c> the</c>

00:13:08.710 --> 00:13:08.720 align:start position:0%
think. To be clear, it's not the
 

00:13:08.720 --> 00:13:10.310 align:start position:0%
think. To be clear, it's not the
reversals<00:13:09.279><c> themselves</c><00:13:09.839><c> that</c><00:13:10.079><c> are</c>

00:13:10.310 --> 00:13:10.320 align:start position:0%
reversals themselves that are
 

00:13:10.320 --> 00:13:13.030 align:start position:0%
reversals themselves that are
potentially<00:13:10.720><c> dangerous.</c><00:13:11.680><c> It's</c><00:13:11.839><c> the</c><00:13:12.079><c> buildup.</c>

00:13:13.030 --> 00:13:13.040 align:start position:0%
potentially dangerous. It's the buildup.
 

00:13:13.040 --> 00:13:15.269 align:start position:0%
potentially dangerous. It's the buildup.
During<00:13:13.360><c> those</c><00:13:13.680><c> times,</c><00:13:14.240><c> the</c><00:13:14.399><c> Earth's</c><00:13:14.800><c> magnetic</c>

00:13:15.269 --> 00:13:15.279 align:start position:0%
During those times, the Earth's magnetic
 

00:13:15.279 --> 00:13:17.829 align:start position:0%
During those times, the Earth's magnetic
field,<00:13:16.000><c> the</c><00:13:16.240><c> shield</c><00:13:16.720><c> around</c><00:13:17.040><c> our</c><00:13:17.360><c> planet</c><00:13:17.600><c> that</c>

00:13:17.829 --> 00:13:17.839 align:start position:0%
field, the shield around our planet that
 

00:13:17.839 --> 00:13:19.509 align:start position:0%
field, the shield around our planet that
keeps<00:13:18.000><c> us</c><00:13:18.240><c> safe</c><00:13:18.480><c> from</c><00:13:18.720><c> deadly</c><00:13:19.120><c> solar</c>

00:13:19.509 --> 00:13:19.519 align:start position:0%
keeps us safe from deadly solar
 

00:13:19.519 --> 00:13:23.030 align:start position:0%
keeps us safe from deadly solar
radiation,<00:13:20.399><c> will</c><00:13:20.639><c> drop</c><00:13:20.959><c> to</c><00:13:21.200><c> as</c><00:13:21.440><c> low</c><00:13:21.680><c> as</c><00:13:22.079><c> 10%</c><00:13:22.800><c> of</c>

00:13:23.030 --> 00:13:23.040 align:start position:0%
radiation, will drop to as low as 10% of
 

00:13:23.040 --> 00:13:25.110 align:start position:0%
radiation, will drop to as low as 10% of
its<00:13:23.279><c> current</c><00:13:23.519><c> strength,</c><00:13:24.320><c> leading</c><00:13:24.720><c> one</c><00:13:24.959><c> group</c>

00:13:25.110 --> 00:13:25.120 align:start position:0%
its current strength, leading one group
 

00:13:25.120 --> 00:13:28.069 align:start position:0%
its current strength, leading one group
of<00:13:25.279><c> scientists</c><00:13:25.760><c> in</c><00:13:26.079><c> 2021</c><00:13:27.040><c> to</c><00:13:27.279><c> predict</c><00:13:27.680><c> climate</c>

00:13:28.069 --> 00:13:28.079 align:start position:0%
of scientists in 2021 to predict climate
 

00:13:28.079 --> 00:13:30.870 align:start position:0%
of scientists in 2021 to predict climate
shifts<00:13:28.480><c> and</c><00:13:28.800><c> mass</c><00:13:29.200><c> extinctions.</c><00:13:30.320><c> And</c><00:13:30.480><c> others</c>

00:13:30.870 --> 00:13:30.880 align:start position:0%
shifts and mass extinctions. And others
 

00:13:30.880 --> 00:13:32.389 align:start position:0%
shifts and mass extinctions. And others
to<00:13:31.040><c> describe</c><00:13:31.519><c> satellites</c><00:13:32.160><c> being</c><00:13:32.209><c> [music]</c>

00:13:32.389 --> 00:13:32.399 align:start position:0%
to describe satellites being [music]
 

00:13:32.399 --> 00:13:34.629 align:start position:0%
to describe satellites being [music]
destroyed,<00:13:33.360><c> electrical</c><00:13:33.920><c> grids</c><00:13:34.320><c> going</c>

00:13:34.629 --> 00:13:34.639 align:start position:0%
destroyed, electrical grids going
 

00:13:34.639 --> 00:13:37.269 align:start position:0%
destroyed, electrical grids going
offline,<00:13:35.519><c> and</c><00:13:35.760><c> deadly</c><00:13:36.240><c> radiation</c><00:13:36.800><c> raining</c>

00:13:37.269 --> 00:13:37.279 align:start position:0%
offline, and deadly radiation raining
 

00:13:37.279 --> 00:13:39.350 align:start position:0%
offline, and deadly radiation raining
down<00:13:37.440><c> on</c><00:13:37.680><c> us</c><00:13:37.920><c> for</c><00:13:38.160><c> hundreds</c><00:13:38.720><c> or</c><00:13:39.040><c> even</c>

00:13:39.350 --> 00:13:39.360 align:start position:0%
down on us for hundreds or even
 

00:13:39.360 --> 00:13:41.509 align:start position:0%
down on us for hundreds or even
thousands<00:13:39.839><c> of</c><00:13:40.079><c> years.</c>

00:13:41.509 --> 00:13:41.519 align:start position:0%
thousands of years.
 

00:13:41.519 --> 00:13:43.910 align:start position:0%
thousands of years.
This<00:13:41.839><c> is</c><00:13:42.240><c> troubling</c><00:13:42.959><c> when</c><00:13:43.200><c> you</c><00:13:43.440><c> consider</c><00:13:43.680><c> that</c>

00:13:43.910 --> 00:13:43.920 align:start position:0%
This is troubling when you consider that
 

00:13:43.920 --> 00:13:45.990 align:start position:0%
This is troubling when you consider that
we<00:13:44.160><c> are</c><00:13:44.399><c> a</c><00:13:44.639><c> couple</c><00:13:44.800><c> of</c><00:13:44.959><c> hundred,000</c><00:13:45.680><c> years</c>

00:13:45.990 --> 00:13:46.000 align:start position:0%
we are a couple of hundred,000 years
 

00:13:46.000 --> 00:13:48.470 align:start position:0%
we are a couple of hundred,000 years
overdue<00:13:46.639><c> for</c><00:13:46.959><c> our</c><00:13:47.279><c> next</c><00:13:47.680><c> geomagnetic</c>

00:13:48.470 --> 00:13:48.480 align:start position:0%
overdue for our next geomagnetic
 

00:13:48.480 --> 00:13:51.350 align:start position:0%
overdue for our next geomagnetic
reversal.<00:13:49.519><c> And</c><00:13:49.760><c> based</c><00:13:50.079><c> on</c><00:13:50.320><c> fluctuations</c><00:13:51.120><c> in</c>

00:13:51.350 --> 00:13:51.360 align:start position:0%
reversal. And based on fluctuations in
 

00:13:51.360 --> 00:13:53.030 align:start position:0%
reversal. And based on fluctuations in
the<00:13:51.519><c> Earth's</c><00:13:51.920><c> magnetic</c><00:13:52.320><c> field</c><00:13:52.720><c> that</c>

00:13:53.030 --> 00:13:53.040 align:start position:0%
the Earth's magnetic field that
 

00:13:53.040 --> 00:13:55.509 align:start position:0%
the Earth's magnetic field that
scientists<00:13:53.519><c> are</c><00:13:53.680><c> detecting</c><00:13:54.240><c> right</c><00:13:54.560><c> now,</c><00:13:55.200><c> the</c>

00:13:55.509 --> 00:13:55.519 align:start position:0%
scientists are detecting right now, the
 

00:13:55.519 --> 00:13:58.069 align:start position:0%
scientists are detecting right now, the
buildup<00:13:55.920><c> to</c><00:13:56.079><c> a</c><00:13:56.240><c> geomagnetic</c><00:13:56.959><c> reversal</c><00:13:57.760><c> may</c>

00:13:58.069 --> 00:13:58.079 align:start position:0%
buildup to a geomagnetic reversal may
 

00:13:58.079 --> 00:14:01.030 align:start position:0%
buildup to a geomagnetic reversal may
even<00:13:58.480><c> have</c><00:13:58.720><c> begun</c><00:13:59.279><c> already,</c>

00:14:01.030 --> 00:14:01.040 align:start position:0%
even have begun already,
 

00:14:01.040 --> 00:14:03.990 align:start position:0%
even have begun already,
which<00:14:01.440><c> begs</c><00:14:01.760><c> the</c><00:14:02.079><c> question,</c><00:14:02.959><c> should</c><00:14:03.279><c> we</c><00:14:03.760><c> be</c>

00:14:03.990 --> 00:14:04.000 align:start position:0%
which begs the question, should we be
 

00:14:04.000 --> 00:14:05.829 align:start position:0%
which begs the question, should we be
worried?

00:14:05.829 --> 00:14:05.839 align:start position:0%
worried?
 

00:14:05.839 --> 00:14:07.829 align:start position:0%
worried?
I'm<00:14:06.160><c> Alex</c><00:14:06.480><c> Mccoan</c><00:14:07.120><c> and</c><00:14:07.360><c> you're</c><00:14:07.600><c> watching</c>

00:14:07.829 --> 00:14:07.839 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
 

00:14:07.839 --> 00:14:10.150 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
Astramm.<00:14:08.720><c> Join</c><00:14:08.959><c> with</c><00:14:09.199><c> me</c><00:14:09.360><c> today</c><00:14:09.600><c> as</c><00:14:09.920><c> we</c>

00:14:10.150 --> 00:14:10.160 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join with me today as we
 

00:14:10.160 --> 00:14:12.550 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join with me today as we
explore<00:14:10.560><c> the</c><00:14:10.880><c> science</c><00:14:11.279><c> behind</c><00:14:11.760><c> geomagnetic</c>

00:14:12.550 --> 00:14:12.560 align:start position:0%
explore the science behind geomagnetic
 

00:14:12.560 --> 00:14:14.550 align:start position:0%
explore the science behind geomagnetic
reversals<00:14:13.440><c> and</c><00:14:13.474><c> [music]</c><00:14:13.760><c> find</c><00:14:13.920><c> out</c><00:14:14.160><c> whether</c>

00:14:14.550 --> 00:14:14.560 align:start position:0%
reversals and [music] find out whether
 

00:14:14.560 --> 00:14:16.790 align:start position:0%
reversals and [music] find out whether
the<00:14:14.800><c> next</c><00:14:15.120><c> one</c><00:14:15.440><c> will</c><00:14:15.680><c> be</c><00:14:15.760><c> an</c><00:14:16.000><c> apocalyptic</c>

00:14:16.790 --> 00:14:16.800 align:start position:0%
the next one will be an apocalyptic
 

00:14:16.800 --> 00:14:19.269 align:start position:0%
the next one will be an apocalyptic
scenario<00:14:17.680><c> or</c><00:14:18.160><c> whether</c><00:14:18.480><c> it'll</c><00:14:18.880><c> lead</c><00:14:19.040><c> to</c>

00:14:19.269 --> 00:14:19.279 align:start position:0%
scenario or whether it'll lead to
 

00:14:19.279 --> 00:14:22.150 align:start position:0%
scenario or whether it'll lead to
nothing<00:14:19.600><c> more</c><00:14:19.920><c> than</c><00:14:20.160><c> a</c><00:14:20.399><c> few</c><00:14:20.560><c> lost</c><00:14:20.800><c> birds.</c><00:14:21.920><c> What</c>

00:14:22.150 --> 00:14:22.160 align:start position:0%
nothing more than a few lost birds. What
 

00:14:22.160 --> 00:14:24.310 align:start position:0%
nothing more than a few lost birds. What
truly<00:14:22.639><c> happens</c><00:14:23.120><c> when</c><00:14:23.299><c> [music]</c><00:14:23.519><c> things</c><00:14:24.000><c> go</c>

00:14:24.310 --> 00:14:24.320 align:start position:0%
truly happens when [music] things go
 

00:14:24.320 --> 00:14:27.350 align:start position:0%
truly happens when [music] things go
south?

00:14:27.350 --> 00:14:27.360 align:start position:0%
 
 

00:14:27.360 --> 00:14:29.269 align:start position:0%
 
Let's<00:14:27.680><c> start</c><00:14:27.920><c> by</c><00:14:28.240><c> trying</c><00:14:28.560><c> to</c><00:14:28.800><c> understand</c>

00:14:29.269 --> 00:14:29.279 align:start position:0%
Let's start by trying to understand
 

00:14:29.279 --> 00:14:31.110 align:start position:0%
Let's start by trying to understand
where<00:14:29.519><c> the</c><00:14:29.760><c> Earth's</c><00:14:30.079><c> magnetic</c><00:14:30.480><c> field</c><00:14:30.800><c> comes</c>

00:14:31.110 --> 00:14:31.120 align:start position:0%
where the Earth's magnetic field comes
 

00:14:31.120 --> 00:14:33.750 align:start position:0%
where the Earth's magnetic field comes
from<00:14:31.360><c> in</c><00:14:31.519><c> the</c><00:14:31.760><c> first</c><00:14:31.920><c> place.</c>

00:14:33.750 --> 00:14:33.760 align:start position:0%
from in the first place.
 

00:14:33.760 --> 00:14:35.829 align:start position:0%
from in the first place.
It's<00:14:34.079><c> not</c><00:14:34.240><c> a</c><00:14:34.480><c> given</c><00:14:34.720><c> that</c><00:14:34.959><c> our</c><00:14:35.279><c> planet</c><00:14:35.600><c> would</c>

00:14:35.829 --> 00:14:35.839 align:start position:0%
It's not a given that our planet would
 

00:14:35.839 --> 00:14:38.230 align:start position:0%
It's not a given that our planet would
have<00:14:36.000><c> a</c><00:14:36.160><c> magnetic</c><00:14:36.639><c> field.</c><00:14:37.360><c> The</c><00:14:37.600><c> two</c><00:14:37.839><c> planets</c>

00:14:38.230 --> 00:14:38.240 align:start position:0%
have a magnetic field. The two planets
 

00:14:38.240 --> 00:14:41.189 align:start position:0%
have a magnetic field. The two planets
flanking<00:14:38.720><c> us,</c><00:14:39.120><c> Mars</c><00:14:39.519><c> and</c><00:14:39.680><c> Venus,</c><00:14:40.480><c> do</c><00:14:40.720><c> not</c><00:14:40.959><c> have</c>

00:14:41.189 --> 00:14:41.199 align:start position:0%
flanking us, Mars and Venus, do not have
 

00:14:41.199 --> 00:14:44.150 align:start position:0%
flanking us, Mars and Venus, do not have
one.<00:14:41.839><c> And</c><00:14:42.000><c> yet,</c><00:14:42.320><c> the</c><00:14:42.560><c> Earth</c><00:14:42.880><c> does,</c><00:14:43.600><c> which</c><00:14:43.839><c> is</c><00:14:43.920><c> a</c>

00:14:44.150 --> 00:14:44.160 align:start position:0%
one. And yet, the Earth does, which is a
 

00:14:44.160 --> 00:14:46.550 align:start position:0%
one. And yet, the Earth does, which is a
good<00:14:44.320><c> thing,</c><00:14:44.880><c> as</c><00:14:45.120><c> without</c><00:14:45.519><c> one,</c><00:14:46.000><c> there</c><00:14:46.160><c> is</c><00:14:46.320><c> a</c>

00:14:46.550 --> 00:14:46.560 align:start position:0%
good thing, as without one, there is a
 

00:14:46.560 --> 00:14:48.790 align:start position:0%
good thing, as without one, there is a
very<00:14:46.880><c> real</c><00:14:47.279><c> chance</c><00:14:47.839><c> life</c><00:14:48.160><c> would</c><00:14:48.399><c> not</c><00:14:48.639><c> have</c>

00:14:48.790 --> 00:14:48.800 align:start position:0%
very real chance life would not have
 

00:14:48.800 --> 00:14:50.550 align:start position:0%
very real chance life would not have
been<00:14:48.959><c> able</c><00:14:49.199><c> to</c><00:14:49.360><c> arise</c><00:14:49.760><c> here</c><00:14:50.000><c> in</c><00:14:50.160><c> the</c><00:14:50.320><c> first</c>

00:14:50.550 --> 00:14:50.560 align:start position:0%
been able to arise here in the first
 

00:14:50.560 --> 00:14:52.230 align:start position:0%
been able to arise here in the first
place.

00:14:52.230 --> 00:14:52.240 align:start position:0%
place.
 

00:14:52.240 --> 00:14:54.310 align:start position:0%
place.
Thanks<00:14:52.560><c> to</c><00:14:52.720><c> the</c><00:14:52.959><c> protective</c><00:14:53.519><c> cocoon</c><00:14:53.920><c> of</c><00:14:54.160><c> this</c>

00:14:54.310 --> 00:14:54.320 align:start position:0%
Thanks to the protective cocoon of this
 

00:14:54.320 --> 00:14:56.550 align:start position:0%
Thanks to the protective cocoon of this
field,<00:14:54.959><c> deadly</c><00:14:55.360><c> solar</c><00:14:55.680><c> radiation</c><00:14:56.320><c> is</c>

00:14:56.550 --> 00:14:56.560 align:start position:0%
field, deadly solar radiation is
 

00:14:56.560 --> 00:14:58.150 align:start position:0%
field, deadly solar radiation is
deflected<00:14:57.199><c> away</c><00:14:57.440><c> from</c><00:14:57.600><c> the</c><00:14:57.760><c> planet's</c>

00:14:58.150 --> 00:14:58.160 align:start position:0%
deflected away from the planet's
 

00:14:58.160 --> 00:15:00.310 align:start position:0%
deflected away from the planet's
surface,<00:14:58.880><c> allowing</c><00:14:59.279><c> things</c><00:14:59.600><c> to</c><00:14:59.760><c> flourish</c>

00:15:00.310 --> 00:15:00.320 align:start position:0%
surface, allowing things to flourish
 

00:15:00.320 --> 00:15:02.470 align:start position:0%
surface, allowing things to flourish
without<00:15:00.720><c> all</c><00:15:00.959><c> that</c><00:15:01.199><c> radiation</c><00:15:01.839><c> breaking</c><00:15:02.240><c> down</c>

00:15:02.470 --> 00:15:02.480 align:start position:0%
without all that radiation breaking down
 

00:15:02.480 --> 00:15:06.629 align:start position:0%
without all that radiation breaking down
our<00:15:02.800><c> DNA,</c><00:15:03.600><c> causing</c><00:15:04.000><c> mutations</c><00:15:04.639><c> and</c><00:15:04.959><c> cancers.</c>

00:15:06.629 --> 00:15:06.639 align:start position:0%
our DNA, causing mutations and cancers.
 

00:15:06.639 --> 00:15:08.629 align:start position:0%
our DNA, causing mutations and cancers.
Scientists<00:15:07.279><c> are</c><00:15:07.600><c> still</c><00:15:08.000><c> trying</c><00:15:08.240><c> to</c><00:15:08.399><c> figure</c>

00:15:08.629 --> 00:15:08.639 align:start position:0%
Scientists are still trying to figure
 

00:15:08.639 --> 00:15:10.870 align:start position:0%
Scientists are still trying to figure
out<00:15:08.880><c> all</c><00:15:09.120><c> the</c><00:15:09.360><c> particulars</c><00:15:09.920><c> of</c><00:15:10.160><c> why</c><00:15:10.480><c> certain</c>

00:15:10.870 --> 00:15:10.880 align:start position:0%
out all the particulars of why certain
 

00:15:10.880 --> 00:15:13.110 align:start position:0%
out all the particulars of why certain
planets<00:15:11.279><c> have</c><00:15:11.519><c> fields</c><00:15:12.000><c> and</c><00:15:12.399><c> certain</c><00:15:12.720><c> others</c>

00:15:13.110 --> 00:15:13.120 align:start position:0%
planets have fields and certain others
 

00:15:13.120 --> 00:15:15.350 align:start position:0%
planets have fields and certain others
don't.<00:15:13.839><c> But</c><00:15:14.000><c> the</c><00:15:14.160><c> current</c><00:15:14.399><c> leading</c><00:15:14.720><c> theory</c><00:15:15.120><c> is</c>

00:15:15.350 --> 00:15:15.360 align:start position:0%
don't. But the current leading theory is
 

00:15:15.360 --> 00:15:17.670 align:start position:0%
don't. But the current leading theory is
that<00:15:15.519><c> the</c><00:15:15.680><c> Earth's</c><00:15:16.079><c> core</c><00:15:16.480><c> acts</c><00:15:16.800><c> as</c><00:15:16.959><c> a</c><00:15:17.199><c> giant</c>

00:15:17.670 --> 00:15:17.680 align:start position:0%
that the Earth's core acts as a giant
 

00:15:17.680 --> 00:15:19.509 align:start position:0%
that the Earth's core acts as a giant
dynamo.

00:15:19.509 --> 00:15:19.519 align:start position:0%
dynamo.
 

00:15:19.519 --> 00:15:21.590 align:start position:0%
dynamo.
It's<00:15:19.760><c> a</c><00:15:19.920><c> principle</c><00:15:20.240><c> of</c><00:15:20.480><c> physics</c><00:15:20.959><c> that</c><00:15:21.199><c> you</c><00:15:21.440><c> can</c>

00:15:21.590 --> 00:15:21.600 align:start position:0%
It's a principle of physics that you can
 

00:15:21.600 --> 00:15:24.470 align:start position:0%
It's a principle of physics that you can
use<00:15:22.079><c> electrical</c><00:15:22.639><c> fields</c><00:15:23.120><c> to</c><00:15:23.440><c> create</c><00:15:23.920><c> magnetic</c>

00:15:24.470 --> 00:15:24.480 align:start position:0%
use electrical fields to create magnetic
 

00:15:24.480 --> 00:15:27.829 align:start position:0%
use electrical fields to create magnetic
ones<00:15:25.199><c> and</c><00:15:25.600><c> vice</c><00:15:25.920><c> versa.</c><00:15:27.120><c> This</c><00:15:27.440><c> is</c><00:15:27.600><c> the</c>

00:15:27.829 --> 00:15:27.839 align:start position:0%
ones and vice versa. This is the
 

00:15:27.839 --> 00:15:30.470 align:start position:0%
ones and vice versa. This is the
principle<00:15:28.240><c> that</c><00:15:28.560><c> power</c><00:15:28.880><c> plants</c><00:15:29.279><c> work</c><00:15:29.519><c> under.</c>

00:15:30.470 --> 00:15:30.480 align:start position:0%
principle that power plants work under.
 

00:15:30.480 --> 00:15:33.110 align:start position:0%
principle that power plants work under.
Moving<00:15:30.880><c> a</c><00:15:31.120><c> magnet</c><00:15:31.519><c> through</c><00:15:31.760><c> a</c><00:15:31.920><c> coil</c><00:15:32.320><c> of</c><00:15:32.480><c> wires</c>

00:15:33.110 --> 00:15:33.120 align:start position:0%
Moving a magnet through a coil of wires
 

00:15:33.120 --> 00:15:34.710 align:start position:0%
Moving a magnet through a coil of wires
causes<00:15:33.385><c> [music]</c><00:15:33.680><c> electrical</c><00:15:34.160><c> current</c><00:15:34.480><c> to</c>

00:15:34.710 --> 00:15:34.720 align:start position:0%
causes [music] electrical current to
 

00:15:34.720 --> 00:15:37.590 align:start position:0%
causes [music] electrical current to
start<00:15:34.880><c> to</c><00:15:35.040><c> flow</c><00:15:36.000><c> as</c><00:15:36.320><c> that</c><00:15:36.639><c> changing</c><00:15:37.120><c> magnetic</c>

00:15:37.590 --> 00:15:37.600 align:start position:0%
start to flow as that changing magnetic
 

00:15:37.600 --> 00:15:40.069 align:start position:0%
start to flow as that changing magnetic
field<00:15:38.079><c> exerts</c><00:15:38.560><c> a</c><00:15:38.800><c> force</c><00:15:39.120><c> on</c><00:15:39.360><c> the</c><00:15:39.519><c> electrons</c>

00:15:40.069 --> 00:15:40.079 align:start position:0%
field exerts a force on the electrons
 

00:15:40.079 --> 00:15:43.269 align:start position:0%
field exerts a force on the electrons
present<00:15:40.399><c> there.</c><00:15:41.440><c> But</c><00:15:41.760><c> similarly,</c><00:15:42.800><c> the</c><00:15:43.040><c> motion</c>

00:15:43.269 --> 00:15:43.279 align:start position:0%
present there. But similarly, the motion
 

00:15:43.279 --> 00:15:45.590 align:start position:0%
present there. But similarly, the motion
of<00:15:43.519><c> electrons</c><00:15:44.079><c> creates</c><00:15:44.399><c> a</c><00:15:44.639><c> magnetic</c><00:15:45.120><c> field</c><00:15:45.360><c> to</c>

00:15:45.590 --> 00:15:45.600 align:start position:0%
of electrons creates a magnetic field to
 

00:15:45.600 --> 00:15:48.069 align:start position:0%
of electrons creates a magnetic field to
form<00:15:46.079><c> in</c><00:15:46.240><c> perpendicular</c><00:15:47.040><c> circles</c><00:15:47.519><c> around</c><00:15:47.839><c> the</c>

00:15:48.069 --> 00:15:48.079 align:start position:0%
form in perpendicular circles around the
 

00:15:48.079 --> 00:15:50.150 align:start position:0%
form in perpendicular circles around the
direction<00:15:48.399><c> of</c><00:15:48.639><c> motion</c><00:15:49.199><c> in</c><00:15:49.519><c> accordance</c><00:15:49.920><c> with</c>

00:15:50.150 --> 00:15:50.160 align:start position:0%
direction of motion in accordance with
 

00:15:50.160 --> 00:15:52.949 align:start position:0%
direction of motion in accordance with
Faraday's<00:15:50.800><c> law</c><00:15:51.120><c> of</c><00:15:51.360><c> induction.</c>

00:15:52.949 --> 00:15:52.959 align:start position:0%
Faraday's law of induction.
 

00:15:52.959 --> 00:15:54.870 align:start position:0%
Faraday's law of induction.
But<00:15:53.199><c> the</c><00:15:53.440><c> way</c><00:15:53.600><c> this</c><00:15:53.920><c> applies</c><00:15:54.240><c> to</c><00:15:54.399><c> the</c><00:15:54.560><c> earth's</c>

00:15:54.870 --> 00:15:54.880 align:start position:0%
But the way this applies to the earth's
 

00:15:54.880 --> 00:15:58.310 align:start position:0%
But the way this applies to the earth's
core<00:15:55.199><c> is</c><00:15:55.440><c> a</c><00:15:55.680><c> delicate</c><00:15:56.480><c> complicated</c><00:15:57.199><c> process.</c>

00:15:58.310 --> 00:15:58.320 align:start position:0%
core is a delicate complicated process.
 

00:15:58.320 --> 00:16:00.790 align:start position:0%
core is a delicate complicated process.
To<00:15:58.639><c> start</c><00:15:58.800><c> with,</c><00:15:59.279><c> our</c><00:15:59.600><c> core</c><00:16:00.000><c> needs</c><00:16:00.320><c> to</c><00:16:00.480><c> be</c><00:16:00.720><c> at</c>

00:16:00.790 --> 00:16:00.800 align:start position:0%
To start with, our core needs to be at
 

00:16:00.800 --> 00:16:03.110 align:start position:0%
To start with, our core needs to be at
least<00:16:01.279><c> partially</c><00:16:01.839><c> liquid,</c><00:16:02.800><c> which</c>

00:16:03.110 --> 00:16:03.120 align:start position:0%
least partially liquid, which
 

00:16:03.120 --> 00:16:05.910 align:start position:0%
least partially liquid, which
fortunately<00:16:03.920><c> is</c><00:16:04.240><c> true.</c>

00:16:05.910 --> 00:16:05.920 align:start position:0%
fortunately is true.
 

00:16:05.920 --> 00:16:08.230 align:start position:0%
fortunately is true.
Above<00:16:06.240><c> the</c><00:16:06.480><c> solid</c><00:16:06.880><c> inner</c><00:16:07.199><c> core</c><00:16:07.519><c> that</c><00:16:07.839><c> lies</c><00:16:08.079><c> at</c>

00:16:08.230 --> 00:16:08.240 align:start position:0%
Above the solid inner core that lies at
 

00:16:08.240 --> 00:16:10.550 align:start position:0%
Above the solid inner core that lies at
the<00:16:08.480><c> heart</c><00:16:08.639><c> of</c><00:16:08.800><c> our</c><00:16:09.120><c> planet</c><00:16:09.680><c> is</c><00:16:09.920><c> a</c><00:16:10.160><c> liquid</c>

00:16:10.550 --> 00:16:10.560 align:start position:0%
the heart of our planet is a liquid
 

00:16:10.560 --> 00:16:12.629 align:start position:0%
the heart of our planet is a liquid
outer<00:16:10.959><c> core,</c><00:16:11.440><c> where</c><00:16:11.680><c> the</c><00:16:11.920><c> pressure</c><00:16:12.320><c> isn't</c>

00:16:12.629 --> 00:16:12.639 align:start position:0%
outer core, where the pressure isn't
 

00:16:12.639 --> 00:16:14.389 align:start position:0%
outer core, where the pressure isn't
quite<00:16:12.880><c> high</c><00:16:13.120><c> enough</c><00:16:13.360><c> to</c><00:16:13.600><c> keep</c><00:16:13.839><c> things</c><00:16:14.079><c> in</c><00:16:14.240><c> a</c>

00:16:14.389 --> 00:16:14.399 align:start position:0%
quite high enough to keep things in a
 

00:16:14.399 --> 00:16:17.110 align:start position:0%
quite high enough to keep things in a
solid<00:16:14.720><c> state.</c><00:16:15.600><c> It's</c><00:16:16.000><c> very</c><00:16:16.320><c> hot</c><00:16:16.560><c> in</c><00:16:16.720><c> the</c><00:16:16.880><c> outer</c>

00:16:17.110 --> 00:16:17.120 align:start position:0%
solid state. It's very hot in the outer
 

00:16:17.120 --> 00:16:20.470 align:start position:0%
solid state. It's very hot in the outer
core,<00:16:17.440><c> though,</c><00:16:18.079><c> 6,000°</c><00:16:19.279><c> C</c><00:16:19.680><c> at</c><00:16:19.920><c> its</c><00:16:20.079><c> warmest</c>

00:16:20.470 --> 00:16:20.480 align:start position:0%
core, though, 6,000° C at its warmest
 

00:16:20.480 --> 00:16:23.590 align:start position:0%
core, though, 6,000° C at its warmest
point.<00:16:21.279><c> So</c><00:16:21.519><c> hot</c><00:16:21.839><c> that</c><00:16:22.160><c> it</c><00:16:22.399><c> rivals</c><00:16:22.880><c> the</c><00:16:23.120><c> surface</c>

00:16:23.590 --> 00:16:23.600 align:start position:0%
point. So hot that it rivals the surface
 

00:16:23.600 --> 00:16:26.310 align:start position:0%
point. So hot that it rivals the surface
temperature<00:16:24.079><c> of</c><00:16:24.320><c> the</c><00:16:24.560><c> sun,</c><00:16:25.440><c> which</c><00:16:26.000><c> when</c>

00:16:26.310 --> 00:16:26.320 align:start position:0%
temperature of the sun, which when
 

00:16:26.320 --> 00:16:27.829 align:start position:0%
temperature of the sun, which when
combined<00:16:26.720><c> with</c><00:16:26.880><c> the</c><00:16:27.040><c> lower</c><00:16:27.360><c> pressure</c>

00:16:27.829 --> 00:16:27.839 align:start position:0%
combined with the lower pressure
 

00:16:27.839 --> 00:16:29.670 align:start position:0%
combined with the lower pressure
compared<00:16:28.160><c> to</c><00:16:28.320><c> the</c><00:16:28.406><c> [music]</c><00:16:28.480><c> inner</c><00:16:28.800><c> core,</c><00:16:29.360><c> is</c>

00:16:29.670 --> 00:16:29.680 align:start position:0%
compared to the [music] inner core, is
 

00:16:29.680 --> 00:16:31.590 align:start position:0%
compared to the [music] inner core, is
more<00:16:29.920><c> than</c><00:16:30.079><c> enough</c><00:16:30.320><c> to</c><00:16:30.560><c> keep</c><00:16:30.720><c> the</c><00:16:30.959><c> iron</c><00:16:31.279><c> and</c>

00:16:31.590 --> 00:16:31.600 align:start position:0%
more than enough to keep the iron and
 

00:16:31.600 --> 00:16:33.509 align:start position:0%
more than enough to keep the iron and
nickel<00:16:31.920><c> that</c><00:16:32.160><c> makes</c><00:16:32.320><c> it</c><00:16:32.480><c> up</c><00:16:32.880><c> flowing</c><00:16:33.279><c> down</c>

00:16:33.509 --> 00:16:33.519 align:start position:0%
nickel that makes it up flowing down
 

00:16:33.519 --> 00:16:35.350 align:start position:0%
nickel that makes it up flowing down
there.

00:16:35.350 --> 00:16:35.360 align:start position:0%
there.
 

00:16:35.360 --> 00:16:37.910 align:start position:0%
there.
The<00:16:35.680><c> temperature</c><00:16:36.240><c> drops</c><00:16:36.800><c> as</c><00:16:37.120><c> you</c><00:16:37.360><c> move</c><00:16:37.600><c> away</c>

00:16:37.910 --> 00:16:37.920 align:start position:0%
The temperature drops as you move away
 

00:16:37.920 --> 00:16:40.790 align:start position:0%
The temperature drops as you move away
from<00:16:38.160><c> the</c><00:16:38.320><c> center</c><00:16:38.560><c> of</c><00:16:38.720><c> the</c><00:16:38.880><c> Earth.</c><00:16:40.079><c> This</c><00:16:40.320><c> gets</c>

00:16:40.790 --> 00:16:40.800 align:start position:0%
from the center of the Earth. This gets
 

00:16:40.800 --> 00:16:43.670 align:start position:0%
from the center of the Earth. This gets
circulation<00:16:41.519><c> going.</c><00:16:42.639><c> Hot</c><00:16:43.040><c> conductive</c>

00:16:43.670 --> 00:16:43.680 align:start position:0%
circulation going. Hot conductive
 

00:16:43.680 --> 00:16:45.829 align:start position:0%
circulation going. Hot conductive
material<00:16:44.079><c> from</c><00:16:44.320><c> the</c><00:16:44.560><c> warmer</c><00:16:45.040><c> deeper</c><00:16:45.440><c> regions</c>

00:16:45.829 --> 00:16:45.839 align:start position:0%
material from the warmer deeper regions
 

00:16:45.839 --> 00:16:48.870 align:start position:0%
material from the warmer deeper regions
of<00:16:46.000><c> the</c><00:16:46.160><c> outer</c><00:16:46.480><c> core</c><00:16:46.800><c> rises,</c><00:16:47.759><c> then</c><00:16:48.079><c> cools,</c>

00:16:48.870 --> 00:16:48.880 align:start position:0%
of the outer core rises, then cools,
 

00:16:48.880 --> 00:16:51.430 align:start position:0%
of the outer core rises, then cools,
then<00:16:49.199><c> falls</c><00:16:49.519><c> again,</c><00:16:50.160><c> creating</c><00:16:50.639><c> loops</c><00:16:51.120><c> and</c>

00:16:51.430 --> 00:16:51.440 align:start position:0%
then falls again, creating loops and
 

00:16:51.440 --> 00:16:54.069 align:start position:0%
then falls again, creating loops and
currents<00:16:51.839><c> of</c><00:16:52.079><c> flowing</c><00:16:52.480><c> material.</c><00:16:53.680><c> Our</c>

00:16:54.069 --> 00:16:54.079 align:start position:0%
currents of flowing material. Our
 

00:16:54.079 --> 00:16:57.990 align:start position:0%
currents of flowing material. Our
electrical<00:16:54.720><c> field</c><00:16:55.519><c> starts</c><00:16:55.920><c> to</c><00:16:56.160><c> be</c><00:16:56.320><c> generated.</c>

00:16:57.990 --> 00:16:58.000 align:start position:0%
electrical field starts to be generated.
 

00:16:58.000 --> 00:17:00.389 align:start position:0%
electrical field starts to be generated.
But<00:16:58.320><c> if</c><00:16:58.639><c> there</c><00:16:58.880><c> are</c><00:16:59.199><c> many</c><00:16:59.519><c> of</c><00:16:59.680><c> these</c><00:16:59.920><c> flowing</c>

00:17:00.389 --> 00:17:00.399 align:start position:0%
But if there are many of these flowing
 

00:17:00.399 --> 00:17:03.030 align:start position:0%
But if there are many of these flowing
loops,<00:17:01.040><c> which</c><00:17:01.279><c> in</c><00:17:01.440><c> theory</c><00:17:01.839><c> there</c><00:17:02.079><c> would</c><00:17:02.320><c> be,</c>

00:17:03.030 --> 00:17:03.040 align:start position:0%
loops, which in theory there would be,
 

00:17:03.040 --> 00:17:05.829 align:start position:0%
loops, which in theory there would be,
why<00:17:03.279><c> does</c><00:17:03.600><c> Earth</c><00:17:03.920><c> only</c><00:17:04.240><c> have</c><00:17:04.640><c> one</c><00:17:04.959><c> north</c><00:17:05.280><c> pole</c>

00:17:05.829 --> 00:17:05.839 align:start position:0%
why does Earth only have one north pole
 

00:17:05.839 --> 00:17:08.949 align:start position:0%
why does Earth only have one north pole
and<00:17:06.240><c> one</c><00:17:06.559><c> south</c><00:17:06.880><c> pole?</c><00:17:07.919><c> Surely</c><00:17:08.319><c> the</c><00:17:08.559><c> created</c>

00:17:08.949 --> 00:17:08.959 align:start position:0%
and one south pole? Surely the created
 

00:17:08.959 --> 00:17:11.110 align:start position:0%
and one south pole? Surely the created
magnetic<00:17:09.520><c> fields</c><00:17:10.000><c> would</c><00:17:10.240><c> be</c><00:17:10.480><c> all</c><00:17:10.720><c> over</c><00:17:10.880><c> the</c>

00:17:11.110 --> 00:17:11.120 align:start position:0%
magnetic fields would be all over the
 

00:17:11.120 --> 00:17:12.309 align:start position:0%
magnetic fields would be all over the
place.

00:17:12.309 --> 00:17:12.319 align:start position:0%
place.
 

00:17:12.319 --> 00:17:14.789 align:start position:0%
place.
Well,<00:17:12.880><c> there</c><00:17:13.120><c> is</c><00:17:13.360><c> thought</c><00:17:13.600><c> to</c><00:17:13.839><c> be</c><00:17:14.000><c> an</c><00:17:14.400><c> extra</c>

00:17:14.789 --> 00:17:14.799 align:start position:0%
Well, there is thought to be an extra
 

00:17:14.799 --> 00:17:17.029 align:start position:0%
Well, there is thought to be an extra
force<00:17:15.120><c> at</c><00:17:15.280><c> play</c><00:17:15.839><c> that</c><00:17:16.160><c> takes</c><00:17:16.480><c> all</c><00:17:16.720><c> these</c>

00:17:17.029 --> 00:17:17.039 align:start position:0%
force at play that takes all these
 

00:17:17.039 --> 00:17:19.510 align:start position:0%
force at play that takes all these
fields<00:17:17.439><c> and</c><00:17:17.760><c> unifies</c><00:17:18.319><c> them,</c><00:17:18.880><c> pointing</c><00:17:19.280><c> them</c>

00:17:19.510 --> 00:17:19.520 align:start position:0%
fields and unifies them, pointing them
 

00:17:19.520 --> 00:17:22.549 align:start position:0%
fields and unifies them, pointing them
in<00:17:19.760><c> the</c><00:17:19.919><c> same</c><00:17:20.160><c> direction.</c><00:17:21.360><c> This</c><00:17:21.600><c> force</c><00:17:22.240><c> is</c>

00:17:22.549 --> 00:17:22.559 align:start position:0%
in the same direction. This force is
 

00:17:22.559 --> 00:17:25.189 align:start position:0%
in the same direction. This force is
thought<00:17:22.799><c> to</c><00:17:22.880><c> be</c><00:17:23.039><c> the</c><00:17:23.280><c> corololis</c><00:17:24.079><c> effect.</c>

00:17:25.189 --> 00:17:25.199 align:start position:0%
thought to be the corololis effect.
 

00:17:25.199 --> 00:17:27.270 align:start position:0%
thought to be the corololis effect.
Dynamo<00:17:25.760><c> theory</c><00:17:26.079><c> states</c><00:17:26.319><c> that</c><00:17:26.480><c> the</c><00:17:26.640><c> corololis</c>

00:17:27.270 --> 00:17:27.280 align:start position:0%
Dynamo theory states that the corololis
 

00:17:27.280 --> 00:17:29.909 align:start position:0%
Dynamo theory states that the corololis
effect<00:17:27.600><c> causes</c><00:17:28.000><c> these</c><00:17:28.319><c> flows</c><00:17:28.720><c> of</c><00:17:28.880><c> iron</c><00:17:29.360><c> to</c><00:17:29.679><c> not</c>

00:17:29.909 --> 00:17:29.919 align:start position:0%
effect causes these flows of iron to not
 

00:17:29.919 --> 00:17:32.470 align:start position:0%
effect causes these flows of iron to not
rise<00:17:30.320><c> and</c><00:17:30.559><c> fall</c><00:17:30.799><c> as</c><00:17:31.039><c> straight</c><00:17:31.360><c> lines,</c><00:17:31.919><c> but</c><00:17:32.160><c> as</c>

00:17:32.470 --> 00:17:32.480 align:start position:0%
rise and fall as straight lines, but as
 

00:17:32.480 --> 00:17:34.230 align:start position:0%
rise and fall as straight lines, but as
spirals.

00:17:34.230 --> 00:17:34.240 align:start position:0%
spirals.
 

00:17:34.240 --> 00:17:36.549 align:start position:0%
spirals.
The<00:17:34.559><c> spinning</c><00:17:34.880><c> of</c><00:17:35.039><c> the</c><00:17:35.280><c> earth</c><00:17:35.600><c> causes</c><00:17:36.080><c> them</c><00:17:36.320><c> to</c>

00:17:36.549 --> 00:17:36.559 align:start position:0%
The spinning of the earth causes them to
 

00:17:36.559 --> 00:17:39.990 align:start position:0%
The spinning of the earth causes them to
gently<00:17:37.039><c> be</c><00:17:37.360><c> spun</c><00:17:37.760><c> in</c><00:17:38.080><c> turn,</c><00:17:38.799><c> creating</c><00:17:39.360><c> giant</c>

00:17:39.990 --> 00:17:40.000 align:start position:0%
gently be spun in turn, creating giant
 

00:17:40.000 --> 00:17:41.750 align:start position:0%
gently be spun in turn, creating giant
springs.

00:17:41.750 --> 00:17:41.760 align:start position:0%
springs.
 

00:17:41.760 --> 00:17:43.750 align:start position:0%
springs.
As<00:17:42.000><c> each</c><00:17:42.320><c> segment</c><00:17:42.720><c> of</c><00:17:42.880><c> each</c><00:17:43.120><c> spring</c><00:17:43.520><c> is</c>

00:17:43.750 --> 00:17:43.760 align:start position:0%
As each segment of each spring is
 

00:17:43.760 --> 00:17:45.669 align:start position:0%
As each segment of each spring is
creating<00:17:44.080><c> a</c><00:17:44.320><c> magnetic</c><00:17:44.720><c> field</c><00:17:44.960><c> in</c><00:17:45.200><c> a</c><00:17:45.360><c> circle</c>

00:17:45.669 --> 00:17:45.679 align:start position:0%
creating a magnetic field in a circle
 

00:17:45.679 --> 00:17:48.390 align:start position:0%
creating a magnetic field in a circle
around<00:17:46.000><c> it,</c><00:17:46.559><c> the</c><00:17:46.799><c> net</c><00:17:47.200><c> result</c><00:17:47.760><c> is</c><00:17:47.919><c> that</c><00:17:48.160><c> the</c>

00:17:48.390 --> 00:17:48.400 align:start position:0%
around it, the net result is that the
 

00:17:48.400 --> 00:17:51.110 align:start position:0%
around it, the net result is that the
inside<00:17:48.720><c> of</c><00:17:48.960><c> these</c><00:17:49.200><c> springs</c><00:17:49.760><c> creates</c><00:17:50.160><c> a</c><00:17:50.400><c> solid</c>

00:17:51.110 --> 00:17:51.120 align:start position:0%
inside of these springs creates a solid
 

00:17:51.120 --> 00:17:53.830 align:start position:0%
inside of these springs creates a solid
unified<00:17:51.760><c> field</c><00:17:52.320><c> that</c><00:17:52.640><c> all</c><00:17:52.880><c> moves</c><00:17:53.200><c> in</c><00:17:53.440><c> the</c><00:17:53.600><c> same</c>

00:17:53.830 --> 00:17:53.840 align:start position:0%
unified field that all moves in the same
 

00:17:53.840 --> 00:17:56.230 align:start position:0%
unified field that all moves in the same
direction<00:17:54.320><c> upwards,</c><00:17:55.200><c> while</c><00:17:55.440><c> the</c><00:17:55.679><c> outside</c>

00:17:56.230 --> 00:17:56.240 align:start position:0%
direction upwards, while the outside
 

00:17:56.240 --> 00:17:58.230 align:start position:0%
direction upwards, while the outside
brings<00:17:56.480><c> that</c><00:17:56.720><c> magnetic</c><00:17:57.200><c> field</c><00:17:57.600><c> looping</c><00:17:58.000><c> back</c>

00:17:58.230 --> 00:17:58.240 align:start position:0%
brings that magnetic field looping back
 

00:17:58.240 --> 00:18:00.630 align:start position:0%
brings that magnetic field looping back
down<00:17:58.480><c> again</c><00:17:59.039><c> and</c><00:17:59.360><c> back</c><00:17:59.600><c> in</c><00:17:59.840><c> to</c><00:18:00.080><c> the</c><00:18:00.240><c> bottom</c><00:18:00.480><c> of</c>

00:18:00.630 --> 00:18:00.640 align:start position:0%
down again and back in to the bottom of
 

00:18:00.640 --> 00:18:03.430 align:start position:0%
down again and back in to the bottom of
the<00:18:00.799><c> coil.</c><00:18:01.840><c> In</c><00:18:02.080><c> short,</c><00:18:02.640><c> it</c><00:18:02.880><c> creates</c><00:18:03.200><c> the</c>

00:18:03.430 --> 00:18:03.440 align:start position:0%
the coil. In short, it creates the
 

00:18:03.440 --> 00:18:05.909 align:start position:0%
the coil. In short, it creates the
well-known<00:18:04.160><c> magnetic</c><00:18:04.720><c> dipole</c><00:18:05.360><c> north</c><00:18:05.600><c> and</c>

00:18:05.909 --> 00:18:05.919 align:start position:0%
well-known magnetic dipole north and
 

00:18:05.919 --> 00:18:09.190 align:start position:0%
well-known magnetic dipole north and
south<00:18:06.240><c> that</c><00:18:06.480><c> we</c><00:18:06.640><c> see</c><00:18:06.880><c> today.</c>

00:18:09.190 --> 00:18:09.200 align:start position:0%
south that we see today.
 

00:18:09.200 --> 00:18:11.270 align:start position:0%
south that we see today.
However,<00:18:09.840><c> if</c><00:18:10.080><c> there's</c><00:18:10.480><c> anything</c><00:18:10.799><c> that</c><00:18:11.039><c> you</c>

00:18:11.270 --> 00:18:11.280 align:start position:0%
However, if there's anything that you
 

00:18:11.280 --> 00:18:13.190 align:start position:0%
However, if there's anything that you
should<00:18:11.440><c> take</c><00:18:11.600><c> away</c><00:18:11.840><c> from</c><00:18:12.080><c> this,</c><00:18:12.640><c> it's</c><00:18:12.960><c> that</c>

00:18:13.190 --> 00:18:13.200 align:start position:0%
should take away from this, it's that
 

00:18:13.200 --> 00:18:16.310 align:start position:0%
should take away from this, it's that
this<00:18:13.520><c> process</c><00:18:14.080><c> is</c><00:18:14.480><c> precarious</c><00:18:15.679><c> as</c><00:18:15.919><c> it</c><00:18:16.160><c> is</c>

00:18:16.310 --> 00:18:16.320 align:start position:0%
this process is precarious as it is
 

00:18:16.320 --> 00:18:18.630 align:start position:0%
this process is precarious as it is
based<00:18:16.640><c> on</c><00:18:16.880><c> a</c><00:18:17.120><c> lot</c><00:18:17.360><c> of</c><00:18:17.600><c> liquid</c><00:18:18.000><c> iron</c>

00:18:18.630 --> 00:18:18.640 align:start position:0%
based on a lot of liquid iron
 

00:18:18.640 --> 00:18:20.070 align:start position:0%
based on a lot of liquid iron
essentially<00:18:19.102><c> [music]</c><00:18:19.200><c> just</c><00:18:19.440><c> slloshing</c>

00:18:20.070 --> 00:18:20.080 align:start position:0%
essentially [music] just slloshing
 

00:18:20.080 --> 00:18:23.430 align:start position:0%
essentially [music] just slloshing
around<00:18:20.720><c> which</c><00:18:20.960><c> is</c><00:18:21.280><c> not</c><00:18:21.600><c> very</c><00:18:21.919><c> consistent.</c><00:18:23.120><c> Our</c>

00:18:23.430 --> 00:18:23.440 align:start position:0%
around which is not very consistent. Our
 

00:18:23.440 --> 00:18:26.070 align:start position:0%
around which is not very consistent. Our
magnetic<00:18:23.919><c> field</c><00:18:24.400><c> thus</c><00:18:25.039><c> has</c><00:18:25.760><c> little</c>

00:18:26.070 --> 00:18:26.080 align:start position:0%
magnetic field thus has little
 

00:18:26.080 --> 00:18:29.750 align:start position:0%
magnetic field thus has little
fluctuations<00:18:26.960><c> and</c><00:18:27.280><c> wobbles</c><00:18:28.080><c> all</c><00:18:28.320><c> the</c><00:18:28.640><c> time.</c>

00:18:29.750 --> 00:18:29.760 align:start position:0%
fluctuations and wobbles all the time.
 

00:18:29.760 --> 00:18:32.230 align:start position:0%
fluctuations and wobbles all the time.
We<00:18:30.000><c> see</c><00:18:30.160><c> this</c><00:18:30.320><c> in</c><00:18:30.559><c> different</c><00:18:30.799><c> ways,</c><00:18:31.440><c> but</c><00:18:31.760><c> a</c><00:18:32.000><c> big</c>

00:18:32.230 --> 00:18:32.240 align:start position:0%
We see this in different ways, but a big
 

00:18:32.240 --> 00:18:35.110 align:start position:0%
We see this in different ways, but a big
one<00:18:32.640><c> is</c><00:18:32.880><c> that</c><00:18:33.200><c> our</c><00:18:33.520><c> north</c><00:18:33.760><c> pole</c><00:18:34.240><c> is</c><00:18:34.559><c> constantly</c>

00:18:35.110 --> 00:18:35.120 align:start position:0%
one is that our north pole is constantly
 

00:18:35.120 --> 00:18:37.830 align:start position:0%
one is that our north pole is constantly
moving.<00:18:36.320><c> Since</c><00:18:36.640><c> scientists</c><00:18:37.120><c> began</c><00:18:37.520><c> keeping</c>

00:18:37.830 --> 00:18:37.840 align:start position:0%
moving. Since scientists began keeping
 

00:18:37.840 --> 00:18:41.430 align:start position:0%
moving. Since scientists began keeping
track<00:18:38.080><c> of</c><00:18:38.240><c> it</c><00:18:38.400><c> in</c><00:18:38.720><c> 1831,</c><00:18:40.080><c> the</c><00:18:40.320><c> North</c><00:18:40.559><c> Pole</c><00:18:41.039><c> has</c>

00:18:41.430 --> 00:18:41.440 align:start position:0%
track of it in 1831, the North Pole has
 

00:18:41.440 --> 00:18:44.549 align:start position:0%
track of it in 1831, the North Pole has
gradually<00:18:42.080><c> shifted</c><00:18:42.559><c> about</c><00:18:43.039><c> 1,100</c>

00:18:44.549 --> 00:18:44.559 align:start position:0%
gradually shifted about 1,100
 

00:18:44.559 --> 00:18:47.350 align:start position:0%
gradually shifted about 1,100
km,<00:18:45.600><c> leaving</c><00:18:46.000><c> its</c><00:18:46.320><c> original</c><00:18:46.720><c> location</c><00:18:47.120><c> in</c>

00:18:47.350 --> 00:18:47.360 align:start position:0%
km, leaving its original location in
 

00:18:47.360 --> 00:18:50.870 align:start position:0%
km, leaving its original location in
Canada<00:18:48.080><c> and</c><00:18:48.400><c> moving</c><00:18:48.799><c> up</c><00:18:49.120><c> towards</c><00:18:49.600><c> Siberia.</c>

00:18:50.870 --> 00:18:50.880 align:start position:0%
Canada and moving up towards Siberia.
 

00:18:50.880 --> 00:18:53.510 align:start position:0%
Canada and moving up towards Siberia.
Its<00:18:51.200><c> rate</c><00:18:51.440><c> of</c><00:18:51.600><c> motion</c><00:18:52.000><c> is</c><00:18:52.320><c> also</c><00:18:52.640><c> increasing,</c>

00:18:53.510 --> 00:18:53.520 align:start position:0%
Its rate of motion is also increasing,
 

00:18:53.520 --> 00:18:58.070 align:start position:0%
Its rate of motion is also increasing,
going<00:18:53.840><c> from</c><00:18:54.400><c> 16</c><00:18:54.799><c> km</c><00:18:55.440><c> a</c><00:18:55.679><c> year</c><00:18:56.000><c> to</c><00:18:56.320><c> roughly</c><00:18:56.880><c> 55</c><00:18:57.520><c> km</c>

00:18:58.070 --> 00:18:58.080 align:start position:0%
going from 16 km a year to roughly 55 km
 

00:18:58.080 --> 00:19:01.110 align:start position:0%
going from 16 km a year to roughly 55 km
a<00:18:58.240><c> year.</c><00:18:58.960><c> A</c><00:18:59.200><c> big</c><00:18:59.520><c> jump.</c>

00:19:01.110 --> 00:19:01.120 align:start position:0%
a year. A big jump.
 

00:19:01.120 --> 00:19:03.190 align:start position:0%
a year. A big jump.
This<00:19:01.440><c> might</c><00:19:01.679><c> still</c><00:19:02.000><c> be</c><00:19:02.160><c> akin</c><00:19:02.559><c> to</c><00:19:02.720><c> just</c><00:19:02.960><c> the</c>

00:19:03.190 --> 00:19:03.200 align:start position:0%
This might still be akin to just the
 

00:19:03.200 --> 00:19:05.350 align:start position:0%
This might still be akin to just the
momentary<00:19:03.840><c> wobbles</c><00:19:04.320><c> of</c><00:19:04.480><c> a</c><00:19:04.720><c> spinning</c><00:19:05.039><c> top,</c>

00:19:05.350 --> 00:19:05.360 align:start position:0%
momentary wobbles of a spinning top,
 

00:19:05.360 --> 00:19:08.310 align:start position:0%
momentary wobbles of a spinning top,
though.<00:19:06.160><c> Yes,</c><00:19:06.480><c> it</c><00:19:06.720><c> deviates</c><00:19:07.360><c> somewhat,</c><00:19:08.080><c> but</c>

00:19:08.310 --> 00:19:08.320 align:start position:0%
though. Yes, it deviates somewhat, but
 

00:19:08.320 --> 00:19:11.029 align:start position:0%
though. Yes, it deviates somewhat, but
it<00:19:08.640><c> always</c><00:19:08.960><c> remains</c><00:19:09.360><c> roughly</c><00:19:09.679><c> upright.</c>

00:19:11.029 --> 00:19:11.039 align:start position:0%
it always remains roughly upright.
 

00:19:11.039 --> 00:19:13.029 align:start position:0%
it always remains roughly upright.
That's<00:19:11.280><c> a</c><00:19:11.520><c> far</c><00:19:11.840><c> cry</c><00:19:12.160><c> from</c><00:19:12.400><c> a</c><00:19:12.640><c> complete</c>

00:19:13.029 --> 00:19:13.039 align:start position:0%
That's a far cry from a complete
 

00:19:13.039 --> 00:19:14.630 align:start position:0%
That's a far cry from a complete
reversal.

00:19:14.630 --> 00:19:14.640 align:start position:0%
reversal.
 

00:19:14.640 --> 00:19:16.950 align:start position:0%
reversal.
However,<00:19:15.039><c> scientists</c><00:19:15.679><c> are</c><00:19:16.000><c> certain</c><00:19:16.640><c> that</c>

00:19:16.950 --> 00:19:16.960 align:start position:0%
However, scientists are certain that
 

00:19:16.960 --> 00:19:19.909 align:start position:0%
However, scientists are certain that
such<00:19:17.280><c> reversals</c><00:19:17.919><c> have</c><00:19:18.240><c> happened</c><00:19:18.559><c> before.</c>

00:19:19.909 --> 00:19:19.919 align:start position:0%
such reversals have happened before.
 

00:19:19.919 --> 00:19:23.270 align:start position:0%
such reversals have happened before.
They<00:19:20.240><c> even</c><00:19:20.640><c> have</c><00:19:20.880><c> a</c><00:19:21.120><c> specific</c><00:19:21.600><c> number,</c>

00:19:23.270 --> 00:19:23.280 align:start position:0%
They even have a specific number,
 

00:19:23.280 --> 00:19:27.029 align:start position:0%
They even have a specific number,
183<00:19:23.919><c> times</c><00:19:24.240><c> in</c><00:19:24.480><c> the</c><00:19:24.640><c> last</c><00:19:24.960><c> 83</c><00:19:25.600><c> million</c><00:19:26.000><c> years.</c>

00:19:27.029 --> 00:19:27.039 align:start position:0%
183 times in the last 83 million years.
 

00:19:27.039 --> 00:19:29.590 align:start position:0%
183 times in the last 83 million years.
How<00:19:27.200><c> do</c><00:19:27.360><c> they</c><00:19:27.520><c> know?</c><00:19:28.240><c> The</c><00:19:28.480><c> answer</c><00:19:28.799><c> lies</c><00:19:29.120><c> locked</c>

00:19:29.590 --> 00:19:29.600 align:start position:0%
How do they know? The answer lies locked
 

00:19:29.600 --> 00:19:33.510 align:start position:0%
How do they know? The answer lies locked
in<00:19:29.919><c> our</c><00:19:30.240><c> Earth's</c><00:19:30.880><c> surface</c><00:19:31.440><c> iron.</c>

00:19:33.510 --> 00:19:33.520 align:start position:0%
in our Earth's surface iron.
 

00:19:33.520 --> 00:19:35.430 align:start position:0%
in our Earth's surface iron.
When<00:19:33.840><c> magma</c><00:19:34.480><c> erupts</c><00:19:34.799><c> from</c><00:19:34.880><c> the</c><00:19:35.039><c> Earth's</c>

00:19:35.430 --> 00:19:35.440 align:start position:0%
When magma erupts from the Earth's
 

00:19:35.440 --> 00:19:37.590 align:start position:0%
When magma erupts from the Earth's
mantle,<00:19:35.919><c> it</c><00:19:36.160><c> can</c><00:19:36.320><c> contain</c><00:19:36.799><c> small</c><00:19:37.120><c> amounts</c><00:19:37.440><c> of</c>

00:19:37.590 --> 00:19:37.600 align:start position:0%
mantle, it can contain small amounts of
 

00:19:37.600 --> 00:19:40.070 align:start position:0%
mantle, it can contain small amounts of
iron.<00:19:38.559><c> As</c><00:19:38.880><c> these</c><00:19:39.013><c> [music]</c><00:19:39.200><c> can</c><00:19:39.360><c> move</c><00:19:39.679><c> freely</c>

00:19:40.070 --> 00:19:40.080 align:start position:0%
iron. As these [music] can move freely
 

00:19:40.080 --> 00:19:42.470 align:start position:0%
iron. As these [music] can move freely
in<00:19:40.240><c> the</c><00:19:40.400><c> molten</c><00:19:40.799><c> magma,</c><00:19:41.440><c> they</c><00:19:41.760><c> tend</c><00:19:42.000><c> to</c><00:19:42.160><c> orient</c>

00:19:42.470 --> 00:19:42.480 align:start position:0%
in the molten magma, they tend to orient
 

00:19:42.480 --> 00:19:43.990 align:start position:0%
in the molten magma, they tend to orient
themselves<00:19:42.880><c> in</c><00:19:43.120><c> the</c><00:19:43.280><c> direction</c><00:19:43.679><c> of</c><00:19:43.840><c> the</c>

00:19:43.990 --> 00:19:44.000 align:start position:0%
themselves in the direction of the
 

00:19:44.000 --> 00:19:46.230 align:start position:0%
themselves in the direction of the
Earth's<00:19:44.400><c> magnetic</c><00:19:44.799><c> field.</c><00:19:45.840><c> However,</c>

00:19:46.230 --> 00:19:46.240 align:start position:0%
Earth's magnetic field. However,
 

00:19:46.240 --> 00:19:48.230 align:start position:0%
Earth's magnetic field. However,
scientists<00:19:46.880><c> noticed</c><00:19:47.360><c> that</c><00:19:47.679><c> there</c><00:19:47.840><c> were</c>

00:19:48.230 --> 00:19:48.240 align:start position:0%
scientists noticed that there were
 

00:19:48.240 --> 00:19:50.230 align:start position:0%
scientists noticed that there were
layers<00:19:48.400><c> of</c><00:19:48.559><c> geological</c><00:19:49.280><c> history</c><00:19:49.760><c> where</c><00:19:50.000><c> the</c>

00:19:50.230 --> 00:19:50.240 align:start position:0%
layers of geological history where the
 

00:19:50.240 --> 00:19:52.549 align:start position:0%
layers of geological history where the
iron<00:19:50.559><c> was</c><00:19:50.799><c> pointing</c><00:19:51.120><c> one</c><00:19:51.360><c> way</c><00:19:51.919><c> and</c><00:19:52.320><c> layers</c>

00:19:52.549 --> 00:19:52.559 align:start position:0%
iron was pointing one way and layers
 

00:19:52.559 --> 00:19:54.470 align:start position:0%
iron was pointing one way and layers
where<00:19:52.880><c> it</c><00:19:53.120><c> was</c><00:19:53.280><c> pointing</c><00:19:53.600><c> in</c><00:19:53.840><c> the</c><00:19:54.000><c> reverse</c>

00:19:54.470 --> 00:19:54.480 align:start position:0%
where it was pointing in the reverse
 

00:19:54.480 --> 00:19:57.669 align:start position:0%
where it was pointing in the reverse
direction.<00:19:55.200><c> Their</c><00:19:55.919><c> explanation,</c><00:19:56.960><c> the</c><00:19:57.280><c> entire</c>

00:19:57.669 --> 00:19:57.679 align:start position:0%
direction. Their explanation, the entire
 

00:19:57.679 --> 00:20:00.710 align:start position:0%
direction. Their explanation, the entire
pole<00:19:58.000><c> of</c><00:19:58.160><c> the</c><00:19:58.400><c> planet</c><00:19:58.720><c> had</c><00:19:59.039><c> flipped.</c><00:20:00.480><c> On</c>

00:20:00.710 --> 00:20:00.720 align:start position:0%
pole of the planet had flipped. On
 

00:20:00.720 --> 00:20:02.549 align:start position:0%
pole of the planet had flipped. On
average,<00:20:01.200><c> these</c><00:20:01.440><c> flips</c><00:20:01.840><c> seem</c><00:20:02.080><c> to</c><00:20:02.240><c> happen</c>

00:20:02.549 --> 00:20:02.559 align:start position:0%
average, these flips seem to happen
 

00:20:02.559 --> 00:20:04.630 align:start position:0%
average, these flips seem to happen
every<00:20:03.120><c> 450,000</c>

00:20:04.630 --> 00:20:04.640 align:start position:0%
every 450,000
 

00:20:04.640 --> 00:20:07.270 align:start position:0%
every 450,000
years,<00:20:05.440><c> although</c><00:20:05.760><c> the</c><00:20:06.000><c> last</c><00:20:06.240><c> few</c><00:20:06.720><c> have</c><00:20:06.960><c> only</c>

00:20:07.270 --> 00:20:07.280 align:start position:0%
years, although the last few have only
 

00:20:07.280 --> 00:20:09.510 align:start position:0%
years, although the last few have only
got<00:20:07.679><c> 300,000year</c><00:20:08.880><c> gaps</c><00:20:09.143><c> [music]</c><00:20:09.200><c> between</c>

00:20:09.510 --> 00:20:09.520 align:start position:0%
got 300,000year gaps [music] between
 

00:20:09.520 --> 00:20:14.310 align:start position:0%
got 300,000year gaps [music] between
them.<00:20:10.320><c> Comparatively,</c><00:20:11.600><c> it's</c><00:20:12.000><c> been</c><00:20:12.480><c> 750,000</c>

00:20:14.310 --> 00:20:14.320 align:start position:0%
them. Comparatively, it's been 750,000
 

00:20:14.320 --> 00:20:17.430 align:start position:0%
them. Comparatively, it's been 750,000
years<00:20:14.799><c> since</c><00:20:15.039><c> the</c><00:20:15.280><c> last</c><00:20:15.600><c> reversal.</c><00:20:16.960><c> You</c><00:20:17.200><c> might</c>

00:20:17.430 --> 00:20:17.440 align:start position:0%
years since the last reversal. You might
 

00:20:17.440 --> 00:20:19.510 align:start position:0%
years since the last reversal. You might
think<00:20:17.600><c> that</c><00:20:17.840><c> we're</c><00:20:18.080><c> overdue</c><00:20:18.559><c> for</c><00:20:18.720><c> one,</c><00:20:19.200><c> and</c>

00:20:19.510 --> 00:20:19.520 align:start position:0%
think that we're overdue for one, and
 

00:20:19.520 --> 00:20:22.070 align:start position:0%
think that we're overdue for one, and
some<00:20:19.840><c> have</c><00:20:20.160><c> made</c><00:20:20.400><c> that</c><00:20:20.640><c> claim.</c><00:20:21.600><c> However,</c>

00:20:22.070 --> 00:20:22.080 align:start position:0%
some have made that claim. However,
 

00:20:22.080 --> 00:20:23.669 align:start position:0%
some have made that claim. However,
scientists<00:20:22.559><c> have</c><00:20:22.799><c> found</c><00:20:23.039><c> that</c><00:20:23.280><c> there's</c>

00:20:23.669 --> 00:20:23.679 align:start position:0%
scientists have found that there's
 

00:20:23.679 --> 00:20:25.830 align:start position:0%
scientists have found that there's
little<00:20:24.000><c> rhyme</c><00:20:24.400><c> or</c><00:20:24.720><c> reason</c><00:20:25.039><c> to</c><00:20:25.200><c> the</c><00:20:25.360><c> timing</c><00:20:25.679><c> of</c>

00:20:25.830 --> 00:20:25.840 align:start position:0%
little rhyme or reason to the timing of
 

00:20:25.840 --> 00:20:28.470 align:start position:0%
little rhyme or reason to the timing of
these<00:20:26.080><c> flips.</c><00:20:27.039><c> One</c><00:20:27.280><c> of</c><00:20:27.360><c> the</c><00:20:27.600><c> longest</c><00:20:28.080><c> gaps</c>

00:20:28.470 --> 00:20:28.480 align:start position:0%
these flips. One of the longest gaps
 

00:20:28.480 --> 00:20:30.230 align:start position:0%
these flips. One of the longest gaps
between<00:20:28.880><c> flips</c><00:20:29.440><c> took</c><00:20:29.760><c> place</c><00:20:29.919><c> in</c><00:20:30.080><c> the</c>

00:20:30.230 --> 00:20:30.240 align:start position:0%
between flips took place in the
 

00:20:30.240 --> 00:20:33.190 align:start position:0%
between flips took place in the
Cretaceous<00:20:30.880><c> period</c><00:20:31.520><c> and</c><00:20:31.760><c> it</c><00:20:31.919><c> lasted</c><00:20:32.640><c> 40</c>

00:20:33.190 --> 00:20:33.200 align:start position:0%
Cretaceous period and it lasted 40
 

00:20:33.200 --> 00:20:36.789 align:start position:0%
Cretaceous period and it lasted 40
million<00:20:33.600><c> years.</c><00:20:34.880><c> The</c><00:20:35.280><c> record</c><00:20:35.760><c> holder,</c><00:20:36.559><c> the</c>

00:20:36.789 --> 00:20:36.799 align:start position:0%
million years. The record holder, the
 

00:20:36.799 --> 00:20:42.070 align:start position:0%
million years. The record holder, the
Kieman<00:20:37.360><c> reverse</c><00:20:37.840><c> supercron,</c><00:20:38.799><c> was</c><00:20:39.280><c> 312</c><00:20:40.240><c> to</c><00:20:40.799><c> 262</c>

00:20:42.070 --> 00:20:42.080 align:start position:0%
Kieman reverse supercron, was 312 to 262
 

00:20:42.080 --> 00:20:45.350 align:start position:0%
Kieman reverse supercron, was 312 to 262
million<00:20:42.480><c> years</c><00:20:42.640><c> ago,</c><00:20:43.679><c> 50</c><00:20:44.159><c> million</c><00:20:44.559><c> years</c><00:20:45.120><c> with</c>

00:20:45.350 --> 00:20:45.360 align:start position:0%
million years ago, 50 million years with
 

00:20:45.360 --> 00:20:47.669 align:start position:0%
million years ago, 50 million years with
no<00:20:45.679><c> reversal.</c>

00:20:47.669 --> 00:20:47.679 align:start position:0%
no reversal.
 

00:20:47.679 --> 00:20:49.350 align:start position:0%
no reversal.
Scientists<00:20:48.240><c> are</c><00:20:48.480><c> still</c><00:20:48.880><c> trying</c><00:20:49.120><c> to</c>

00:20:49.350 --> 00:20:49.360 align:start position:0%
Scientists are still trying to
 

00:20:49.360 --> 00:20:50.789 align:start position:0%
Scientists are still trying to
understand<00:20:49.754><c> [music]</c><00:20:49.760><c> what</c><00:20:50.080><c> causes</c><00:20:50.480><c> these</c>

00:20:50.789 --> 00:20:50.799 align:start position:0%
understand [music] what causes these
 

00:20:50.799 --> 00:20:53.350 align:start position:0%
understand [music] what causes these
flips.<00:20:51.760><c> However,</c><00:20:52.159><c> the</c><00:20:52.400><c> current</c><00:20:52.640><c> theory</c><00:20:53.120><c> is</c>

00:20:53.350 --> 00:20:53.360 align:start position:0%
flips. However, the current theory is
 

00:20:53.360 --> 00:20:55.830 align:start position:0%
flips. However, the current theory is
that<00:20:53.679><c> something,</c><00:20:54.480><c> perhaps</c><00:20:54.960><c> some</c><00:20:55.280><c> interplay</c>

00:20:55.830 --> 00:20:55.840 align:start position:0%
that something, perhaps some interplay
 

00:20:55.840 --> 00:20:58.070 align:start position:0%
that something, perhaps some interplay
between<00:20:56.080><c> the</c><00:20:56.320><c> mantle</c><00:20:56.720><c> and</c><00:20:56.880><c> the</c><00:20:57.039><c> outer</c><00:20:57.360><c> core</c>

00:20:58.070 --> 00:20:58.080 align:start position:0%
between the mantle and the outer core
 

00:20:58.080 --> 00:21:00.070 align:start position:0%
between the mantle and the outer core
causes<00:20:58.480><c> a</c><00:20:58.720><c> fluctuation</c><00:20:59.280><c> in</c><00:20:59.520><c> the</c><00:20:59.679><c> core</c>

00:21:00.070 --> 00:21:00.080 align:start position:0%
causes a fluctuation in the core
 

00:21:00.080 --> 00:21:02.870 align:start position:0%
causes a fluctuation in the core
spinning.<00:21:01.200><c> This</c><00:21:01.600><c> disrupts</c><00:21:02.080><c> the</c><00:21:02.320><c> spiraling</c>

00:21:02.870 --> 00:21:02.880 align:start position:0%
spinning. This disrupts the spiraling
 

00:21:02.880 --> 00:21:05.110 align:start position:0%
spinning. This disrupts the spiraling
shapes<00:21:03.200><c> of</c><00:21:03.280><c> the</c><00:21:03.440><c> core's</c><00:21:03.919><c> flow,</c><00:21:04.559><c> breaking</c><00:21:04.880><c> them</c>

00:21:05.110 --> 00:21:05.120 align:start position:0%
shapes of the core's flow, breaking them
 

00:21:05.120 --> 00:21:07.669 align:start position:0%
shapes of the core's flow, breaking them
down.<00:21:06.080><c> The</c><00:21:06.320><c> magnetic</c><00:21:06.720><c> field</c><00:21:06.960><c> of</c><00:21:07.120><c> the</c><00:21:07.280><c> Earth</c>

00:21:07.669 --> 00:21:07.679 align:start position:0%
down. The magnetic field of the Earth
 

00:21:07.679 --> 00:21:10.070 align:start position:0%
down. The magnetic field of the Earth
stops<00:21:08.000><c> being</c><00:21:08.320><c> unified</c><00:21:09.120><c> and</c><00:21:09.520><c> generally</c>

00:21:10.070 --> 00:21:10.080 align:start position:0%
stops being unified and generally
 

00:21:10.080 --> 00:21:12.149 align:start position:0%
stops being unified and generally
becomes<00:21:10.559><c> a</c><00:21:10.714><c> [music]</c><00:21:10.799><c> sprawling</c><00:21:11.440><c> mess,</c>

00:21:12.149 --> 00:21:12.159 align:start position:0%
becomes a [music] sprawling mess,
 

00:21:12.159 --> 00:21:15.430 align:start position:0%
becomes a [music] sprawling mess,
fighting<00:21:12.640><c> against</c><00:21:13.039><c> itself.</c><00:21:14.240><c> Several</c><00:21:14.880><c> poles</c>

00:21:15.430 --> 00:21:15.440 align:start position:0%
fighting against itself. Several poles
 

00:21:15.440 --> 00:21:17.590 align:start position:0%
fighting against itself. Several poles
might<00:21:15.760><c> temporarily</c><00:21:16.480><c> arise</c><00:21:17.039><c> during</c><00:21:17.360><c> this</c>

00:21:17.590 --> 00:21:17.600 align:start position:0%
might temporarily arise during this
 

00:21:17.600 --> 00:21:20.630 align:start position:0%
might temporarily arise during this
period<00:21:18.000><c> of</c><00:21:18.240><c> shifting</c><00:21:18.799><c> magnetic</c><00:21:19.280><c> confusion.</c>

00:21:20.630 --> 00:21:20.640 align:start position:0%
period of shifting magnetic confusion.
 

00:21:20.640 --> 00:21:22.710 align:start position:0%
period of shifting magnetic confusion.
While<00:21:20.960><c> in</c><00:21:21.200><c> time</c><00:21:21.440><c> things</c><00:21:21.760><c> settle</c><00:21:22.080><c> down</c><00:21:22.320><c> and</c><00:21:22.559><c> the</c>

00:21:22.710 --> 00:21:22.720 align:start position:0%
While in time things settle down and the
 

00:21:22.720 --> 00:21:25.110 align:start position:0%
While in time things settle down and the
spirals<00:21:23.200><c> reassert</c><00:21:23.679><c> themselves,</c><00:21:24.559><c> it</c><00:21:24.799><c> seems</c>

00:21:25.110 --> 00:21:25.120 align:start position:0%
spirals reassert themselves, it seems
 

00:21:25.120 --> 00:21:27.350 align:start position:0%
spirals reassert themselves, it seems
random<00:21:25.760><c> as</c><00:21:26.080><c> to</c><00:21:26.320><c> which</c><00:21:26.559><c> way</c><00:21:26.720><c> they</c><00:21:26.960><c> will</c><00:21:27.200><c> do</c>

00:21:27.350 --> 00:21:27.360 align:start position:0%
random as to which way they will do
 

00:21:27.360 --> 00:21:29.830 align:start position:0%
random as to which way they will do
this.<00:21:28.080><c> Meaning</c><00:21:28.400><c> about</c><00:21:28.799><c> half</c><00:21:29.039><c> the</c><00:21:29.280><c> time</c><00:21:29.520><c> our</c>

00:21:29.830 --> 00:21:29.840 align:start position:0%
this. Meaning about half the time our
 

00:21:29.840 --> 00:21:32.310 align:start position:0%
this. Meaning about half the time our
magnetic<00:21:30.400><c> north</c><00:21:30.720><c> pole</c><00:21:31.200><c> reappears</c><00:21:31.840><c> over</c><00:21:32.080><c> the</c>

00:21:32.310 --> 00:21:32.320 align:start position:0%
magnetic north pole reappears over the
 

00:21:32.320 --> 00:21:35.750 align:start position:0%
magnetic north pole reappears over the
geographical<00:21:33.280><c> south.</c><00:21:34.400><c> This</c><00:21:34.720><c> reasserting</c><00:21:35.520><c> can</c>

00:21:35.750 --> 00:21:35.760 align:start position:0%
geographical south. This reasserting can
 

00:21:35.760 --> 00:21:39.830 align:start position:0%
geographical south. This reasserting can
take<00:21:36.080><c> 1,000</c><00:21:36.880><c> to</c><00:21:37.280><c> 10,000</c><00:21:38.000><c> years.</c>

00:21:39.830 --> 00:21:39.840 align:start position:0%
take 1,000 to 10,000 years.
 

00:21:39.840 --> 00:21:42.549 align:start position:0%
take 1,000 to 10,000 years.
All<00:21:39.919><c> right,</c><00:21:40.640><c> but</c><00:21:41.039><c> would</c><00:21:41.360><c> that</c><00:21:41.679><c> really</c><00:21:42.159><c> be</c><00:21:42.320><c> the</c>

00:21:42.549 --> 00:21:42.559 align:start position:0%
All right, but would that really be the
 

00:21:42.559 --> 00:21:45.830 align:start position:0%
All right, but would that really be the
end<00:21:42.720><c> of</c><00:21:42.799><c> the</c><00:21:43.039><c> world?</c><00:21:43.840><c> Why</c><00:21:44.080><c> does</c><00:21:44.320><c> this</c><00:21:44.559><c> matter?</c>

00:21:45.830 --> 00:21:45.840 align:start position:0%
end of the world? Why does this matter?
 

00:21:45.840 --> 00:21:47.669 align:start position:0%
end of the world? Why does this matter?
Well,<00:21:46.400><c> during</c><00:21:46.720><c> that</c><00:21:46.960><c> period</c><00:21:47.280><c> before</c><00:21:47.520><c> the</c>

00:21:47.669 --> 00:21:47.679 align:start position:0%
Well, during that period before the
 

00:21:47.679 --> 00:21:50.070 align:start position:0%
Well, during that period before the
poles<00:21:48.080><c> reassert</c><00:21:48.559><c> themselves,</c><00:21:49.360><c> our</c><00:21:49.679><c> Earth's</c>

00:21:50.070 --> 00:21:50.080 align:start position:0%
poles reassert themselves, our Earth's
 

00:21:50.080 --> 00:21:53.110 align:start position:0%
poles reassert themselves, our Earth's
magnetic<00:21:50.480><c> field</c><00:21:50.880><c> drops</c><00:21:51.280><c> to</c><00:21:51.520><c> as</c><00:21:51.760><c> low</c><00:21:51.919><c> as</c><00:21:52.240><c> 10%</c><00:21:52.880><c> of</c>

00:21:53.110 --> 00:21:53.120 align:start position:0%
magnetic field drops to as low as 10% of
 

00:21:53.120 --> 00:21:55.830 align:start position:0%
magnetic field drops to as low as 10% of
its<00:21:53.360><c> current</c><00:21:53.600><c> strength.</c><00:21:54.720><c> In</c><00:21:54.960><c> theory,</c><00:21:55.600><c> this</c>

00:21:55.830 --> 00:21:55.840 align:start position:0%
its current strength. In theory, this
 

00:21:55.840 --> 00:21:57.909 align:start position:0%
its current strength. In theory, this
could<00:21:56.080><c> leave</c><00:21:56.320><c> us</c><00:21:56.640><c> much</c><00:21:56.960><c> more</c><00:21:57.200><c> vulnerable</c><00:21:57.679><c> to</c>

00:21:57.909 --> 00:21:57.919 align:start position:0%
could leave us much more vulnerable to
 

00:21:57.919 --> 00:22:00.310 align:start position:0%
could leave us much more vulnerable to
all<00:21:58.159><c> the</c><00:21:58.400><c> solar</c><00:21:58.799><c> radiation</c><00:21:59.360><c> space</c><00:21:59.760><c> throws</c><00:22:00.080><c> at</c>

00:22:00.310 --> 00:22:00.320 align:start position:0%
all the solar radiation space throws at
 

00:22:00.320 --> 00:22:03.190 align:start position:0%
all the solar radiation space throws at
us.<00:22:01.039><c> We</c><00:22:01.280><c> could</c><00:22:01.440><c> see</c><00:22:01.760><c> auroras</c><00:22:02.400><c> reaching</c><00:22:02.880><c> much</c>

00:22:03.190 --> 00:22:03.200 align:start position:0%
us. We could see auroras reaching much
 

00:22:03.200 --> 00:22:05.990 align:start position:0%
us. We could see auroras reaching much
further<00:22:03.600><c> south</c><00:22:04.000><c> during</c><00:22:04.240><c> that</c><00:22:04.480><c> time.</c><00:22:05.679><c> Skin</c>

00:22:05.990 --> 00:22:06.000 align:start position:0%
further south during that time. Skin
 

00:22:06.000 --> 00:22:08.230 align:start position:0%
further south during that time. Skin
cancer<00:22:06.400><c> rates</c><00:22:06.640><c> would</c><00:22:06.960><c> increase.</c><00:22:07.840><c> Our</c>

00:22:08.230 --> 00:22:08.240 align:start position:0%
cancer rates would increase. Our
 

00:22:08.240 --> 00:22:09.909 align:start position:0%
cancer rates would increase. Our
satellites<00:22:08.799><c> would</c><00:22:09.039><c> find</c><00:22:09.200><c> themselves</c><00:22:09.679><c> with</c>

00:22:09.909 --> 00:22:09.919 align:start position:0%
satellites would find themselves with
 

00:22:09.919 --> 00:22:12.470 align:start position:0%
satellites would find themselves with
not<00:22:10.159><c> enough</c><00:22:10.400><c> shielding.</c><00:22:11.600><c> Radiation</c><00:22:12.240><c> would</c>

00:22:12.470 --> 00:22:12.480 align:start position:0%
not enough shielding. Radiation would
 

00:22:12.480 --> 00:22:14.549 align:start position:0%
not enough shielding. Radiation would
fry<00:22:12.880><c> their</c><00:22:13.120><c> circuits,</c><00:22:13.840><c> causing</c><00:22:14.159><c> them</c><00:22:14.400><c> to</c>

00:22:14.549 --> 00:22:14.559 align:start position:0%
fry their circuits, causing them to
 

00:22:14.559 --> 00:22:17.430 align:start position:0%
fry their circuits, causing them to
malfunction,<00:22:15.440><c> shut</c><00:22:15.760><c> down,</c><00:22:16.240><c> and</c><00:22:16.559><c> potentially</c>

00:22:17.430 --> 00:22:17.440 align:start position:0%
malfunction, shut down, and potentially
 

00:22:17.440 --> 00:22:20.149 align:start position:0%
malfunction, shut down, and potentially
even<00:22:17.760><c> slowly</c><00:22:18.159><c> fall</c><00:22:18.400><c> from</c><00:22:18.640><c> orbit.</c>

00:22:20.149 --> 00:22:20.159 align:start position:0%
even slowly fall from orbit.
 

00:22:20.159 --> 00:22:22.549 align:start position:0%
even slowly fall from orbit.
Our<00:22:20.640><c> electrical</c><00:22:21.200><c> grid</c><00:22:21.520><c> would</c><00:22:21.760><c> be</c><00:22:22.000><c> much</c><00:22:22.320><c> more</c>

00:22:22.549 --> 00:22:22.559 align:start position:0%
Our electrical grid would be much more
 

00:22:22.559 --> 00:22:25.190 align:start position:0%
Our electrical grid would be much more
vulnerable<00:22:22.960><c> to</c><00:22:23.200><c> solar</c><00:22:23.600><c> storms,</c><00:22:24.559><c> which</c><00:22:24.880><c> could</c>

00:22:25.190 --> 00:22:25.200 align:start position:0%
vulnerable to solar storms, which could
 

00:22:25.200 --> 00:22:27.270 align:start position:0%
vulnerable to solar storms, which could
lead<00:22:25.520><c> to</c><00:22:25.840><c> large</c><00:22:26.159><c> segments</c><00:22:26.559><c> of</c><00:22:26.720><c> the</c><00:22:26.880><c> Earth's</c>

00:22:27.270 --> 00:22:27.280 align:start position:0%
lead to large segments of the Earth's
 

00:22:27.280 --> 00:22:29.990 align:start position:0%
lead to large segments of the Earth's
population<00:22:27.919><c> without</c><00:22:28.320><c> power.</c><00:22:29.520><c> With</c><00:22:29.760><c> no</c>

00:22:29.990 --> 00:22:30.000 align:start position:0%
population without power. With no
 

00:22:30.000 --> 00:22:32.630 align:start position:0%
population without power. With no
electricity<00:22:30.720><c> or</c><00:22:31.039><c> satellite</c><00:22:31.520><c> communication,</c>

00:22:32.630 --> 00:22:32.640 align:start position:0%
electricity or satellite communication,
 

00:22:32.640 --> 00:22:35.110 align:start position:0%
electricity or satellite communication,
it<00:22:32.880><c> would</c><00:22:33.039><c> be</c><00:22:33.280><c> a</c><00:22:33.520><c> devastating</c><00:22:34.240><c> blow</c><00:22:34.559><c> to</c><00:22:34.799><c> our</c>

00:22:35.110 --> 00:22:35.120 align:start position:0%
it would be a devastating blow to our
 

00:22:35.120 --> 00:22:37.909 align:start position:0%
it would be a devastating blow to our
global<00:22:35.520><c> civilization.</c>

00:22:37.909 --> 00:22:37.919 align:start position:0%
global civilization.
 

00:22:37.919 --> 00:22:40.870 align:start position:0%
global civilization.
It<00:22:38.240><c> could</c><00:22:38.559><c> be</c><00:22:38.799><c> worse</c><00:22:39.039><c> than</c><00:22:39.280><c> that.</c><00:22:40.240><c> A</c><00:22:40.480><c> research</c>

00:22:40.870 --> 00:22:40.880 align:start position:0%
It could be worse than that. A research
 

00:22:40.880 --> 00:22:42.710 align:start position:0%
It could be worse than that. A research
team<00:22:41.120><c> from</c><00:22:41.360><c> the</c><00:22:41.520><c> University</c><00:22:42.000><c> of</c><00:22:42.240><c> New</c><00:22:42.480><c> South</c>

00:22:42.710 --> 00:22:42.720 align:start position:0%
team from the University of New South
 

00:22:42.720 --> 00:22:45.110 align:start position:0%
team from the University of New South
Wales<00:22:43.039><c> in</c><00:22:43.280><c> Sydney</c><00:22:44.000><c> even</c><00:22:44.240><c> linked</c><00:22:44.640><c> one</c><00:22:44.880><c> of</c><00:22:44.960><c> the</c>

00:22:45.110 --> 00:22:45.120 align:start position:0%
Wales in Sydney even linked one of the
 

00:22:45.120 --> 00:22:47.110 align:start position:0%
Wales in Sydney even linked one of the
most<00:22:45.440><c> recent</c><00:22:45.840><c> weakenings</c><00:22:46.320><c> of</c><00:22:46.480><c> the</c><00:22:46.640><c> magnetic</c>

00:22:47.110 --> 00:22:47.120 align:start position:0%
most recent weakenings of the magnetic
 

00:22:47.120 --> 00:22:50.230 align:start position:0%
most recent weakenings of the magnetic
field,<00:22:47.760><c> the</c><00:22:47.919><c> Lashamps</c><00:22:48.559><c> event,</c><00:22:49.280><c> a</c><00:22:49.600><c> temporary</c>

00:22:50.230 --> 00:22:50.240 align:start position:0%
field, the Lashamps event, a temporary
 

00:22:50.240 --> 00:22:52.870 align:start position:0%
field, the Lashamps event, a temporary
800year<00:22:51.039><c> wobble</c><00:22:51.440><c> rather</c><00:22:51.679><c> than</c><00:22:51.840><c> a</c><00:22:52.000><c> full</c><00:22:52.240><c> flip</c>

00:22:52.870 --> 00:22:52.880 align:start position:0%
800year wobble rather than a full flip
 

00:22:52.880 --> 00:22:55.270 align:start position:0%
800year wobble rather than a full flip
to<00:22:53.120><c> megapornal</c><00:22:54.000><c> mass</c><00:22:54.400><c> extinctions</c><00:22:55.039><c> in</c>

00:22:55.270 --> 00:22:55.280 align:start position:0%
to megapornal mass extinctions in
 

00:22:55.280 --> 00:22:57.510 align:start position:0%
to megapornal mass extinctions in
Australia,<00:22:56.320><c> including</c><00:22:56.720><c> the</c><00:22:56.960><c> deaths</c><00:22:57.280><c> of</c>

00:22:57.510 --> 00:22:57.520 align:start position:0%
Australia, including the deaths of
 

00:22:57.520 --> 00:22:59.110 align:start position:0%
Australia, including the deaths of
Droaton,

00:22:59.110 --> 00:22:59.120 align:start position:0%
Droaton,
 

00:22:59.120 --> 00:23:02.549 align:start position:0%
Droaton,
giant<00:22:59.600><c> Australian</c><00:23:00.159><c> wombats,</c><00:23:01.200><c> and</c><00:23:01.520><c> Procopadon</c>

00:23:02.549 --> 00:23:02.559 align:start position:0%
giant Australian wombats, and Procopadon
 

00:23:02.559 --> 00:23:05.830 align:start position:0%
giant Australian wombats, and Procopadon
Galia,<00:23:03.600><c> giant</c><00:23:04.080><c> kangaroos.</c>

00:23:05.830 --> 00:23:05.840 align:start position:0%
Galia, giant kangaroos.
 

00:23:05.840 --> 00:23:08.149 align:start position:0%
Galia, giant kangaroos.
Temporary<00:23:06.320><c> wobbles</c><00:23:06.720><c> like</c><00:23:06.960><c> this</c><00:23:07.280><c> are</c><00:23:07.600><c> known</c><00:23:07.840><c> as</c>

00:23:08.149 --> 00:23:08.159 align:start position:0%
Temporary wobbles like this are known as
 

00:23:08.159 --> 00:23:10.950 align:start position:0%
Temporary wobbles like this are known as
geomagnetic<00:23:09.120><c> excursions</c><00:23:10.080><c> rather</c><00:23:10.400><c> than</c><00:23:10.640><c> full</c>

00:23:10.950 --> 00:23:10.960 align:start position:0%
geomagnetic excursions rather than full
 

00:23:10.960 --> 00:23:13.110 align:start position:0%
geomagnetic excursions rather than full
reversals<00:23:11.760><c> and</c><00:23:12.000><c> they</c><00:23:12.159><c> happen</c><00:23:12.480><c> over</c><00:23:12.799><c> much</c>

00:23:13.110 --> 00:23:13.120 align:start position:0%
reversals and they happen over much
 

00:23:13.120 --> 00:23:15.669 align:start position:0%
reversals and they happen over much
shorter<00:23:13.600><c> time</c><00:23:13.840><c> frames.</c><00:23:14.880><c> Their</c><00:23:15.200><c> transition</c>

00:23:15.669 --> 00:23:15.679 align:start position:0%
shorter time frames. Their transition
 

00:23:15.679 --> 00:23:18.310 align:start position:0%
shorter time frames. Their transition
periods<00:23:16.080><c> can</c><00:23:16.320><c> last</c><00:23:16.559><c> as</c><00:23:16.880><c> little</c><00:23:17.120><c> as</c><00:23:17.440><c> 200</c><00:23:17.919><c> years</c>

00:23:18.310 --> 00:23:18.320 align:start position:0%
periods can last as little as 200 years
 

00:23:18.320 --> 00:23:20.710 align:start position:0%
periods can last as little as 200 years
rather<00:23:18.640><c> than</c><00:23:18.960><c> 10,000</c><00:23:19.751><c> [music]</c><00:23:20.080><c> which</c><00:23:20.320><c> can</c><00:23:20.559><c> be</c>

00:23:20.710 --> 00:23:20.720 align:start position:0%
rather than 10,000 [music] which can be
 

00:23:20.720 --> 00:23:22.789 align:start position:0%
rather than 10,000 [music] which can be
much<00:23:21.039><c> more</c><00:23:21.280><c> difficult</c><00:23:21.600><c> for</c><00:23:21.840><c> species</c><00:23:22.320><c> to</c><00:23:22.480><c> adapt</c>

00:23:22.789 --> 00:23:22.799 align:start position:0%
much more difficult for species to adapt
 

00:23:22.799 --> 00:23:26.710 align:start position:0%
much more difficult for species to adapt
to.<00:23:23.840><c> In</c><00:23:24.159><c> their</c><00:23:24.480><c> 2021</c><00:23:25.360><c> study,</c><00:23:26.000><c> they</c><00:23:26.240><c> argued</c>

00:23:26.710 --> 00:23:26.720 align:start position:0%
to. In their 2021 study, they argued
 

00:23:26.720 --> 00:23:28.710 align:start position:0%
to. In their 2021 study, they argued
that<00:23:26.960><c> there</c><00:23:27.120><c> was</c><00:23:27.280><c> a</c><00:23:27.520><c> spike</c><00:23:27.760><c> in</c><00:23:28.000><c> atmospheric</c>

00:23:28.710 --> 00:23:28.720 align:start position:0%
that there was a spike in atmospheric
 

00:23:28.720 --> 00:23:31.190 align:start position:0%
that there was a spike in atmospheric
radiocarbon<00:23:29.520><c> levels</c><00:23:30.480><c> caused</c><00:23:30.799><c> by</c><00:23:31.039><c> the</c>

00:23:31.190 --> 00:23:31.200 align:start position:0%
radiocarbon levels caused by the
 

00:23:31.200 --> 00:23:33.270 align:start position:0%
radiocarbon levels caused by the
collapse<00:23:31.520><c> of</c><00:23:31.679><c> the</c><00:23:31.840><c> Earth's</c><00:23:32.159><c> magnetic</c><00:23:32.559><c> field,</c>

00:23:33.270 --> 00:23:33.280 align:start position:0%
collapse of the Earth's magnetic field,
 

00:23:33.280 --> 00:23:35.029 align:start position:0%
collapse of the Earth's magnetic field,
indicating<00:23:33.919><c> climate</c><00:23:34.320><c> shifts</c><00:23:34.640><c> that</c><00:23:34.880><c> could</c>

00:23:35.029 --> 00:23:35.039 align:start position:0%
indicating climate shifts that could
 

00:23:35.039 --> 00:23:37.190 align:start position:0%
indicating climate shifts that could
have<00:23:35.200><c> led</c><00:23:35.440><c> to</c><00:23:35.520><c> these</c><00:23:35.840><c> extinctions.</c><00:23:36.880><c> The</c>

00:23:37.190 --> 00:23:37.200 align:start position:0%
have led to these extinctions. The
 

00:23:37.200 --> 00:23:40.870 align:start position:0%
have led to these extinctions. The
timing<00:23:37.679><c> lines</c><00:23:38.080><c> up</c><00:23:38.400><c> uncomfortably.</c>

00:23:40.870 --> 00:23:40.880 align:start position:0%
timing lines up uncomfortably.
 

00:23:40.880 --> 00:23:44.710 align:start position:0%
timing lines up uncomfortably.
But<00:23:41.440><c> how</c><00:23:41.760><c> real</c><00:23:42.159><c> are</c><00:23:42.400><c> these</c><00:23:42.720><c> risks?</c><00:23:43.919><c> Honestly,</c>

00:23:44.710 --> 00:23:44.720 align:start position:0%
But how real are these risks? Honestly,
 

00:23:44.720 --> 00:23:47.990 align:start position:0%
But how real are these risks? Honestly,
it's<00:23:44.960><c> a</c><00:23:45.120><c> mixed</c><00:23:45.440><c> bag.</c><00:23:46.480><c> A</c><00:23:46.720><c> point</c><00:23:46.880><c> in</c><00:23:47.120><c> our</c><00:23:47.440><c> favor</c>

00:23:47.990 --> 00:23:48.000 align:start position:0%
it's a mixed bag. A point in our favor
 

00:23:48.000 --> 00:23:50.230 align:start position:0%
it's a mixed bag. A point in our favor
is<00:23:48.240><c> that</c><00:23:48.559><c> other</c><00:23:48.799><c> than</c><00:23:48.960><c> this</c><00:23:49.280><c> recent</c><00:23:49.600><c> study,</c>

00:23:50.230 --> 00:23:50.240 align:start position:0%
is that other than this recent study,
 

00:23:50.240 --> 00:23:51.990 align:start position:0%
is that other than this recent study,
there<00:23:50.480><c> is</c><00:23:50.640><c> no</c><00:23:50.880><c> indication</c><00:23:51.360><c> that</c><00:23:51.600><c> magnetic</c>

00:23:51.990 --> 00:23:52.000 align:start position:0%
there is no indication that magnetic
 

00:23:52.000 --> 00:23:54.390 align:start position:0%
there is no indication that magnetic
field<00:23:52.320><c> reversals</c><00:23:52.880><c> have</c><00:23:53.120><c> ever</c><00:23:53.440><c> coincided</c><00:23:54.080><c> with</c>

00:23:54.390 --> 00:23:54.400 align:start position:0%
field reversals have ever coincided with
 

00:23:54.400 --> 00:23:56.789 align:start position:0%
field reversals have ever coincided with
mass<00:23:54.720><c> extinction</c><00:23:55.280><c> events.</c><00:23:56.159><c> It</c><00:23:56.400><c> seems</c><00:23:56.640><c> like</c>

00:23:56.789 --> 00:23:56.799 align:start position:0%
mass extinction events. It seems like
 

00:23:56.799 --> 00:23:58.710 align:start position:0%
mass extinction events. It seems like
many<00:23:57.120><c> reversals</c><00:23:57.679><c> have</c><00:23:57.919><c> come</c><00:23:58.080><c> and</c><00:23:58.400><c> gone</c>

00:23:58.710 --> 00:23:58.720 align:start position:0%
many reversals have come and gone
 

00:23:58.720 --> 00:24:00.789 align:start position:0%
many reversals have come and gone
without<00:23:59.039><c> affecting</c><00:23:59.600><c> animal</c><00:24:00.000><c> or</c><00:24:00.240><c> plant</c><00:24:00.559><c> life</c>

00:24:00.789 --> 00:24:00.799 align:start position:0%
without affecting animal or plant life
 

00:24:00.799 --> 00:24:03.909 align:start position:0%
without affecting animal or plant life
at<00:24:01.039><c> all.</c><00:24:01.919><c> And</c><00:24:02.159><c> even</c><00:24:02.480><c> in</c><00:24:02.799><c> this</c><00:24:02.960><c> study,</c><00:24:03.600><c> such</c>

00:24:03.909 --> 00:24:03.919 align:start position:0%
at all. And even in this study, such
 

00:24:03.919 --> 00:24:05.669 align:start position:0%
at all. And even in this study, such
mass<00:24:04.320><c> extinctions</c><00:24:04.960><c> seem</c><00:24:05.200><c> to</c><00:24:05.360><c> have</c><00:24:05.520><c> been</c>

00:24:05.669 --> 00:24:05.679 align:start position:0%
mass extinctions seem to have been
 

00:24:05.679 --> 00:24:08.070 align:start position:0%
mass extinctions seem to have been
limited<00:24:06.000><c> in</c><00:24:06.240><c> scope.</c><00:24:06.960><c> There</c><00:24:07.200><c> is</c><00:24:07.360><c> no</c><00:24:07.600><c> claim</c><00:24:07.840><c> from</c>

00:24:08.070 --> 00:24:08.080 align:start position:0%
limited in scope. There is no claim from
 

00:24:08.080 --> 00:24:09.909 align:start position:0%
limited in scope. There is no claim from
the<00:24:08.240><c> researchers</c><00:24:08.720><c> that</c><00:24:08.960><c> this</c><00:24:09.120><c> was</c><00:24:09.280><c> a</c><00:24:09.520><c> global</c>

00:24:09.909 --> 00:24:09.919 align:start position:0%
the researchers that this was a global
 

00:24:09.919 --> 00:24:12.149 align:start position:0%
the researchers that this was a global
phenomenon.<00:24:11.039><c> Other</c><00:24:11.360><c> parts</c><00:24:11.600><c> of</c><00:24:11.760><c> the</c><00:24:11.919><c> world</c>

00:24:12.149 --> 00:24:12.159 align:start position:0%
phenomenon. Other parts of the world
 

00:24:12.159 --> 00:24:14.230 align:start position:0%
phenomenon. Other parts of the world
remained<00:24:12.559><c> unaffected</c><00:24:13.520><c> even</c><00:24:13.840><c> during</c><00:24:14.080><c> the</c>

00:24:14.230 --> 00:24:14.240 align:start position:0%
remained unaffected even during the
 

00:24:14.240 --> 00:24:16.390 align:start position:0%
remained unaffected even during the
Lashamps<00:24:14.880><c> event.</c>

00:24:16.390 --> 00:24:16.400 align:start position:0%
Lashamps event.
 

00:24:16.400 --> 00:24:18.870 align:start position:0%
Lashamps event.
It<00:24:16.640><c> seems</c><00:24:16.960><c> that</c><00:24:17.279><c> a</c><00:24:17.600><c> perfect</c><00:24:18.000><c> storm</c><00:24:18.400><c> might</c><00:24:18.720><c> have</c>

00:24:18.870 --> 00:24:18.880 align:start position:0%
It seems that a perfect storm might have
 

00:24:18.880 --> 00:24:21.029 align:start position:0%
It seems that a perfect storm might have
been<00:24:19.039><c> in</c><00:24:19.279><c> play</c><00:24:19.760><c> where</c><00:24:20.080><c> specific</c><00:24:20.640><c> conditions</c>

00:24:21.029 --> 00:24:21.039 align:start position:0%
been in play where specific conditions
 

00:24:21.039 --> 00:24:23.269 align:start position:0%
been in play where specific conditions
over<00:24:21.440><c> Australia</c><00:24:22.159><c> left</c><00:24:22.400><c> it</c><00:24:22.640><c> more</c><00:24:22.880><c> vulnerable</c>

00:24:23.269 --> 00:24:23.279 align:start position:0%
over Australia left it more vulnerable
 

00:24:23.279 --> 00:24:25.909 align:start position:0%
over Australia left it more vulnerable
to<00:24:23.520><c> solar</c><00:24:23.919><c> radiation.</c>

00:24:25.909 --> 00:24:25.919 align:start position:0%
to solar radiation.
 

00:24:25.919 --> 00:24:28.549 align:start position:0%
to solar radiation.
In<00:24:26.240><c> terms</c><00:24:26.400><c> of</c><00:24:26.640><c> our</c><00:24:26.960><c> global</c><00:24:27.440><c> society,</c><00:24:28.320><c> it's</c>

00:24:28.549 --> 00:24:28.559 align:start position:0%
In terms of our global society, it's
 

00:24:28.559 --> 00:24:30.310 align:start position:0%
In terms of our global society, it's
worth<00:24:28.799><c> noting</c><00:24:29.039><c> that</c><00:24:29.200><c> these</c><00:24:29.520><c> magnetic</c><00:24:30.000><c> changes</c>

00:24:30.310 --> 00:24:30.320 align:start position:0%
worth noting that these magnetic changes
 

00:24:30.320 --> 00:24:32.870 align:start position:0%
worth noting that these magnetic changes
would<00:24:30.640><c> take</c><00:24:30.960><c> many</c><00:24:31.440><c> lifetimes</c><00:24:32.000><c> to</c><00:24:32.159><c> complete,</c>

00:24:32.870 --> 00:24:32.880 align:start position:0%
would take many lifetimes to complete,
 

00:24:32.880 --> 00:24:35.269 align:start position:0%
would take many lifetimes to complete,
even<00:24:33.120><c> at</c><00:24:33.360><c> their</c><00:24:33.600><c> fastest.</c><00:24:34.720><c> This</c><00:24:34.960><c> would</c><00:24:35.120><c> be</c>

00:24:35.269 --> 00:24:35.279 align:start position:0%
even at their fastest. This would be
 

00:24:35.279 --> 00:24:37.029 align:start position:0%
even at their fastest. This would be
slow<00:24:35.600><c> enough</c><00:24:35.840><c> that</c><00:24:36.080><c> we</c><00:24:36.320><c> could</c><00:24:36.480><c> come</c><00:24:36.559><c> to</c><00:24:36.799><c> terms</c>

00:24:37.029 --> 00:24:37.039 align:start position:0%
slow enough that we could come to terms
 

00:24:37.039 --> 00:24:39.990 align:start position:0%
slow enough that we could come to terms
with<00:24:37.279><c> our</c><00:24:37.520><c> new</c><00:24:37.760><c> reality.</c><00:24:38.880><c> If</c><00:24:39.120><c> our</c><00:24:39.360><c> satellites</c>

00:24:39.990 --> 00:24:40.000 align:start position:0%
with our new reality. If our satellites
 

00:24:40.000 --> 00:24:41.617 align:start position:0%
with our new reality. If our satellites
don't<00:24:40.240><c> have</c><00:24:40.400><c> enough</c><00:24:40.640><c> shielding,</c><00:24:41.360><c> we</c><00:24:41.600><c> would</c>

00:24:41.617 --> 00:24:41.627 align:start position:0%
don't have enough shielding, we would
 

00:24:41.627 --> 00:24:43.029 align:start position:0%
don't have enough shielding, we would
[music]<00:24:41.840><c> have</c><00:24:42.000><c> time</c><00:24:42.240><c> to</c><00:24:42.400><c> build</c><00:24:42.640><c> some</c><00:24:42.880><c> that</c>

00:24:43.029 --> 00:24:43.039 align:start position:0%
[music] have time to build some that
 

00:24:43.039 --> 00:24:45.269 align:start position:0%
[music] have time to build some that
were<00:24:43.279><c> better</c><00:24:43.600><c> protected.</c><00:24:44.720><c> If</c><00:24:44.960><c> solar</c>

00:24:45.269 --> 00:24:45.279 align:start position:0%
were better protected. If solar
 

00:24:45.279 --> 00:24:47.750 align:start position:0%
were better protected. If solar
radiation<00:24:45.840><c> becomes</c><00:24:46.240><c> a</c><00:24:46.480><c> larger</c><00:24:46.880><c> risk,</c><00:24:47.440><c> we</c>

00:24:47.750 --> 00:24:47.760 align:start position:0%
radiation becomes a larger risk, we
 

00:24:47.760 --> 00:24:50.310 align:start position:0%
radiation becomes a larger risk, we
could<00:24:47.919><c> remain</c><00:24:48.240><c> indoors</c><00:24:48.799><c> more,</c><00:24:49.760><c> sun</c><00:24:50.000><c> cream</c>

00:24:50.310 --> 00:24:50.320 align:start position:0%
could remain indoors more, sun cream
 

00:24:50.320 --> 00:24:52.310 align:start position:0%
could remain indoors more, sun cream
might<00:24:50.559><c> become</c><00:24:50.880><c> more</c><00:24:51.120><c> powerful</c><00:24:51.760><c> to</c><00:24:51.919><c> mitigate</c>

00:24:52.310 --> 00:24:52.320 align:start position:0%
might become more powerful to mitigate
 

00:24:52.320 --> 00:24:54.470 align:start position:0%
might become more powerful to mitigate
the<00:24:52.559><c> dangers</c><00:24:52.880><c> of</c><00:24:53.039><c> cancers</c><00:24:53.760><c> if</c><00:24:53.919><c> not</c><00:24:54.159><c> remove</c>

00:24:54.470 --> 00:24:54.480 align:start position:0%
the dangers of cancers if not remove
 

00:24:54.480 --> 00:24:56.549 align:start position:0%
the dangers of cancers if not remove
them<00:24:54.640><c> entirely.</c>

00:24:56.549 --> 00:24:56.559 align:start position:0%
them entirely.
 

00:24:56.559 --> 00:24:59.669 align:start position:0%
them entirely.
And<00:24:56.960><c> according</c><00:24:57.360><c> to</c><00:24:57.520><c> NASA,</c><00:24:58.480><c> even</c><00:24:58.720><c> if</c><00:24:59.039><c> our</c><00:24:59.360><c> field</c>

00:24:59.669 --> 00:24:59.679 align:start position:0%
And according to NASA, even if our field
 

00:24:59.679 --> 00:25:02.230 align:start position:0%
And according to NASA, even if our field
were<00:24:59.840><c> to</c><00:25:00.159><c> significantly</c><00:25:00.960><c> weaken,</c><00:25:01.840><c> it's</c><00:25:02.080><c> not</c>

00:25:02.230 --> 00:25:02.240 align:start position:0%
were to significantly weaken, it's not
 

00:25:02.240 --> 00:25:03.669 align:start position:0%
were to significantly weaken, it's not
like<00:25:02.480><c> we</c><00:25:02.720><c> would</c><00:25:02.880><c> be</c><00:25:03.039><c> left</c><00:25:03.200><c> without</c>

00:25:03.669 --> 00:25:03.679 align:start position:0%
like we would be left without
 

00:25:03.679 --> 00:25:06.630 align:start position:0%
like we would be left without
protection.<00:25:04.720><c> Our</c><00:25:05.039><c> atmosphere</c><00:25:05.679><c> itself</c><00:25:06.400><c> can</c>

00:25:06.630 --> 00:25:06.640 align:start position:0%
protection. Our atmosphere itself can
 

00:25:06.640 --> 00:25:08.710 align:start position:0%
protection. Our atmosphere itself can
catch<00:25:06.880><c> radiation,</c><00:25:07.840><c> meaning</c><00:25:08.080><c> that</c><00:25:08.320><c> we</c><00:25:08.480><c> would</c>

00:25:08.710 --> 00:25:08.720 align:start position:0%
catch radiation, meaning that we would
 

00:25:08.720 --> 00:25:10.710 align:start position:0%
catch radiation, meaning that we would
remain<00:25:09.039><c> safe</c><00:25:09.279><c> from</c><00:25:09.520><c> solar</c><00:25:09.840><c> winds</c><00:25:10.080><c> and</c><00:25:10.320><c> cosmic</c>

00:25:10.710 --> 00:25:10.720 align:start position:0%
remain safe from solar winds and cosmic
 

00:25:10.720 --> 00:25:13.669 align:start position:0%
remain safe from solar winds and cosmic
radiation,<00:25:11.600><c> at</c><00:25:11.600><c> least</c><00:25:11.919><c> to</c><00:25:12.240><c> some</c><00:25:12.559><c> degree.</c><00:25:13.440><c> It</c>

00:25:13.669 --> 00:25:13.679 align:start position:0%
radiation, at least to some degree. It
 

00:25:13.679 --> 00:25:15.669 align:start position:0%
radiation, at least to some degree. It
would<00:25:13.840><c> take</c><00:25:14.080><c> far</c><00:25:14.400><c> longer</c><00:25:14.720><c> than</c><00:25:14.960><c> 10,000</c><00:25:15.440><c> years</c>

00:25:15.669 --> 00:25:15.679 align:start position:0%
would take far longer than 10,000 years
 

00:25:15.679 --> 00:25:17.430 align:start position:0%
would take far longer than 10,000 years
for<00:25:16.000><c> our</c><00:25:16.159><c> atmosphere's</c><00:25:16.799><c> ozone</c><00:25:17.200><c> to</c><00:25:17.360><c> be</c>

00:25:17.430 --> 00:25:17.440 align:start position:0%
for our atmosphere's ozone to be
 

00:25:17.440 --> 00:25:20.630 align:start position:0%
for our atmosphere's ozone to be
stripped<00:25:17.760><c> away.</c><00:25:18.960><c> But</c><00:25:19.360><c> I</c><00:25:19.679><c> would</c><00:25:20.000><c> be</c><00:25:20.159><c> surprised</c>

00:25:20.630 --> 00:25:20.640 align:start position:0%
stripped away. But I would be surprised
 

00:25:20.640 --> 00:25:23.029 align:start position:0%
stripped away. But I would be surprised
if<00:25:20.960><c> there</c><00:25:21.200><c> wasn't</c><00:25:21.520><c> at</c><00:25:21.520><c> least</c><00:25:21.840><c> some</c><00:25:22.080><c> turmoil,</c>

00:25:23.029 --> 00:25:23.039 align:start position:0%
if there wasn't at least some turmoil,
 

00:25:23.039 --> 00:25:24.950 align:start position:0%
if there wasn't at least some turmoil,
at least<00:25:23.360><c> while</c><00:25:23.600><c> we</c><00:25:23.840><c> adjusted</c><00:25:24.400><c> to</c><00:25:24.720><c> living</c>

00:25:24.950 --> 00:25:24.960 align:start position:0%
at least while we adjusted to living
 

00:25:24.960 --> 00:25:27.350 align:start position:0%
at least while we adjusted to living
under<00:25:25.279><c> a</c><00:25:25.520><c> reduced</c><00:25:25.840><c> magnetic</c><00:25:26.320><c> field.</c><00:25:27.120><c> Big</c>

00:25:27.350 --> 00:25:27.360 align:start position:0%
under a reduced magnetic field. Big
 

00:25:27.360 --> 00:25:29.432 align:start position:0%
under a reduced magnetic field. Big
changes<00:25:27.679><c> to</c><00:25:27.919><c> how</c><00:25:28.080><c> a</c><00:25:28.320><c> society</c><00:25:28.880><c> operates</c>

00:25:29.432 --> 00:25:29.442 align:start position:0%
changes to how a society operates
 

00:25:29.442 --> 00:25:32.390 align:start position:0%
changes to how a society operates
[music]<00:25:29.600><c> are</c><00:25:29.919><c> always</c><00:25:30.320><c> painful.</c><00:25:31.760><c> And</c><00:25:32.000><c> this</c>

00:25:32.390 --> 00:25:32.400 align:start position:0%
[music] are always painful. And this
 

00:25:32.400 --> 00:25:35.350 align:start position:0%
[music] are always painful. And this
isn't<00:25:32.960><c> entirely</c><00:25:33.600><c> hypothetical.</c><00:25:34.960><c> Did</c><00:25:35.200><c> you</c>

00:25:35.350 --> 00:25:35.360 align:start position:0%
isn't entirely hypothetical. Did you
 

00:25:35.360 --> 00:25:37.590 align:start position:0%
isn't entirely hypothetical. Did you
know<00:25:35.600><c> the</c><00:25:35.840><c> Earth's</c><00:25:36.240><c> magnetic</c><00:25:36.640><c> field</c><00:25:37.039><c> has</c><00:25:37.360><c> been</c>

00:25:37.590 --> 00:25:37.600 align:start position:0%
know the Earth's magnetic field has been
 

00:25:37.600 --> 00:25:40.070 align:start position:0%
know the Earth's magnetic field has been
steadily<00:25:38.159><c> weakening</c><00:25:38.799><c> for</c><00:25:38.960><c> the</c><00:25:39.200><c> last</c><00:25:39.520><c> 200</c>

00:25:40.070 --> 00:25:40.080 align:start position:0%
steadily weakening for the last 200
 

00:25:40.080 --> 00:25:43.510 align:start position:0%
steadily weakening for the last 200
years?<00:25:41.120><c> It</c><00:25:41.360><c> would</c><00:25:41.520><c> take</c><00:25:41.760><c> another</c><00:25:42.159><c> 1,300</c><00:25:43.360><c> years</c>

00:25:43.510 --> 00:25:43.520 align:start position:0%
years? It would take another 1,300 years
 

00:25:43.520 --> 00:25:45.430 align:start position:0%
years? It would take another 1,300 years
for<00:25:43.679><c> it</c><00:25:43.840><c> to</c><00:25:43.919><c> vanish</c><00:25:44.320><c> completely.</c><00:25:45.039><c> So,</c><00:25:45.200><c> there's</c>

00:25:45.430 --> 00:25:45.440 align:start position:0%
for it to vanish completely. So, there's
 

00:25:45.440 --> 00:25:46.789 align:start position:0%
for it to vanish completely. So, there's
plenty<00:25:45.760><c> of</c><00:25:45.919><c> time</c><00:25:46.080><c> for</c><00:25:46.240><c> it</c><00:25:46.400><c> to</c><00:25:46.472><c> [music]</c><00:25:46.559><c> stop</c>

00:25:46.789 --> 00:25:46.799 align:start position:0%
plenty of time for it to [music] stop
 

00:25:46.799 --> 00:25:48.950 align:start position:0%
plenty of time for it to [music] stop
its<00:25:47.039><c> current</c><00:25:47.279><c> downward</c><00:25:47.760><c> trend.</c><00:25:48.480><c> And</c><00:25:48.640><c> there's</c>

00:25:48.950 --> 00:25:48.960 align:start position:0%
its current downward trend. And there's
 

00:25:48.960 --> 00:25:50.870 align:start position:0%
its current downward trend. And there's
no<00:25:49.200><c> reason</c><00:25:49.360><c> to</c><00:25:49.600><c> think</c><00:25:49.919><c> this</c><00:25:50.159><c> isn't</c><00:25:50.480><c> just</c><00:25:50.720><c> a</c>

00:25:50.870 --> 00:25:50.880 align:start position:0%
no reason to think this isn't just a
 

00:25:50.880 --> 00:25:53.990 align:start position:0%
no reason to think this isn't just a
temporary<00:25:51.279><c> wobble.</c><00:25:52.480><c> But</c><00:25:52.880><c> on</c><00:25:53.120><c> top</c><00:25:53.279><c> of</c><00:25:53.360><c> that,</c>

00:25:53.990 --> 00:25:54.000 align:start position:0%
temporary wobble. But on top of that,
 

00:25:54.000 --> 00:25:56.710 align:start position:0%
temporary wobble. But on top of that,
there<00:25:54.240><c> is</c><00:25:54.480><c> also</c><00:25:54.799><c> the</c><00:25:55.200><c> South</c><00:25:55.520><c> Atlantic</c><00:25:56.159><c> anomaly</c>

00:25:56.710 --> 00:25:56.720 align:start position:0%
there is also the South Atlantic anomaly
 

00:25:56.720 --> 00:25:58.789 align:start position:0%
there is also the South Atlantic anomaly
to<00:25:56.960><c> consider.</c><00:25:57.760><c> A</c><00:25:57.919><c> section</c><00:25:58.159><c> of</c><00:25:58.320><c> the</c><00:25:58.480><c> Earth's</c>

00:25:58.789 --> 00:25:58.799 align:start position:0%
to consider. A section of the Earth's
 

00:25:58.799 --> 00:26:01.110 align:start position:0%
to consider. A section of the Earth's
magnetic<00:25:59.200><c> field</c><00:25:59.520><c> that</c><00:25:59.760><c> is</c><00:26:00.080><c> already</c><00:26:00.720><c> showing</c>

00:26:01.110 --> 00:26:01.120 align:start position:0%
magnetic field that is already showing
 

00:26:01.120 --> 00:26:03.590 align:start position:0%
magnetic field that is already showing
signs<00:26:01.440><c> of</c><00:26:01.840><c> significant</c><00:26:02.559><c> weakening</c><00:26:03.279><c> that</c>

00:26:03.590 --> 00:26:03.600 align:start position:0%
signs of significant weakening that
 

00:26:03.600 --> 00:26:05.830 align:start position:0%
signs of significant weakening that
covers<00:26:04.159><c> most</c><00:26:04.480><c> of</c><00:26:04.640><c> the</c><00:26:04.799><c> space</c><00:26:05.120><c> around</c><00:26:05.520><c> South</c>

00:26:05.830 --> 00:26:05.840 align:start position:0%
covers most of the space around South
 

00:26:05.840 --> 00:26:09.190 align:start position:0%
covers most of the space around South
America<00:26:06.559><c> and</c><00:26:06.799><c> the</c><00:26:07.039><c> neighboring</c><00:26:07.520><c> ocean.</c>

00:26:09.190 --> 00:26:09.200 align:start position:0%
America and the neighboring ocean.
 

00:26:09.200 --> 00:26:11.190 align:start position:0%
America and the neighboring ocean.
This<00:26:09.440><c> zone</c><00:26:09.840><c> might</c><00:26:10.080><c> not</c><00:26:10.320><c> influence</c><00:26:10.799><c> life</c><00:26:11.039><c> on</c>

00:26:11.190 --> 00:26:11.200 align:start position:0%
This zone might not influence life on
 

00:26:11.200 --> 00:26:13.590 align:start position:0%
This zone might not influence life on
the<00:26:11.360><c> ground,</c><00:26:11.919><c> but</c><00:26:12.240><c> is</c><00:26:12.480><c> dangerous</c><00:26:12.960><c> enough</c><00:26:13.279><c> that</c>

00:26:13.590 --> 00:26:13.600 align:start position:0%
the ground, but is dangerous enough that
 

00:26:13.600 --> 00:26:15.938 align:start position:0%
the ground, but is dangerous enough that
it<00:26:13.919><c> has</c><00:26:14.240><c> fried</c><00:26:14.640><c> satellites</c><00:26:15.440><c> and</c><00:26:15.919><c> threatened</c>

00:26:15.938 --> 00:26:15.948 align:start position:0%
it has fried satellites and threatened
 

00:26:15.948 --> 00:26:16.470 align:start position:0%
it has fried satellites and threatened
[music]

00:26:16.470 --> 00:26:16.480 align:start position:0%
[music]
 

00:26:16.480 --> 00:26:19.350 align:start position:0%
[music]
astronauts.<00:26:17.600><c> A</c><00:26:17.760><c> Hubble</c><00:26:18.159><c> telescope</c><00:26:18.880><c> has</c><00:26:19.200><c> to</c>

00:26:19.350 --> 00:26:19.360 align:start position:0%
astronauts. A Hubble telescope has to
 

00:26:19.360 --> 00:26:21.510 align:start position:0%
astronauts. A Hubble telescope has to
turn<00:26:19.520><c> itself</c><00:26:20.000><c> off</c><00:26:20.400><c> every</c><00:26:20.799><c> time</c><00:26:20.960><c> it</c><00:26:21.200><c> flies</c>

00:26:21.510 --> 00:26:21.520 align:start position:0%
turn itself off every time it flies
 

00:26:21.520 --> 00:26:24.310 align:start position:0%
turn itself off every time it flies
through<00:26:21.760><c> it.</c><00:26:22.640><c> Imagine</c><00:26:22.960><c> that.</c><00:26:23.440><c> But</c><00:26:23.600><c> across</c><00:26:24.000><c> the</c>

00:26:24.310 --> 00:26:24.320 align:start position:0%
through it. Imagine that. But across the
 

00:26:24.320 --> 00:26:26.630 align:start position:0%
through it. Imagine that. But across the
entire<00:26:24.720><c> globe,</c><00:26:25.520><c> that's</c><00:26:25.840><c> what</c><00:26:26.080><c> we</c><00:26:26.320><c> might</c>

00:26:26.630 --> 00:26:26.640 align:start position:0%
entire globe, that's what we might
 

00:26:26.640 --> 00:26:29.510 align:start position:0%
entire globe, that's what we might
expect<00:26:27.039><c> while</c><00:26:27.279><c> the</c><00:26:27.440><c> poles</c><00:26:27.840><c> are</c><00:26:28.000><c> reversing.</c>

00:26:29.510 --> 00:26:29.520 align:start position:0%
expect while the poles are reversing.
 

00:26:29.520 --> 00:26:32.149 align:start position:0%
expect while the poles are reversing.
Concerningly,<00:26:30.400><c> the</c><00:26:30.640><c> South</c><00:26:30.960><c> Atlantic</c><00:26:31.520><c> anomaly</c>

00:26:32.149 --> 00:26:32.159 align:start position:0%
Concerningly, the South Atlantic anomaly
 

00:26:32.159 --> 00:26:34.310 align:start position:0%
Concerningly, the South Atlantic anomaly
has<00:26:32.480><c> been</c><00:26:32.640><c> growing</c><00:26:33.200><c> continuously</c><00:26:33.840><c> since</c><00:26:34.080><c> we</c>

00:26:34.310 --> 00:26:34.320 align:start position:0%
has been growing continuously since we
 

00:26:34.320 --> 00:26:36.549 align:start position:0%
has been growing continuously since we
started<00:26:34.720><c> keeping</c><00:26:35.120><c> track</c><00:26:35.279><c> of</c><00:26:35.440><c> it,</c><00:26:36.080><c> possibly</c>

00:26:36.549 --> 00:26:36.559 align:start position:0%
started keeping track of it, possibly
 

00:26:36.559 --> 00:26:37.909 align:start position:0%
started keeping track of it, possibly
suggesting<00:26:36.908><c> [music]</c><00:26:37.039><c> the</c><00:26:37.279><c> approach</c><00:26:37.600><c> of</c>

00:26:37.909 --> 00:26:37.919 align:start position:0%
suggesting [music] the approach of
 

00:26:37.919 --> 00:26:40.070 align:start position:0%
suggesting [music] the approach of
either<00:26:38.400><c> another</c><00:26:38.799><c> geomagnetic</c><00:26:39.600><c> wobble</c><00:26:39.919><c> like</c>

00:26:40.070 --> 00:26:40.080 align:start position:0%
either another geomagnetic wobble like
 

00:26:40.080 --> 00:26:42.710 align:start position:0%
either another geomagnetic wobble like
the<00:26:40.320><c> Dashamps</c><00:26:40.880><c> event</c><00:26:41.360><c> or</c><00:26:41.600><c> that</c><00:26:41.840><c> a</c><00:26:42.080><c> full-blown</c>

00:26:42.710 --> 00:26:42.720 align:start position:0%
the Dashamps event or that a full-blown
 

00:26:42.720 --> 00:26:45.830 align:start position:0%
the Dashamps event or that a full-blown
reversal<00:26:43.279><c> is</c><00:26:43.679><c> already</c><00:26:44.080><c> upon</c><00:26:44.400><c> us.</c><00:26:45.360><c> If</c><00:26:45.600><c> it</c>

00:26:45.830 --> 00:26:45.840 align:start position:0%
reversal is already upon us. If it
 

00:26:45.840 --> 00:26:48.149 align:start position:0%
reversal is already upon us. If it
happens,<00:26:46.640><c> it</c><00:26:46.960><c> won't</c><00:26:47.440><c> likely</c><00:26:47.919><c> be</c><00:26:48.043><c> [music]</c>

00:26:48.149 --> 00:26:48.159 align:start position:0%
happens, it won't likely be [music]
 

00:26:48.159 --> 00:26:49.830 align:start position:0%
happens, it won't likely be [music]
something<00:26:48.400><c> that</c><00:26:48.640><c> ends</c><00:26:48.880><c> civilization</c><00:26:49.440><c> as</c><00:26:49.679><c> we</c>

00:26:49.830 --> 00:26:49.840 align:start position:0%
something that ends civilization as we
 

00:26:49.840 --> 00:26:51.830 align:start position:0%
something that ends civilization as we
know<00:26:49.919><c> it.</c><00:26:50.640><c> But</c><00:26:50.799><c> if</c><00:26:50.960><c> the</c><00:26:51.200><c> study</c><00:26:51.520><c> about</c>

00:26:51.830 --> 00:26:51.840 align:start position:0%
know it. But if the study about
 

00:26:51.840 --> 00:26:54.549 align:start position:0%
know it. But if the study about
Australian<00:26:52.400><c> megaporna</c><00:26:53.200><c> is</c><00:26:53.520><c> correct,</c><00:26:54.320><c> it</c>

00:26:54.549 --> 00:26:54.559 align:start position:0%
Australian megaporna is correct, it
 

00:26:54.559 --> 00:26:56.230 align:start position:0%
Australian megaporna is correct, it
isn't<00:26:54.960><c> going</c><00:26:55.120><c> to</c><00:26:55.279><c> be</c><00:26:55.440><c> without</c><00:26:55.760><c> impact</c><00:26:55.903><c> [music]</c>

00:26:56.230 --> 00:26:56.240 align:start position:0%
isn't going to be without impact [music]
 

00:26:56.240 --> 00:26:59.990 align:start position:0%
isn't going to be without impact [music]
either.<00:26:57.279><c> species</c><00:26:57.840><c> could</c><00:26:58.240><c> die.</c><00:26:59.279><c> Humans</c><00:26:59.760><c> will</c>

00:26:59.990 --> 00:27:00.000 align:start position:0%
either. species could die. Humans will
 

00:27:00.000 --> 00:27:02.070 align:start position:0%
either. species could die. Humans will
have<00:27:00.159><c> to</c><00:27:00.320><c> accommodate</c><00:27:00.880><c> a</c><00:27:01.120><c> very</c><00:27:01.360><c> different,</c>

00:27:02.070 --> 00:27:02.080 align:start position:0%
have to accommodate a very different,
 

00:27:02.080 --> 00:27:04.710 align:start position:0%
have to accommodate a very different,
more<00:27:02.320><c> hazardous</c><00:27:02.880><c> space</c><00:27:03.200><c> environment.</c>

00:27:04.710 --> 00:27:04.720 align:start position:0%
more hazardous space environment.
 

00:27:04.720 --> 00:27:06.070 align:start position:0%
more hazardous space environment.
It's<00:27:05.120><c> interesting</c><00:27:05.520><c> to</c><00:27:05.679><c> learn</c><00:27:05.840><c> about</c>

00:27:06.070 --> 00:27:06.080 align:start position:0%
It's interesting to learn about
 

00:27:06.080 --> 00:27:08.070 align:start position:0%
It's interesting to learn about
geomagnetic<00:27:06.799><c> reversals</c><00:27:07.520><c> and</c><00:27:07.760><c> their</c>

00:27:08.070 --> 00:27:08.080 align:start position:0%
geomagnetic reversals and their
 

00:27:08.080 --> 00:27:10.149 align:start position:0%
geomagnetic reversals and their
potential<00:27:08.480><c> impacts</c><00:27:08.960><c> on</c><00:27:09.120><c> the</c><00:27:09.279><c> planet.</c><00:27:10.000><c> But</c>

00:27:10.149 --> 00:27:10.159 align:start position:0%
potential impacts on the planet. But
 

00:27:10.159 --> 00:27:12.149 align:start position:0%
potential impacts on the planet. But
while<00:27:10.480><c> we</c><00:27:10.720><c> are</c><00:27:10.880><c> not</c><00:27:11.120><c> likely</c><00:27:11.520><c> to</c><00:27:11.679><c> see</c><00:27:11.919><c> one</c>

00:27:12.149 --> 00:27:12.159 align:start position:0%
while we are not likely to see one
 

00:27:12.159 --> 00:27:14.390 align:start position:0%
while we are not likely to see one
happen<00:27:12.400><c> in</c><00:27:12.720><c> our</c><00:27:13.039><c> lifetimes,</c><00:27:14.000><c> for</c><00:27:14.240><c> the</c>

00:27:14.390 --> 00:27:14.400 align:start position:0%
happen in our lifetimes, for the
 

00:27:14.400 --> 00:27:17.029 align:start position:0%
happen in our lifetimes, for the
generations<00:27:14.880><c> of</c><00:27:15.120><c> humanity</c><00:27:15.679><c> after</c><00:27:16.080><c> us,</c><00:27:16.799><c> this</c>

00:27:17.029 --> 00:27:17.039 align:start position:0%
generations of humanity after us, this
 

00:27:17.039 --> 00:27:18.549 align:start position:0%
generations of humanity after us, this
might<00:27:17.279><c> turn</c><00:27:17.440><c> out</c><00:27:17.600><c> to</c><00:27:17.760><c> be</c><00:27:17.919><c> a</c><00:27:18.080><c> lot</c><00:27:18.240><c> less</c>

00:27:18.549 --> 00:27:18.559 align:start position:0%
might turn out to be a lot less
 

00:27:18.559 --> 00:27:20.950 align:start position:0%
might turn out to be a lot less
hypothetical.<00:27:19.840><c> They</c><00:27:20.080><c> might</c><00:27:20.320><c> be</c><00:27:20.480><c> seeing</c><00:27:20.720><c> it</c>

00:27:20.950 --> 00:27:20.960 align:start position:0%
hypothetical. They might be seeing it
 

00:27:20.960 --> 00:27:24.070 align:start position:0%
hypothetical. They might be seeing it
firsthand.

00:27:24.070 --> 00:27:24.080 align:start position:0%
 
 

00:27:24.080 --> 00:27:26.870 align:start position:0%
 
Above<00:27:24.559><c> our</c><00:27:24.880><c> planet's</c><00:27:25.279><c> poles,</c><00:27:26.000><c> an</c><00:27:26.240><c> invisible</c>

00:27:26.870 --> 00:27:26.880 align:start position:0%
Above our planet's poles, an invisible
 

00:27:26.880 --> 00:27:30.549 align:start position:0%
Above our planet's poles, an invisible
force<00:27:27.360><c> is</c><00:27:27.600><c> at</c><00:27:27.840><c> work.</c><00:27:29.120><c> Hypothesized</c><00:27:30.080><c> decades</c>

00:27:30.549 --> 00:27:30.559 align:start position:0%
force is at work. Hypothesized decades
 

00:27:30.559 --> 00:27:32.390 align:start position:0%
force is at work. Hypothesized decades
before<00:27:30.960><c> we</c><00:27:31.200><c> were</c><00:27:31.360><c> able</c><00:27:31.679><c> to</c><00:27:31.840><c> measure</c><00:27:32.159><c> it</c>

00:27:32.390 --> 00:27:32.400 align:start position:0%
before we were able to measure it
 

00:27:32.400 --> 00:27:35.510 align:start position:0%
before we were able to measure it
directly,<00:27:33.440><c> this</c><00:27:33.840><c> global</c><00:27:34.400><c> energy</c><00:27:34.799><c> force</c><00:27:35.200><c> is</c>

00:27:35.510 --> 00:27:35.520 align:start position:0%
directly, this global energy force is
 

00:27:35.520 --> 00:27:37.990 align:start position:0%
directly, this global energy force is
responsible<00:27:36.000><c> for</c><00:27:36.320><c> sculpting</c><00:27:36.880><c> our</c><00:27:37.200><c> atmosphere</c>

00:27:37.990 --> 00:27:38.000 align:start position:0%
responsible for sculpting our atmosphere
 

00:27:38.000 --> 00:27:40.549 align:start position:0%
responsible for sculpting our atmosphere
and<00:27:38.400><c> driving</c><00:27:39.039><c> charged</c><00:27:39.679><c> particles</c><00:27:40.240><c> into</c>

00:27:40.549 --> 00:27:40.559 align:start position:0%
and driving charged particles into
 

00:27:40.559 --> 00:27:43.750 align:start position:0%
and driving charged particles into
space.<00:27:41.600><c> It's</c><00:27:41.919><c> also</c><00:27:42.159><c> why</c><00:27:42.480><c> some</c><00:27:42.799><c> planets</c><00:27:43.279><c> end</c><00:27:43.520><c> up</c>

00:27:43.750 --> 00:27:43.760 align:start position:0%
space. It's also why some planets end up
 

00:27:43.760 --> 00:27:46.470 align:start position:0%
space. It's also why some planets end up
uninhabitable<00:27:44.960><c> altogether.</c>

00:27:46.470 --> 00:27:46.480 align:start position:0%
uninhabitable altogether.
 

00:27:46.480 --> 00:27:49.750 align:start position:0%
uninhabitable altogether.
It's<00:27:46.880><c> called</c><00:27:46.994><c> [music]</c><00:27:47.440><c> the</c><00:27:47.840><c> ambipolar</c><00:27:48.799><c> field</c>

00:27:49.750 --> 00:27:49.760 align:start position:0%
It's called [music] the ambipolar field
 

00:27:49.760 --> 00:27:52.549 align:start position:0%
It's called [music] the ambipolar field
and<00:27:50.000><c> it's</c><00:27:50.159><c> a</c><00:27:50.400><c> force</c><00:27:50.799><c> as</c><00:27:51.200><c> fundamental</c><00:27:51.919><c> to</c><00:27:52.240><c> our</c>

00:27:52.549 --> 00:27:52.559 align:start position:0%
and it's a force as fundamental to our
 

00:27:52.559 --> 00:27:56.470 align:start position:0%
and it's a force as fundamental to our
earth<00:27:52.880><c> as</c><00:27:53.279><c> gravity</c><00:27:54.159><c> or</c><00:27:54.559><c> magnetic</c><00:27:55.039><c> fields.</c>

00:27:56.470 --> 00:27:56.480 align:start position:0%
earth as gravity or magnetic fields.
 

00:27:56.480 --> 00:27:59.590 align:start position:0%
earth as gravity or magnetic fields.
Although<00:27:57.120><c> for</c><00:27:57.360><c> the</c><00:27:57.600><c> sake</c><00:27:57.840><c> of</c><00:27:58.159><c> life</c><00:27:58.480><c> on</c><00:27:58.799><c> Earth,</c>

00:27:59.590 --> 00:27:59.600 align:start position:0%
Although for the sake of life on Earth,
 

00:27:59.600 --> 00:28:02.950 align:start position:0%
Although for the sake of life on Earth,
it's<00:27:59.840><c> a</c><00:28:00.000><c> good</c><00:28:00.159><c> thing</c><00:28:00.559><c> it</c><00:28:00.880><c> isn't</c><00:28:01.360><c> too</c><00:28:01.679><c> strong.</c>

00:28:02.950 --> 00:28:02.960 align:start position:0%
it's a good thing it isn't too strong.
 

00:28:02.960 --> 00:28:04.630 align:start position:0%
it's a good thing it isn't too strong.
Recent<00:28:03.360><c> breakthroughs</c><00:28:03.919><c> from</c><00:28:04.159><c> NASA's</c>

00:28:04.630 --> 00:28:04.640 align:start position:0%
Recent breakthroughs from NASA's
 

00:28:04.640 --> 00:28:06.630 align:start position:0%
Recent breakthroughs from NASA's
Endurance<00:28:05.120><c> mission</c><00:28:05.520><c> have</c><00:28:05.840><c> finally</c><00:28:06.240><c> allowed</c>

00:28:06.630 --> 00:28:06.640 align:start position:0%
Endurance mission have finally allowed
 

00:28:06.640 --> 00:28:08.950 align:start position:0%
Endurance mission have finally allowed
scientists<00:28:07.120><c> to</c><00:28:07.279><c> solve</c><00:28:07.600><c> a</c><00:28:08.080><c> 60-year-old</c>

00:28:08.950 --> 00:28:08.960 align:start position:0%
scientists to solve a 60-year-old
 

00:28:08.960 --> 00:28:11.909 align:start position:0%
scientists to solve a 60-year-old
mystery<00:28:09.760><c> by</c><00:28:10.080><c> measuring</c><00:28:10.480><c> the</c><00:28:10.720><c> ambipolar</c><00:28:11.520><c> field</c>

00:28:11.909 --> 00:28:11.919 align:start position:0%
mystery by measuring the ambipolar field
 

00:28:11.919 --> 00:28:14.710 align:start position:0%
mystery by measuring the ambipolar field
for<00:28:12.159><c> the</c><00:28:12.399><c> first</c><00:28:12.720><c> time,</c><00:28:13.600><c> proving</c><00:28:14.080><c> once</c><00:28:14.320><c> and</c><00:28:14.480><c> for</c>

00:28:14.710 --> 00:28:14.720 align:start position:0%
for the first time, proving once and for
 

00:28:14.720 --> 00:28:17.750 align:start position:0%
for the first time, proving once and for
all<00:28:15.039><c> that</c><00:28:15.360><c> our</c><00:28:15.679><c> planet</c><00:28:16.000><c> has</c><00:28:16.240><c> a</c><00:28:16.559><c> third</c><00:28:17.200><c> global</c>

00:28:17.750 --> 00:28:17.760 align:start position:0%
all that our planet has a third global
 

00:28:17.760 --> 00:28:19.830 align:start position:0%
all that our planet has a third global
energy<00:28:18.159><c> field.</c>

00:28:19.830 --> 00:28:19.840 align:start position:0%
energy field.
 

00:28:19.840 --> 00:28:21.830 align:start position:0%
energy field.
I'm<00:28:20.080><c> Alex</c><00:28:20.399><c> Mccoan</c><00:28:21.120><c> and</c><00:28:21.360><c> you're</c><00:28:21.520><c> watching</c>

00:28:21.830 --> 00:28:21.840 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
 

00:28:21.840 --> 00:28:24.789 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
Astramm.<00:28:22.720><c> Join</c><00:28:23.039><c> me</c><00:28:23.200><c> today</c><00:28:23.520><c> as</c><00:28:23.760><c> we</c><00:28:24.000><c> unravel</c><00:28:24.559><c> the</c>

00:28:24.789 --> 00:28:24.799 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join me today as we unravel the
 

00:28:24.799 --> 00:28:26.630 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join me today as we unravel the
mystery<00:28:25.120><c> of</c><00:28:25.279><c> our</c><00:28:25.600><c> planet's</c><00:28:25.919><c> ambipolar</c>

00:28:26.630 --> 00:28:26.640 align:start position:0%
mystery of our planet's ambipolar
 

00:28:26.640 --> 00:28:29.190 align:start position:0%
mystery of our planet's ambipolar
electric<00:28:27.039><c> field.</c><00:28:27.760><c> A</c><00:28:28.000><c> phenomenon</c><00:28:28.480><c> that</c><00:28:28.880><c> not</c>

00:28:29.190 --> 00:28:29.200 align:start position:0%
electric field. A phenomenon that not
 

00:28:29.200 --> 00:28:32.549 align:start position:0%
electric field. A phenomenon that not
only<00:28:29.520><c> powers</c><00:28:29.919><c> the</c><00:28:30.159><c> polar</c><00:28:30.559><c> wind,</c><00:28:31.440><c> but</c><00:28:31.760><c> also</c><00:28:32.240><c> has</c>

00:28:32.549 --> 00:28:32.559 align:start position:0%
only powers the polar wind, but also has
 

00:28:32.559 --> 00:28:35.110 align:start position:0%
only powers the polar wind, but also has
an<00:28:32.880><c> enormous</c><00:28:33.600><c> impact</c><00:28:34.080><c> on</c><00:28:34.320><c> our</c><00:28:34.640><c> planet's</c>

00:28:35.110 --> 00:28:35.120 align:start position:0%
an enormous impact on our planet's
 

00:28:35.120 --> 00:28:38.310 align:start position:0%
an enormous impact on our planet's
habitability.

00:28:38.310 --> 00:28:38.320 align:start position:0%
 
 

00:28:38.320 --> 00:28:40.870 align:start position:0%
 
Earth's<00:28:38.720><c> magnetic</c><00:28:39.200><c> field,</c><00:28:39.760><c> depicted</c><00:28:40.240><c> in</c><00:28:40.559><c> this</c>

00:28:40.870 --> 00:28:40.880 align:start position:0%
Earth's magnetic field, depicted in this
 

00:28:40.880 --> 00:28:44.470 align:start position:0%
Earth's magnetic field, depicted in this
video<00:28:41.440><c> as</c><00:28:41.840><c> onionike</c><00:28:42.799><c> layers</c><00:28:43.039><c> of</c><00:28:43.279><c> lines,</c><00:28:44.159><c> helps</c>

00:28:44.470 --> 00:28:44.480 align:start position:0%
video as onionike layers of lines, helps
 

00:28:44.480 --> 00:28:46.630 align:start position:0%
video as onionike layers of lines, helps
to<00:28:44.720><c> shield</c><00:28:44.960><c> our</c><00:28:45.279><c> atmosphere</c><00:28:45.760><c> from</c><00:28:46.080><c> dangerous</c>

00:28:46.630 --> 00:28:46.640 align:start position:0%
to shield our atmosphere from dangerous
 

00:28:46.640 --> 00:28:49.909 align:start position:0%
to shield our atmosphere from dangerous
solar<00:28:46.960><c> energy</c><00:28:47.440><c> and</c><00:28:47.760><c> damaging</c><00:28:48.320><c> cosmic</c><00:28:48.720><c> rays.</c>

00:28:49.909 --> 00:28:49.919 align:start position:0%
solar energy and damaging cosmic rays.
 

00:28:49.919 --> 00:28:52.870 align:start position:0%
solar energy and damaging cosmic rays.
And<00:28:50.159><c> the</c><00:28:50.480><c> gravitational</c><00:28:51.200><c> field</c><00:28:51.919><c> shown</c><00:28:52.320><c> here</c>

00:28:52.870 --> 00:28:52.880 align:start position:0%
And the gravitational field shown here
 

00:28:52.880 --> 00:28:55.669 align:start position:0%
And the gravitational field shown here
as<00:28:53.200><c> the</c><00:28:53.440><c> white</c><00:28:53.840><c> glow</c><00:28:54.159><c> around</c><00:28:54.399><c> our</c><00:28:54.720><c> planet</c><00:28:55.440><c> not</c>

00:28:55.669 --> 00:28:55.679 align:start position:0%
as the white glow around our planet not
 

00:28:55.679 --> 00:28:57.669 align:start position:0%
as the white glow around our planet not
only<00:28:55.840><c> keeps</c><00:28:56.080><c> us</c><00:28:56.320><c> planted</c><00:28:56.720><c> on</c><00:28:56.880><c> Earth's</c><00:28:57.200><c> surface</c>

00:28:57.669 --> 00:28:57.679 align:start position:0%
only keeps us planted on Earth's surface
 

00:28:57.679 --> 00:28:59.909 align:start position:0%
only keeps us planted on Earth's surface
and<00:28:58.080><c> stops</c><00:28:58.399><c> our</c><00:28:58.640><c> atmosphere</c><00:28:59.200><c> from</c><00:28:59.440><c> drifting</c>

00:28:59.909 --> 00:28:59.919 align:start position:0%
and stops our atmosphere from drifting
 

00:28:59.919 --> 00:29:02.149 align:start position:0%
and stops our atmosphere from drifting
away,<00:29:00.559><c> but</c><00:29:00.880><c> also</c><00:29:01.200><c> provides</c><00:29:01.679><c> valuable</c>

00:29:02.149 --> 00:29:02.159 align:start position:0%
away, but also provides valuable
 

00:29:02.159 --> 00:29:04.070 align:start position:0%
away, but also provides valuable
information<00:29:02.640><c> in</c><00:29:02.880><c> the</c><00:29:03.039><c> study</c><00:29:03.279><c> of</c><00:29:03.520><c> Earth's</c>

00:29:04.070 --> 00:29:04.080 align:start position:0%
information in the study of Earth's
 

00:29:04.080 --> 00:29:07.029 align:start position:0%
information in the study of Earth's
changing<00:29:04.559><c> climate,</c><00:29:05.360><c> sea</c><00:29:05.679><c> level</c><00:29:05.919><c> rise,</c><00:29:06.720><c> ocean</c>

00:29:07.029 --> 00:29:07.039 align:start position:0%
changing climate, sea level rise, ocean
 

00:29:07.039 --> 00:29:10.630 align:start position:0%
changing climate, sea level rise, ocean
circulation,<00:29:08.080><c> and</c><00:29:08.399><c> much</c><00:29:08.720><c> more.</c><00:29:10.080><c> As</c><00:29:10.320><c> you</c><00:29:10.480><c> can</c>

00:29:10.630 --> 00:29:10.640 align:start position:0%
circulation, and much more. As you can
 

00:29:10.640 --> 00:29:13.590 align:start position:0%
circulation, and much more. As you can
see,<00:29:11.120><c> our</c><00:29:11.440><c> magnetic</c><00:29:12.000><c> and</c><00:29:12.399><c> gravity</c><00:29:12.799><c> fields</c><00:29:13.279><c> are</c>

00:29:13.590 --> 00:29:13.600 align:start position:0%
see, our magnetic and gravity fields are
 

00:29:13.600 --> 00:29:15.990 align:start position:0%
see, our magnetic and gravity fields are
critical<00:29:14.159><c> features</c><00:29:14.799><c> that</c><00:29:15.120><c> help</c><00:29:15.440><c> make</c><00:29:15.679><c> our</c>

00:29:15.990 --> 00:29:16.000 align:start position:0%
critical features that help make our
 

00:29:16.000 --> 00:29:18.870 align:start position:0%
critical features that help make our
planet<00:29:16.399><c> habitable.</c><00:29:17.840><c> And</c><00:29:18.159><c> with</c><00:29:18.399><c> the</c><00:29:18.559><c> recent</c>

00:29:18.870 --> 00:29:18.880 align:start position:0%
planet habitable. And with the recent
 

00:29:18.880 --> 00:29:21.669 align:start position:0%
planet habitable. And with the recent
publication<00:29:19.600><c> of</c><00:29:19.840><c> a</c><00:29:20.159><c> 2024</c><00:29:20.960><c> paper</c><00:29:21.279><c> in</c><00:29:21.520><c> the</c>

00:29:21.669 --> 00:29:21.679 align:start position:0%
publication of a 2024 paper in the
 

00:29:21.679 --> 00:29:24.870 align:start position:0%
publication of a 2024 paper in the
journal<00:29:22.080><c> Nature,</c><00:29:23.120><c> direct</c><00:29:23.600><c> evidence</c><00:29:24.240><c> has</c><00:29:24.640><c> been</c>

00:29:24.870 --> 00:29:24.880 align:start position:0%
journal Nature, direct evidence has been
 

00:29:24.880 --> 00:29:28.149 align:start position:0%
journal Nature, direct evidence has been
found<00:29:25.200><c> for</c><00:29:25.600><c> a</c><00:29:26.000><c> third</c><00:29:26.640><c> energy</c><00:29:27.120><c> field,</c><00:29:27.840><c> the</c>

00:29:28.149 --> 00:29:28.159 align:start position:0%
found for a third energy field, the
 

00:29:28.159 --> 00:29:30.710 align:start position:0%
found for a third energy field, the
ambiolar<00:29:29.200><c> field.</c>

00:29:30.710 --> 00:29:30.720 align:start position:0%
ambiolar field.
 

00:29:30.720 --> 00:29:33.029 align:start position:0%
ambiolar field.
To<00:29:31.039><c> understand</c><00:29:31.360><c> this</c><00:29:31.600><c> energy</c><00:29:32.000><c> field,</c><00:29:32.640><c> we</c><00:29:32.880><c> need</c>

00:29:33.029 --> 00:29:33.039 align:start position:0%
To understand this energy field, we need
 

00:29:33.039 --> 00:29:35.430 align:start position:0%
To understand this energy field, we need
to<00:29:33.200><c> talk</c><00:29:33.360><c> about</c><00:29:33.600><c> plasma.</c>

00:29:35.430 --> 00:29:35.440 align:start position:0%
to talk about plasma.
 

00:29:35.440 --> 00:29:39.029 align:start position:0%
to talk about plasma.
Like<00:29:35.679><c> a</c><00:29:35.919><c> solid,</c><00:29:36.480><c> liquid</c><00:29:36.960><c> or</c><00:29:37.200><c> gas,</c><00:29:38.080><c> plasma</c><00:29:38.640><c> is</c>

00:29:39.029 --> 00:29:39.039 align:start position:0%
Like a solid, liquid or gas, plasma is
 

00:29:39.039 --> 00:29:41.350 align:start position:0%
Like a solid, liquid or gas, plasma is
another<00:29:39.440><c> state</c><00:29:39.679><c> of</c><00:29:39.840><c> matter</c><00:29:40.559><c> which</c><00:29:40.880><c> happens</c><00:29:41.200><c> to</c>

00:29:41.350 --> 00:29:41.360 align:start position:0%
another state of matter which happens to
 

00:29:41.360 --> 00:29:45.430 align:start position:0%
another state of matter which happens to
make<00:29:41.600><c> up</c><00:29:42.159><c> 99%</c><00:29:43.200><c> of</c><00:29:43.520><c> all</c><00:29:44.080><c> visible</c><00:29:44.640><c> matter</c><00:29:45.039><c> in</c><00:29:45.279><c> the</c>

00:29:45.430 --> 00:29:45.440 align:start position:0%
make up 99% of all visible matter in the
 

00:29:45.440 --> 00:29:48.389 align:start position:0%
make up 99% of all visible matter in the
universe.<00:29:46.559><c> Plasma</c><00:29:47.120><c> is</c><00:29:47.360><c> made</c><00:29:47.600><c> of</c><00:29:47.919><c> ionized</c>

00:29:48.389 --> 00:29:48.399 align:start position:0%
universe. Plasma is made of ionized
 

00:29:48.399 --> 00:29:51.190 align:start position:0%
universe. Plasma is made of ionized
particles<00:29:49.200><c> and</c><00:29:49.440><c> is</c><00:29:49.760><c> responsible</c><00:29:50.320><c> for</c><00:29:50.640><c> several</c>

00:29:51.190 --> 00:29:51.200 align:start position:0%
particles and is responsible for several
 

00:29:51.200 --> 00:29:53.510 align:start position:0%
particles and is responsible for several
well-known<00:29:51.760><c> phenomena</c><00:29:52.240><c> on</c><00:29:52.559><c> Earth</c><00:29:53.039><c> like</c><00:29:53.279><c> the</c>

00:29:53.510 --> 00:29:53.520 align:start position:0%
well-known phenomena on Earth like the
 

00:29:53.520 --> 00:29:57.430 align:start position:0%
well-known phenomena on Earth like the
aurora<00:29:54.000><c> borealis</c><00:29:55.039><c> and</c><00:29:55.360><c> lightning.</c>

00:29:57.430 --> 00:29:57.440 align:start position:0%
aurora borealis and lightning.
 

00:29:57.440 --> 00:29:59.990 align:start position:0%
aurora borealis and lightning.
Plasma<00:29:57.919><c> can</c><00:29:58.159><c> form</c><00:29:58.559><c> where</c><00:29:59.039><c> atmospheric</c><00:29:59.679><c> gas</c>

00:29:59.990 --> 00:30:00.000 align:start position:0%
Plasma can form where atmospheric gas
 

00:30:00.000 --> 00:30:02.549 align:start position:0%
Plasma can form where atmospheric gas
density<00:30:00.720><c> becomes</c><00:30:01.279><c> low</c><00:30:01.520><c> enough</c><00:30:01.840><c> to</c><00:30:02.080><c> support</c>

00:30:02.549 --> 00:30:02.559 align:start position:0%
density becomes low enough to support
 

00:30:02.559 --> 00:30:05.909 align:start position:0%
density becomes low enough to support
the<00:30:02.880><c> conditions</c><00:30:03.200><c> for</c><00:30:03.440><c> it</c><00:30:04.000><c> and</c><00:30:04.240><c> around</c><00:30:04.880><c> 90</c><00:30:05.279><c> km</c>

00:30:05.909 --> 00:30:05.919 align:start position:0%
the conditions for it and around 90 km
 

00:30:05.919 --> 00:30:09.190 align:start position:0%
the conditions for it and around 90 km
above<00:30:06.480><c> Earth's</c><00:30:06.880><c> surface.</c><00:30:08.159><c> This</c><00:30:08.480><c> plasma</c><00:30:08.960><c> is</c>

00:30:09.190 --> 00:30:09.200 align:start position:0%
above Earth's surface. This plasma is
 

00:30:09.200 --> 00:30:11.669 align:start position:0%
above Earth's surface. This plasma is
made<00:30:09.360><c> up</c><00:30:09.520><c> of</c><00:30:09.840><c> very</c><00:30:10.320><c> lightweight,</c><00:30:11.200><c> fastm</c>

00:30:11.669 --> 00:30:11.679 align:start position:0%
made up of very lightweight, fastm
 

00:30:11.679 --> 00:30:14.230 align:start position:0%
made up of very lightweight, fastm
moving<00:30:12.080><c> particles</c><00:30:12.960><c> which</c><00:30:13.200><c> get</c><00:30:13.440><c> trapped</c><00:30:13.919><c> along</c>

00:30:14.230 --> 00:30:14.240 align:start position:0%
moving particles which get trapped along
 

00:30:14.240 --> 00:30:16.149 align:start position:0%
moving particles which get trapped along
the<00:30:14.480><c> Earth's</c><00:30:14.880><c> magnetic</c><00:30:15.279><c> field</c><00:30:15.520><c> lines</c><00:30:15.840><c> as</c><00:30:16.000><c> they</c>

00:30:16.149 --> 00:30:16.159 align:start position:0%
the Earth's magnetic field lines as they
 

00:30:16.159 --> 00:30:18.710 align:start position:0%
the Earth's magnetic field lines as they
move<00:30:16.399><c> away</c><00:30:16.640><c> from</c><00:30:16.799><c> the</c><00:30:16.960><c> surface.</c><00:30:18.240><c> Around</c><00:30:18.480><c> the</c>

00:30:18.710 --> 00:30:18.720 align:start position:0%
move away from the surface. Around the
 

00:30:18.720 --> 00:30:20.710 align:start position:0%
move away from the surface. Around the
majority<00:30:19.120><c> of</c><00:30:19.279><c> our</c><00:30:19.520><c> planet,</c><00:30:20.240><c> plasma</c>

00:30:20.710 --> 00:30:20.720 align:start position:0%
majority of our planet, plasma
 

00:30:20.720 --> 00:30:22.710 align:start position:0%
majority of our planet, plasma
encounters<00:30:21.200><c> a</c><00:30:21.440><c> barrier</c><00:30:21.840><c> that</c><00:30:22.080><c> limits</c><00:30:22.480><c> its</c>

00:30:22.710 --> 00:30:22.720 align:start position:0%
encounters a barrier that limits its
 

00:30:22.720 --> 00:30:25.430 align:start position:0%
encounters a barrier that limits its
escape<00:30:23.039><c> into</c><00:30:23.440><c> space</c><00:30:24.240><c> known</c><00:30:24.480><c> as</c><00:30:24.640><c> the</c><00:30:24.880><c> plasma</c>

00:30:25.430 --> 00:30:25.440 align:start position:0%
escape into space known as the plasma
 

00:30:25.440 --> 00:30:29.430 align:start position:0%
escape into space known as the plasma
pores.<00:30:26.640><c> Here,</c><00:30:27.279><c> plasma</c><00:30:28.000><c> co-rotates</c><00:30:29.120><c> along</c>

00:30:29.430 --> 00:30:29.440 align:start position:0%
pores. Here, plasma co-rotates along
 

00:30:29.440 --> 00:30:31.990 align:start position:0%
pores. Here, plasma co-rotates along
with<00:30:29.679><c> Earth</c><00:30:30.240><c> along</c><00:30:30.799><c> its</c><00:30:31.120><c> closed</c><00:30:31.520><c> magnetic</c>

00:30:31.990 --> 00:30:32.000 align:start position:0%
with Earth along its closed magnetic
 

00:30:32.000 --> 00:30:33.909 align:start position:0%
with Earth along its closed magnetic
field<00:30:32.240><c> lines.</c>

00:30:33.909 --> 00:30:33.919 align:start position:0%
field lines.
 

00:30:33.919 --> 00:30:36.789 align:start position:0%
field lines.
Until<00:30:34.320><c> the</c><00:30:34.480><c> mid</c><00:30:34.880><c> 1960s,</c><00:30:36.080><c> the</c><00:30:36.320><c> prevailing</c>

00:30:36.789 --> 00:30:36.799 align:start position:0%
Until the mid 1960s, the prevailing
 

00:30:36.799 --> 00:30:38.789 align:start position:0%
Until the mid 1960s, the prevailing
model<00:30:37.039><c> of</c><00:30:37.279><c> our</c><00:30:37.440><c> planet's</c><00:30:37.840><c> magnetic</c><00:30:38.320><c> field</c>

00:30:38.789 --> 00:30:38.799 align:start position:0%
model of our planet's magnetic field
 

00:30:38.799 --> 00:30:41.029 align:start position:0%
model of our planet's magnetic field
theorized<00:30:39.360><c> that</c><00:30:39.760><c> all</c><00:30:40.080><c> of</c><00:30:40.159><c> the</c><00:30:40.399><c> magnetic</c><00:30:40.799><c> field</c>

00:30:41.029 --> 00:30:41.039 align:start position:0%
theorized that all of the magnetic field
 

00:30:41.039 --> 00:30:43.669 align:start position:0%
theorized that all of the magnetic field
lines<00:30:41.440><c> were</c><00:30:41.679><c> closed</c><00:30:42.559><c> and</c><00:30:42.880><c> the</c><00:30:43.120><c> plasma</c>

00:30:43.669 --> 00:30:43.679 align:start position:0%
lines were closed and the plasma
 

00:30:43.679 --> 00:30:48.389 align:start position:0%
lines were closed and the plasma
remained<00:30:44.080><c> trapped.</c><00:30:45.200><c> So</c><00:30:45.919><c> what</c><00:30:46.240><c> changed?</c><00:30:47.679><c> We</c>

00:30:48.389 --> 00:30:48.399 align:start position:0%
remained trapped. So what changed? We
 

00:30:48.399 --> 00:30:50.789 align:start position:0%
remained trapped. So what changed? We
went<00:30:48.640><c> to</c><00:30:48.880><c> space.</c>

00:30:50.789 --> 00:30:50.799 align:start position:0%
went to space.
 

00:30:50.799 --> 00:30:52.710 align:start position:0%
went to space.
In<00:30:51.039><c> the</c><00:30:51.200><c> 1960s,</c><00:30:52.159><c> the</c><00:30:52.361><c> [music]</c><00:30:52.399><c> first</c>

00:30:52.710 --> 00:30:52.720 align:start position:0%
In the 1960s, the [music] first
 

00:30:52.720 --> 00:30:54.870 align:start position:0%
In the 1960s, the [music] first
spacecraft<00:30:53.360><c> flying</c><00:30:53.760><c> over</c><00:30:54.000><c> our</c><00:30:54.399><c> planet's</c>

00:30:54.870 --> 00:30:54.880 align:start position:0%
spacecraft flying over our planet's
 

00:30:54.880 --> 00:30:57.430 align:start position:0%
spacecraft flying over our planet's
north<00:30:55.200><c> and</c><00:30:55.440><c> south</c><00:30:55.760><c> poles</c><00:30:56.480><c> could</c><00:30:56.960><c> actually</c>

00:30:57.430 --> 00:30:57.440 align:start position:0%
north and south poles could actually
 

00:30:57.440 --> 00:31:00.310 align:start position:0%
north and south poles could actually
detect<00:30:57.919><c> a</c><00:30:58.399><c> supersonic</c><00:30:59.279><c> wind</c><00:30:59.679><c> of</c><00:30:59.919><c> charged</c>

00:31:00.310 --> 00:31:00.320 align:start position:0%
detect a supersonic wind of charged
 

00:31:00.320 --> 00:31:03.190 align:start position:0%
detect a supersonic wind of charged
particles<00:31:00.960><c> or</c><00:31:01.360><c> plasma</c><00:31:02.240><c> flowing</c><00:31:02.720><c> out</c><00:31:02.960><c> to</c>

00:31:03.190 --> 00:31:03.200 align:start position:0%
particles or plasma flowing out to
 

00:31:03.200 --> 00:31:05.669 align:start position:0%
particles or plasma flowing out to
space,<00:31:04.080><c> including</c><00:31:04.640><c> positively</c><00:31:05.279><c> charged</c>

00:31:05.669 --> 00:31:05.679 align:start position:0%
space, including positively charged
 

00:31:05.679 --> 00:31:08.630 align:start position:0%
space, including positively charged
hydrogen<00:31:06.240><c> and</c><00:31:06.559><c> oxygen</c><00:31:07.279><c> ions.</c><00:31:08.399><c> This</c>

00:31:08.630 --> 00:31:08.640 align:start position:0%
hydrogen and oxygen ions. This
 

00:31:08.640 --> 00:31:10.470 align:start position:0%
hydrogen and oxygen ions. This
observation<00:31:09.200><c> led</c><00:31:09.520><c> scientists</c><00:31:09.919><c> to</c><00:31:10.159><c> start</c>

00:31:10.470 --> 00:31:10.480 align:start position:0%
observation led scientists to start
 

00:31:10.480 --> 00:31:12.549 align:start position:0%
observation led scientists to start
wondering<00:31:11.200><c> whether</c><00:31:11.520><c> the</c><00:31:11.679><c> Earth's</c><00:31:12.080><c> magnetic</c>

00:31:12.549 --> 00:31:12.559 align:start position:0%
wondering whether the Earth's magnetic
 

00:31:12.559 --> 00:31:15.110 align:start position:0%
wondering whether the Earth's magnetic
field<00:31:12.799><c> model</c><00:31:13.200><c> should</c><00:31:13.440><c> have</c><00:31:13.679><c> an</c><00:31:13.919><c> open</c><00:31:14.799><c> rather</c>

00:31:15.110 --> 00:31:15.120 align:start position:0%
field model should have an open rather
 

00:31:15.120 --> 00:31:17.750 align:start position:0%
field model should have an open rather
than<00:31:15.360><c> a</c><00:31:15.600><c> closed</c><00:31:16.159><c> tail.</c>

00:31:17.750 --> 00:31:17.760 align:start position:0%
than a closed tail.
 

00:31:17.760 --> 00:31:19.350 align:start position:0%
than a closed tail.
At<00:31:17.919><c> the</c><00:31:18.080><c> time,</c><00:31:18.399><c> scientists</c><00:31:18.880><c> already</c><00:31:19.120><c> knew</c>

00:31:19.350 --> 00:31:19.360 align:start position:0%
At the time, scientists already knew
 

00:31:19.360 --> 00:31:21.269 align:start position:0%
At the time, scientists already knew
that<00:31:19.520><c> our</c><00:31:19.760><c> atmosphere</c><00:31:20.320><c> lost</c><00:31:20.640><c> some</c><00:31:20.880><c> particles</c>

00:31:21.269 --> 00:31:21.279 align:start position:0%
that our atmosphere lost some particles
 

00:31:21.279 --> 00:31:23.909 align:start position:0%
that our atmosphere lost some particles
to<00:31:21.520><c> space</c><00:31:21.760><c> due</c><00:31:22.000><c> to</c><00:31:22.240><c> thermal</c><00:31:22.640><c> escape.</c><00:31:23.600><c> This</c><00:31:23.840><c> is</c>

00:31:23.909 --> 00:31:23.919 align:start position:0%
to space due to thermal escape. This is
 

00:31:23.919 --> 00:31:25.909 align:start position:0%
to space due to thermal escape. This is
a<00:31:24.240><c> type</c><00:31:24.399><c> of</c><00:31:24.640><c> atmospheric</c><00:31:25.279><c> escape</c><00:31:25.679><c> that</c>

00:31:25.909 --> 00:31:25.919 align:start position:0%
a type of atmospheric escape that
 

00:31:25.919 --> 00:31:27.830 align:start position:0%
a type of atmospheric escape that
typically<00:31:26.399><c> happens</c><00:31:26.799><c> when</c><00:31:27.039><c> the</c><00:31:27.200><c> energy</c><00:31:27.600><c> from</c>

00:31:27.830 --> 00:31:27.840 align:start position:0%
typically happens when the energy from
 

00:31:27.840 --> 00:31:29.909 align:start position:0%
typically happens when the energy from
sunlight<00:31:28.480><c> heats</c><00:31:28.799><c> up</c><00:31:29.120><c> particles</c><00:31:29.520><c> in</c><00:31:29.760><c> our</c>

00:31:29.909 --> 00:31:29.919 align:start position:0%
sunlight heats up particles in our
 

00:31:29.919 --> 00:31:31.669 align:start position:0%
sunlight heats up particles in our
atmosphere,<00:31:30.720><c> allowing</c><00:31:31.039><c> them</c><00:31:31.279><c> to</c><00:31:31.440><c> reach</c>

00:31:31.669 --> 00:31:31.679 align:start position:0%
atmosphere, allowing them to reach
 

00:31:31.679 --> 00:31:33.909 align:start position:0%
atmosphere, allowing them to reach
escape<00:31:32.080><c> velocity</c><00:31:32.640><c> and</c><00:31:33.039><c> break</c><00:31:33.279><c> free</c><00:31:33.600><c> of</c><00:31:33.760><c> our</c>

00:31:33.909 --> 00:31:33.919 align:start position:0%
escape velocity and break free of our
 

00:31:33.919 --> 00:31:35.830 align:start position:0%
escape velocity and break free of our
planet's<00:31:34.320><c> gravitational</c><00:31:34.880><c> pull.</c><00:31:35.600><c> Kind</c><00:31:35.760><c> of</c>

00:31:35.830 --> 00:31:35.840 align:start position:0%
planet's gravitational pull. Kind of
 

00:31:35.840 --> 00:31:38.389 align:start position:0%
planet's gravitational pull. Kind of
like<00:31:36.080><c> when</c><00:31:36.240><c> a</c><00:31:36.399><c> pot</c><00:31:36.640><c> of</c><00:31:36.799><c> water</c><00:31:37.200><c> boils</c><00:31:37.679><c> and</c><00:31:38.000><c> steam</c>

00:31:38.389 --> 00:31:38.399 align:start position:0%
like when a pot of water boils and steam
 

00:31:38.399 --> 00:31:41.750 align:start position:0%
like when a pot of water boils and steam
evaporates.<00:31:39.679><c> So,</c><00:31:40.000><c> it</c><00:31:40.240><c> was</c><00:31:40.480><c> no</c><00:31:40.799><c> surprise</c><00:31:41.440><c> that</c>

00:31:41.750 --> 00:31:41.760 align:start position:0%
evaporates. So, it was no surprise that
 

00:31:41.760 --> 00:31:43.830 align:start position:0%
evaporates. So, it was no surprise that
some<00:31:42.080><c> particles</c><00:31:42.640><c> would</c><00:31:42.880><c> be</c><00:31:43.039><c> escaping</c><00:31:43.519><c> into</c>

00:31:43.830 --> 00:31:43.840 align:start position:0%
some particles would be escaping into
 

00:31:43.840 --> 00:31:46.870 align:start position:0%
some particles would be escaping into
space.<00:31:44.880><c> But</c><00:31:45.440><c> something</c><00:31:46.080><c> didn't</c><00:31:46.399><c> quite</c><00:31:46.640><c> add</c>

00:31:46.870 --> 00:31:46.880 align:start position:0%
space. But something didn't quite add
 

00:31:46.880 --> 00:31:48.630 align:start position:0%
space. But something didn't quite add
up.

00:31:48.630 --> 00:31:48.640 align:start position:0%
up.
 

00:31:48.640 --> 00:31:51.269 align:start position:0%
up.
If<00:31:49.120><c> energy</c><00:31:49.600><c> from</c><00:31:49.840><c> the</c><00:31:50.000><c> sun</c><00:31:50.480><c> were</c><00:31:50.799><c> the</c><00:31:51.039><c> only</c>

00:31:51.269 --> 00:31:51.279 align:start position:0%
If energy from the sun were the only
 

00:31:51.279 --> 00:31:53.750 align:start position:0%
If energy from the sun were the only
cause<00:31:51.600><c> of</c><00:31:51.840><c> atmospheric</c><00:31:52.480><c> escape,</c><00:31:53.279><c> one</c><00:31:53.519><c> would</c>

00:31:53.750 --> 00:31:53.760 align:start position:0%
cause of atmospheric escape, one would
 

00:31:53.760 --> 00:31:55.909 align:start position:0%
cause of atmospheric escape, one would
expect<00:31:54.159><c> the</c><00:31:54.480><c> particles</c><00:31:54.960><c> that</c><00:31:55.200><c> were</c><00:31:55.440><c> escaping</c>

00:31:55.909 --> 00:31:55.919 align:start position:0%
expect the particles that were escaping
 

00:31:55.919 --> 00:31:59.350 align:start position:0%
expect the particles that were escaping
into<00:31:56.159><c> space</c><00:31:56.480><c> to</c><00:31:56.720><c> be</c><00:31:57.120><c> heated.</c><00:31:58.240><c> However,</c><00:31:59.039><c> many</c>

00:31:59.350 --> 00:31:59.360 align:start position:0%
into space to be heated. However, many
 

00:31:59.360 --> 00:32:02.710 align:start position:0%
into space to be heated. However, many
in<00:31:59.600><c> the</c><00:31:59.760><c> stream</c><00:32:00.240><c> were</c><00:32:00.640><c> actually</c><00:32:01.120><c> cold</c><00:32:02.080><c> with</c><00:32:02.399><c> no</c>

00:32:02.710 --> 00:32:02.720 align:start position:0%
in the stream were actually cold with no
 

00:32:02.720 --> 00:32:05.590 align:start position:0%
in the stream were actually cold with no
signs<00:32:03.039><c> of</c><00:32:03.200><c> being</c><00:32:03.440><c> heated.</c><00:32:04.320><c> And</c><00:32:04.480><c> yet,</c><00:32:05.200><c> they</c>

00:32:05.590 --> 00:32:05.600 align:start position:0%
signs of being heated. And yet, they
 

00:32:05.600 --> 00:32:09.350 align:start position:0%
signs of being heated. And yet, they
were<00:32:06.080><c> traveling</c><00:32:06.720><c> at</c><00:32:07.200><c> supersonic</c><00:32:08.000><c> speeds.</c>

00:32:09.350 --> 00:32:09.360 align:start position:0%
were traveling at supersonic speeds.
 

00:32:09.360 --> 00:32:11.110 align:start position:0%
were traveling at supersonic speeds.
Scientists<00:32:09.919><c> hypothesized</c><00:32:10.559><c> that</c><00:32:10.720><c> there</c><00:32:10.960><c> must</c>

00:32:11.110 --> 00:32:11.120 align:start position:0%
Scientists hypothesized that there must
 

00:32:11.120 --> 00:32:13.990 align:start position:0%
Scientists hypothesized that there must
be<00:32:11.279><c> another</c><00:32:12.000><c> invisible</c><00:32:12.720><c> force</c><00:32:13.360><c> driving</c><00:32:13.760><c> this</c>

00:32:13.990 --> 00:32:14.000 align:start position:0%
be another invisible force driving this
 

00:32:14.000 --> 00:32:17.750 align:start position:0%
be another invisible force driving this
phenomenon.<00:32:14.880><c> And</c><00:32:15.039><c> in</c><00:32:15.279><c> 1968,</c><00:32:16.559><c> the</c><00:32:16.799><c> term</c><00:32:17.279><c> polar</c>

00:32:17.750 --> 00:32:17.760 align:start position:0%
phenomenon. And in 1968, the term polar
 

00:32:17.760 --> 00:32:20.389 align:start position:0%
phenomenon. And in 1968, the term polar
wind<00:32:18.240><c> was</c><00:32:18.480><c> coined</c><00:32:18.880><c> to</c><00:32:19.120><c> describe</c><00:32:19.440><c> it,</c><00:32:20.080><c> leading</c>

00:32:20.389 --> 00:32:20.399 align:start position:0%
wind was coined to describe it, leading
 

00:32:20.399 --> 00:32:22.470 align:start position:0%
wind was coined to describe it, leading
to<00:32:20.640><c> more</c><00:32:20.880><c> research</c><00:32:21.279><c> and</c><00:32:21.519><c> theories</c><00:32:21.919><c> into</c><00:32:22.159><c> its</c>

00:32:22.470 --> 00:32:22.480 align:start position:0%
to more research and theories into its
 

00:32:22.480 --> 00:32:24.549 align:start position:0%
to more research and theories into its
cause<00:32:22.799><c> and</c><00:32:23.039><c> effects.</c>

00:32:24.549 --> 00:32:24.559 align:start position:0%
cause and effects.
 

00:32:24.559 --> 00:32:27.590 align:start position:0%
cause and effects.
The<00:32:24.799><c> idea</c><00:32:25.200><c> of</c><00:32:25.360><c> a</c><00:32:25.679><c> planetwide</c><00:32:26.640><c> electric</c><00:32:27.120><c> field</c>

00:32:27.590 --> 00:32:27.600 align:start position:0%
The idea of a planetwide electric field
 

00:32:27.600 --> 00:32:30.789 align:start position:0%
The idea of a planetwide electric field
was<00:32:27.919><c> developed</c><00:32:28.399><c> to</c><00:32:28.720><c> explain</c><00:32:29.200><c> the</c><00:32:29.440><c> polar</c><00:32:29.840><c> wind.</c>

00:32:30.789 --> 00:32:30.799 align:start position:0%
was developed to explain the polar wind.
 

00:32:30.799 --> 00:32:32.470 align:start position:0%
was developed to explain the polar wind.
But<00:32:30.960><c> when</c><00:32:31.200><c> this</c><00:32:31.360><c> was</c><00:32:31.519><c> theorized</c><00:32:32.080><c> in</c><00:32:32.320><c> the</c>

00:32:32.470 --> 00:32:32.480 align:start position:0%
But when this was theorized in the
 

00:32:32.480 --> 00:32:35.350 align:start position:0%
But when this was theorized in the
1960s,<00:32:33.679><c> it</c><00:32:33.919><c> was</c><00:32:34.000><c> thought</c><00:32:34.240><c> that</c><00:32:34.399><c> the</c><00:32:34.640><c> force</c><00:32:35.039><c> was</c>

00:32:35.350 --> 00:32:35.360 align:start position:0%
1960s, it was thought that the force was
 

00:32:35.360 --> 00:32:38.230 align:start position:0%
1960s, it was thought that the force was
too<00:32:35.600><c> weak</c><00:32:35.919><c> to</c><00:32:36.159><c> detect.</c><00:32:37.200><c> And</c><00:32:37.360><c> at</c><00:32:37.519><c> the</c><00:32:37.760><c> time,</c>

00:32:38.230 --> 00:32:38.240 align:start position:0%
too weak to detect. And at the time,
 

00:32:38.240 --> 00:32:40.549 align:start position:0%
too weak to detect. And at the time,
scientists<00:32:38.799><c> were</c><00:32:39.200><c> correct.</c><00:32:39.840><c> The</c><00:32:40.080><c> electric</c>

00:32:40.549 --> 00:32:40.559 align:start position:0%
scientists were correct. The electric
 

00:32:40.559 --> 00:32:43.110 align:start position:0%
scientists were correct. The electric
potential<00:32:40.960><c> was</c><00:32:41.200><c> so</c><00:32:41.519><c> weak,</c><00:32:42.159><c> it</c><00:32:42.399><c> would</c><00:32:42.640><c> require</c>

00:32:43.110 --> 00:32:43.120 align:start position:0%
potential was so weak, it would require
 

00:32:43.120 --> 00:32:45.430 align:start position:0%
potential was so weak, it would require
very<00:32:43.519><c> sensitive</c><00:32:44.000><c> instruments</c><00:32:44.480><c> to</c><00:32:44.640><c> measure,</c>

00:32:45.430 --> 00:32:45.440 align:start position:0%
very sensitive instruments to measure,
 

00:32:45.440 --> 00:32:47.590 align:start position:0%
very sensitive instruments to measure,
and<00:32:45.679><c> that</c><00:32:45.919><c> technology</c><00:32:46.559><c> wouldn't</c><00:32:46.960><c> be</c><00:32:47.120><c> invented</c>

00:32:47.590 --> 00:32:47.600 align:start position:0%
and that technology wouldn't be invented
 

00:32:47.600 --> 00:32:50.630 align:start position:0%
and that technology wouldn't be invented
for<00:32:48.000><c> several</c><00:32:48.480><c> more</c><00:32:48.799><c> decades.</c>

00:32:50.630 --> 00:32:50.640 align:start position:0%
for several more decades.
 

00:32:50.640 --> 00:32:52.549 align:start position:0%
for several more decades.
Enthusiasm<00:32:51.360><c> to</c><00:32:51.600><c> measure</c><00:32:51.919><c> our</c><00:32:52.240><c> planet's</c>

00:32:52.549 --> 00:32:52.559 align:start position:0%
Enthusiasm to measure our planet's
 

00:32:52.559 --> 00:32:56.070 align:start position:0%
Enthusiasm to measure our planet's
ambiolar<00:32:53.279><c> field</c><00:32:53.519><c> was</c><00:32:53.760><c> spurred</c><00:32:54.159><c> again</c><00:32:54.480><c> in</c><00:32:54.880><c> 2016</c>

00:32:56.070 --> 00:32:56.080 align:start position:0%
ambiolar field was spurred again in 2016
 

00:32:56.080 --> 00:32:58.389 align:start position:0%
ambiolar field was spurred again in 2016
after<00:32:56.320><c> a</c><00:32:56.559><c> clue</c><00:32:56.960><c> came</c><00:32:57.200><c> from</c><00:32:57.600><c> the</c><00:32:57.919><c> European</c>

00:32:58.389 --> 00:32:58.399 align:start position:0%
after a clue came from the European
 

00:32:58.399 --> 00:33:02.470 align:start position:0%
after a clue came from the European
Space<00:32:58.720><c> Ay's</c><00:32:59.600><c> Venus</c><00:33:00.240><c> Express</c><00:33:00.799><c> mission.</c>

00:33:02.470 --> 00:33:02.480 align:start position:0%
Space Ay's Venus Express mission.
 

00:33:02.480 --> 00:33:04.230 align:start position:0%
Space Ay's Venus Express mission.
One<00:33:02.720><c> of</c><00:33:02.799><c> the</c><00:33:03.039><c> reasons</c><00:33:03.279><c> that</c><00:33:03.600><c> Earth</c><00:33:03.919><c> is</c>

00:33:04.230 --> 00:33:04.240 align:start position:0%
One of the reasons that Earth is
 

00:33:04.240 --> 00:33:06.549 align:start position:0%
One of the reasons that Earth is
hospitable<00:33:04.880><c> for</c><00:33:05.120><c> life</c><00:33:05.519><c> is</c><00:33:05.760><c> because</c><00:33:06.080><c> of</c><00:33:06.240><c> its</c>

00:33:06.549 --> 00:33:06.559 align:start position:0%
hospitable for life is because of its
 

00:33:06.559 --> 00:33:10.389 align:start position:0%
hospitable for life is because of its
water.<00:33:07.519><c> While</c><00:33:07.760><c> Venus</c><00:33:08.320><c> today</c><00:33:09.200><c> is</c><00:33:09.679><c> dry</c><00:33:10.080><c> and</c>

00:33:10.389 --> 00:33:10.399 align:start position:0%
water. While Venus today is dry and
 

00:33:10.399 --> 00:33:13.269 align:start position:0%
water. While Venus today is dry and
barren.<00:33:11.279><c> However,</c><00:33:11.760><c> billions</c><00:33:12.240><c> of</c><00:33:12.399><c> years</c><00:33:12.559><c> ago,</c>

00:33:13.269 --> 00:33:13.279 align:start position:0%
barren. However, billions of years ago,
 

00:33:13.279 --> 00:33:15.590 align:start position:0%
barren. However, billions of years ago,
evidence<00:33:13.679><c> suggests</c><00:33:14.080><c> that</c><00:33:14.320><c> Venus</c><00:33:14.960><c> might</c><00:33:15.360><c> have</c>

00:33:15.590 --> 00:33:15.600 align:start position:0%
evidence suggests that Venus might have
 

00:33:15.600 --> 00:33:17.909 align:start position:0%
evidence suggests that Venus might have
had<00:33:16.000><c> abundant</c><00:33:16.559><c> water</c><00:33:16.960><c> like</c><00:33:17.200><c> our</c><00:33:17.519><c> own</c><00:33:17.679><c> world</c>

00:33:17.909 --> 00:33:17.919 align:start position:0%
had abundant water like our own world
 

00:33:17.919 --> 00:33:20.870 align:start position:0%
had abundant water like our own world
does<00:33:18.240><c> now.</c><00:33:19.279><c> This</c><00:33:19.519><c> raises</c><00:33:19.919><c> the</c><00:33:20.240><c> intriguing</c>

00:33:20.870 --> 00:33:20.880 align:start position:0%
does now. This raises the intriguing
 

00:33:20.880 --> 00:33:24.549 align:start position:0%
does now. This raises the intriguing
question,<00:33:22.000><c> if</c><00:33:22.240><c> Venus</c><00:33:22.720><c> once</c><00:33:23.039><c> had</c><00:33:23.360><c> water,</c><00:33:24.320><c> where</c>

00:33:24.549 --> 00:33:24.559 align:start position:0%
question, if Venus once had water, where
 

00:33:24.559 --> 00:33:27.110 align:start position:0%
question, if Venus once had water, where
did<00:33:24.799><c> it</c><00:33:24.960><c> all</c><00:33:25.279><c> go?</c>

00:33:27.110 --> 00:33:27.120 align:start position:0%
did it all go?
 

00:33:27.120 --> 00:33:29.430 align:start position:0%
did it all go?
The<00:33:27.440><c> issa's</c><00:33:27.840><c> Venus</c><00:33:28.240><c> Express</c><00:33:28.640><c> mission</c><00:33:29.039><c> offered</c>

00:33:29.430 --> 00:33:29.440 align:start position:0%
The issa's Venus Express mission offered
 

00:33:29.440 --> 00:33:31.750 align:start position:0%
The issa's Venus Express mission offered
a<00:33:29.760><c> potential</c><00:33:30.399><c> explanation.</c><00:33:31.279><c> when</c><00:33:31.519><c> it</c>

00:33:31.750 --> 00:33:31.760 align:start position:0%
a potential explanation. when it
 

00:33:31.760 --> 00:33:35.110 align:start position:0%
a potential explanation. when it
detected<00:33:32.240><c> a</c><00:33:32.640><c> 10V</c><00:33:33.760><c> electric</c><00:33:34.320><c> potential</c><00:33:34.799><c> around</c>

00:33:35.110 --> 00:33:35.120 align:start position:0%
detected a 10V electric potential around
 

00:33:35.120 --> 00:33:37.990 align:start position:0%
detected a 10V electric potential around
Venus,<00:33:36.080><c> at</c><00:33:36.080><c> least</c><00:33:36.720><c> five</c><00:33:37.039><c> times</c><00:33:37.440><c> larger</c><00:33:37.760><c> than</c>

00:33:37.990 --> 00:33:38.000 align:start position:0%
Venus, at least five times larger than
 

00:33:38.000 --> 00:33:40.789 align:start position:0%
Venus, at least five times larger than
expected.<00:33:39.360><c> This</c><00:33:39.600><c> marked</c><00:33:40.000><c> the</c><00:33:40.320><c> first</c>

00:33:40.789 --> 00:33:40.799 align:start position:0%
expected. This marked the first
 

00:33:40.799 --> 00:33:42.950 align:start position:0%
expected. This marked the first
successful<00:33:41.519><c> measurement</c><00:33:42.000><c> of</c><00:33:42.240><c> an</c><00:33:42.480><c> electric</c>

00:33:42.950 --> 00:33:42.960 align:start position:0%
successful measurement of an electric
 

00:33:42.960 --> 00:33:46.710 align:start position:0%
successful measurement of an electric
field<00:33:43.360><c> on</c><00:33:43.760><c> any</c><00:33:44.159><c> planet,</c><00:33:44.960><c> including</c><00:33:45.519><c> Earth.</c>

00:33:46.710 --> 00:33:46.720 align:start position:0%
field on any planet, including Earth.
 

00:33:46.720 --> 00:33:48.149 align:start position:0%
field on any planet, including Earth.
The<00:33:46.960><c> electric</c><00:33:47.360><c> field</c><00:33:47.679><c> surrounding</c><00:33:47.903><c> [music]</c>

00:33:48.149 --> 00:33:48.159 align:start position:0%
The electric field surrounding [music]
 

00:33:48.159 --> 00:33:51.190 align:start position:0%
The electric field surrounding [music]
Venus<00:33:48.640><c> could</c><00:33:48.960><c> pull</c><00:33:49.600><c> positively</c><00:33:50.240><c> charged</c><00:33:50.880><c> ions</c>

00:33:51.190 --> 00:33:51.200 align:start position:0%
Venus could pull positively charged ions
 

00:33:51.200 --> 00:33:53.590 align:start position:0%
Venus could pull positively charged ions
like<00:33:51.440><c> oxygen,</c><00:33:52.080><c> out</c><00:33:52.240><c> of</c><00:33:52.399><c> the</c><00:33:52.559><c> atmosphere,</c>

00:33:53.590 --> 00:33:53.600 align:start position:0%
like oxygen, out of the atmosphere,
 

00:33:53.600 --> 00:33:55.590 align:start position:0%
like oxygen, out of the atmosphere,
draining<00:33:54.000><c> it</c><00:33:54.240><c> of</c><00:33:54.399><c> the</c><00:33:54.640><c> essential</c><00:33:55.120><c> ingredients</c>

00:33:55.590 --> 00:33:55.600 align:start position:0%
draining it of the essential ingredients
 

00:33:55.600 --> 00:33:57.669 align:start position:0%
draining it of the essential ingredients
of<00:33:55.840><c> water,</c><00:33:56.480><c> like</c><00:33:56.720><c> a</c><00:33:56.880><c> vacuum</c><00:33:57.279><c> cleaner</c>

00:33:57.669 --> 00:33:57.679 align:start position:0%
of water, like a vacuum cleaner
 

00:33:57.679 --> 00:34:00.789 align:start position:0%
of water, like a vacuum cleaner
siphoning<00:33:58.240><c> particles</c><00:33:58.960><c> out</c><00:33:59.200><c> to</c><00:33:59.440><c> space.</c><00:34:00.320><c> Over</c>

00:34:00.789 --> 00:34:00.799 align:start position:0%
siphoning particles out to space. Over
 

00:34:00.799 --> 00:34:03.029 align:start position:0%
siphoning particles out to space. Over
time,<00:34:01.440><c> this</c><00:34:01.679><c> could</c><00:34:01.840><c> have</c><00:34:02.000><c> played</c><00:34:02.240><c> a</c><00:34:02.480><c> role</c><00:34:02.720><c> in</c>

00:34:03.029 --> 00:34:03.039 align:start position:0%
time, this could have played a role in
 

00:34:03.039 --> 00:34:05.430 align:start position:0%
time, this could have played a role in
draining<00:34:03.440><c> the</c><00:34:03.679><c> planet</c><00:34:03.919><c> of</c><00:34:04.159><c> its</c><00:34:04.399><c> once</c><00:34:04.799><c> abundant</c>

00:34:05.430 --> 00:34:05.440 align:start position:0%
draining the planet of its once abundant
 

00:34:05.440 --> 00:34:06.950 align:start position:0%
draining the planet of its once abundant
water.

00:34:06.950 --> 00:34:06.960 align:start position:0%
water.
 

00:34:06.960 --> 00:34:09.510 align:start position:0%
water.
This<00:34:07.200><c> prompted</c><00:34:07.679><c> a</c><00:34:08.000><c> question</c><00:34:08.560><c> much</c><00:34:08.960><c> closer</c><00:34:09.280><c> to</c>

00:34:09.510 --> 00:34:09.520 align:start position:0%
This prompted a question much closer to
 

00:34:09.520 --> 00:34:12.470 align:start position:0%
This prompted a question much closer to
home.<00:34:10.480><c> Does</c><00:34:10.800><c> Earth</c><00:34:11.200><c> have</c><00:34:11.440><c> a</c><00:34:11.599><c> similar</c><00:34:12.000><c> electric</c>

00:34:12.470 --> 00:34:12.480 align:start position:0%
home. Does Earth have a similar electric
 

00:34:12.480 --> 00:34:15.829 align:start position:0%
home. Does Earth have a similar electric
field?<00:34:13.200><c> And</c><00:34:13.359><c> if</c><00:34:13.599><c> so,</c><00:34:14.399><c> why</c><00:34:14.720><c> has</c><00:34:15.040><c> our</c><00:34:15.359><c> planet</c>

00:34:15.829 --> 00:34:15.839 align:start position:0%
field? And if so, why has our planet
 

00:34:15.839 --> 00:34:20.470 align:start position:0%
field? And if so, why has our planet
managed<00:34:16.159><c> to</c><00:34:16.320><c> hold</c><00:34:16.639><c> onto</c><00:34:17.040><c> its</c><00:34:17.440><c> water?</c>

00:34:20.470 --> 00:34:20.480 align:start position:0%
 
 

00:34:20.480 --> 00:34:22.149 align:start position:0%
 
The<00:34:20.720><c> electric</c><00:34:21.119><c> potential</c><00:34:21.599><c> measured</c><00:34:21.919><c> around</c>

00:34:22.149 --> 00:34:22.159 align:start position:0%
The electric potential measured around
 

00:34:22.159 --> 00:34:24.550 align:start position:0%
The electric potential measured around
Venus<00:34:22.560><c> was</c><00:34:22.720><c> around</c><00:34:23.119><c> 10</c><00:34:23.440><c> V.</c><00:34:23.928><c> [music]</c>

00:34:24.550 --> 00:34:24.560 align:start position:0%
Venus was around 10 V. [music]
 

00:34:24.560 --> 00:34:26.950 align:start position:0%
Venus was around 10 V. [music]
For<00:34:24.800><c> comparison,</c><00:34:25.679><c> a</c><00:34:26.000><c> standard</c><00:34:26.399><c> car</c><00:34:26.639><c> battery</c>

00:34:26.950 --> 00:34:26.960 align:start position:0%
For comparison, a standard car battery
 

00:34:26.960 --> 00:34:30.069 align:start position:0%
For comparison, a standard car battery
is<00:34:27.280><c> 12</c><00:34:27.440><c> V.</c><00:34:28.320><c> But</c><00:34:28.560><c> scientists</c><00:34:29.200><c> expected</c><00:34:29.679><c> our</c>

00:34:30.069 --> 00:34:30.079 align:start position:0%
is 12 V. But scientists expected our
 

00:34:30.079 --> 00:34:31.669 align:start position:0%
is 12 V. But scientists expected our
planet's<00:34:30.480><c> electric</c><00:34:30.800><c> potential</c><00:34:31.200><c> to</c><00:34:31.359><c> be</c><00:34:31.520><c> as</c>

00:34:31.669 --> 00:34:31.679 align:start position:0%
planet's electric potential to be as
 

00:34:31.679 --> 00:34:35.589 align:start position:0%
planet's electric potential to be as
little<00:34:31.919><c> as</c><00:34:32.320><c> 0.3</c><00:34:33.280><c> volts,</c><00:34:34.159><c> similar</c><00:34:34.560><c> to</c><00:34:34.800><c> a</c><00:34:35.200><c> button</c>

00:34:35.589 --> 00:34:35.599 align:start position:0%
little as 0.3 volts, similar to a button
 

00:34:35.599 --> 00:34:37.909 align:start position:0%
little as 0.3 volts, similar to a button
battery<00:34:36.000><c> you</c><00:34:36.240><c> might</c><00:34:36.399><c> find</c><00:34:36.639><c> in</c><00:34:36.800><c> a</c><00:34:36.960><c> watch</c><00:34:37.599><c> and</c>

00:34:37.909 --> 00:34:37.919 align:start position:0%
battery you might find in a watch and
 

00:34:37.919 --> 00:34:40.710 align:start position:0%
battery you might find in a watch and
some<00:34:38.560><c> 25</c><00:34:39.200><c> times</c><00:34:39.520><c> weaker</c><00:34:39.919><c> than</c><00:34:40.079><c> the</c><00:34:40.320><c> electric</c>

00:34:40.710 --> 00:34:40.720 align:start position:0%
some 25 times weaker than the electric
 

00:34:40.720 --> 00:34:43.750 align:start position:0%
some 25 times weaker than the electric
potential<00:34:41.040><c> on</c><00:34:41.280><c> Venus.</c><00:34:42.639><c> It's</c><00:34:42.960><c> this</c><00:34:43.359><c> difference</c>

00:34:43.750 --> 00:34:43.760 align:start position:0%
potential on Venus. It's this difference
 

00:34:43.760 --> 00:34:46.629 align:start position:0%
potential on Venus. It's this difference
that<00:34:44.079><c> may</c><00:34:44.320><c> be</c><00:34:44.480><c> a</c><00:34:44.720><c> key</c><00:34:45.040><c> reason</c><00:34:45.679><c> why</c><00:34:46.000><c> our</c><00:34:46.320><c> Earth</c>

00:34:46.629 --> 00:34:46.639 align:start position:0%
that may be a key reason why our Earth
 

00:34:46.639 --> 00:34:49.030 align:start position:0%
that may be a key reason why our Earth
has<00:34:46.800><c> been</c><00:34:46.960><c> able</c><00:34:47.119><c> to</c><00:34:47.359><c> keep</c><00:34:47.599><c> its</c><00:34:47.919><c> water.</c><00:34:48.800><c> And</c>

00:34:49.030 --> 00:34:49.040 align:start position:0%
has been able to keep its water. And
 

00:34:49.040 --> 00:34:51.030 align:start position:0%
has been able to keep its water. And
that's<00:34:49.280><c> what</c><00:34:49.520><c> inspired</c><00:34:50.159><c> NASA's</c><00:34:50.639><c> endurance</c>

00:34:51.030 --> 00:34:51.040 align:start position:0%
that's what inspired NASA's endurance
 

00:34:51.040 --> 00:34:53.909 align:start position:0%
that's what inspired NASA's endurance
team<00:34:51.520><c> to</c><00:34:51.760><c> develop</c><00:34:52.159><c> a</c><00:34:52.480><c> new</c><00:34:52.800><c> type</c><00:34:53.200><c> of</c><00:34:53.440><c> scientific</c>

00:34:53.909 --> 00:34:53.919 align:start position:0%
team to develop a new type of scientific
 

00:34:53.919 --> 00:34:56.629 align:start position:0%
team to develop a new type of scientific
instrument<00:34:54.720><c> called</c><00:34:55.119><c> a</c><00:34:55.440><c> photo</c><00:34:56.079><c> electron</c>

00:34:56.629 --> 00:34:56.639 align:start position:0%
instrument called a photo electron
 

00:34:56.639 --> 00:34:59.670 align:start position:0%
instrument called a photo electron
spectrometer<00:34:57.839><c> to</c><00:34:58.160><c> find</c><00:34:58.720><c> Earth's</c><00:34:59.200><c> weak</c>

00:34:59.670 --> 00:34:59.680 align:start position:0%
spectrometer to find Earth's weak
 

00:34:59.680 --> 00:35:02.069 align:start position:0%
spectrometer to find Earth's weak
electric<00:35:00.079><c> field.</c><00:35:01.280><c> The</c><00:35:01.440><c> instrument</c><00:35:01.839><c> is</c>

00:35:02.069 --> 00:35:02.079 align:start position:0%
electric field. The instrument is
 

00:35:02.079 --> 00:35:03.510 align:start position:0%
electric field. The instrument is
designed<00:35:02.400><c> to</c><00:35:02.560><c> measure</c><00:35:02.880><c> the</c><00:35:03.119><c> speed</c><00:35:03.359><c> of</c>

00:35:03.510 --> 00:35:03.520 align:start position:0%
designed to measure the speed of
 

00:35:03.520 --> 00:35:05.030 align:start position:0%
designed to measure the speed of
electrons<00:35:04.079><c> escaping</c><00:35:04.480><c> from</c><00:35:04.720><c> Earth's</c>

00:35:05.030 --> 00:35:05.040 align:start position:0%
electrons escaping from Earth's
 

00:35:05.040 --> 00:35:07.190 align:start position:0%
electrons escaping from Earth's
atmosphere<00:35:05.760><c> as</c><00:35:06.000><c> a</c><00:35:06.160><c> way</c><00:35:06.320><c> to</c><00:35:06.480><c> reveal</c><00:35:06.880><c> our</c>

00:35:07.190 --> 00:35:07.200 align:start position:0%
atmosphere as a way to reveal our
 

00:35:07.200 --> 00:35:11.109 align:start position:0%
atmosphere as a way to reveal our
planet's<00:35:07.760><c> electric</c><00:35:08.240><c> potential.</c>

00:35:11.109 --> 00:35:11.119 align:start position:0%
planet's electric potential.
 

00:35:11.119 --> 00:35:14.150 align:start position:0%
planet's electric potential.
Earlier<00:35:11.599><c> I</c><00:35:11.920><c> explained</c><00:35:12.560><c> thermal</c><00:35:12.960><c> escape</c><00:35:13.680><c> and</c><00:35:13.920><c> I</c>

00:35:14.150 --> 00:35:14.160 align:start position:0%
Earlier I explained thermal escape and I
 

00:35:14.160 --> 00:35:15.750 align:start position:0%
Earlier I explained thermal escape and I
mentioned<00:35:14.400><c> that</c><00:35:14.640><c> particles</c><00:35:15.200><c> are</c><00:35:15.359><c> able</c><00:35:15.599><c> to</c>

00:35:15.750 --> 00:35:15.760 align:start position:0%
mentioned that particles are able to
 

00:35:15.760 --> 00:35:17.510 align:start position:0%
mentioned that particles are able to
escape<00:35:16.079><c> from</c><00:35:16.240><c> our</c><00:35:16.480><c> atmosphere</c><00:35:17.040><c> when</c><00:35:17.280><c> they</c>

00:35:17.510 --> 00:35:17.520 align:start position:0%
escape from our atmosphere when they
 

00:35:17.520 --> 00:35:20.069 align:start position:0%
escape from our atmosphere when they
reach<00:35:17.760><c> escape</c><00:35:18.160><c> velocity.</c><00:35:19.359><c> That</c><00:35:19.599><c> escape</c>

00:35:20.069 --> 00:35:20.079 align:start position:0%
reach escape velocity. That escape
 

00:35:20.079 --> 00:35:23.349 align:start position:0%
reach escape velocity. That escape
velocity<00:35:20.640><c> is</c><00:35:20.960><c> a</c><00:35:21.200><c> very</c><00:35:21.760><c> specific</c><00:35:22.720><c> predictable</c>

00:35:23.349 --> 00:35:23.359 align:start position:0%
velocity is a very specific predictable
 

00:35:23.359 --> 00:35:26.710 align:start position:0%
velocity is a very specific predictable
speed.<00:35:24.560><c> But</c><00:35:24.960><c> this</c><00:35:25.200><c> speed</c><00:35:25.520><c> should</c><00:35:25.839><c> be</c><00:35:26.160><c> ever</c><00:35:26.480><c> so</c>

00:35:26.710 --> 00:35:26.720 align:start position:0%
speed. But this speed should be ever so
 

00:35:26.720 --> 00:35:28.950 align:start position:0%
speed. But this speed should be ever so
slightly<00:35:27.200><c> slowed</c><00:35:27.839><c> by</c><00:35:28.160><c> Earth's</c><00:35:28.560><c> electric</c>

00:35:28.950 --> 00:35:28.960 align:start position:0%
slightly slowed by Earth's electric
 

00:35:28.960 --> 00:35:30.470 align:start position:0%
slightly slowed by Earth's electric
potential.

00:35:30.470 --> 00:35:30.480 align:start position:0%
potential.
 

00:35:30.480 --> 00:35:33.109 align:start position:0%
potential.
And<00:35:30.720><c> so</c><00:35:31.359><c> by</c><00:35:31.599><c> measuring</c><00:35:32.079><c> that</c><00:35:32.400><c> slowing</c><00:35:32.880><c> effect</c>

00:35:33.109 --> 00:35:33.119 align:start position:0%
And so by measuring that slowing effect
 

00:35:33.119 --> 00:35:35.750 align:start position:0%
And so by measuring that slowing effect
at<00:35:33.440><c> apogee</c><00:35:34.240><c> or</c><00:35:34.480><c> the</c><00:35:34.800><c> furthest</c><00:35:35.280><c> point</c><00:35:35.520><c> in</c>

00:35:35.750 --> 00:35:35.760 align:start position:0%
at apogee or the furthest point in
 

00:35:35.760 --> 00:35:37.910 align:start position:0%
at apogee or the furthest point in
endurance's<00:35:36.480><c> orbit</c><00:35:36.800><c> from</c><00:35:36.960><c> Earth,</c><00:35:37.680><c> the</c>

00:35:37.910 --> 00:35:37.920 align:start position:0%
endurance's orbit from Earth, the
 

00:35:37.920 --> 00:35:39.910 align:start position:0%
endurance's orbit from Earth, the
instrument<00:35:38.480><c> would</c><00:35:38.800><c> be</c><00:35:38.960><c> able</c><00:35:39.200><c> to</c><00:35:39.359><c> measure</c><00:35:39.680><c> the</c>

00:35:39.910 --> 00:35:39.920 align:start position:0%
instrument would be able to measure the
 

00:35:39.920 --> 00:35:41.829 align:start position:0%
instrument would be able to measure the
strength<00:35:40.320><c> of</c><00:35:40.480><c> the</c><00:35:40.800><c> electric</c><00:35:41.280><c> potential</c>

00:35:41.829 --> 00:35:41.839 align:start position:0%
strength of the electric potential
 

00:35:41.839 --> 00:35:44.950 align:start position:0%
strength of the electric potential
around<00:35:42.320><c> our</c><00:35:42.640><c> planet.</c><00:35:44.079><c> Such</c><00:35:44.320><c> a</c><00:35:44.560><c> sensitive</c>

00:35:44.950 --> 00:35:44.960 align:start position:0%
around our planet. Such a sensitive
 

00:35:44.960 --> 00:35:46.550 align:start position:0%
around our planet. Such a sensitive
instrument<00:35:45.440><c> would</c><00:35:45.599><c> need</c><00:35:45.760><c> to</c><00:35:45.839><c> be</c><00:35:46.000><c> launched</c><00:35:46.320><c> at</c>

00:35:46.550 --> 00:35:46.560 align:start position:0%
instrument would need to be launched at
 

00:35:46.560 --> 00:35:49.430 align:start position:0%
instrument would need to be launched at
precisely<00:35:47.119><c> the</c><00:35:47.440><c> right</c><00:35:47.680><c> location</c><00:35:48.240><c> and</c><00:35:48.560><c> time</c><00:35:49.200><c> in</c>

00:35:49.430 --> 00:35:49.440 align:start position:0%
precisely the right location and time in
 

00:35:49.440 --> 00:35:51.430 align:start position:0%
precisely the right location and time in
order<00:35:49.599><c> to</c><00:35:49.760><c> ensure</c><00:35:50.160><c> a</c><00:35:50.400><c> chance</c><00:35:50.720><c> at</c><00:35:50.960><c> making</c><00:35:51.200><c> the</c>

00:35:51.430 --> 00:35:51.440 align:start position:0%
order to ensure a chance at making the
 

00:35:51.440 --> 00:35:54.230 align:start position:0%
order to ensure a chance at making the
observation<00:35:52.079><c> successful.</c><00:35:53.280><c> The</c><00:35:53.520><c> Swalbard</c>

00:35:54.230 --> 00:35:54.240 align:start position:0%
observation successful. The Swalbard
 

00:35:54.240 --> 00:35:56.630 align:start position:0%
observation successful. The Swalbard
rocket<00:35:54.640><c> range</c><00:35:54.960><c> was</c><00:35:55.200><c> selected</c><00:35:55.520><c> for</c><00:35:55.680><c> the</c><00:35:55.920><c> job.</c>

00:35:56.630 --> 00:35:56.640 align:start position:0%
rocket range was selected for the job.
 

00:35:56.640 --> 00:35:59.030 align:start position:0%
rocket range was selected for the job.
is<00:35:56.880><c> the</c><00:35:57.040><c> northernmost</c><00:35:57.839><c> range</c><00:35:58.160><c> in</c><00:35:58.320><c> the</c><00:35:58.480><c> world</c>

00:35:59.030 --> 00:35:59.040 align:start position:0%
is the northernmost range in the world
 

00:35:59.040 --> 00:36:02.150 align:start position:0%
is the northernmost range in the world
located<00:35:59.520><c> in</c><00:35:59.920><c> Swalbad,</c><00:36:00.800><c> Norway,</c><00:36:01.599><c> a</c><00:36:01.839><c> group</c><00:36:02.000><c> of</c>

00:36:02.150 --> 00:36:02.160 align:start position:0%
located in Swalbad, Norway, a group of
 

00:36:02.160 --> 00:36:05.190 align:start position:0%
located in Swalbad, Norway, a group of
islands<00:36:02.560><c> in</c><00:36:02.800><c> the</c><00:36:02.880><c> Arctic</c><00:36:03.280><c> Ocean.</c><00:36:04.560><c> Here,</c><00:36:04.960><c> the</c>

00:36:05.190 --> 00:36:05.200 align:start position:0%
islands in the Arctic Ocean. Here, the
 

00:36:05.200 --> 00:36:07.030 align:start position:0%
islands in the Arctic Ocean. Here, the
NASA<00:36:05.520><c> Endurance</c><00:36:06.000><c> team</c><00:36:06.320><c> would</c><00:36:06.560><c> be</c><00:36:06.720><c> able</c><00:36:06.880><c> to</c>

00:36:07.030 --> 00:36:07.040 align:start position:0%
NASA Endurance team would be able to
 

00:36:07.040 --> 00:36:09.510 align:start position:0%
NASA Endurance team would be able to
launch<00:36:07.359><c> the</c><00:36:07.599><c> instrument</c><00:36:08.079><c> on</c><00:36:08.320><c> a</c><00:36:08.640><c> suborbital</c>

00:36:09.510 --> 00:36:09.520 align:start position:0%
launch the instrument on a suborbital
 

00:36:09.520 --> 00:36:11.750 align:start position:0%
launch the instrument on a suborbital
rocket<00:36:10.240><c> through</c><00:36:10.720><c> Earth's</c><00:36:11.040><c> magnetic</c><00:36:11.520><c> north</c>

00:36:11.750 --> 00:36:11.760 align:start position:0%
rocket through Earth's magnetic north
 

00:36:11.760 --> 00:36:15.670 align:start position:0%
rocket through Earth's magnetic north
pole.<00:36:12.640><c> And</c><00:36:12.880><c> on</c><00:36:13.040><c> the</c><00:36:13.200><c> 11th</c><00:36:13.520><c> of</c><00:36:13.760><c> May,</c><00:36:14.160><c> 2022,</c><00:36:15.440><c> the</c>

00:36:15.670 --> 00:36:15.680 align:start position:0%
pole. And on the 11th of May, 2022, the
 

00:36:15.680 --> 00:36:18.150 align:start position:0%
pole. And on the 11th of May, 2022, the
team<00:36:16.000><c> of</c><00:36:16.240><c> international</c><00:36:16.880><c> scientists</c><00:36:17.760><c> did</c>

00:36:18.150 --> 00:36:18.160 align:start position:0%
team of international scientists did
 

00:36:18.160 --> 00:36:21.430 align:start position:0%
team of international scientists did
just<00:36:18.560><c> that.</c><00:36:20.000><c> Named</c><00:36:20.400><c> after</c><00:36:20.640><c> the</c><00:36:20.880><c> ship</c><00:36:21.119><c> that</c>

00:36:21.430 --> 00:36:21.440 align:start position:0%
just that. Named after the ship that
 

00:36:21.440 --> 00:36:23.349 align:start position:0%
just that. Named after the ship that
carried<00:36:21.839><c> Ernest</c><00:36:22.160><c> Shackleton's</c><00:36:22.800><c> crew</c><00:36:23.119><c> in</c>

00:36:23.349 --> 00:36:23.359 align:start position:0%
carried Ernest Shackleton's crew in
 

00:36:23.359 --> 00:36:25.589 align:start position:0%
carried Ernest Shackleton's crew in
their<00:36:23.680><c> 1914</c><00:36:24.480><c> attempt</c><00:36:24.800><c> to</c><00:36:24.960><c> reach</c><00:36:25.200><c> the</c><00:36:25.359><c> South</c>

00:36:25.589 --> 00:36:25.599 align:start position:0%
their 1914 attempt to reach the South
 

00:36:25.599 --> 00:36:28.230 align:start position:0%
their 1914 attempt to reach the South
Pole<00:36:26.000><c> and</c><00:36:26.079><c> cross</c><00:36:26.400><c> Antarctica,</c><00:36:27.520><c> the</c><00:36:27.680><c> Endurance</c>

00:36:28.230 --> 00:36:28.240 align:start position:0%
Pole and cross Antarctica, the Endurance
 

00:36:28.240 --> 00:36:30.550 align:start position:0%
Pole and cross Antarctica, the Endurance
mission<00:36:28.720><c> launched</c><00:36:29.119><c> its</c><00:36:29.359><c> suborbital</c><00:36:30.240><c> rocket</c>

00:36:30.550 --> 00:36:30.560 align:start position:0%
mission launched its suborbital rocket
 

00:36:30.560 --> 00:36:34.710 align:start position:0%
mission launched its suborbital rocket
to<00:36:30.800><c> an</c><00:36:30.960><c> altitude</c><00:36:31.520><c> of</c><00:36:31.920><c> 768</c><00:36:33.200><c> km,</c><00:36:34.240><c> collecting</c>

00:36:34.710 --> 00:36:34.720 align:start position:0%
to an altitude of 768 km, collecting
 

00:36:34.720 --> 00:36:38.630 align:start position:0%
to an altitude of 768 km, collecting
data<00:36:35.200><c> over</c><00:36:35.839><c> 518</c><00:36:36.960><c> of</c><00:36:37.119><c> those</c><00:36:37.359><c> kilm</c><00:36:38.240><c> before</c>

00:36:38.630 --> 00:36:38.640 align:start position:0%
data over 518 of those kilm before
 

00:36:38.640 --> 00:36:41.270 align:start position:0%
data over 518 of those kilm before
splashing<00:36:39.200><c> down</c><00:36:39.760><c> 19</c><00:36:40.079><c> minutes</c><00:36:40.400><c> later</c><00:36:40.880><c> in</c><00:36:41.119><c> the</c>

00:36:41.270 --> 00:36:41.280 align:start position:0%
splashing down 19 minutes later in the
 

00:36:41.280 --> 00:36:44.310 align:start position:0%
splashing down 19 minutes later in the
Greenland<00:36:41.680><c> Sea.</c><00:36:42.960><c> During</c><00:36:43.359><c> its</c><00:36:43.599><c> flight,</c><00:36:44.079><c> the</c>

00:36:44.310 --> 00:36:44.320 align:start position:0%
Greenland Sea. During its flight, the
 

00:36:44.320 --> 00:36:47.349 align:start position:0%
Greenland Sea. During its flight, the
instrument<00:36:44.880><c> measured</c><00:36:45.200><c> a</c><00:36:45.440><c> change</c><00:36:45.760><c> of</c><00:36:46.160><c> 0.55</c>

00:36:47.349 --> 00:36:47.359 align:start position:0%
instrument measured a change of 0.55
 

00:36:47.359 --> 00:36:50.150 align:start position:0%
instrument measured a change of 0.55
volts<00:36:47.680><c> in</c><00:36:47.920><c> electric</c><00:36:48.400><c> potential</c><00:36:49.040><c> between</c><00:36:49.520><c> 250</c>

00:36:50.150 --> 00:36:50.160 align:start position:0%
volts in electric potential between 250
 

00:36:50.160 --> 00:36:53.750 align:start position:0%
volts in electric potential between 250
km<00:36:50.880><c> and</c><00:36:51.280><c> 768</c><00:36:52.240><c> km.</c>

00:36:53.750 --> 00:36:53.760 align:start position:0%
km and 768 km.
 

00:36:53.760 --> 00:36:55.910 align:start position:0%
km and 768 km.
Space<00:36:54.079><c> scientist</c><00:36:54.640><c> Ken</c><00:36:55.119><c> Collinsson,</c><00:36:55.890><c> [music]</c>

00:36:55.910 --> 00:36:55.920 align:start position:0%
Space scientist Ken Collinsson, [music]
 

00:36:55.920 --> 00:36:57.829 align:start position:0%
Space scientist Ken Collinsson, [music]
the<00:36:56.160><c> principal</c><00:36:56.560><c> investigator</c><00:36:57.200><c> for</c><00:36:57.440><c> NASA's</c>

00:36:57.829 --> 00:36:57.839 align:start position:0%
the principal investigator for NASA's
 

00:36:57.839 --> 00:37:00.310 align:start position:0%
the principal investigator for NASA's
Endurance<00:36:58.240><c> mission,</c><00:36:58.960><c> said</c><00:36:59.440><c> even</c><00:36:59.680><c> though</c><00:37:00.000><c> half</c>

00:37:00.310 --> 00:37:00.320 align:start position:0%
Endurance mission, said even though half
 

00:37:00.320 --> 00:37:03.510 align:start position:0%
Endurance mission, said even though half
a<00:37:00.480><c> volt</c><00:37:00.880><c> is</c><00:37:01.200><c> almost</c><00:37:01.680><c> nothing,</c><00:37:02.640><c> again</c><00:37:03.119><c> almost</c>

00:37:03.510 --> 00:37:03.520 align:start position:0%
a volt is almost nothing, again almost
 

00:37:03.520 --> 00:37:05.750 align:start position:0%
a volt is almost nothing, again almost
about<00:37:03.760><c> the</c><00:37:03.920><c> strength</c><00:37:04.160><c> of</c><00:37:04.320><c> a</c><00:37:04.480><c> watch</c><00:37:04.720><c> battery,</c>

00:37:05.750 --> 00:37:05.760 align:start position:0%
about the strength of a watch battery,
 

00:37:05.760 --> 00:37:08.069 align:start position:0%
about the strength of a watch battery,
it's<00:37:06.240><c> just</c><00:37:06.560><c> the</c><00:37:06.880><c> right</c><00:37:07.119><c> amount</c><00:37:07.680><c> [music]</c><00:37:07.760><c> to</c>

00:37:08.069 --> 00:37:08.079 align:start position:0%
it's just the right amount [music] to
 

00:37:08.079 --> 00:37:10.950 align:start position:0%
it's just the right amount [music] to
explain<00:37:08.720><c> Earth's</c><00:37:09.200><c> polar</c><00:37:09.599><c> wind.</c>

00:37:10.950 --> 00:37:10.960 align:start position:0%
explain Earth's polar wind.
 

00:37:10.960 --> 00:37:13.510 align:start position:0%
explain Earth's polar wind.
This<00:37:11.440><c> first</c><00:37:11.839><c> ever</c><00:37:12.400><c> direct</c><00:37:12.880><c> measurement</c><00:37:13.359><c> of</c>

00:37:13.510 --> 00:37:13.520 align:start position:0%
This first ever direct measurement of
 

00:37:13.520 --> 00:37:16.150 align:start position:0%
This first ever direct measurement of
Earth's<00:37:13.920><c> electric</c><00:37:14.320><c> field</c><00:37:14.880><c> marked</c><00:37:15.280><c> a</c><00:37:15.599><c> pivotal</c>

00:37:16.150 --> 00:37:16.160 align:start position:0%
Earth's electric field marked a pivotal
 

00:37:16.160 --> 00:37:18.069 align:start position:0%
Earth's electric field marked a pivotal
moment<00:37:16.480><c> in</c><00:37:16.720><c> our</c><00:37:16.960><c> understanding</c><00:37:17.520><c> of</c><00:37:17.760><c> this</c>

00:37:18.069 --> 00:37:18.079 align:start position:0%
moment in our understanding of this
 

00:37:18.079 --> 00:37:22.630 align:start position:0%
moment in our understanding of this
fundamental<00:37:19.040><c> planetwide</c><00:37:19.920><c> energy</c><00:37:20.320><c> force.</c>

00:37:22.630 --> 00:37:22.640 align:start position:0%
fundamental planetwide energy force.
 

00:37:22.640 --> 00:37:24.630 align:start position:0%
fundamental planetwide energy force.
The<00:37:22.880><c> ambiolar</c><00:37:23.520><c> field</c><00:37:23.839><c> exists</c><00:37:24.160><c> in</c><00:37:24.320><c> what's</c>

00:37:24.630 --> 00:37:24.640 align:start position:0%
The ambiolar field exists in what's
 

00:37:24.640 --> 00:37:27.190 align:start position:0%
The ambiolar field exists in what's
called<00:37:24.960><c> the</c><00:37:25.440><c> ionosphere,</c><00:37:26.400><c> a</c><00:37:26.640><c> region</c><00:37:26.880><c> that</c>

00:37:27.190 --> 00:37:27.200 align:start position:0%
called the ionosphere, a region that
 

00:37:27.200 --> 00:37:29.750 align:start position:0%
called the ionosphere, a region that
stretches<00:37:27.680><c> across</c><00:37:28.320><c> three</c><00:37:28.720><c> out</c><00:37:29.040><c> of</c><00:37:29.200><c> five</c><00:37:29.520><c> of</c>

00:37:29.750 --> 00:37:29.760 align:start position:0%
stretches across three out of five of
 

00:37:29.760 --> 00:37:32.550 align:start position:0%
stretches across three out of five of
our<00:37:30.000><c> atmospheric</c><00:37:30.800><c> layers.</c><00:37:31.760><c> Our</c><00:37:32.079><c> atmosphere</c>

00:37:32.550 --> 00:37:32.560 align:start position:0%
our atmospheric layers. Our atmosphere
 

00:37:32.560 --> 00:37:35.030 align:start position:0%
our atmospheric layers. Our atmosphere
is<00:37:32.800><c> divided</c><00:37:33.200><c> into</c><00:37:33.520><c> five</c><00:37:33.760><c> main</c><00:37:34.160><c> layers.</c><00:37:34.800><c> The</c>

00:37:35.030 --> 00:37:35.040 align:start position:0%
is divided into five main layers. The
 

00:37:35.040 --> 00:37:37.190 align:start position:0%
is divided into five main layers. The
troposphere,<00:37:35.839><c> also</c><00:37:36.160><c> known</c><00:37:36.400><c> as</c><00:37:36.560><c> the</c><00:37:36.880><c> lower</c>

00:37:37.190 --> 00:37:37.200 align:start position:0%
troposphere, also known as the lower
 

00:37:37.200 --> 00:37:39.829 align:start position:0%
troposphere, also known as the lower
atmosphere,<00:37:38.160><c> only</c><00:37:38.400><c> reaches</c><00:37:38.720><c> about</c><00:37:39.119><c> 20</c><00:37:39.359><c> km</c>

00:37:39.829 --> 00:37:39.839 align:start position:0%
atmosphere, only reaches about 20 km
 

00:37:39.839 --> 00:37:42.150 align:start position:0%
atmosphere, only reaches about 20 km
above<00:37:40.160><c> Earth's</c><00:37:40.560><c> surface</c><00:37:41.280><c> and</c><00:37:41.520><c> is</c><00:37:41.680><c> where</c><00:37:41.920><c> the</c>

00:37:42.150 --> 00:37:42.160 align:start position:0%
above Earth's surface and is where the
 

00:37:42.160 --> 00:37:44.790 align:start position:0%
above Earth's surface and is where the
majority<00:37:42.480><c> of</c><00:37:42.720><c> weather</c><00:37:43.119><c> occurs.</c><00:37:44.160><c> Next</c><00:37:44.480><c> is</c><00:37:44.640><c> the</c>

00:37:44.790 --> 00:37:44.800 align:start position:0%
majority of weather occurs. Next is the
 

00:37:44.800 --> 00:37:47.109 align:start position:0%
majority of weather occurs. Next is the
stratosphere,<00:37:45.760><c> which</c><00:37:46.000><c> extends</c><00:37:46.400><c> up</c><00:37:46.560><c> to</c><00:37:46.720><c> about</c>

00:37:47.109 --> 00:37:47.119 align:start position:0%
stratosphere, which extends up to about
 

00:37:47.119 --> 00:37:49.750 align:start position:0%
stratosphere, which extends up to about
50<00:37:47.440><c> km</c><00:37:48.079><c> and</c><00:37:48.320><c> contains</c><00:37:48.720><c> most</c><00:37:48.960><c> of</c><00:37:49.119><c> our</c><00:37:49.359><c> planet's</c>

00:37:49.750 --> 00:37:49.760 align:start position:0%
50 km and contains most of our planet's
 

00:37:49.760 --> 00:37:51.750 align:start position:0%
50 km and contains most of our planet's
ozone<00:37:50.240><c> that</c><00:37:50.480><c> protects</c><00:37:50.720><c> us</c><00:37:50.880><c> from</c><00:37:51.200><c> ultraviolet</c>

00:37:51.750 --> 00:37:51.760 align:start position:0%
ozone that protects us from ultraviolet
 

00:37:51.760 --> 00:37:54.710 align:start position:0%
ozone that protects us from ultraviolet
radiation<00:37:52.160><c> from</c><00:37:52.400><c> the</c><00:37:52.560><c> sun.</c><00:37:53.680><c> This</c><00:37:54.079><c> layer</c><00:37:54.320><c> has</c>

00:37:54.710 --> 00:37:54.720 align:start position:0%
radiation from the sun. This layer has
 

00:37:54.720 --> 00:37:57.030 align:start position:0%
radiation from the sun. This layer has
very<00:37:55.119><c> little</c><00:37:55.520><c> circulation</c><00:37:56.400><c> and</c><00:37:56.640><c> is</c><00:37:56.800><c> where</c>

00:37:57.030 --> 00:37:57.040 align:start position:0%
very little circulation and is where
 

00:37:57.040 --> 00:37:59.750 align:start position:0%
very little circulation and is where
commercial<00:37:57.440><c> airlines</c><00:37:57.920><c> usually</c><00:37:58.240><c> fly.</c><00:37:59.440><c> Above</c>

00:37:59.750 --> 00:37:59.760 align:start position:0%
commercial airlines usually fly. Above
 

00:37:59.760 --> 00:38:02.150 align:start position:0%
commercial airlines usually fly. Above
the<00:37:59.920><c> stratosphere</c><00:38:00.640><c> is</c><00:38:00.880><c> the</c><00:38:01.040><c> messosphere,</c>

00:38:02.150 --> 00:38:02.160 align:start position:0%
the stratosphere is the messosphere,
 

00:38:02.160 --> 00:38:05.430 align:start position:0%
the stratosphere is the messosphere,
extending<00:38:02.640><c> up</c><00:38:02.800><c> to</c><00:38:02.960><c> about</c><00:38:03.359><c> 85</c><00:38:03.920><c> km.</c><00:38:05.119><c> This</c><00:38:05.359><c> is</c>

00:38:05.430 --> 00:38:05.440 align:start position:0%
extending up to about 85 km. This is
 

00:38:05.440 --> 00:38:07.510 align:start position:0%
extending up to about 85 km. This is
where<00:38:05.680><c> meteors</c><00:38:06.240><c> burn</c><00:38:06.480><c> up</c><00:38:06.800><c> near</c><00:38:07.040><c> the</c><00:38:07.200><c> bottom</c><00:38:07.440><c> of</c>

00:38:07.510 --> 00:38:07.520 align:start position:0%
where meteors burn up near the bottom of
 

00:38:07.520 --> 00:38:09.829 align:start position:0%
where meteors burn up near the bottom of
the<00:38:07.680><c> mesosphere</c><00:38:08.400><c> layer</c><00:38:08.960><c> are</c><00:38:09.119><c> thick</c><00:38:09.359><c> enough</c><00:38:09.599><c> to</c>

00:38:09.829 --> 00:38:09.839 align:start position:0%
the mesosphere layer are thick enough to
 

00:38:09.839 --> 00:38:12.710 align:start position:0%
the mesosphere layer are thick enough to
slow<00:38:10.079><c> them</c><00:38:10.320><c> down.</c><00:38:11.680><c> It's</c><00:38:11.920><c> within</c><00:38:12.240><c> the</c><00:38:12.480><c> upper</c>

00:38:12.710 --> 00:38:12.720 align:start position:0%
slow them down. It's within the upper
 

00:38:12.720 --> 00:38:14.710 align:start position:0%
slow them down. It's within the upper
reaches<00:38:13.119><c> of</c><00:38:13.200><c> the</c><00:38:13.359><c> meosphere</c><00:38:14.160><c> that</c><00:38:14.400><c> the</c>

00:38:14.710 --> 00:38:14.720 align:start position:0%
reaches of the meosphere that the
 

00:38:14.720 --> 00:38:17.190 align:start position:0%
reaches of the meosphere that the
ionosphere<00:38:15.359><c> begins,</c><00:38:16.320><c> but</c><00:38:16.480><c> its</c><00:38:16.720><c> influence</c>

00:38:17.190 --> 00:38:17.200 align:start position:0%
ionosphere begins, but its influence
 

00:38:17.200 --> 00:38:20.069 align:start position:0%
ionosphere begins, but its influence
stretches<00:38:17.839><c> far</c><00:38:18.079><c> beyond</c><00:38:18.400><c> that.</c><00:38:19.599><c> Starting</c>

00:38:20.069 --> 00:38:20.079 align:start position:0%
stretches far beyond that. Starting
 

00:38:20.079 --> 00:38:22.230 align:start position:0%
stretches far beyond that. Starting
around<00:38:20.400><c> 80</c><00:38:20.720><c> km</c><00:38:21.200><c> above</c><00:38:21.520><c> the</c><00:38:21.680><c> surface</c><00:38:22.000><c> in</c><00:38:22.160><c> the</c>

00:38:22.230 --> 00:38:22.240 align:start position:0%
around 80 km above the surface in the
 

00:38:22.240 --> 00:38:24.550 align:start position:0%
around 80 km above the surface in the
meosphere,<00:38:23.040><c> the</c><00:38:23.440><c> ionosphere</c><00:38:24.000><c> continues</c>

00:38:24.550 --> 00:38:24.560 align:start position:0%
meosphere, the ionosphere continues
 

00:38:24.560 --> 00:38:26.950 align:start position:0%
meosphere, the ionosphere continues
outward<00:38:25.040><c> through</c><00:38:25.359><c> the</c><00:38:25.520><c> entire</c><00:38:26.079><c> thermosphere</c>

00:38:26.950 --> 00:38:26.960 align:start position:0%
outward through the entire thermosphere
 

00:38:26.960 --> 00:38:31.270 align:start position:0%
outward through the entire thermosphere
layer<00:38:27.280><c> from</c><00:38:27.520><c> about</c><00:38:28.000><c> 85</c><00:38:28.640><c> to</c><00:38:29.200><c> 600</c><00:38:29.599><c> km.</c><00:38:30.960><c> This</c><00:38:31.200><c> is</c>

00:38:31.270 --> 00:38:31.280 align:start position:0%
layer from about 85 to 600 km. This is
 

00:38:31.280 --> 00:38:34.310 align:start position:0%
layer from about 85 to 600 km. This is
where<00:38:31.599><c> auroras</c><00:38:32.240><c> happen</c><00:38:32.880><c> and</c><00:38:33.359><c> high</c><00:38:33.680><c> energy</c>

00:38:34.310 --> 00:38:34.320 align:start position:0%
where auroras happen and high energy
 

00:38:34.320 --> 00:38:36.470 align:start position:0%
where auroras happen and high energy
ultraviolet<00:38:34.960><c> and</c><00:38:35.200><c> x-ray</c><00:38:35.680><c> radiation</c><00:38:36.240><c> are</c>

00:38:36.470 --> 00:38:36.480 align:start position:0%
ultraviolet and x-ray radiation are
 

00:38:36.480 --> 00:38:40.069 align:start position:0%
ultraviolet and x-ray radiation are
absorbed<00:38:37.359><c> creating</c><00:38:37.920><c> charged</c><00:38:38.400><c> particles.</c><00:38:39.839><c> And</c>

00:38:40.069 --> 00:38:40.079 align:start position:0%
absorbed creating charged particles. And
 

00:38:40.079 --> 00:38:42.390 align:start position:0%
absorbed creating charged particles. And
finally,<00:38:40.720><c> the</c><00:38:41.040><c> ionosphere</c><00:38:41.680><c> ends</c><00:38:42.000><c> in</c><00:38:42.240><c> the</c>

00:38:42.390 --> 00:38:42.400 align:start position:0%
finally, the ionosphere ends in the
 

00:38:42.400 --> 00:38:45.589 align:start position:0%
finally, the ionosphere ends in the
lower<00:38:42.880><c> exosphere,</c><00:38:43.920><c> which</c><00:38:44.240><c> begins</c><00:38:44.720><c> around</c><00:38:45.119><c> 600</c>

00:38:45.589 --> 00:38:45.599 align:start position:0%
lower exosphere, which begins around 600
 

00:38:45.599 --> 00:38:49.030 align:start position:0%
lower exosphere, which begins around 600
km<00:38:46.240><c> and</c><00:38:46.560><c> continues</c><00:38:46.960><c> out</c><00:38:47.200><c> to</c><00:38:47.440><c> about</c><00:38:47.760><c> 10,000</c><00:38:48.560><c> km</c>

00:38:49.030 --> 00:38:49.040 align:start position:0%
km and continues out to about 10,000 km
 

00:38:49.040 --> 00:38:51.270 align:start position:0%
km and continues out to about 10,000 km
from<00:38:49.280><c> Earth's</c><00:38:49.680><c> surface,</c><00:38:50.400><c> where</c><00:38:50.640><c> it</c><00:38:50.880><c> fades</c>

00:38:51.270 --> 00:38:51.280 align:start position:0%
from Earth's surface, where it fades
 

00:38:51.280 --> 00:38:54.230 align:start position:0%
from Earth's surface, where it fades
into<00:38:51.520><c> outer</c><00:38:51.920><c> space.</c><00:38:52.880><c> The</c><00:38:53.119><c> exosphere</c><00:38:53.760><c> is</c><00:38:53.920><c> where</c>

00:38:54.230 --> 00:38:54.240 align:start position:0%
into outer space. The exosphere is where
 

00:38:54.240 --> 00:38:57.589 align:start position:0%
into outer space. The exosphere is where
many<00:38:54.640><c> satellites</c><00:38:55.200><c> orbit</c><00:38:55.680><c> around</c><00:38:55.920><c> our</c><00:38:56.240><c> planet.</c>

00:38:57.589 --> 00:38:57.599 align:start position:0%
many satellites orbit around our planet.
 

00:38:57.599 --> 00:38:59.910 align:start position:0%
many satellites orbit around our planet.
As<00:38:57.839><c> you</c><00:38:58.000><c> can</c><00:38:58.160><c> see,</c><00:38:58.560><c> the</c><00:38:58.880><c> ionosphere</c><00:38:59.520><c> starts</c>

00:38:59.910 --> 00:38:59.920 align:start position:0%
As you can see, the ionosphere starts
 

00:38:59.920 --> 00:39:02.390 align:start position:0%
As you can see, the ionosphere starts
around<00:39:00.320><c> 80</c><00:39:00.640><c> km</c><00:39:01.119><c> above</c><00:39:01.440><c> sea</c><00:39:01.680><c> level</c><00:39:02.160><c> and</c>

00:39:02.390 --> 00:39:02.400 align:start position:0%
around 80 km above sea level and
 

00:39:02.400 --> 00:39:05.349 align:start position:0%
around 80 km above sea level and
stretches<00:39:03.200><c> hundreds</c><00:39:03.680><c> of</c><00:39:03.839><c> kilome</c><00:39:04.400><c> into</c><00:39:04.720><c> space</c>

00:39:05.349 --> 00:39:05.359 align:start position:0%
stretches hundreds of kilome into space
 

00:39:05.359 --> 00:39:06.870 align:start position:0%
stretches hundreds of kilome into space
where<00:39:05.680><c> it</c><00:39:05.839><c> overlaps</c><00:39:06.400><c> with</c><00:39:06.560><c> Earth's</c>

00:39:06.870 --> 00:39:06.880 align:start position:0%
where it overlaps with Earth's
 

00:39:06.880 --> 00:39:08.870 align:start position:0%
where it overlaps with Earth's
magneettosphere,<00:39:07.920><c> a</c><00:39:08.160><c> region</c><00:39:08.400><c> of</c><00:39:08.560><c> space</c>

00:39:08.870 --> 00:39:08.880 align:start position:0%
magneettosphere, a region of space
 

00:39:08.880 --> 00:39:11.589 align:start position:0%
magneettosphere, a region of space
surrounding<00:39:09.440><c> Earth.</c><00:39:10.400><c> Within</c><00:39:10.880><c> this</c><00:39:11.119><c> massive</c>

00:39:11.589 --> 00:39:11.599 align:start position:0%
surrounding Earth. Within this massive
 

00:39:11.599 --> 00:39:14.069 align:start position:0%
surrounding Earth. Within this massive
region<00:39:11.839><c> of</c><00:39:12.000><c> the</c><00:39:12.320><c> ionosphere</c><00:39:13.200><c> is</c><00:39:13.520><c> where</c><00:39:13.839><c> we</c>

00:39:14.069 --> 00:39:14.079 align:start position:0%
region of the ionosphere is where we
 

00:39:14.079 --> 00:39:16.710 align:start position:0%
region of the ionosphere is where we
find<00:39:14.400><c> the</c><00:39:14.720><c> ambipolar</c><00:39:15.599><c> field,</c><00:39:16.240><c> which</c><00:39:16.480><c> is</c>

00:39:16.710 --> 00:39:16.720 align:start position:0%
find the ambipolar field, which is
 

00:39:16.720 --> 00:39:21.349 align:start position:0%
find the ambipolar field, which is
theorized<00:39:17.280><c> to</c><00:39:17.440><c> begin</c><00:39:17.680><c> at</c><00:39:18.000><c> around</c><00:39:18.560><c> 250</c><00:39:19.440><c> km.</c>

00:39:21.349 --> 00:39:21.359 align:start position:0%
theorized to begin at around 250 km.
 

00:39:21.359 --> 00:39:23.510 align:start position:0%
theorized to begin at around 250 km.
While<00:39:21.680><c> most</c><00:39:21.920><c> of</c><00:39:22.079><c> our</c><00:39:22.320><c> atmosphere</c><00:39:22.880><c> is</c><00:39:23.119><c> composed</c>

00:39:23.510 --> 00:39:23.520 align:start position:0%
While most of our atmosphere is composed
 

00:39:23.520 --> 00:39:26.390 align:start position:0%
While most of our atmosphere is composed
of<00:39:23.839><c> nitrogen,</c><00:39:24.880><c> the</c><00:39:25.119><c> upper</c><00:39:25.440><c> region</c><00:39:25.760><c> of</c><00:39:25.920><c> our</c>

00:39:26.390 --> 00:39:26.400 align:start position:0%
of nitrogen, the upper region of our
 

00:39:26.400 --> 00:39:28.870 align:start position:0%
of nitrogen, the upper region of our
ionosphere<00:39:27.040><c> is</c><00:39:27.359><c> home</c><00:39:27.599><c> to</c><00:39:27.920><c> lighter</c><00:39:28.320><c> elements</c>

00:39:28.870 --> 00:39:28.880 align:start position:0%
ionosphere is home to lighter elements
 

00:39:28.880 --> 00:39:32.470 align:start position:0%
ionosphere is home to lighter elements
like<00:39:29.280><c> oxygen,</c><00:39:30.160><c> hydrogen,</c><00:39:30.720><c> and</c><00:39:30.960><c> helium.</c><00:39:32.160><c> When</c>

00:39:32.470 --> 00:39:32.480 align:start position:0%
like oxygen, hydrogen, and helium. When
 

00:39:32.480 --> 00:39:34.550 align:start position:0%
like oxygen, hydrogen, and helium. When
photons<00:39:32.960><c> from</c><00:39:33.200><c> the</c><00:39:33.359><c> sun</c><00:39:33.680><c> collide</c><00:39:34.079><c> with</c><00:39:34.240><c> these</c>

00:39:34.550 --> 00:39:34.560 align:start position:0%
photons from the sun collide with these
 

00:39:34.560 --> 00:39:36.470 align:start position:0%
photons from the sun collide with these
elements<00:39:34.880><c> in</c><00:39:35.040><c> the</c><00:39:35.119><c> upper</c><00:39:35.359><c> atmosphere,</c><00:39:36.240><c> they</c>

00:39:36.470 --> 00:39:36.480 align:start position:0%
elements in the upper atmosphere, they
 

00:39:36.480 --> 00:39:38.069 align:start position:0%
elements in the upper atmosphere, they
can<00:39:36.640><c> knock</c><00:39:36.960><c> electrons</c><00:39:37.440><c> loose</c><00:39:37.760><c> from</c><00:39:37.920><c> the</c>

00:39:38.069 --> 00:39:38.079 align:start position:0%
can knock electrons loose from the
 

00:39:38.079 --> 00:39:41.270 align:start position:0%
can knock electrons loose from the
elements<00:39:38.640><c> in</c><00:39:38.880><c> a</c><00:39:39.119><c> process</c><00:39:39.440><c> called</c><00:39:40.079><c> ionization,</c>

00:39:41.270 --> 00:39:41.280 align:start position:0%
elements in a process called ionization,
 

00:39:41.280 --> 00:39:43.349 align:start position:0%
elements in a process called ionization,
leaving<00:39:41.839><c> positively</c><00:39:42.480><c> charged</c><00:39:42.800><c> particles</c>

00:39:43.349 --> 00:39:43.359 align:start position:0%
leaving positively charged particles
 

00:39:43.359 --> 00:39:45.750 align:start position:0%
leaving positively charged particles
called<00:39:43.920><c> ions</c><00:39:44.560><c> and</c><00:39:44.800><c> negatively</c><00:39:45.440><c> charged</c>

00:39:45.750 --> 00:39:45.760 align:start position:0%
called ions and negatively charged
 

00:39:45.760 --> 00:39:47.430 align:start position:0%
called ions and negatively charged
electrons.

00:39:47.430 --> 00:39:47.440 align:start position:0%
electrons.
 

00:39:47.440 --> 00:39:49.349 align:start position:0%
electrons.
Because<00:39:47.760><c> of</c><00:39:47.920><c> the</c><00:39:48.240><c> opposite</c><00:39:48.640><c> charges</c><00:39:49.040><c> of</c><00:39:49.200><c> the</c>

00:39:49.349 --> 00:39:49.359 align:start position:0%
Because of the opposite charges of the
 

00:39:49.359 --> 00:39:51.990 align:start position:0%
Because of the opposite charges of the
negative<00:39:49.760><c> electrons</c><00:39:50.320><c> and</c><00:39:50.640><c> positive</c><00:39:51.280><c> ions,</c>

00:39:51.990 --> 00:39:52.000 align:start position:0%
negative electrons and positive ions,
 

00:39:52.000 --> 00:39:53.990 align:start position:0%
negative electrons and positive ions,
they<00:39:52.240><c> are</c><00:39:52.480><c> attracted</c><00:39:52.960><c> to</c><00:39:53.119><c> each</c><00:39:53.359><c> other</c><00:39:53.760><c> and</c>

00:39:53.990 --> 00:39:54.000 align:start position:0%
they are attracted to each other and
 

00:39:54.000 --> 00:39:55.910 align:start position:0%
they are attracted to each other and
become<00:39:54.320><c> tethered</c><00:39:54.800><c> together</c><00:39:55.040><c> by</c><00:39:55.280><c> an</c><00:39:55.520><c> electric</c>

00:39:55.910 --> 00:39:55.920 align:start position:0%
become tethered together by an electric
 

00:39:55.920 --> 00:39:58.630 align:start position:0%
become tethered together by an electric
field.<00:39:56.800><c> It's</c><00:39:57.119><c> this</c><00:39:57.520><c> electric</c><00:39:58.000><c> field</c><00:39:58.320><c> that</c>

00:39:58.630 --> 00:39:58.640 align:start position:0%
field. It's this electric field that
 

00:39:58.640 --> 00:40:02.150 align:start position:0%
field. It's this electric field that
constitutes<00:39:59.440><c> a</c><00:39:59.760><c> major</c><00:40:00.240><c> part</c><00:40:00.800><c> of</c><00:40:01.040><c> the</c><00:40:01.280><c> ambiolar</c>

00:40:02.150 --> 00:40:02.160 align:start position:0%
constitutes a major part of the ambiolar
 

00:40:02.160 --> 00:40:04.870 align:start position:0%
constitutes a major part of the ambiolar
field.<00:40:03.440><c> The</c><00:40:03.680><c> electrons</c><00:40:04.079><c> within</c><00:40:04.400><c> the</c><00:40:04.560><c> electric</c>

00:40:04.870 --> 00:40:04.880 align:start position:0%
field. The electrons within the electric
 

00:40:04.880 --> 00:40:07.349 align:start position:0%
field. The electrons within the electric
field<00:40:05.200><c> are</c><00:40:05.520><c> so</c><00:40:05.839><c> light</c><00:40:06.400><c> that</c><00:40:06.640><c> the</c><00:40:06.880><c> slightest</c>

00:40:07.349 --> 00:40:07.359 align:start position:0%
field are so light that the slightest
 

00:40:07.359 --> 00:40:09.349 align:start position:0%
field are so light that the slightest
push<00:40:07.680><c> could</c><00:40:08.000><c> send</c><00:40:08.240><c> them</c><00:40:08.480><c> flying</c><00:40:08.880><c> out</c><00:40:09.119><c> to</c>

00:40:09.349 --> 00:40:09.359 align:start position:0%
push could send them flying out to
 

00:40:09.359 --> 00:40:12.150 align:start position:0%
push could send them flying out to
space.<00:40:10.240><c> While</c><00:40:10.480><c> the</c><00:40:10.880><c> ions</c><00:40:11.359><c> are</c><00:40:11.680><c> more</c><00:40:11.920><c> than</c>

00:40:12.150 --> 00:40:12.160 align:start position:0%
space. While the ions are more than
 

00:40:12.160 --> 00:40:15.589 align:start position:0%
space. While the ions are more than
1,800<00:40:13.440><c> times</c><00:40:13.839><c> heavier</c><00:40:14.320><c> than</c><00:40:14.400><c> the</c><00:40:14.640><c> electrons</c>

00:40:15.589 --> 00:40:15.599 align:start position:0%
1,800 times heavier than the electrons
 

00:40:15.599 --> 00:40:17.750 align:start position:0%
1,800 times heavier than the electrons
and<00:40:15.920><c> sink</c><00:40:16.240><c> toward</c><00:40:16.720><c> the</c><00:40:16.960><c> ground</c><00:40:17.359><c> due</c><00:40:17.599><c> to</c>

00:40:17.750 --> 00:40:17.760 align:start position:0%
and sink toward the ground due to
 

00:40:17.760 --> 00:40:21.349 align:start position:0%
and sink toward the ground due to
gravity,<00:40:19.119><c> the</c><00:40:19.440><c> subatomic</c><00:40:20.160><c> tug</c><00:40:20.480><c> of</c><00:40:20.640><c> war</c><00:40:21.040><c> works</c>

00:40:21.349 --> 00:40:21.359 align:start position:0%
gravity, the subatomic tug of war works
 

00:40:21.359 --> 00:40:23.750 align:start position:0%
gravity, the subatomic tug of war works
in<00:40:21.599><c> both</c><00:40:21.839><c> directions.</c><00:40:22.640><c> But</c><00:40:22.800><c> the</c><00:40:23.040><c> upward</c><00:40:23.440><c> tug</c>

00:40:23.750 --> 00:40:23.760 align:start position:0%
in both directions. But the upward tug
 

00:40:23.760 --> 00:40:25.829 align:start position:0%
in both directions. But the upward tug
from<00:40:23.920><c> the</c><00:40:24.079><c> energized</c><00:40:24.640><c> electrons</c><00:40:25.200><c> is</c><00:40:25.440><c> able</c><00:40:25.680><c> to</c>

00:40:25.829 --> 00:40:25.839 align:start position:0%
from the energized electrons is able to
 

00:40:25.839 --> 00:40:28.069 align:start position:0%
from the energized electrons is able to
just<00:40:26.160><c> slightly</c><00:40:26.880><c> overwhelm</c><00:40:27.359><c> the</c><00:40:27.599><c> force</c><00:40:27.920><c> of</c>

00:40:28.069 --> 00:40:28.079 align:start position:0%
just slightly overwhelm the force of
 

00:40:28.079 --> 00:40:30.870 align:start position:0%
just slightly overwhelm the force of
gravity<00:40:28.560><c> on</c><00:40:28.800><c> the</c><00:40:29.119><c> ions.</c><00:40:30.079><c> This</c><00:40:30.400><c> outward</c>

00:40:30.870 --> 00:40:30.880 align:start position:0%
gravity on the ions. This outward
 

00:40:30.880 --> 00:40:33.270 align:start position:0%
gravity on the ions. This outward
pressure<00:40:31.280><c> of</c><00:40:31.680><c> ionospheric</c><00:40:32.320><c> electrons</c><00:40:32.960><c> is</c>

00:40:33.270 --> 00:40:33.280 align:start position:0%
pressure of ionospheric electrons is
 

00:40:33.280 --> 00:40:35.670 align:start position:0%
pressure of ionospheric electrons is
what<00:40:33.599><c> creates</c><00:40:34.000><c> the</c><00:40:34.240><c> ambipolar</c><00:40:34.960><c> field</c>

00:40:35.670 --> 00:40:35.680 align:start position:0%
what creates the ambipolar field
 

00:40:35.680 --> 00:40:38.870 align:start position:0%
what creates the ambipolar field
depicted<00:40:36.240><c> here</c><00:40:36.800><c> as</c><00:40:37.119><c> the</c><00:40:37.359><c> sparkling</c><00:40:38.079><c> blue</c><00:40:38.400><c> glow</c>

00:40:38.870 --> 00:40:38.880 align:start position:0%
depicted here as the sparkling blue glow
 

00:40:38.880 --> 00:40:41.510 align:start position:0%
depicted here as the sparkling blue glow
around<00:40:39.200><c> our</c><00:40:39.520><c> planet.</c><00:40:40.480><c> The</c><00:40:40.720><c> upward</c><00:40:41.119><c> lift</c>

00:40:41.510 --> 00:40:41.520 align:start position:0%
around our planet. The upward lift
 

00:40:41.520 --> 00:40:43.990 align:start position:0%
around our planet. The upward lift
inflates<00:40:42.160><c> our</c><00:40:42.480><c> planet's</c><00:40:42.960><c> ionosphere</c><00:40:43.680><c> and</c>

00:40:43.990 --> 00:40:44.000 align:start position:0%
inflates our planet's ionosphere and
 

00:40:44.000 --> 00:40:46.470 align:start position:0%
inflates our planet's ionosphere and
accelerate<00:40:44.720><c> some</c><00:40:45.200><c> ions</c><00:40:45.440><c> enough</c><00:40:45.760><c> to</c><00:40:46.000><c> escape</c>

00:40:46.470 --> 00:40:46.480 align:start position:0%
accelerate some ions enough to escape
 

00:40:46.480 --> 00:40:49.030 align:start position:0%
accelerate some ions enough to escape
from<00:40:46.720><c> the</c><00:40:46.880><c> atmosphere,</c><00:40:47.760><c> creating</c><00:40:48.400><c> the</c><00:40:48.640><c> polar</c>

00:40:49.030 --> 00:40:49.040 align:start position:0%
from the atmosphere, creating the polar
 

00:40:49.040 --> 00:40:51.270 align:start position:0%
from the atmosphere, creating the polar
wind<00:40:49.440><c> along</c><00:40:49.839><c> our</c><00:40:50.160><c> poles</c><00:40:50.640><c> magnetic</c><00:40:51.040><c> field</c>

00:40:51.270 --> 00:40:51.280 align:start position:0%
wind along our poles magnetic field
 

00:40:51.280 --> 00:40:54.230 align:start position:0%
wind along our poles magnetic field
lines.<00:40:52.320><c> What's</c><00:40:52.640><c> more,</c><00:40:53.119><c> the</c><00:40:53.280><c> ambipolar</c><00:40:54.000><c> fields</c>

00:40:54.230 --> 00:40:54.240 align:start position:0%
lines. What's more, the ambipolar fields
 

00:40:54.240 --> 00:40:56.309 align:start position:0%
lines. What's more, the ambipolar fields
can<00:40:54.480><c> achieve</c><00:40:54.720><c> this</c><00:40:54.960><c> acceleration</c><00:40:55.440><c> of</c><00:40:55.599><c> plasmas</c>

00:40:56.309 --> 00:40:56.319 align:start position:0%
can achieve this acceleration of plasmas
 

00:40:56.319 --> 00:40:58.950 align:start position:0%
can achieve this acceleration of plasmas
without<00:40:57.040><c> heating</c><00:40:57.359><c> them,</c><00:40:58.079><c> providing</c><00:40:58.640><c> an</c>

00:40:58.950 --> 00:40:58.960 align:start position:0%
without heating them, providing an
 

00:40:58.960 --> 00:41:01.349 align:start position:0%
without heating them, providing an
explanation<00:40:59.599><c> for</c><00:40:59.839><c> the</c><00:41:00.160><c> cold</c><00:41:00.560><c> plasma</c>

00:41:01.349 --> 00:41:01.359 align:start position:0%
explanation for the cold plasma
 

00:41:01.359 --> 00:41:03.510 align:start position:0%
explanation for the cold plasma
scientists<00:41:02.000><c> have</c><00:41:02.079><c> detected</c><00:41:02.800><c> escaping</c><00:41:03.280><c> from</c>

00:41:03.510 --> 00:41:03.520 align:start position:0%
scientists have detected escaping from
 

00:41:03.520 --> 00:41:06.710 align:start position:0%
scientists have detected escaping from
the<00:41:03.839><c> ionosphere.</c><00:41:05.119><c> It's</c><00:41:05.359><c> the</c><00:41:05.760><c> birectional</c>

00:41:06.710 --> 00:41:06.720 align:start position:0%
the ionosphere. It's the birectional
 

00:41:06.720 --> 00:41:08.630 align:start position:0%
the ionosphere. It's the birectional
nature<00:41:06.960><c> of</c><00:41:07.119><c> the</c><00:41:07.359><c> interaction</c><00:41:07.839><c> between</c><00:41:08.400><c> ions</c>

00:41:08.630 --> 00:41:08.640 align:start position:0%
nature of the interaction between ions
 

00:41:08.640 --> 00:41:10.710 align:start position:0%
nature of the interaction between ions
and<00:41:08.880><c> electrons</c><00:41:09.440><c> that</c><00:41:09.680><c> gives</c><00:41:09.920><c> the</c><00:41:10.079><c> ambipolar</c>

00:41:10.710 --> 00:41:10.720 align:start position:0%
and electrons that gives the ambipolar
 

00:41:10.720 --> 00:41:13.829 align:start position:0%
and electrons that gives the ambipolar
field<00:41:10.960><c> its</c><00:41:11.200><c> name.</c><00:41:11.920><c> The</c><00:41:12.079><c> Latin</c><00:41:12.480><c> prefix</c><00:41:13.119><c> ambi</c>

00:41:13.829 --> 00:41:13.839 align:start position:0%
field its name. The Latin prefix ambi
 

00:41:13.839 --> 00:41:17.349 align:start position:0%
field its name. The Latin prefix ambi
means<00:41:14.319><c> both</c><00:41:15.119><c> and</c><00:41:15.440><c> polar</c><00:41:16.160><c> refers</c><00:41:16.560><c> to</c><00:41:16.720><c> the</c><00:41:16.960><c> polar</c>

00:41:17.349 --> 00:41:17.359 align:start position:0%
means both and polar refers to the polar
 

00:41:17.359 --> 00:41:19.349 align:start position:0%
means both and polar refers to the polar
regions<00:41:18.000><c> where</c><00:41:18.240><c> the</c><00:41:18.480><c> electric</c><00:41:18.880><c> fields</c>

00:41:19.349 --> 00:41:19.359 align:start position:0%
regions where the electric fields
 

00:41:19.359 --> 00:41:21.990 align:start position:0%
regions where the electric fields
effects<00:41:19.920><c> are</c><00:41:20.160><c> felt</c><00:41:20.480><c> the</c><00:41:20.720><c> strongest.</c>

00:41:21.990 --> 00:41:22.000 align:start position:0%
effects are felt the strongest.
 

00:41:22.000 --> 00:41:24.069 align:start position:0%
effects are felt the strongest.
Collinsson,<00:41:22.880><c> the</c><00:41:23.040><c> Endurance</c><00:41:23.520><c> Mission's</c>

00:41:24.069 --> 00:41:24.079 align:start position:0%
Collinsson, the Endurance Mission's
 

00:41:24.079 --> 00:41:25.750 align:start position:0%
Collinsson, the Endurance Mission's
primary<00:41:24.480><c> investigator,</c><00:41:25.440><c> called</c><00:41:25.599><c> the</c>

00:41:25.750 --> 00:41:25.760 align:start position:0%
primary investigator, called the
 

00:41:25.760 --> 00:41:28.950 align:start position:0%
primary investigator, called the
Ambiolar<00:41:26.560><c> Field</c><00:41:27.040><c> an</c><00:41:27.280><c> agent</c><00:41:27.680><c> of</c><00:41:28.000><c> chaos,</c>

00:41:28.950 --> 00:41:28.960 align:start position:0%
Ambiolar Field an agent of chaos,
 

00:41:28.960 --> 00:41:31.510 align:start position:0%
Ambiolar Field an agent of chaos,
stripping<00:41:29.440><c> particles</c><00:41:30.000><c> from</c><00:41:30.319><c> our</c><00:41:30.560><c> atmosphere</c>

00:41:31.510 --> 00:41:31.520 align:start position:0%
stripping particles from our atmosphere
 

00:41:31.520 --> 00:41:35.270 align:start position:0%
stripping particles from our atmosphere
away<00:41:32.079><c> into</c><00:41:32.480><c> space.</c><00:41:33.920><c> Hydrogen</c><00:41:34.720><c> ions</c><00:41:34.960><c> make</c><00:41:35.119><c> up</c>

00:41:35.270 --> 00:41:35.280 align:start position:0%
away into space. Hydrogen ions make up
 

00:41:35.280 --> 00:41:37.750 align:start position:0%
away into space. Hydrogen ions make up
the<00:41:35.520><c> majority</c><00:41:35.920><c> of</c><00:41:36.000><c> the</c><00:41:36.240><c> polar</c><00:41:36.560><c> wind.</c><00:41:37.280><c> They</c><00:41:37.520><c> are</c>

00:41:37.750 --> 00:41:37.760 align:start position:0%
the majority of the polar wind. They are
 

00:41:37.760 --> 00:41:40.069 align:start position:0%
the majority of the polar wind. They are
so<00:41:38.000><c> light</c><00:41:38.480><c> the</c><00:41:38.720><c> ambipolar</c><00:41:39.359><c> fields</c><00:41:39.680><c> upward</c>

00:41:40.069 --> 00:41:40.079 align:start position:0%
so light the ambipolar fields upward
 

00:41:40.079 --> 00:41:42.950 align:start position:0%
so light the ambipolar fields upward
force<00:41:40.319><c> of</c><00:41:40.480><c> these</c><00:41:40.720><c> electron</c><00:41:41.359><c> ions</c><00:41:41.599><c> is</c><00:41:41.920><c> 10.6</c><00:41:42.640><c> six</c>

00:41:42.950 --> 00:41:42.960 align:start position:0%
force of these electron ions is 10.6 six
 

00:41:42.960 --> 00:41:44.390 align:start position:0%
force of these electron ions is 10.6 six
times<00:41:43.280><c> stronger</c><00:41:43.680><c> than</c><00:41:43.760><c> the</c><00:41:44.000><c> force</c><00:41:44.240><c> of</c>

00:41:44.390 --> 00:41:44.400 align:start position:0%
times stronger than the force of
 

00:41:44.400 --> 00:41:46.950 align:start position:0%
times stronger than the force of
gravity,<00:41:45.359><c> leading</c><00:41:45.680><c> the</c><00:41:46.000><c> ions</c><00:41:46.240><c> to</c><00:41:46.480><c> accelerate</c>

00:41:46.950 --> 00:41:46.960 align:start position:0%
gravity, leading the ions to accelerate
 

00:41:46.960 --> 00:41:49.750 align:start position:0%
gravity, leading the ions to accelerate
up<00:41:47.200><c> at</c><00:41:47.440><c> supersonic</c><00:41:48.240><c> speeds</c><00:41:48.880><c> and</c><00:41:49.200><c> escape</c><00:41:49.599><c> from</c>

00:41:49.750 --> 00:41:49.760 align:start position:0%
up at supersonic speeds and escape from
 

00:41:49.760 --> 00:41:51.670 align:start position:0%
up at supersonic speeds and escape from
our<00:41:50.079><c> atmosphere</c><00:41:50.800><c> above</c><00:41:51.119><c> the</c><00:41:51.359><c> Earth's</c>

00:41:51.670 --> 00:41:51.680 align:start position:0%
our atmosphere above the Earth's
 

00:41:51.680 --> 00:41:54.230 align:start position:0%
our atmosphere above the Earth's
magnetic<00:41:52.079><c> poles.</c><00:41:53.440><c> Scientists</c><00:41:53.920><c> have</c><00:41:54.079><c> found</c>

00:41:54.230 --> 00:41:54.240 align:start position:0%
magnetic poles. Scientists have found
 

00:41:54.240 --> 00:41:56.870 align:start position:0%
magnetic poles. Scientists have found
that<00:41:54.480><c> our</c><00:41:54.720><c> planet</c><00:41:55.040><c> loses</c><00:41:55.520><c> about</c><00:41:55.920><c> 3</c><00:41:56.240><c> kg</c><00:41:56.720><c> of</c>

00:41:56.870 --> 00:41:56.880 align:start position:0%
that our planet loses about 3 kg of
 

00:41:56.880 --> 00:42:01.670 align:start position:0%
that our planet loses about 3 kg of
hydrogen<00:41:57.359><c> gas</c><00:41:57.920><c> every</c><00:41:58.400><c> second</c><00:41:59.280><c> or</c><00:41:59.680><c> 95,000</c><00:42:01.119><c> tons</c>

00:42:01.670 --> 00:42:01.680 align:start position:0%
hydrogen gas every second or 95,000 tons
 

00:42:01.680 --> 00:42:04.790 align:start position:0%
hydrogen gas every second or 95,000 tons
per<00:42:02.000><c> year.</c><00:42:03.200><c> Additionally,</c><00:42:04.000><c> the</c><00:42:04.240><c> Earth</c><00:42:04.480><c> also</c>

00:42:04.790 --> 00:42:04.800 align:start position:0%
per year. Additionally, the Earth also
 

00:42:04.800 --> 00:42:07.829 align:start position:0%
per year. Additionally, the Earth also
loses<00:42:05.200><c> about</c><00:42:05.599><c> 50</c><00:42:05.920><c> g</c><00:42:06.160><c> of</c><00:42:06.319><c> helium</c><00:42:06.720><c> per</c><00:42:07.040><c> second</c><00:42:07.520><c> or</c>

00:42:07.829 --> 00:42:07.839 align:start position:0%
loses about 50 g of helium per second or
 

00:42:07.839 --> 00:42:11.030 align:start position:0%
loses about 50 g of helium per second or
1,600<00:42:08.880><c> tons</c><00:42:09.200><c> of</c><00:42:09.280><c> helium</c><00:42:09.680><c> gas</c><00:42:09.920><c> per</c><00:42:10.160><c> year.</c><00:42:10.800><c> a</c>

00:42:11.030 --> 00:42:11.040 align:start position:0%
1,600 tons of helium gas per year. a
 

00:42:11.040 --> 00:42:14.230 align:start position:0%
1,600 tons of helium gas per year. a
smaller<00:42:11.440><c> but</c><00:42:11.760><c> still</c><00:42:12.240><c> measurable</c><00:42:12.800><c> amount</c><00:42:13.760><c> and</c>

00:42:14.230 --> 00:42:14.240 align:start position:0%
smaller but still measurable amount and
 

00:42:14.240 --> 00:42:16.550 align:start position:0%
smaller but still measurable amount and
a<00:42:14.560><c> much</c><00:42:14.720><c> smaller</c><00:42:15.200><c> amount</c><00:42:15.520><c> of</c><00:42:15.839><c> other</c><00:42:16.079><c> gases</c>

00:42:16.550 --> 00:42:16.560 align:start position:0%
a much smaller amount of other gases
 

00:42:16.560 --> 00:42:19.910 align:start position:0%
a much smaller amount of other gases
like<00:42:16.880><c> oxygen.</c><00:42:18.160><c> However,</c><00:42:18.880><c> not</c><00:42:19.200><c> all</c><00:42:19.359><c> of</c><00:42:19.440><c> this</c><00:42:19.680><c> is</c>

00:42:19.910 --> 00:42:19.920 align:start position:0%
like oxygen. However, not all of this is
 

00:42:19.920 --> 00:42:22.630 align:start position:0%
like oxygen. However, not all of this is
due<00:42:20.160><c> to</c><00:42:20.319><c> polar</c><00:42:20.720><c> winds.</c><00:42:21.599><c> It</c><00:42:21.839><c> occurs</c><00:42:22.240><c> through</c><00:42:22.400><c> a</c>

00:42:22.630 --> 00:42:22.640 align:start position:0%
due to polar winds. It occurs through a
 

00:42:22.640 --> 00:42:24.790 align:start position:0%
due to polar winds. It occurs through a
combination<00:42:23.040><c> of</c><00:42:23.200><c> factors</c><00:42:23.839><c> including</c><00:42:24.400><c> thermal</c>

00:42:24.790 --> 00:42:24.800 align:start position:0%
combination of factors including thermal
 

00:42:24.800 --> 00:42:26.950 align:start position:0%
combination of factors including thermal
escape<00:42:25.520><c> and</c><00:42:25.920><c> non-therrmal</c><00:42:26.560><c> escape</c>

00:42:26.950 --> 00:42:26.960 align:start position:0%
escape and non-therrmal escape
 

00:42:26.960 --> 00:42:30.470 align:start position:0%
escape and non-therrmal escape
mechanisms<00:42:27.599><c> such</c><00:42:27.839><c> as</c><00:42:28.160><c> polar</c><00:42:28.560><c> wind.</c><00:42:29.599><c> But</c><00:42:30.160><c> don't</c>

00:42:30.470 --> 00:42:30.480 align:start position:0%
mechanisms such as polar wind. But don't
 

00:42:30.480 --> 00:42:33.270 align:start position:0%
mechanisms such as polar wind. But don't
worry,<00:42:31.359><c> despite</c><00:42:31.760><c> our</c><00:42:32.000><c> planet</c><00:42:32.400><c> losing</c><00:42:32.800><c> several</c>

00:42:33.270 --> 00:42:33.280 align:start position:0%
worry, despite our planet losing several
 

00:42:33.280 --> 00:42:35.430 align:start position:0%
worry, despite our planet losing several
thousand<00:42:33.760><c> tons</c><00:42:34.000><c> of</c><00:42:34.160><c> its</c><00:42:34.319><c> atmosphere</c><00:42:34.800><c> to</c><00:42:35.040><c> space</c>

00:42:35.430 --> 00:42:35.440 align:start position:0%
thousand tons of its atmosphere to space
 

00:42:35.440 --> 00:42:38.470 align:start position:0%
thousand tons of its atmosphere to space
every<00:42:35.920><c> day,</c><00:42:36.640><c> we</c><00:42:36.960><c> are</c><00:42:37.280><c> nowhere</c><00:42:37.760><c> near</c><00:42:38.160><c> running</c>

00:42:38.470 --> 00:42:38.480 align:start position:0%
every day, we are nowhere near running
 

00:42:38.480 --> 00:42:41.030 align:start position:0%
every day, we are nowhere near running
out<00:42:38.640><c> of</c><00:42:38.800><c> air.</c><00:42:39.680><c> The</c><00:42:39.920><c> planet</c><00:42:40.240><c> won't</c><00:42:40.560><c> run</c><00:42:40.720><c> out</c><00:42:40.880><c> of</c>

00:42:41.030 --> 00:42:41.040 align:start position:0%
out of air. The planet won't run out of
 

00:42:41.040 --> 00:42:44.150 align:start position:0%
out of air. The planet won't run out of
oxygen<00:42:41.520><c> for</c><00:42:41.839><c> a</c><00:42:42.079><c> billion</c><00:42:42.560><c> years.</c><00:42:43.520><c> It</c><00:42:43.760><c> will</c><00:42:43.920><c> be</c>

00:42:44.150 --> 00:42:44.160 align:start position:0%
oxygen for a billion years. It will be
 

00:42:44.160 --> 00:42:46.309 align:start position:0%
oxygen for a billion years. It will be
another<00:42:44.480><c> billion</c><00:42:44.880><c> years</c><00:42:45.119><c> after</c><00:42:45.359><c> that</c><00:42:45.920><c> before</c>

00:42:46.309 --> 00:42:46.319 align:start position:0%
another billion years after that before
 

00:42:46.319 --> 00:42:48.069 align:start position:0%
another billion years after that before
our<00:42:46.560><c> oceans</c><00:42:46.960><c> will</c><00:42:47.200><c> have</c><00:42:47.359><c> been</c><00:42:47.520><c> depleted</c><00:42:47.920><c> of</c>

00:42:48.069 --> 00:42:48.079 align:start position:0%
our oceans will have been depleted of
 

00:42:48.079 --> 00:42:50.150 align:start position:0%
our oceans will have been depleted of
most<00:42:48.319><c> of</c><00:42:48.480><c> their</c><00:42:48.640><c> hydrogen.</c>

00:42:50.150 --> 00:42:50.160 align:start position:0%
most of their hydrogen.
 

00:42:50.160 --> 00:42:52.550 align:start position:0%
most of their hydrogen.
Around<00:42:50.640><c> 4</c><00:42:50.960><c> billion</c><00:42:51.280><c> years</c><00:42:51.520><c> from</c><00:42:51.760><c> now,</c><00:42:52.240><c> our</c>

00:42:52.550 --> 00:42:52.560 align:start position:0%
Around 4 billion years from now, our
 

00:42:52.560 --> 00:42:54.390 align:start position:0%
Around 4 billion years from now, our
planet<00:42:52.880><c> may</c><00:42:53.119><c> look</c><00:42:53.359><c> very</c><00:42:53.680><c> similar</c><00:42:54.000><c> to</c><00:42:54.160><c> how</c>

00:42:54.390 --> 00:42:54.400 align:start position:0%
planet may look very similar to how
 

00:42:54.400 --> 00:42:57.190 align:start position:0%
planet may look very similar to how
Venus<00:42:54.800><c> looks</c><00:42:55.119><c> now.</c><00:42:55.920><c> All</c><00:42:56.160><c> of</c><00:42:56.319><c> our</c><00:42:56.640><c> water</c><00:42:56.960><c> will</c>

00:42:57.190 --> 00:42:57.200 align:start position:0%
Venus looks now. All of our water will
 

00:42:57.200 --> 00:42:59.589 align:start position:0%
Venus looks now. All of our water will
have<00:42:57.359><c> evaporated</c><00:42:58.560><c> and</c><00:42:58.880><c> the</c><00:42:59.119><c> greenhouse</c>

00:42:59.589 --> 00:42:59.599 align:start position:0%
have evaporated and the greenhouse
 

00:42:59.599 --> 00:43:01.910 align:start position:0%
have evaporated and the greenhouse
effect<00:43:00.000><c> will</c><00:43:00.319><c> have</c><00:43:00.560><c> become</c><00:43:00.960><c> strong</c><00:43:01.280><c> enough</c><00:43:01.680><c> to</c>

00:43:01.910 --> 00:43:01.920 align:start position:0%
effect will have become strong enough to
 

00:43:01.920 --> 00:43:05.030 align:start position:0%
effect will have become strong enough to
melt<00:43:02.319><c> rock,</c><00:43:03.040><c> leaving</c><00:43:03.359><c> our</c><00:43:03.680><c> planet</c><00:43:04.000><c> a</c><00:43:04.319><c> dry,</c>

00:43:05.030 --> 00:43:05.040 align:start position:0%
melt rock, leaving our planet a dry,
 

00:43:05.040 --> 00:43:08.390 align:start position:0%
melt rock, leaving our planet a dry,
lifeless<00:43:05.680><c> world.</c><00:43:06.880><c> Keep</c><00:43:07.200><c> in</c><00:43:07.359><c> mind</c><00:43:07.599><c> that</c><00:43:08.000><c> modern</c>

00:43:08.390 --> 00:43:08.400 align:start position:0%
lifeless world. Keep in mind that modern
 

00:43:08.400 --> 00:43:10.309 align:start position:0%
lifeless world. Keep in mind that modern
humans<00:43:08.720><c> have</c><00:43:08.960><c> only</c><00:43:09.200><c> existed</c><00:43:09.599><c> on</c><00:43:09.839><c> this</c><00:43:10.000><c> planet</c>

00:43:10.309 --> 00:43:10.319 align:start position:0%
humans have only existed on this planet
 

00:43:10.319 --> 00:43:13.750 align:start position:0%
humans have only existed on this planet
for<00:43:10.554><c> [music]</c><00:43:10.560><c> around</c><00:43:11.200><c> 300,000</c><00:43:12.640><c> years.</c><00:43:13.520><c> Our</c>

00:43:13.750 --> 00:43:13.760 align:start position:0%
for [music] around 300,000 years. Our
 

00:43:13.760 --> 00:43:15.750 align:start position:0%
for [music] around 300,000 years. Our
species<00:43:14.160><c> would</c><00:43:14.400><c> need</c><00:43:14.640><c> to</c><00:43:14.800><c> exist</c><00:43:15.200><c> more</c><00:43:15.440><c> than</c>

00:43:15.750 --> 00:43:15.760 align:start position:0%
species would need to exist more than
 

00:43:15.760 --> 00:43:18.950 align:start position:0%
species would need to exist more than
3,300<00:43:16.960><c> times</c><00:43:17.280><c> that</c><00:43:17.520><c> length</c><00:43:17.839><c> to</c><00:43:18.079><c> be</c><00:43:18.240><c> around</c><00:43:18.560><c> in</c>

00:43:18.950 --> 00:43:18.960 align:start position:0%
3,300 times that length to be around in
 

00:43:18.960 --> 00:43:21.430 align:start position:0%
3,300 times that length to be around in
1<00:43:19.069><c> [music]</c><00:43:19.440><c> billion</c><00:43:19.920><c> years.</c>

00:43:21.430 --> 00:43:21.440 align:start position:0%
1 [music] billion years.
 

00:43:21.440 --> 00:43:23.670 align:start position:0%
1 [music] billion years.
While<00:43:21.760><c> not</c><00:43:22.160><c> really</c><00:43:22.400><c> important</c><00:43:22.880><c> on</c><00:43:23.119><c> human</c><00:43:23.440><c> time</c>

00:43:23.670 --> 00:43:23.680 align:start position:0%
While not really important on human time
 

00:43:23.680 --> 00:43:26.230 align:start position:0%
While not really important on human time
scales,<00:43:24.560><c> it</c><00:43:24.880><c> is</c><00:43:25.119><c> still</c><00:43:25.440><c> interesting</c><00:43:25.760><c> to</c><00:43:26.079><c> think</c>

00:43:26.230 --> 00:43:26.240 align:start position:0%
scales, it is still interesting to think
 

00:43:26.240 --> 00:43:28.790 align:start position:0%
scales, it is still interesting to think
about<00:43:26.480><c> though.</c><00:43:27.280><c> And</c><00:43:27.520><c> while</c><00:43:27.760><c> hydrogen</c><00:43:28.480><c> ions</c>

00:43:28.790 --> 00:43:28.800 align:start position:0%
about though. And while hydrogen ions
 

00:43:28.800 --> 00:43:31.109 align:start position:0%
about though. And while hydrogen ions
may<00:43:29.119><c> be</c><00:43:29.280><c> the</c><00:43:29.599><c> lightest</c><00:43:30.000><c> and</c><00:43:30.319><c> most</c><00:43:30.640><c> common</c><00:43:30.960><c> type</c>

00:43:31.109 --> 00:43:31.119 align:start position:0%
may be the lightest and most common type
 

00:43:31.119 --> 00:43:33.589 align:start position:0%
may be the lightest and most common type
of<00:43:31.440><c> ion</c><00:43:31.680><c> to</c><00:43:31.839><c> escape</c><00:43:32.160><c> in</c><00:43:32.400><c> a</c><00:43:32.560><c> polar</c><00:43:32.800><c> wind,</c>

00:43:33.589 --> 00:43:33.599 align:start position:0%
of ion to escape in a polar wind,
 

00:43:33.599 --> 00:43:35.670 align:start position:0%
of ion to escape in a polar wind,
heavier<00:43:34.000><c> particles</c><00:43:34.640><c> also</c><00:43:34.960><c> get</c><00:43:35.119><c> a</c><00:43:35.280><c> boost</c><00:43:35.520><c> from</c>

00:43:35.670 --> 00:43:35.680 align:start position:0%
heavier particles also get a boost from
 

00:43:35.680 --> 00:43:38.069 align:start position:0%
heavier particles also get a boost from
the<00:43:35.839><c> ambipolar</c><00:43:36.480><c> electric</c><00:43:36.880><c> field,</c><00:43:37.520><c> helping</c><00:43:37.839><c> to</c>

00:43:38.069 --> 00:43:38.079 align:start position:0%
the ambipolar electric field, helping to
 

00:43:38.079 --> 00:43:40.309 align:start position:0%
the ambipolar electric field, helping to
shape<00:43:38.319><c> our</c><00:43:38.640><c> atmosphere's</c><00:43:39.359><c> structure</c><00:43:40.000><c> and</c>

00:43:40.309 --> 00:43:40.319 align:start position:0%
shape our atmosphere's structure and
 

00:43:40.319 --> 00:43:44.390 align:start position:0%
shape our atmosphere's structure and
dynamics.<00:43:41.599><c> How</c><00:43:41.920><c> exactly?</c><00:43:43.200><c> Well,</c><00:43:44.000><c> now</c><00:43:44.160><c> that</c>

00:43:44.390 --> 00:43:44.400 align:start position:0%
dynamics. How exactly? Well, now that
 

00:43:44.400 --> 00:43:46.630 align:start position:0%
dynamics. How exactly? Well, now that
we've<00:43:44.640><c> measured</c><00:43:44.960><c> the</c><00:43:45.119><c> ambipolar</c><00:43:45.839><c> field,</c>

00:43:46.630 --> 00:43:46.640 align:start position:0%
we've measured the ambipolar field,
 

00:43:46.640 --> 00:43:48.630 align:start position:0%
we've measured the ambipolar field,
scientists<00:43:47.040><c> can</c><00:43:47.200><c> delve</c><00:43:47.520><c> into</c><00:43:47.920><c> all</c><00:43:48.160><c> the</c><00:43:48.400><c> ways</c>

00:43:48.630 --> 00:43:48.640 align:start position:0%
scientists can delve into all the ways
 

00:43:48.640 --> 00:43:50.790 align:start position:0%
scientists can delve into all the ways
the<00:43:48.800><c> ambipolar</c><00:43:49.520><c> field</c><00:43:50.000><c> shapes</c><00:43:50.480><c> our</c>

00:43:50.790 --> 00:43:50.800 align:start position:0%
the ambipolar field shapes our
 

00:43:50.800 --> 00:43:53.670 align:start position:0%
the ambipolar field shapes our
atmosphere.<00:43:52.160><c> Take</c><00:43:52.480><c> oxygen</c><00:43:53.200><c> ions</c><00:43:53.520><c> for</c>

00:43:53.670 --> 00:43:53.680 align:start position:0%
atmosphere. Take oxygen ions for
 

00:43:53.680 --> 00:43:56.870 align:start position:0%
atmosphere. Take oxygen ions for
example.<00:43:54.560><c> These</c><00:43:54.960><c> heavy</c><00:43:55.520><c> ions</c><00:43:55.920><c> weigh</c><00:43:56.400><c> half</c><00:43:56.640><c> as</c>

00:43:56.870 --> 00:43:56.880 align:start position:0%
example. These heavy ions weigh half as
 

00:43:56.880 --> 00:44:00.069 align:start position:0%
example. These heavy ions weigh half as
much<00:43:57.119><c> when</c><00:43:57.359><c> they're</c><00:43:57.599><c> immersed</c><00:43:58.000><c> in</c><00:43:58.240><c> the</c><00:43:58.480><c> 0.55V</c>

00:44:00.069 --> 00:44:00.079 align:start position:0%
much when they're immersed in the 0.55V
 

00:44:00.079 --> 00:44:02.870 align:start position:0%
much when they're immersed in the 0.55V
ambiolar<00:44:00.880><c> field.</c><00:44:01.839><c> This</c><00:44:02.000><c> effect</c><00:44:02.400><c> increases</c>

00:44:02.870 --> 00:44:02.880 align:start position:0%
ambiolar field. This effect increases
 

00:44:02.880 --> 00:44:07.270 align:start position:0%
ambiolar field. This effect increases
the<00:44:03.200><c> ionosphere's</c><00:44:03.920><c> scale</c><00:44:04.319><c> height</c><00:44:04.720><c> by</c><00:44:05.359><c> 271%</c>

00:44:07.270 --> 00:44:07.280 align:start position:0%
the ionosphere's scale height by 271%
 

00:44:07.280 --> 00:44:09.349 align:start position:0%
the ionosphere's scale height by 271%
which<00:44:07.520><c> means</c><00:44:07.760><c> our</c><00:44:08.079><c> atmosphere</c><00:44:08.720><c> can</c><00:44:08.960><c> remain</c>

00:44:09.349 --> 00:44:09.359 align:start position:0%
which means our atmosphere can remain
 

00:44:09.359 --> 00:44:11.750 align:start position:0%
which means our atmosphere can remain
denser<00:44:09.839><c> at</c><00:44:10.079><c> greater</c><00:44:10.400><c> heights</c><00:44:11.040><c> than</c><00:44:11.280><c> it</c><00:44:11.520><c> would</c>

00:44:11.750 --> 00:44:11.760 align:start position:0%
denser at greater heights than it would
 

00:44:11.760 --> 00:44:14.630 align:start position:0%
denser at greater heights than it would
otherwise<00:44:12.319><c> be</c><00:44:12.480><c> able</c><00:44:12.720><c> to.</c><00:44:14.000><c> Endurance's</c>

00:44:14.630 --> 00:44:14.640 align:start position:0%
otherwise be able to. Endurance's
 

00:44:14.640 --> 00:44:15.750 align:start position:0%
otherwise be able to. Endurance's
discovery<00:44:15.119><c> and</c><00:44:15.280><c> measurement</c><00:44:15.520><c> of</c><00:44:15.680><c> the</c>

00:44:15.750 --> 00:44:15.760 align:start position:0%
discovery and measurement of the
 

00:44:15.760 --> 00:44:17.910 align:start position:0%
discovery and measurement of the
ambipolar<00:44:16.400><c> field</c><00:44:16.800><c> also</c><00:44:17.119><c> provided</c><00:44:17.599><c> an</c>

00:44:17.910 --> 00:44:17.920 align:start position:0%
ambipolar field also provided an
 

00:44:17.920 --> 00:44:19.910 align:start position:0%
ambipolar field also provided an
important<00:44:18.319><c> key</c><00:44:18.560><c> to</c><00:44:18.800><c> understanding</c><00:44:19.359><c> why</c><00:44:19.680><c> Earth</c>

00:44:19.910 --> 00:44:19.920 align:start position:0%
important key to understanding why Earth
 

00:44:19.920 --> 00:44:21.670 align:start position:0%
important key to understanding why Earth
has<00:44:20.160><c> been</c><00:44:20.319><c> able</c><00:44:20.480><c> to</c><00:44:20.640><c> hold</c><00:44:20.800><c> on</c><00:44:21.040><c> to</c><00:44:21.119><c> much</c><00:44:21.359><c> of</c><00:44:21.440><c> its</c>

00:44:21.670 --> 00:44:21.680 align:start position:0%
has been able to hold on to much of its
 

00:44:21.680 --> 00:44:23.910 align:start position:0%
has been able to hold on to much of its
water<00:44:21.920><c> up</c><00:44:22.160><c> until</c><00:44:22.400><c> this</c><00:44:22.640><c> point.</c><00:44:23.359><c> while</c><00:44:23.599><c> our</c>

00:44:23.910 --> 00:44:23.920 align:start position:0%
water up until this point. while our
 

00:44:23.920 --> 00:44:26.550 align:start position:0%
water up until this point. while our
neighboring<00:44:24.400><c> planet</c><00:44:24.800><c> Venus</c><00:44:25.599><c> was</c><00:44:25.920><c> not</c><00:44:26.160><c> able</c><00:44:26.400><c> to</c>

00:44:26.550 --> 00:44:26.560 align:start position:0%
neighboring planet Venus was not able to
 

00:44:26.560 --> 00:44:29.190 align:start position:0%
neighboring planet Venus was not able to
do<00:44:26.720><c> the</c><00:44:26.880><c> same.</c><00:44:27.920><c> It's</c><00:44:28.160><c> theorized</c><00:44:28.640><c> that</c><00:44:28.880><c> any</c>

00:44:29.190 --> 00:44:29.200 align:start position:0%
do the same. It's theorized that any
 

00:44:29.200 --> 00:44:31.270 align:start position:0%
do the same. It's theorized that any
planet<00:44:29.520><c> with</c><00:44:29.680><c> an</c><00:44:29.839><c> atmosphere</c><00:44:30.480><c> may</c><00:44:30.800><c> also</c><00:44:31.119><c> have</c>

00:44:31.270 --> 00:44:31.280 align:start position:0%
planet with an atmosphere may also have
 

00:44:31.280 --> 00:44:33.510 align:start position:0%
planet with an atmosphere may also have
an<00:44:31.520><c> electric</c><00:44:31.839><c> field.</c><00:44:32.640><c> And</c><00:44:32.880><c> you</c><00:44:33.119><c> may</c><00:44:33.280><c> recall</c>

00:44:33.510 --> 00:44:33.520 align:start position:0%
an electric field. And you may recall
 

00:44:33.520 --> 00:44:35.829 align:start position:0%
an electric field. And you may recall
that<00:44:33.760><c> earlier</c><00:44:34.160><c> I</c><00:44:34.480><c> said</c><00:44:34.800><c> Venus's</c><00:44:35.440><c> electric</c>

00:44:35.829 --> 00:44:35.839 align:start position:0%
that earlier I said Venus's electric
 

00:44:35.839 --> 00:44:37.510 align:start position:0%
that earlier I said Venus's electric
potential<00:44:36.160><c> was</c><00:44:36.400><c> measured</c><00:44:36.640><c> to</c><00:44:36.800><c> be</c><00:44:36.960><c> around</c><00:44:37.200><c> 10</c>

00:44:37.510 --> 00:44:37.520 align:start position:0%
potential was measured to be around 10
 

00:44:37.520 --> 00:44:40.150 align:start position:0%
potential was measured to be around 10
volts,<00:44:38.240><c> roughly</c><00:44:38.800><c> 18</c><00:44:39.200><c> times</c><00:44:39.599><c> stronger</c><00:44:40.000><c> than</c>

00:44:40.150 --> 00:44:40.160 align:start position:0%
volts, roughly 18 times stronger than
 

00:44:40.160 --> 00:44:43.270 align:start position:0%
volts, roughly 18 times stronger than
the<00:44:40.319><c> ambipolar</c><00:44:40.960><c> field</c><00:44:41.280><c> on</c><00:44:41.520><c> our</c><00:44:41.760><c> own</c><00:44:42.000><c> planet.</c>

00:44:43.270 --> 00:44:43.280 align:start position:0%
the ambipolar field on our own planet.
 

00:44:43.280 --> 00:44:45.589 align:start position:0%
the ambipolar field on our own planet.
While<00:44:43.680><c> Earth</c><00:44:44.079><c> does</c><00:44:44.319><c> lose</c><00:44:44.640><c> a</c><00:44:44.880><c> constant</c><00:44:45.200><c> flow</c><00:44:45.440><c> of</c>

00:44:45.589 --> 00:44:45.599 align:start position:0%
While Earth does lose a constant flow of
 

00:44:45.599 --> 00:44:47.750 align:start position:0%
While Earth does lose a constant flow of
particles<00:44:46.000><c> to</c><00:44:46.240><c> space,</c><00:44:46.960><c> both</c><00:44:47.280><c> through</c><00:44:47.520><c> the</c>

00:44:47.750 --> 00:44:47.760 align:start position:0%
particles to space, both through the
 

00:44:47.760 --> 00:44:49.750 align:start position:0%
particles to space, both through the
polar<00:44:48.079><c> wind</c><00:44:48.640><c> as</c><00:44:48.880><c> well</c><00:44:48.960><c> as</c><00:44:49.200><c> other</c><00:44:49.359><c> types</c><00:44:49.599><c> of</c>

00:44:49.750 --> 00:44:49.760 align:start position:0%
polar wind as well as other types of
 

00:44:49.760 --> 00:44:52.150 align:start position:0%
polar wind as well as other types of
atmospheric<00:44:50.400><c> escape,</c><00:44:51.200><c> this</c><00:44:51.440><c> effect</c><00:44:51.839><c> would</c>

00:44:52.150 --> 00:44:52.160 align:start position:0%
atmospheric escape, this effect would
 

00:44:52.160 --> 00:44:54.230 align:start position:0%
atmospheric escape, this effect would
have<00:44:52.400><c> likely</c><00:44:52.800><c> been</c><00:44:53.200><c> much</c><00:44:53.440><c> more</c><00:44:53.680><c> pronounced</c><00:44:54.000><c> on</c>

00:44:54.230 --> 00:44:54.240 align:start position:0%
have likely been much more pronounced on
 

00:44:54.240 --> 00:44:56.630 align:start position:0%
have likely been much more pronounced on
Venus<00:44:54.720><c> because</c><00:44:55.040><c> of</c><00:44:55.200><c> its</c><00:44:55.520><c> stronger</c><00:44:56.160><c> electric</c>

00:44:56.630 --> 00:44:56.640 align:start position:0%
Venus because of its stronger electric
 

00:44:56.640 --> 00:44:58.630 align:start position:0%
Venus because of its stronger electric
potential,<00:44:57.599><c> leading</c><00:44:57.920><c> to</c><00:44:58.000><c> the</c><00:44:58.240><c> loss</c><00:44:58.400><c> of</c>

00:44:58.630 --> 00:44:58.640 align:start position:0%
potential, leading to the loss of
 

00:44:58.640 --> 00:45:00.870 align:start position:0%
potential, leading to the loss of
heavier<00:44:59.119><c> particles</c><00:44:59.920><c> like</c><00:45:00.160><c> the</c><00:45:00.400><c> ones</c><00:45:00.640><c> that</c>

00:45:00.870 --> 00:45:00.880 align:start position:0%
heavier particles like the ones that
 

00:45:00.880 --> 00:45:03.430 align:start position:0%
heavier particles like the ones that
make<00:45:01.040><c> up</c><00:45:01.280><c> water.</c><00:45:02.480><c> The</c><00:45:02.800><c> fact</c><00:45:02.880><c> that</c><00:45:03.119><c> our</c>

00:45:03.430 --> 00:45:03.440 align:start position:0%
make up water. The fact that our
 

00:45:03.440 --> 00:45:06.069 align:start position:0%
make up water. The fact that our
ambipolar<00:45:04.079><c> field</c><00:45:04.319><c> is</c><00:45:04.480><c> so</c><00:45:04.720><c> weak</c><00:45:05.440><c> may</c><00:45:05.680><c> be</c><00:45:05.839><c> an</c>

00:45:06.069 --> 00:45:06.079 align:start position:0%
ambipolar field is so weak may be an
 

00:45:06.079 --> 00:45:08.069 align:start position:0%
ambipolar field is so weak may be an
important<00:45:06.480><c> part</c><00:45:06.720><c> of</c><00:45:06.880><c> why</c><00:45:07.200><c> our</c><00:45:07.520><c> planet</c><00:45:07.839><c> has</c>

00:45:08.069 --> 00:45:08.079 align:start position:0%
important part of why our planet has
 

00:45:08.079 --> 00:45:11.109 align:start position:0%
important part of why our planet has
been<00:45:08.240><c> able</c><00:45:08.480><c> to</c><00:45:08.640><c> hold</c><00:45:08.800><c> onto</c><00:45:09.119><c> its</c><00:45:09.359><c> water.</c><00:45:10.640><c> We've</c>

00:45:11.109 --> 00:45:11.119 align:start position:0%
been able to hold onto its water. We've
 

00:45:11.119 --> 00:45:13.430 align:start position:0%
been able to hold onto its water. We've
only<00:45:11.520><c> just</c><00:45:11.839><c> started</c><00:45:12.160><c> to</c><00:45:12.400><c> explore</c><00:45:12.720><c> the</c><00:45:13.040><c> depths</c>

00:45:13.430 --> 00:45:13.440 align:start position:0%
only just started to explore the depths
 

00:45:13.440 --> 00:45:15.190 align:start position:0%
only just started to explore the depths
of<00:45:13.680><c> how</c><00:45:13.920><c> the</c><00:45:14.079><c> ambipolar</c><00:45:14.720><c> field</c><00:45:14.960><c> has</c>

00:45:15.190 --> 00:45:15.200 align:start position:0%
of how the ambipolar field has
 

00:45:15.200 --> 00:45:17.670 align:start position:0%
of how the ambipolar field has
influenced<00:45:15.680><c> our</c><00:45:15.920><c> planet</c><00:45:16.240><c> and</c><00:45:16.480><c> life</c><00:45:16.720><c> on</c><00:45:16.960><c> Earth.</c>

00:45:17.670 --> 00:45:17.680 align:start position:0%
influenced our planet and life on Earth.
 

00:45:17.680 --> 00:45:19.430 align:start position:0%
influenced our planet and life on Earth.
And<00:45:17.839><c> the</c><00:45:18.000><c> endurance</c><00:45:18.400><c> scientists</c><00:45:18.880><c> have</c><00:45:19.040><c> said</c>

00:45:19.430 --> 00:45:19.440 align:start position:0%
And the endurance scientists have said
 

00:45:19.440 --> 00:45:21.270 align:start position:0%
And the endurance scientists have said
there<00:45:19.680><c> are</c><00:45:19.920><c> already</c><00:45:20.240><c> plans</c><00:45:20.640><c> for</c><00:45:20.880><c> additional</c>

00:45:21.270 --> 00:45:21.280 align:start position:0%
there are already plans for additional
 

00:45:21.280 --> 00:45:23.030 align:start position:0%
there are already plans for additional
measurements<00:45:21.680><c> of</c><00:45:21.839><c> our</c><00:45:22.079><c> planet's</c><00:45:22.400><c> ambipolar</c>

00:45:23.030 --> 00:45:23.040 align:start position:0%
measurements of our planet's ambipolar
 

00:45:23.040 --> 00:45:25.030 align:start position:0%
measurements of our planet's ambipolar
field<00:45:23.200><c> in</c><00:45:23.440><c> the</c><00:45:23.599><c> future.</c><00:45:24.480><c> Like</c><00:45:24.720><c> its</c>

00:45:25.030 --> 00:45:25.040 align:start position:0%
field in the future. Like its
 

00:45:25.040 --> 00:45:27.030 align:start position:0%
field in the future. Like its
predecessor,<00:45:25.920><c> the</c><00:45:26.141><c> [music]</c><00:45:26.160><c> new</c><00:45:26.319><c> rocket</c><00:45:26.720><c> will</c>

00:45:27.030 --> 00:45:27.040 align:start position:0%
predecessor, the [music] new rocket will
 

00:45:27.040 --> 00:45:29.270 align:start position:0%
predecessor, the [music] new rocket will
also<00:45:27.359><c> carry</c><00:45:27.599><c> the</c><00:45:27.760><c> legacy</c><00:45:28.160><c> of</c><00:45:28.319><c> a</c><00:45:28.560><c> long</c><00:45:28.960><c> past</c>

00:45:29.270 --> 00:45:29.280 align:start position:0%
also carry the legacy of a long past
 

00:45:29.280 --> 00:45:31.589 align:start position:0%
also carry the legacy of a long past
Arctic<00:45:29.760><c> explorer</c><00:45:30.640><c> named</c><00:45:31.040><c> after</c><00:45:31.359><c> the</c>

00:45:31.589 --> 00:45:31.599 align:start position:0%
Arctic explorer named after the
 

00:45:31.599 --> 00:45:34.309 align:start position:0%
Arctic explorer named after the
Resolute,<00:45:32.560><c> a</c><00:45:32.800><c> ship</c><00:45:33.040><c> that</c><00:45:33.359><c> set</c><00:45:33.599><c> off</c><00:45:33.839><c> to</c><00:45:34.000><c> explore</c>

00:45:34.309 --> 00:45:34.319 align:start position:0%
Resolute, a ship that set off to explore
 

00:45:34.319 --> 00:45:36.950 align:start position:0%
Resolute, a ship that set off to explore
the<00:45:34.560><c> Arctic</c><00:45:35.040><c> in</c><00:45:35.280><c> 1850.</c>

00:45:36.950 --> 00:45:36.960 align:start position:0%
the Arctic in 1850.
 

00:45:36.960 --> 00:45:39.270 align:start position:0%
the Arctic in 1850.
And<00:45:37.280><c> now</c><00:45:37.520><c> that</c><00:45:37.760><c> we've</c><00:45:38.079><c> finally</c><00:45:38.640><c> been</c><00:45:38.880><c> able</c><00:45:39.119><c> to</c>

00:45:39.270 --> 00:45:39.280 align:start position:0%
And now that we've finally been able to
 

00:45:39.280 --> 00:45:41.589 align:start position:0%
And now that we've finally been able to
confirm<00:45:39.760><c> and</c><00:45:40.079><c> measure</c><00:45:40.400><c> the</c><00:45:40.560><c> ambipolar</c><00:45:41.280><c> field</c>

00:45:41.589 --> 00:45:41.599 align:start position:0%
confirm and measure the ambipolar field
 

00:45:41.599 --> 00:45:43.829 align:start position:0%
confirm and measure the ambipolar field
strength<00:45:42.480><c> and</c><00:45:42.720><c> with</c><00:45:42.880><c> a</c><00:45:43.040><c> follow-up</c><00:45:43.440><c> mission</c>

00:45:43.829 --> 00:45:43.839 align:start position:0%
strength and with a follow-up mission
 

00:45:43.839 --> 00:45:45.190 align:start position:0%
strength and with a follow-up mission
already<00:45:44.240><c> planned</c><00:45:44.560><c> to</c><00:45:44.720><c> take</c><00:45:44.960><c> more</c>

00:45:45.190 --> 00:45:45.200 align:start position:0%
already planned to take more
 

00:45:45.200 --> 00:45:47.190 align:start position:0%
already planned to take more
measurements,<00:45:46.240><c> scientists</c><00:45:46.720><c> can</c><00:45:46.960><c> start</c>

00:45:47.190 --> 00:45:47.200 align:start position:0%
measurements, scientists can start
 

00:45:47.200 --> 00:45:49.510 align:start position:0%
measurements, scientists can start
asking<00:45:47.760><c> some</c><00:45:48.079><c> of</c><00:45:48.160><c> the</c><00:45:48.400><c> bigger</c><00:45:48.960><c> and</c><00:45:49.200><c> more</c>

00:45:49.510 --> 00:45:49.520 align:start position:0%
asking some of the bigger and more
 

00:45:49.520 --> 00:45:52.150 align:start position:0%
asking some of the bigger and more
exciting<00:45:50.079><c> questions</c><00:45:51.040><c> like</c><00:45:51.520><c> what</c><00:45:51.760><c> it</c><00:45:51.920><c> means</c>

00:45:52.150 --> 00:45:52.160 align:start position:0%
exciting questions like what it means
 

00:45:52.160 --> 00:45:55.190 align:start position:0%
exciting questions like what it means
for<00:45:52.400><c> Earth's</c><00:45:52.880><c> complex</c><00:45:53.359><c> atmospheric</c><00:45:54.000><c> dynamics</c>

00:45:55.190 --> 00:45:55.200 align:start position:0%
for Earth's complex atmospheric dynamics
 

00:45:55.200 --> 00:45:57.829 align:start position:0%
for Earth's complex atmospheric dynamics
and<00:45:55.920><c> how</c><00:45:56.160><c> it</c><00:45:56.319><c> helps</c><00:45:56.640><c> to</c><00:45:56.800><c> govern</c><00:45:57.359><c> planetary</c>

00:45:57.829 --> 00:45:57.839 align:start position:0%
and how it helps to govern planetary
 

00:45:57.839 --> 00:46:00.150 align:start position:0%
and how it helps to govern planetary
evolution.<00:45:59.040><c> And</c><00:45:59.280><c> doesn't</c><00:45:59.599><c> the</c><00:45:59.760><c> potential</c>

00:46:00.150 --> 00:46:00.160 align:start position:0%
evolution. And doesn't the potential
 

00:46:00.160 --> 00:46:02.069 align:start position:0%
evolution. And doesn't the potential
insights<00:46:00.720><c> we</c><00:46:00.960><c> stand</c><00:46:01.200><c> to</c><00:46:01.440><c> gain</c><00:46:01.680><c> from</c><00:46:01.839><c> this</c>

00:46:02.069 --> 00:46:02.079 align:start position:0%
insights we stand to gain from this
 

00:46:02.079 --> 00:46:10.150 align:start position:0%
insights we stand to gain from this
research<00:46:02.560><c> feel</c><00:46:03.440><c> electric?</c>

00:46:10.150 --> 00:46:10.160 align:start position:0%
 
 

00:46:10.160 --> 00:46:12.950 align:start position:0%
 
The<00:46:10.400><c> Earth's</c><00:46:10.720><c> atmosphere</c><00:46:11.359><c> may</c><00:46:11.760><c> look</c><00:46:12.240><c> empty,</c>

00:46:12.950 --> 00:46:12.960 align:start position:0%
The Earth's atmosphere may look empty,
 

00:46:12.960 --> 00:46:15.270 align:start position:0%
The Earth's atmosphere may look empty,
but<00:46:13.200><c> it's</c><00:46:13.440><c> really</c><00:46:13.680><c> a</c><00:46:14.000><c> complex</c><00:46:14.400><c> and</c><00:46:14.720><c> dynamic</c>

00:46:15.270 --> 00:46:15.280 align:start position:0%
but it's really a complex and dynamic
 

00:46:15.280 --> 00:46:18.630 align:start position:0%
but it's really a complex and dynamic
place<00:46:16.240><c> swirling</c><00:46:16.880><c> with</c><00:46:17.119><c> gaseous</c><00:46:17.760><c> matter</c><00:46:18.240><c> and</c>

00:46:18.630 --> 00:46:18.640 align:start position:0%
place swirling with gaseous matter and
 

00:46:18.640 --> 00:46:21.270 align:start position:0%
place swirling with gaseous matter and
thermal<00:46:19.119><c> energy.</c><00:46:20.400><c> Some</c><00:46:20.560><c> of</c><00:46:20.720><c> its</c><00:46:20.960><c> most</c>

00:46:21.270 --> 00:46:21.280 align:start position:0%
thermal energy. Some of its most
 

00:46:21.280 --> 00:46:23.910 align:start position:0%
thermal energy. Some of its most
spectacular<00:46:22.160><c> activity</c><00:46:22.800><c> is</c><00:46:23.119><c> best</c><00:46:23.359><c> viewed</c><00:46:23.680><c> at</c>

00:46:23.910 --> 00:46:23.920 align:start position:0%
spectacular activity is best viewed at
 

00:46:23.920 --> 00:46:26.470 align:start position:0%
spectacular activity is best viewed at
night.<00:46:25.280><c> If</c><00:46:25.520><c> you've</c><00:46:25.760><c> ever</c><00:46:25.920><c> watched</c><00:46:26.240><c> a</c>

00:46:26.470 --> 00:46:26.480 align:start position:0%
night. If you've ever watched a
 

00:46:26.480 --> 00:46:29.510 align:start position:0%
night. If you've ever watched a
lightning<00:46:26.880><c> storm</c><00:46:27.119><c> or</c><00:46:27.359><c> a</c><00:46:27.520><c> meteor</c><00:46:27.920><c> shower,</c><00:46:29.200><c> the</c>

00:46:29.510 --> 00:46:29.520 align:start position:0%
lightning storm or a meteor shower, the
 

00:46:29.520 --> 00:46:31.430 align:start position:0%
lightning storm or a meteor shower, the
breathtaking<00:46:30.160><c> Aurora</c><00:46:30.640><c> Borealis</c><00:46:31.200><c> in</c><00:46:31.359><c> the</c>

00:46:31.430 --> 00:46:31.440 align:start position:0%
breathtaking Aurora Borealis in the
 

00:46:31.440 --> 00:46:35.030 align:start position:0%
breathtaking Aurora Borealis in the
north<00:46:32.480><c> or</c><00:46:32.720><c> the</c><00:46:33.119><c> shimmering</c><00:46:33.680><c> Aurora</c><00:46:34.240><c> Orales</c><00:46:34.880><c> in</c>

00:46:35.030 --> 00:46:35.040 align:start position:0%
north or the shimmering Aurora Orales in
 

00:46:35.040 --> 00:46:37.109 align:start position:0%
north or the shimmering Aurora Orales in
the<00:46:35.200><c> south,</c><00:46:36.000><c> then</c><00:46:36.240><c> you</c><00:46:36.480><c> know</c><00:46:36.640><c> what</c><00:46:36.960><c> an</c>

00:46:37.109 --> 00:46:37.119 align:start position:0%
the south, then you know what an
 

00:46:37.119 --> 00:46:39.030 align:start position:0%
the south, then you know what an
incredible<00:46:37.680><c> light</c><00:46:37.920><c> show</c><00:46:38.160><c> the</c><00:46:38.400><c> sky</c><00:46:38.640><c> can</c><00:46:38.880><c> put</c>

00:46:39.030 --> 00:46:39.040 align:start position:0%
incredible light show the sky can put
 

00:46:39.040 --> 00:46:40.710 align:start position:0%
incredible light show the sky can put
on.

00:46:40.710 --> 00:46:40.720 align:start position:0%
on.
 

00:46:40.720 --> 00:46:42.870 align:start position:0%
on.
But<00:46:40.960><c> in</c><00:46:41.200><c> recent</c><00:46:41.520><c> years,</c><00:46:42.079><c> with</c><00:46:42.240><c> the</c><00:46:42.480><c> help</c><00:46:42.640><c> of</c>

00:46:42.870 --> 00:46:42.880 align:start position:0%
But in recent years, with the help of
 

00:46:42.880 --> 00:46:45.349 align:start position:0%
But in recent years, with the help of
highly<00:46:43.359><c> sensitive</c><00:46:43.839><c> cameras,</c><00:46:44.800><c> researchers</c>

00:46:45.349 --> 00:46:45.359 align:start position:0%
highly sensitive cameras, researchers
 

00:46:45.359 --> 00:46:47.430 align:start position:0%
highly sensitive cameras, researchers
have<00:46:45.599><c> been</c><00:46:45.760><c> able</c><00:46:46.000><c> to</c><00:46:46.160><c> document</c><00:46:46.640><c> a</c><00:46:46.960><c> number</c><00:46:47.119><c> of</c>

00:46:47.430 --> 00:46:47.440 align:start position:0%
have been able to document a number of
 

00:46:47.440 --> 00:46:50.390 align:start position:0%
have been able to document a number of
unusual,<00:46:48.560><c> previously</c><00:46:49.200><c> unrecorded</c><00:46:50.000><c> light</c>

00:46:50.390 --> 00:46:50.400 align:start position:0%
unusual, previously unrecorded light
 

00:46:50.400 --> 00:46:52.550 align:start position:0%
unusual, previously unrecorded light
producing<00:46:50.800><c> phenomena.</c>

00:46:52.550 --> 00:46:52.560 align:start position:0%
producing phenomena.
 

00:46:52.560 --> 00:46:54.950 align:start position:0%
producing phenomena.
These<00:46:52.880><c> occurrences</c><00:46:53.839><c> which</c><00:46:54.079><c> happen</c><00:46:54.400><c> high</c><00:46:54.720><c> in</c>

00:46:54.950 --> 00:46:54.960 align:start position:0%
These occurrences which happen high in
 

00:46:54.960 --> 00:46:57.190 align:start position:0%
These occurrences which happen high in
the<00:46:55.040><c> Earth's</c><00:46:55.440><c> atmosphere</c><00:46:56.240><c> are</c><00:46:56.480><c> known</c><00:46:56.800><c> as</c>

00:46:57.190 --> 00:46:57.200 align:start position:0%
the Earth's atmosphere are known as
 

00:46:57.200 --> 00:47:00.390 align:start position:0%
the Earth's atmosphere are known as
transient<00:46:57.920><c> luminous</c><00:46:58.560><c> events.</c>

00:47:00.390 --> 00:47:00.400 align:start position:0%
transient luminous events.
 

00:47:00.400 --> 00:47:03.270 align:start position:0%
transient luminous events.
What<00:47:00.640><c> are</c><00:47:00.880><c> these</c><00:47:01.200><c> strange</c><00:47:01.599><c> phenomena?</c><00:47:03.040><c> Why</c>

00:47:03.270 --> 00:47:03.280 align:start position:0%
What are these strange phenomena? Why
 

00:47:03.280 --> 00:47:06.150 align:start position:0%
What are these strange phenomena? Why
are<00:47:03.520><c> they</c><00:47:03.680><c> so</c><00:47:03.920><c> elusive?</c><00:47:05.359><c> And</c><00:47:05.599><c> what</c><00:47:05.760><c> can</c><00:47:06.000><c> they</c>

00:47:06.150 --> 00:47:06.160 align:start position:0%
are they so elusive? And what can they
 

00:47:06.160 --> 00:47:08.069 align:start position:0%
are they so elusive? And what can they
teach<00:47:06.400><c> us</c><00:47:06.560><c> about</c><00:47:06.800><c> the</c><00:47:07.040><c> hidden</c><00:47:07.440><c> workings</c><00:47:07.839><c> of</c>

00:47:08.069 --> 00:47:08.079 align:start position:0%
teach us about the hidden workings of
 

00:47:08.079 --> 00:47:10.630 align:start position:0%
teach us about the hidden workings of
our<00:47:08.400><c> atmosphere?</c>

00:47:10.630 --> 00:47:10.640 align:start position:0%
our atmosphere?
 

00:47:10.640 --> 00:47:12.710 align:start position:0%
our atmosphere?
I'm<00:47:10.960><c> Alex</c><00:47:11.280><c> Mccoan</c><00:47:11.920><c> and</c><00:47:12.160><c> you're</c><00:47:12.400><c> watching</c>

00:47:12.710 --> 00:47:12.720 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
 

00:47:12.720 --> 00:47:15.510 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
Astramm.<00:47:13.680><c> Join</c><00:47:14.000><c> me</c><00:47:14.160><c> today</c><00:47:14.480><c> as</c><00:47:14.800><c> we</c><00:47:15.040><c> look</c><00:47:15.280><c> at</c>

00:47:15.510 --> 00:47:15.520 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join me today as we look at
 

00:47:15.520 --> 00:47:18.230 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join me today as we look at
incredible<00:47:16.319><c> images</c><00:47:16.720><c> of</c><00:47:17.040><c> transient</c><00:47:17.680><c> luminous</c>

00:47:18.230 --> 00:47:18.240 align:start position:0%
incredible images of transient luminous
 

00:47:18.240 --> 00:47:21.589 align:start position:0%
incredible images of transient luminous
events<00:47:18.960><c> as</c><00:47:19.200><c> we</c><00:47:19.520><c> explore</c><00:47:20.240><c> and</c><00:47:20.560><c> unravel</c><00:47:21.280><c> some</c><00:47:21.520><c> of</c>

00:47:21.589 --> 00:47:21.599 align:start position:0%
events as we explore and unravel some of
 

00:47:21.599 --> 00:47:23.589 align:start position:0%
events as we explore and unravel some of
the<00:47:21.839><c> most</c><00:47:22.079><c> mysterious</c><00:47:22.800><c> and</c><00:47:23.040><c> elusive</c>

00:47:23.589 --> 00:47:23.599 align:start position:0%
the most mysterious and elusive
 

00:47:23.599 --> 00:47:26.870 align:start position:0%
the most mysterious and elusive
phenomenon<00:47:24.160><c> in</c><00:47:24.319><c> the</c><00:47:24.480><c> night</c><00:47:24.720><c> sky.</c>

00:47:26.870 --> 00:47:26.880 align:start position:0%
phenomenon in the night sky.
 

00:47:26.880 --> 00:47:30.309 align:start position:0%
phenomenon in the night sky.
Let's<00:47:27.280><c> begin</c><00:47:27.680><c> with</c><00:47:27.920><c> a</c><00:47:28.240><c> remarkable</c><00:47:28.960><c> image.</c><00:47:30.160><c> It</c>

00:47:30.309 --> 00:47:30.319 align:start position:0%
Let's begin with a remarkable image. It
 

00:47:30.319 --> 00:47:32.230 align:start position:0%
Let's begin with a remarkable image. It
looks<00:47:30.560><c> like</c><00:47:30.720><c> a</c><00:47:30.960><c> cross</c><00:47:31.280><c> between</c><00:47:31.599><c> a</c><00:47:31.839><c> lightning</c>

00:47:32.230 --> 00:47:32.240 align:start position:0%
looks like a cross between a lightning
 

00:47:32.240 --> 00:47:35.109 align:start position:0%
looks like a cross between a lightning
storm<00:47:32.480><c> and</c><00:47:32.640><c> a</c><00:47:32.800><c> jellyfish,</c><00:47:33.520><c> doesn't</c><00:47:33.680><c> it?</c><00:47:34.800><c> This</c>

00:47:35.109 --> 00:47:35.119 align:start position:0%
storm and a jellyfish, doesn't it? This
 

00:47:35.119 --> 00:47:37.510 align:start position:0%
storm and a jellyfish, doesn't it? This
is<00:47:35.280><c> a</c><00:47:35.520><c> red</c><00:47:36.000><c> sprite,</c><00:47:36.720><c> and</c><00:47:36.960><c> the</c><00:47:37.119><c> formation</c>

00:47:37.510 --> 00:47:37.520 align:start position:0%
is a red sprite, and the formation
 

00:47:37.520 --> 00:47:39.990 align:start position:0%
is a red sprite, and the formation
you're<00:47:37.920><c> looking</c><00:47:38.079><c> at</c><00:47:38.400><c> is</c><00:47:38.720><c> fittingly</c><00:47:39.440><c> called</c><00:47:39.760><c> a</c>

00:47:39.990 --> 00:47:40.000 align:start position:0%
you're looking at is fittingly called a
 

00:47:40.000 --> 00:47:43.430 align:start position:0%
you're looking at is fittingly called a
jellyfish.<00:47:41.359><c> It's</c><00:47:41.680><c> incredibly</c><00:47:42.400><c> big,</c><00:47:43.040><c> spanning</c>

00:47:43.430 --> 00:47:43.440 align:start position:0%
jellyfish. It's incredibly big, spanning
 

00:47:43.440 --> 00:47:46.309 align:start position:0%
jellyfish. It's incredibly big, spanning
up<00:47:43.599><c> to</c><00:47:43.839><c> 50</c><00:47:44.240><c> km</c><00:47:45.119><c> and</c><00:47:45.440><c> originates</c><00:47:46.000><c> at</c><00:47:46.160><c> an</c>

00:47:46.309 --> 00:47:46.319 align:start position:0%
up to 50 km and originates at an
 

00:47:46.319 --> 00:47:50.390 align:start position:0%
up to 50 km and originates at an
altitude<00:47:46.800><c> of</c><00:47:47.119><c> 70</c><00:47:47.440><c> to</c><00:47:47.760><c> 80</c><00:47:48.000><c> km</c><00:47:48.560><c> above</c><00:47:48.880><c> the</c><00:47:49.040><c> Earth.</c>

00:47:50.390 --> 00:47:50.400 align:start position:0%
altitude of 70 to 80 km above the Earth.
 

00:47:50.400 --> 00:47:53.670 align:start position:0%
altitude of 70 to 80 km above the Earth.
Sprites<00:47:50.960><c> are</c><00:47:51.280><c> short-lived</c><00:47:52.000><c> events</c><00:47:52.800><c> lasting</c><00:47:53.359><c> 3</c>

00:47:53.670 --> 00:47:53.680 align:start position:0%
Sprites are short-lived events lasting 3
 

00:47:53.680 --> 00:47:56.309 align:start position:0%
Sprites are short-lived events lasting 3
to<00:47:53.920><c> 5</c><00:47:54.319><c> milliseconds</c><00:47:55.520><c> and</c><00:47:55.680><c> they</c><00:47:55.920><c> travel</c>

00:47:56.309 --> 00:47:56.319 align:start position:0%
to 5 milliseconds and they travel
 

00:47:56.319 --> 00:47:59.190 align:start position:0%
to 5 milliseconds and they travel
downwards<00:47:56.880><c> at</c><00:47:57.200><c> blazing</c><00:47:57.839><c> speeds,</c><00:47:58.720><c> reaching</c>

00:47:59.190 --> 00:47:59.200 align:start position:0%
downwards at blazing speeds, reaching
 

00:47:59.200 --> 00:48:01.910 align:start position:0%
downwards at blazing speeds, reaching
10%<00:47:59.413><c> [music]</c><00:47:59.839><c> the</c><00:48:00.079><c> speed</c><00:48:00.240><c> of</c><00:48:00.400><c> light.</c>

00:48:01.910 --> 00:48:01.920 align:start position:0%
10% [music] the speed of light.
 

00:48:01.920 --> 00:48:04.470 align:start position:0%
10% [music] the speed of light.
For<00:48:02.240><c> years,</c><00:48:02.800><c> sprites</c><00:48:03.359><c> were</c><00:48:03.599><c> only</c><00:48:03.839><c> rumored</c><00:48:04.240><c> to</c>

00:48:04.470 --> 00:48:04.480 align:start position:0%
For years, sprites were only rumored to
 

00:48:04.480 --> 00:48:07.430 align:start position:0%
For years, sprites were only rumored to
exist.<00:48:05.599><c> Reports</c><00:48:06.079><c> can</c><00:48:06.319><c> be</c><00:48:06.480><c> found</c><00:48:06.720><c> as</c><00:48:06.960><c> far</c><00:48:07.200><c> back</c>

00:48:07.430 --> 00:48:07.440 align:start position:0%
exist. Reports can be found as far back
 

00:48:07.440 --> 00:48:10.390 align:start position:0%
exist. Reports can be found as far back
as<00:48:07.680><c> the</c><00:48:07.920><c> 18th</c><00:48:08.400><c> century,</c><00:48:09.280><c> but</c><00:48:09.440><c> a</c><00:48:09.680><c> theoretical</c>

00:48:10.390 --> 00:48:10.400 align:start position:0%
as the 18th century, but a theoretical
 

00:48:10.400 --> 00:48:13.829 align:start position:0%
as the 18th century, but a theoretical
basis<00:48:10.960><c> wasn't</c><00:48:11.440><c> published</c><00:48:11.839><c> until</c><00:48:12.240><c> 1925</c><00:48:13.520><c> when</c>

00:48:13.829 --> 00:48:13.839 align:start position:0%
basis wasn't published until 1925 when
 

00:48:13.839 --> 00:48:17.349 align:start position:0%
basis wasn't published until 1925 when
physicist<00:48:14.640><c> CTR</c><00:48:15.599><c> Wilson</c><00:48:16.319><c> speculated</c><00:48:17.040><c> that</c><00:48:17.200><c> the</c>

00:48:17.349 --> 00:48:17.359 align:start position:0%
physicist CTR Wilson speculated that the
 

00:48:17.359 --> 00:48:19.270 align:start position:0%
physicist CTR Wilson speculated that the
electrical<00:48:17.920><c> breakdown</c><00:48:18.480><c> could</c><00:48:18.720><c> occur</c><00:48:18.960><c> in</c><00:48:19.200><c> the</c>

00:48:19.270 --> 00:48:19.280 align:start position:0%
electrical breakdown could occur in the
 

00:48:19.280 --> 00:48:22.549 align:start position:0%
electrical breakdown could occur in the
upper<00:48:19.599><c> atmosphere.</c><00:48:21.040><c> However,</c><00:48:21.680><c> despite</c><00:48:22.160><c> years</c>

00:48:22.549 --> 00:48:22.559 align:start position:0%
upper atmosphere. However, despite years
 

00:48:22.559 --> 00:48:25.270 align:start position:0%
upper atmosphere. However, despite years
of<00:48:22.800><c> unverified</c><00:48:23.680><c> sightings,</c><00:48:24.559><c> it</c><00:48:24.800><c> would</c><00:48:24.960><c> take</c>

00:48:25.270 --> 00:48:25.280 align:start position:0%
of unverified sightings, it would take
 

00:48:25.280 --> 00:48:27.109 align:start position:0%
of unverified sightings, it would take
more<00:48:25.520><c> than</c><00:48:25.839><c> six</c><00:48:26.240><c> decades</c><00:48:26.640><c> for</c><00:48:26.880><c> their</c>

00:48:27.109 --> 00:48:27.119 align:start position:0%
more than six decades for their
 

00:48:27.119 --> 00:48:29.750 align:start position:0%
more than six decades for their
existence<00:48:27.599><c> to</c><00:48:27.839><c> be</c><00:48:28.000><c> confirmed.</c>

00:48:29.750 --> 00:48:29.760 align:start position:0%
existence to be confirmed.
 

00:48:29.760 --> 00:48:32.950 align:start position:0%
existence to be confirmed.
So,<00:48:30.319><c> what</c><00:48:30.880><c> are</c><00:48:31.200><c> sprites?</c>

00:48:32.950 --> 00:48:32.960 align:start position:0%
So, what are sprites?
 

00:48:32.960 --> 00:48:35.349 align:start position:0%
So, what are sprites?
Unlike<00:48:33.599><c> lightning,</c><00:48:34.160><c> which</c><00:48:34.480><c> is</c><00:48:34.720><c> extremely</c>

00:48:35.349 --> 00:48:35.359 align:start position:0%
Unlike lightning, which is extremely
 

00:48:35.359 --> 00:48:38.710 align:start position:0%
Unlike lightning, which is extremely
hot,<00:48:36.240><c> sprites</c><00:48:36.800><c> are</c><00:48:37.119><c> cold</c><00:48:37.520><c> plasma</c><00:48:38.000><c> events,</c>

00:48:38.710 --> 00:48:38.720 align:start position:0%
hot, sprites are cold plasma events,
 

00:48:38.720 --> 00:48:40.390 align:start position:0%
hot, sprites are cold plasma events,
much<00:48:38.960><c> like</c><00:48:39.119><c> the</c><00:48:39.359><c> reaction</c><00:48:39.760><c> inside</c><00:48:40.160><c> a</c>

00:48:40.390 --> 00:48:40.400 align:start position:0%
much like the reaction inside a
 

00:48:40.400 --> 00:48:43.270 align:start position:0%
much like the reaction inside a
fluorescent<00:48:40.960><c> tube.</c><00:48:42.240><c> Let's</c><00:48:42.559><c> think</c><00:48:42.800><c> about</c><00:48:42.960><c> that</c>

00:48:43.270 --> 00:48:43.280 align:start position:0%
fluorescent tube. Let's think about that
 

00:48:43.280 --> 00:48:45.589 align:start position:0%
fluorescent tube. Let's think about that
fluorescent<00:48:43.839><c> light</c><00:48:44.079><c> for</c><00:48:44.319><c> a</c><00:48:44.480><c> moment.</c><00:48:45.359><c> It</c>

00:48:45.589 --> 00:48:45.599 align:start position:0%
fluorescent light for a moment. It
 

00:48:45.599 --> 00:48:47.829 align:start position:0%
fluorescent light for a moment. It
requires<00:48:46.079><c> a</c><00:48:46.319><c> power</c><00:48:46.559><c> source</c><00:48:46.960><c> to</c><00:48:47.359><c> ionize</c><00:48:47.680><c> the</c>

00:48:47.829 --> 00:48:47.839 align:start position:0%
requires a power source to ionize the
 

00:48:47.839 --> 00:48:50.230 align:start position:0%
requires a power source to ionize the
gases<00:48:48.319><c> trapped</c><00:48:48.559><c> inside</c><00:48:49.119><c> in</c><00:48:49.359><c> order</c><00:48:49.599><c> to</c><00:48:49.839><c> emit</c>

00:48:50.230 --> 00:48:50.240 align:start position:0%
gases trapped inside in order to emit
 

00:48:50.240 --> 00:48:53.589 align:start position:0%
gases trapped inside in order to emit
light.<00:48:51.200><c> As</c><00:48:51.440><c> it</c><00:48:51.680><c> happens,</c><00:48:52.480><c> sprites</c><00:48:53.119><c> also</c>

00:48:53.589 --> 00:48:53.599 align:start position:0%
light. As it happens, sprites also
 

00:48:53.599 --> 00:48:55.510 align:start position:0%
light. As it happens, sprites also
require<00:48:54.000><c> an</c><00:48:54.319><c> electrical</c><00:48:54.800><c> discharge</c><00:48:55.280><c> to</c>

00:48:55.510 --> 00:48:55.520 align:start position:0%
require an electrical discharge to
 

00:48:55.520 --> 00:48:58.150 align:start position:0%
require an electrical discharge to
trigger<00:48:55.839><c> their</c><00:48:56.079><c> fluorescent</c><00:48:56.720><c> reaction.</c><00:48:57.920><c> You</c>

00:48:58.150 --> 00:48:58.160 align:start position:0%
trigger their fluorescent reaction. You
 

00:48:58.160 --> 00:49:00.710 align:start position:0%
trigger their fluorescent reaction. You
see,<00:48:58.720><c> inside</c><00:48:59.119><c> a</c><00:48:59.359><c> storm</c><00:48:59.680><c> cloud,</c><00:49:00.240><c> there</c><00:49:00.480><c> is</c>

00:49:00.710 --> 00:49:00.720 align:start position:0%
see, inside a storm cloud, there is
 

00:49:00.720 --> 00:49:03.430 align:start position:0%
see, inside a storm cloud, there is
friction<00:49:01.280><c> between</c><00:49:01.760><c> rising</c><00:49:02.319><c> ice</c><00:49:02.640><c> crystals</c>

00:49:03.430 --> 00:49:03.440 align:start position:0%
friction between rising ice crystals
 

00:49:03.440 --> 00:49:05.990 align:start position:0%
friction between rising ice crystals
which<00:49:03.680><c> become</c><00:49:04.160><c> positively</c><00:49:04.800><c> charged</c><00:49:05.680><c> and</c>

00:49:05.990 --> 00:49:06.000 align:start position:0%
which become positively charged and
 

00:49:06.000 --> 00:49:08.630 align:start position:0%
which become positively charged and
sinking<00:49:06.559><c> soft</c><00:49:06.880><c> hail</c><00:49:07.280><c> particles</c><00:49:08.000><c> which</c><00:49:08.240><c> become</c>

00:49:08.630 --> 00:49:08.640 align:start position:0%
sinking soft hail particles which become
 

00:49:08.640 --> 00:49:11.270 align:start position:0%
sinking soft hail particles which become
negative.<00:49:09.839><c> These</c><00:49:10.240><c> positively</c><00:49:10.880><c> charged</c>

00:49:11.270 --> 00:49:11.280 align:start position:0%
negative. These positively charged
 

00:49:11.280 --> 00:49:14.069 align:start position:0%
negative. These positively charged
crystals<00:49:11.839><c> in</c><00:49:12.079><c> turn</c><00:49:12.559><c> cause</c><00:49:12.880><c> a</c><00:49:13.119><c> negative</c><00:49:13.599><c> shield</c>

00:49:14.069 --> 00:49:14.079 align:start position:0%
crystals in turn cause a negative shield
 

00:49:14.079 --> 00:49:16.790 align:start position:0%
crystals in turn cause a negative shield
layer<00:49:14.240><c> to</c><00:49:14.400><c> form</c><00:49:14.640><c> in</c><00:49:14.800><c> the</c><00:49:14.960><c> air</c><00:49:15.119><c> above</c><00:49:15.440><c> them.</c>

00:49:16.790 --> 00:49:16.800 align:start position:0%
layer to form in the air above them.
 

00:49:16.800 --> 00:49:18.950 align:start position:0%
layer to form in the air above them.
When<00:49:17.119><c> a</c><00:49:17.280><c> positive</c><00:49:17.680><c> discharge</c><00:49:18.240><c> happens</c><00:49:18.559><c> in</c><00:49:18.800><c> the</c>

00:49:18.950 --> 00:49:18.960 align:start position:0%
When a positive discharge happens in the
 

00:49:18.960 --> 00:49:21.030 align:start position:0%
When a positive discharge happens in the
form<00:49:19.119><c> of</c><00:49:19.280><c> a</c><00:49:19.520><c> lightning</c><00:49:19.920><c> strike,</c><00:49:20.559><c> the</c><00:49:20.800><c> cloud</c>

00:49:21.030 --> 00:49:21.040 align:start position:0%
form of a lightning strike, the cloud
 

00:49:21.040 --> 00:49:23.270 align:start position:0%
form of a lightning strike, the cloud
becomes<00:49:21.440><c> neutralized,</c><00:49:22.400><c> but</c><00:49:22.640><c> the</c><00:49:22.880><c> negative</c>

00:49:23.270 --> 00:49:23.280 align:start position:0%
becomes neutralized, but the negative
 

00:49:23.280 --> 00:49:26.549 align:start position:0%
becomes neutralized, but the negative
shield<00:49:23.760><c> layer</c><00:49:24.000><c> remains.</c><00:49:25.359><c> We</c><00:49:25.599><c> now</c><00:49:25.920><c> believe</c><00:49:26.319><c> it</c>

00:49:26.549 --> 00:49:26.559 align:start position:0%
shield layer remains. We now believe it
 

00:49:26.559 --> 00:49:29.030 align:start position:0%
shield layer remains. We now believe it
is<00:49:26.720><c> this</c><00:49:27.040><c> unstable,</c><00:49:28.079><c> negatively</c><00:49:28.720><c> charged</c>

00:49:29.030 --> 00:49:29.040 align:start position:0%
is this unstable, negatively charged
 

00:49:29.040 --> 00:49:31.109 align:start position:0%
is this unstable, negatively charged
shield<00:49:29.520><c> layer</c><00:49:29.760><c> that</c><00:49:30.079><c> causes</c><00:49:30.559><c> electrical</c>

00:49:31.109 --> 00:49:31.119 align:start position:0%
shield layer that causes electrical
 

00:49:31.119 --> 00:49:32.950 align:start position:0%
shield layer that causes electrical
breakdown<00:49:31.520><c> in</c><00:49:31.680><c> the</c><00:49:31.839><c> upper</c><00:49:32.079><c> atmosphere,</c>

00:49:32.950 --> 00:49:32.960 align:start position:0%
breakdown in the upper atmosphere,
 

00:49:32.960 --> 00:49:35.829 align:start position:0%
breakdown in the upper atmosphere,
producing<00:49:33.680><c> sprites.</c>

00:49:35.829 --> 00:49:35.839 align:start position:0%
producing sprites.
 

00:49:35.839 --> 00:49:37.990 align:start position:0%
producing sprites.
It<00:49:36.079><c> is</c><00:49:36.240><c> even</c><00:49:36.559><c> possible</c><00:49:36.960><c> that</c><00:49:37.200><c> sprites</c><00:49:37.680><c> aren't</c>

00:49:37.990 --> 00:49:38.000 align:start position:0%
It is even possible that sprites aren't
 

00:49:38.000 --> 00:49:40.549 align:start position:0%
It is even possible that sprites aren't
especially<00:49:38.480><c> rare.</c><00:49:39.599><c> What</c><00:49:39.920><c> makes</c><00:49:40.240><c> them</c>

00:49:40.549 --> 00:49:40.559 align:start position:0%
especially rare. What makes them
 

00:49:40.559 --> 00:49:42.870 align:start position:0%
especially rare. What makes them
incredibly<00:49:41.280><c> difficult</c><00:49:41.680><c> to</c><00:49:41.920><c> observe</c><00:49:42.480><c> is</c><00:49:42.720><c> that</c>

00:49:42.870 --> 00:49:42.880 align:start position:0%
incredibly difficult to observe is that
 

00:49:42.880 --> 00:49:45.829 align:start position:0%
incredibly difficult to observe is that
they<00:49:43.200><c> occur</c><00:49:43.760><c> high</c><00:49:44.079><c> in</c><00:49:44.319><c> the</c><00:49:44.559><c> ionosphere</c><00:49:45.599><c> where</c>

00:49:45.829 --> 00:49:45.839 align:start position:0%
they occur high in the ionosphere where
 

00:49:45.839 --> 00:49:47.750 align:start position:0%
they occur high in the ionosphere where
they<00:49:46.079><c> are</c><00:49:46.240><c> often</c><00:49:46.640><c> hidden</c><00:49:46.960><c> by</c><00:49:47.119><c> the</c><00:49:47.359><c> storm</c>

00:49:47.750 --> 00:49:47.760 align:start position:0%
they are often hidden by the storm
 

00:49:47.760 --> 00:49:50.710 align:start position:0%
they are often hidden by the storm
systems<00:49:48.079><c> that</c><00:49:48.319><c> produce</c><00:49:48.640><c> them.</c><00:49:49.760><c> So,</c><00:49:50.160><c> to</c><00:49:50.400><c> see</c><00:49:50.559><c> a</c>

00:49:50.710 --> 00:49:50.720 align:start position:0%
systems that produce them. So, to see a
 

00:49:50.720 --> 00:49:53.589 align:start position:0%
systems that produce them. So, to see a
sprite,<00:49:51.440><c> you</c><00:49:51.680><c> need</c><00:49:51.839><c> a</c><00:49:52.160><c> clear</c><00:49:52.480><c> sight</c><00:49:52.800><c> line</c><00:49:53.200><c> over</c>

00:49:53.589 --> 00:49:53.599 align:start position:0%
sprite, you need a clear sight line over
 

00:49:53.599 --> 00:49:55.349 align:start position:0%
sprite, you need a clear sight line over
a<00:49:53.839><c> thunderstorm</c>

00:49:55.349 --> 00:49:55.359 align:start position:0%
a thunderstorm
 

00:49:55.359 --> 00:49:58.470 align:start position:0%
a thunderstorm
or<00:49:55.760><c> perhaps</c><00:49:56.160><c> a</c><00:49:56.400><c> camera</c><00:49:56.800><c> positioned</c><00:49:57.280><c> above</c><00:49:57.520><c> it.</c>

00:49:58.470 --> 00:49:58.480 align:start position:0%
or perhaps a camera positioned above it.
 

00:49:58.480 --> 00:50:00.630 align:start position:0%
or perhaps a camera positioned above it.
As<00:49:58.720><c> you</c><00:49:58.880><c> can</c><00:49:58.960><c> see</c><00:49:59.200><c> here,</c><00:49:59.760><c> the</c><00:50:00.000><c> International</c>

00:50:00.630 --> 00:50:00.640 align:start position:0%
As you can see here, the International
 

00:50:00.640 --> 00:50:02.630 align:start position:0%
As you can see here, the International
Space<00:50:00.960><c> Station</c><00:50:01.359><c> was</c><00:50:01.680><c> lucky</c><00:50:02.000><c> enough</c><00:50:02.240><c> to</c><00:50:02.480><c> get</c>

00:50:02.630 --> 00:50:02.640 align:start position:0%
Space Station was lucky enough to get
 

00:50:02.640 --> 00:50:04.790 align:start position:0%
Space Station was lucky enough to get
one<00:50:02.880><c> in</c><00:50:03.119><c> action.</c>

00:50:04.790 --> 00:50:04.800 align:start position:0%
one in action.
 

00:50:04.800 --> 00:50:07.510 align:start position:0%
one in action.
Sprites<00:50:05.359><c> glow</c><00:50:05.680><c> red</c><00:50:06.160><c> because</c><00:50:06.720><c> under</c><00:50:06.960><c> the</c><00:50:07.200><c> low</c>

00:50:07.510 --> 00:50:07.520 align:start position:0%
Sprites glow red because under the low
 

00:50:07.520 --> 00:50:08.710 align:start position:0%
Sprites glow red because under the low
pressure<00:50:07.920><c> conditions</c><00:50:08.240><c> where</c><00:50:08.480><c> they</c>

00:50:08.710 --> 00:50:08.720 align:start position:0%
pressure conditions where they
 

00:50:08.720 --> 00:50:11.589 align:start position:0%
pressure conditions where they
originate,<00:50:09.599><c> nitrogen</c><00:50:10.160><c> emits</c><00:50:10.720><c> low</c><00:50:11.119><c> frequency</c>

00:50:11.589 --> 00:50:11.599 align:start position:0%
originate, nitrogen emits low frequency
 

00:50:11.599 --> 00:50:13.430 align:start position:0%
originate, nitrogen emits low frequency
red<00:50:11.839><c> light</c><00:50:12.160><c> where</c><00:50:12.400><c> its</c><00:50:12.720><c> molecules</c><00:50:13.200><c> get</c>

00:50:13.430 --> 00:50:13.440 align:start position:0%
red light where its molecules get
 

00:50:13.440 --> 00:50:16.390 align:start position:0%
red light where its molecules get
excited.<00:50:14.559><c> Compare</c><00:50:14.960><c> this</c><00:50:15.119><c> to</c><00:50:15.359><c> auroras,</c><00:50:16.160><c> which</c>

00:50:16.390 --> 00:50:16.400 align:start position:0%
excited. Compare this to auroras, which
 

00:50:16.400 --> 00:50:19.270 align:start position:0%
excited. Compare this to auroras, which
are<00:50:16.559><c> usually</c><00:50:17.040><c> green.</c><00:50:17.920><c> That's</c><00:50:18.319><c> because</c><00:50:18.800><c> at</c><00:50:19.040><c> the</c>

00:50:19.270 --> 00:50:19.280 align:start position:0%
are usually green. That's because at the
 

00:50:19.280 --> 00:50:21.670 align:start position:0%
are usually green. That's because at the
higher<00:50:19.599><c> elevation</c><00:50:20.160><c> where</c><00:50:20.480><c> auroras</c><00:50:21.040><c> occur,</c>

00:50:21.670 --> 00:50:21.680 align:start position:0%
higher elevation where auroras occur,
 

00:50:21.680 --> 00:50:23.750 align:start position:0%
higher elevation where auroras occur,
Earth's<00:50:22.079><c> atmosphere</c><00:50:22.640><c> has</c><00:50:22.960><c> greater</c><00:50:23.359><c> levels</c><00:50:23.599><c> of</c>

00:50:23.750 --> 00:50:23.760 align:start position:0%
Earth's atmosphere has greater levels of
 

00:50:23.760 --> 00:50:26.150 align:start position:0%
Earth's atmosphere has greater levels of
oxygen<00:50:24.400><c> whose</c><00:50:24.720><c> molecules</c><00:50:25.359><c> fluores</c><00:50:25.920><c> green</c>

00:50:26.150 --> 00:50:26.160 align:start position:0%
oxygen whose molecules fluores green
 

00:50:26.160 --> 00:50:28.390 align:start position:0%
oxygen whose molecules fluores green
when<00:50:26.400><c> they</c><00:50:26.559><c> get</c><00:50:26.800><c> excited.</c>

00:50:28.390 --> 00:50:28.400 align:start position:0%
when they get excited.
 

00:50:28.400 --> 00:50:30.710 align:start position:0%
when they get excited.
But<00:50:28.720><c> sprites</c><00:50:29.200><c> don't</c><00:50:29.599><c> always</c><00:50:30.079><c> produce</c><00:50:30.480><c> red</c>

00:50:30.710 --> 00:50:30.720 align:start position:0%
But sprites don't always produce red
 

00:50:30.720 --> 00:50:33.589 align:start position:0%
But sprites don't always produce red
light.<00:50:31.680><c> Sometimes</c><00:50:32.160><c> a</c><00:50:32.319><c> sprite</c><00:50:32.720><c> will</c><00:50:32.880><c> set</c><00:50:33.119><c> off</c><00:50:33.359><c> a</c>

00:50:33.589 --> 00:50:33.599 align:start position:0%
light. Sometimes a sprite will set off a
 

00:50:33.599 --> 00:50:36.309 align:start position:0%
light. Sometimes a sprite will set off a
secondary<00:50:34.079><c> event</c><00:50:34.400><c> at</c><00:50:34.640><c> a</c><00:50:34.800><c> lower</c><00:50:35.040><c> elevation.</c>

00:50:36.309 --> 00:50:36.319 align:start position:0%
secondary event at a lower elevation.
 

00:50:36.319 --> 00:50:39.589 align:start position:0%
secondary event at a lower elevation.
These<00:50:36.640><c> secondary</c><00:50:37.119><c> events</c><00:50:37.760><c> or</c><00:50:38.160><c> tendrils</c><00:50:39.119><c> often</c>

00:50:39.589 --> 00:50:39.599 align:start position:0%
These secondary events or tendrils often
 

00:50:39.599 --> 00:50:42.549 align:start position:0%
These secondary events or tendrils often
appear<00:50:40.000><c> blue.</c><00:50:41.200><c> While</c><00:50:41.440><c> their</c><00:50:41.680><c> light</c><00:50:41.920><c> is</c><00:50:42.160><c> also</c>

00:50:42.549 --> 00:50:42.559 align:start position:0%
appear blue. While their light is also
 

00:50:42.559 --> 00:50:44.549 align:start position:0%
appear blue. While their light is also
produced<00:50:42.880><c> by</c><00:50:43.119><c> nitrogen,</c><00:50:44.000><c> the</c><00:50:44.240><c> higher</c>

00:50:44.549 --> 00:50:44.559 align:start position:0%
produced by nitrogen, the higher
 

00:50:44.559 --> 00:50:46.710 align:start position:0%
produced by nitrogen, the higher
pressure<00:50:44.960><c> causes</c><00:50:45.359><c> them</c><00:50:45.520><c> to</c><00:50:45.680><c> glow</c><00:50:46.000><c> blue</c><00:50:46.480><c> and</c>

00:50:46.710 --> 00:50:46.720 align:start position:0%
pressure causes them to glow blue and
 

00:50:46.720 --> 00:50:49.750 align:start position:0%
pressure causes them to glow blue and
near<00:50:47.119><c> ultraviolet.</c><00:50:48.480><c> As</c><00:50:48.720><c> a</c><00:50:48.880><c> result,</c><00:50:49.440><c> some</c>

00:50:49.750 --> 00:50:49.760 align:start position:0%
near ultraviolet. As a result, some
 

00:50:49.760 --> 00:50:51.990 align:start position:0%
near ultraviolet. As a result, some
larger<00:50:50.160><c> sprites,</c><00:50:50.880><c> like</c><00:50:51.040><c> the</c><00:50:51.200><c> jellyfish</c><00:50:51.760><c> we</c>

00:50:51.990 --> 00:50:52.000 align:start position:0%
larger sprites, like the jellyfish we
 

00:50:52.000 --> 00:50:54.069 align:start position:0%
larger sprites, like the jellyfish we
saw<00:50:52.240><c> earlier,</c><00:50:53.040><c> have</c><00:50:53.200><c> a</c><00:50:53.440><c> remarkable</c>

00:50:54.069 --> 00:50:54.079 align:start position:0%
saw earlier, have a remarkable
 

00:50:54.079 --> 00:50:56.870 align:start position:0%
saw earlier, have a remarkable
appearance,<00:50:55.040><c> glowing</c><00:50:55.520><c> red</c><00:50:55.760><c> at</c><00:50:55.920><c> the</c><00:50:56.160><c> top</c><00:50:56.559><c> and</c>

00:50:56.870 --> 00:50:56.880 align:start position:0%
appearance, glowing red at the top and
 

00:50:56.880 --> 00:51:00.230 align:start position:0%
appearance, glowing red at the top and
blue<00:50:57.280><c> at</c><00:50:57.440><c> the</c><00:50:57.599><c> tentacles.</c>

00:51:00.230 --> 00:51:00.240 align:start position:0%
blue at the tentacles.
 

00:51:00.240 --> 00:51:02.710 align:start position:0%
blue at the tentacles.
Sprite<00:51:00.640><c> tendrils</c><00:51:01.200><c> aren't</c><00:51:01.520><c> the</c><00:51:01.760><c> only</c><00:51:02.079><c> TLE's</c>

00:51:02.710 --> 00:51:02.720 align:start position:0%
Sprite tendrils aren't the only TLE's
 

00:51:02.720 --> 00:51:05.510 align:start position:0%
Sprite tendrils aren't the only TLE's
with<00:51:02.880><c> a</c><00:51:03.040><c> bluish</c><00:51:03.440><c> tint.</c><00:51:04.319><c> This</c><00:51:04.640><c> event</c><00:51:04.960><c> is</c><00:51:05.200><c> known</c>

00:51:05.510 --> 00:51:05.520 align:start position:0%
with a bluish tint. This event is known
 

00:51:05.520 --> 00:51:09.349 align:start position:0%
with a bluish tint. This event is known
as<00:51:05.680><c> a</c><00:51:05.920><c> blue</c><00:51:06.400><c> jet.</c><00:51:07.520><c> Discovered</c><00:51:08.240><c> only</c><00:51:08.559><c> recently,</c>

00:51:09.349 --> 00:51:09.359 align:start position:0%
as a blue jet. Discovered only recently,
 

00:51:09.359 --> 00:51:12.150 align:start position:0%
as a blue jet. Discovered only recently,
blue<00:51:09.680><c> jets</c><00:51:10.079><c> are</c><00:51:10.240><c> a</c><00:51:10.400><c> distinct</c><00:51:10.880><c> phenomenon</c><00:51:11.680><c> also</c>

00:51:12.150 --> 00:51:12.160 align:start position:0%
blue jets are a distinct phenomenon also
 

00:51:12.160 --> 00:51:15.270 align:start position:0%
blue jets are a distinct phenomenon also
initiated<00:51:12.720><c> by</c><00:51:13.040><c> storm</c><00:51:13.440><c> systems.</c><00:51:14.800><c> In</c><00:51:15.040><c> these</c>

00:51:15.270 --> 00:51:15.280 align:start position:0%
initiated by storm systems. In these
 

00:51:15.280 --> 00:51:17.349 align:start position:0%
initiated by storm systems. In these
events,<00:51:15.920><c> the</c><00:51:16.160><c> positive</c><00:51:16.640><c> charge</c><00:51:16.880><c> at</c><00:51:17.119><c> the</c><00:51:17.280><c> top</c>

00:51:17.349 --> 00:51:17.359 align:start position:0%
events, the positive charge at the top
 

00:51:17.359 --> 00:51:19.910 align:start position:0%
events, the positive charge at the top
of<00:51:17.520><c> a</c><00:51:17.680><c> storm</c><00:51:18.000><c> cloud</c><00:51:18.480><c> forms</c><00:51:18.880><c> a</c><00:51:19.119><c> leader</c><00:51:19.520><c> with</c><00:51:19.680><c> a</c>

00:51:19.910 --> 00:51:19.920 align:start position:0%
of a storm cloud forms a leader with a
 

00:51:19.920 --> 00:51:22.390 align:start position:0%
of a storm cloud forms a leader with a
negative<00:51:20.400><c> shield</c><00:51:20.880><c> layer</c><00:51:21.040><c> above</c><00:51:21.280><c> the</c><00:51:21.520><c> cloud,</c>

00:51:22.390 --> 00:51:22.400 align:start position:0%
negative shield layer above the cloud,
 

00:51:22.400 --> 00:51:24.790 align:start position:0%
negative shield layer above the cloud,
producing<00:51:22.880><c> a</c><00:51:23.200><c> discharge</c><00:51:23.839><c> that</c><00:51:24.160><c> propagates</c>

00:51:24.790 --> 00:51:24.800 align:start position:0%
producing a discharge that propagates
 

00:51:24.800 --> 00:51:28.150 align:start position:0%
producing a discharge that propagates
upwards.<00:51:26.240><c> This</c><00:51:26.559><c> excites</c><00:51:26.960><c> the</c><00:51:27.200><c> nitrogen,</c>

00:51:28.150 --> 00:51:28.160 align:start position:0%
upwards. This excites the nitrogen,
 

00:51:28.160 --> 00:51:30.950 align:start position:0%
upwards. This excites the nitrogen,
making<00:51:28.480><c> a</c><00:51:28.800><c> spectacular</c><00:51:29.760><c> cone-shaped</c><00:51:30.559><c> jet</c>

00:51:30.950 --> 00:51:30.960 align:start position:0%
making a spectacular cone-shaped jet
 

00:51:30.960 --> 00:51:34.470 align:start position:0%
making a spectacular cone-shaped jet
that<00:51:31.200><c> glows</c><00:51:31.599><c> blue.</c><00:51:32.720><c> Why</c><00:51:33.040><c> blue?</c><00:51:34.160><c> Well,</c>

00:51:34.470 --> 00:51:34.480 align:start position:0%
that glows blue. Why blue? Well,
 

00:51:34.480 --> 00:51:35.990 align:start position:0%
that glows blue. Why blue? Well,
remember<00:51:34.800><c> what</c><00:51:34.960><c> we</c><00:51:35.200><c> said</c><00:51:35.359><c> about</c><00:51:35.680><c> how</c>

00:51:35.990 --> 00:51:36.000 align:start position:0%
remember what we said about how
 

00:51:36.000 --> 00:51:37.990 align:start position:0%
remember what we said about how
atmospheric<00:51:36.640><c> pressure</c><00:51:37.040><c> affects</c><00:51:37.520><c> excited</c>

00:51:37.990 --> 00:51:38.000 align:start position:0%
atmospheric pressure affects excited
 

00:51:38.000 --> 00:51:41.109 align:start position:0%
atmospheric pressure affects excited
nitrogen<00:51:38.480><c> gases.</c><00:51:39.599><c> Blue</c><00:51:39.920><c> jets</c><00:51:40.240><c> occur</c><00:51:40.720><c> much</c>

00:51:41.109 --> 00:51:41.119 align:start position:0%
nitrogen gases. Blue jets occur much
 

00:51:41.119 --> 00:51:43.190 align:start position:0%
nitrogen gases. Blue jets occur much
lower<00:51:41.440><c> in</c><00:51:41.599><c> the</c><00:51:41.760><c> atmosphere</c><00:51:42.240><c> than</c><00:51:42.480><c> sprites,</c>

00:51:43.190 --> 00:51:43.200 align:start position:0%
lower in the atmosphere than sprites,
 

00:51:43.200 --> 00:51:44.870 align:start position:0%
lower in the atmosphere than sprites,
which<00:51:43.359><c> is</c><00:51:43.520><c> why</c><00:51:43.680><c> they</c><00:51:43.920><c> flues</c><00:51:44.480><c> a</c><00:51:44.720><c> different</c>

00:51:44.870 --> 00:51:44.880 align:start position:0%
which is why they flues a different
 

00:51:44.880 --> 00:51:48.150 align:start position:0%
which is why they flues a different
color.<00:51:46.079><c> There</c><00:51:46.319><c> are</c><00:51:46.559><c> also</c><00:51:46.960><c> smaller</c><00:51:47.440><c> TLEs</c>

00:51:48.150 --> 00:51:48.160 align:start position:0%
color. There are also smaller TLEs
 

00:51:48.160 --> 00:51:50.549 align:start position:0%
color. There are also smaller TLEs
called<00:51:48.480><c> blue</c><00:51:48.800><c> starters,</c><00:51:49.760><c> but</c><00:51:50.079><c> scientists</c>

00:51:50.549 --> 00:51:50.559 align:start position:0%
called blue starters, but scientists
 

00:51:50.559 --> 00:51:52.549 align:start position:0%
called blue starters, but scientists
believe<00:51:50.880><c> they</c><00:51:51.119><c> are</c><00:51:51.280><c> simply</c><00:51:51.839><c> failed</c><00:51:52.240><c> blue</c>

00:51:52.549 --> 00:51:52.559 align:start position:0%
believe they are simply failed blue
 

00:51:52.559 --> 00:51:54.069 align:start position:0%
believe they are simply failed blue
jets.

00:51:54.069 --> 00:51:54.079 align:start position:0%
jets.
 

00:51:54.079 --> 00:51:56.549 align:start position:0%
jets.
These<00:51:54.480><c> dimminitive</c><00:51:55.119><c> cousins</c><00:51:55.680><c> only</c><00:51:55.920><c> reach</c><00:51:56.240><c> 20</c>

00:51:56.549 --> 00:51:56.559 align:start position:0%
These dimminitive cousins only reach 20
 

00:51:56.559 --> 00:51:58.710 align:start position:0%
These dimminitive cousins only reach 20
km<00:51:56.960><c> above</c><00:51:57.280><c> the</c><00:51:57.440><c> Earth.</c>

00:51:58.710 --> 00:51:58.720 align:start position:0%
km above the Earth.
 

00:51:58.720 --> 00:52:00.710 align:start position:0%
km above the Earth.
At<00:51:59.040><c> the</c><00:51:59.200><c> other</c><00:51:59.359><c> end</c><00:51:59.520><c> of</c><00:51:59.680><c> the</c><00:51:59.839><c> family</c><00:52:00.240><c> is</c><00:52:00.480><c> a</c>

00:52:00.710 --> 00:52:00.720 align:start position:0%
At the other end of the family is a
 

00:52:00.720 --> 00:52:02.390 align:start position:0%
At the other end of the family is a
separate<00:52:01.119><c> phenomenon</c><00:52:01.680><c> known</c><00:52:02.000><c> as</c><00:52:02.160><c> the</c>

00:52:02.390 --> 00:52:02.400 align:start position:0%
separate phenomenon known as the
 

00:52:02.400 --> 00:52:05.430 align:start position:0%
separate phenomenon known as the
gigantic<00:52:03.119><c> jet</c><00:52:03.760><c> and</c><00:52:04.000><c> it</c><00:52:04.240><c> occurs</c><00:52:04.720><c> much</c><00:52:05.040><c> higher</c>

00:52:05.430 --> 00:52:05.440 align:start position:0%
gigantic jet and it occurs much higher
 

00:52:05.440 --> 00:52:07.510 align:start position:0%
gigantic jet and it occurs much higher
in<00:52:05.599><c> the</c><00:52:05.680><c> atmosphere</c><00:52:06.559><c> which</c><00:52:06.720><c> is</c><00:52:06.880><c> why</c><00:52:07.040><c> the</c><00:52:07.200><c> upper</c>

00:52:07.510 --> 00:52:07.520 align:start position:0%
in the atmosphere which is why the upper
 

00:52:07.520 --> 00:52:10.870 align:start position:0%
in the atmosphere which is why the upper
portion<00:52:07.920><c> changes</c><00:52:08.319><c> color</c><00:52:08.559><c> from</c><00:52:08.800><c> blue</c><00:52:09.119><c> to</c><00:52:09.359><c> red.</c>

00:52:10.870 --> 00:52:10.880 align:start position:0%
portion changes color from blue to red.
 

00:52:10.880 --> 00:52:13.109 align:start position:0%
portion changes color from blue to red.
We'll<00:52:11.200><c> leave</c><00:52:11.440><c> today</c><00:52:11.760><c> with</c><00:52:12.000><c> one</c><00:52:12.240><c> of</c><00:52:12.319><c> the</c><00:52:12.480><c> rarest</c>

00:52:13.109 --> 00:52:13.119 align:start position:0%
We'll leave today with one of the rarest
 

00:52:13.119 --> 00:52:17.190 align:start position:0%
We'll leave today with one of the rarest
and<00:52:13.440><c> least</c><00:52:13.920><c> understood</c><00:52:14.480><c> tle.</c><00:52:15.920><c> These</c><00:52:16.480><c> green</c><00:52:16.880><c> or</c>

00:52:17.190 --> 00:52:17.200 align:start position:0%
and least understood tle. These green or
 

00:52:17.200 --> 00:52:20.470 align:start position:0%
and least understood tle. These green or
red<00:52:17.520><c> phenomena</c><00:52:18.240><c> are</c><00:52:18.480><c> known</c><00:52:18.800><c> as</c><00:52:19.119><c> elves.</c><00:52:20.240><c> A</c>

00:52:20.470 --> 00:52:20.480 align:start position:0%
red phenomena are known as elves. A
 

00:52:20.480 --> 00:52:22.470 align:start position:0%
red phenomena are known as elves. A
quaint<00:52:20.800><c> acronym</c><00:52:21.359><c> that</c><00:52:21.680><c> stands</c><00:52:22.000><c> for</c><00:52:22.240><c> a</c>

00:52:22.470 --> 00:52:22.480 align:start position:0%
quaint acronym that stands for a
 

00:52:22.480 --> 00:52:25.589 align:start position:0%
quaint acronym that stands for a
mouthful.<00:52:23.520><c> Its</c><00:52:23.839><c> full</c><00:52:24.160><c> name</c><00:52:24.400><c> is</c><00:52:24.800><c> emission</c><00:52:25.359><c> of</c>

00:52:25.589 --> 00:52:25.599 align:start position:0%
mouthful. Its full name is emission of
 

00:52:25.599 --> 00:52:27.430 align:start position:0%
mouthful. Its full name is emission of
light<00:52:25.920><c> and</c><00:52:26.240><c> very</c><00:52:26.559><c> low</c><00:52:26.880><c> frequency</c>

00:52:27.430 --> 00:52:27.440 align:start position:0%
light and very low frequency
 

00:52:27.440 --> 00:52:29.829 align:start position:0%
light and very low frequency
perturbations<00:52:28.400><c> due</c><00:52:28.640><c> to</c><00:52:28.880><c> electromagnetic</c>

00:52:29.829 --> 00:52:29.839 align:start position:0%
perturbations due to electromagnetic
 

00:52:29.839 --> 00:52:32.549 align:start position:0%
perturbations due to electromagnetic
pulse<00:52:30.160><c> sources.</c><00:52:31.359><c> Try</c><00:52:31.680><c> saying</c><00:52:32.000><c> that</c><00:52:32.319><c> five</c>

00:52:32.549 --> 00:52:32.559 align:start position:0%
pulse sources. Try saying that five
 

00:52:32.559 --> 00:52:36.069 align:start position:0%
pulse sources. Try saying that five
times<00:52:32.880><c> fast.</c><00:52:34.160><c> Unlike</c><00:52:34.720><c> sprites</c><00:52:35.200><c> and</c><00:52:35.440><c> jets,</c>

00:52:36.069 --> 00:52:36.079 align:start position:0%
times fast. Unlike sprites and jets,
 

00:52:36.079 --> 00:52:39.270 align:start position:0%
times fast. Unlike sprites and jets,
elves<00:52:36.640><c> are</c><00:52:36.960><c> diffuse</c><00:52:38.000><c> ring-shaped</c><00:52:38.720><c> phenomena</c>

00:52:39.270 --> 00:52:39.280 align:start position:0%
elves are diffuse ring-shaped phenomena
 

00:52:39.280 --> 00:52:40.950 align:start position:0%
elves are diffuse ring-shaped phenomena
that<00:52:39.599><c> occur</c><00:52:39.920><c> even</c><00:52:40.240><c> higher</c><00:52:40.559><c> in</c><00:52:40.800><c> the</c>

00:52:40.950 --> 00:52:40.960 align:start position:0%
that occur even higher in the
 

00:52:40.960 --> 00:52:43.829 align:start position:0%
that occur even higher in the
atmosphere.<00:52:42.319><c> And</c><00:52:42.640><c> unlike</c><00:52:43.119><c> what</c><00:52:43.359><c> the</c><00:52:43.520><c> name</c>

00:52:43.829 --> 00:52:43.839 align:start position:0%
atmosphere. And unlike what the name
 

00:52:43.839 --> 00:52:47.510 align:start position:0%
atmosphere. And unlike what the name
suggests,<00:52:44.800><c> they</c><00:52:45.040><c> are</c><00:52:45.359><c> huge.</c><00:52:46.480><c> Elves</c><00:52:46.960><c> can</c><00:52:47.119><c> grow</c>

00:52:47.510 --> 00:52:47.520 align:start position:0%
suggests, they are huge. Elves can grow
 

00:52:47.520 --> 00:52:51.270 align:start position:0%
suggests, they are huge. Elves can grow
up<00:52:47.760><c> to</c><00:52:48.079><c> 400</c><00:52:48.720><c> km</c><00:52:49.200><c> in</c><00:52:49.440><c> diameter</c><00:52:50.000><c> and</c><00:52:50.240><c> occur</c><00:52:50.880><c> 100</c>

00:52:51.270 --> 00:52:51.280 align:start position:0%
up to 400 km in diameter and occur 100
 

00:52:51.280 --> 00:52:53.750 align:start position:0%
up to 400 km in diameter and occur 100
km<00:52:51.760><c> above</c><00:52:52.079><c> the</c><00:52:52.240><c> Earth.</c>

00:52:53.750 --> 00:52:53.760 align:start position:0%
km above the Earth.
 

00:52:53.760 --> 00:52:55.910 align:start position:0%
km above the Earth.
But<00:52:54.000><c> despite</c><00:52:54.400><c> their</c><00:52:54.720><c> size,</c><00:52:55.280><c> they</c><00:52:55.599><c> are</c>

00:52:55.910 --> 00:52:55.920 align:start position:0%
But despite their size, they are
 

00:52:55.920 --> 00:52:58.470 align:start position:0%
But despite their size, they are
extremely<00:52:56.559><c> short-lived</c><00:52:57.200><c> events.</c><00:52:58.000><c> They</c><00:52:58.240><c> only</c>

00:52:58.470 --> 00:52:58.480 align:start position:0%
extremely short-lived events. They only
 

00:52:58.480 --> 00:53:01.349 align:start position:0%
extremely short-lived events. They only
last<00:52:58.800><c> a</c><00:52:58.960><c> millisecond,</c><00:53:00.160><c> so</c><00:53:00.480><c> brief</c><00:53:00.800><c> that</c><00:53:01.040><c> they</c>

00:53:01.349 --> 00:53:01.359 align:start position:0%
last a millisecond, so brief that they
 

00:53:01.359 --> 00:53:03.910 align:start position:0%
last a millisecond, so brief that they
can't<00:53:01.599><c> be</c><00:53:01.760><c> seen</c><00:53:02.000><c> by</c><00:53:02.160><c> the</c><00:53:02.319><c> naked</c><00:53:02.640><c> eye.</c><00:53:03.680><c> While</c>

00:53:03.910 --> 00:53:03.920 align:start position:0%
can't be seen by the naked eye. While
 

00:53:03.920 --> 00:53:06.150 align:start position:0%
can't be seen by the naked eye. While
little<00:53:04.240><c> is</c><00:53:04.400><c> known</c><00:53:04.720><c> about</c><00:53:04.960><c> elves,</c><00:53:05.680><c> we</c><00:53:05.920><c> believe</c>

00:53:06.150 --> 00:53:06.160 align:start position:0%
little is known about elves, we believe
 

00:53:06.160 --> 00:53:08.069 align:start position:0%
little is known about elves, we believe
they<00:53:06.400><c> are</c><00:53:06.559><c> caused</c><00:53:06.800><c> by</c><00:53:06.960><c> an</c><00:53:07.200><c> electromagnetic</c>

00:53:08.069 --> 00:53:08.079 align:start position:0%
they are caused by an electromagnetic
 

00:53:08.079 --> 00:53:10.069 align:start position:0%
they are caused by an electromagnetic
pulse<00:53:08.480><c> produced</c><00:53:08.880><c> by</c><00:53:09.040><c> the</c><00:53:09.200><c> discharge</c><00:53:09.680><c> of</c><00:53:09.839><c> an</c>

00:53:10.069 --> 00:53:10.079 align:start position:0%
pulse produced by the discharge of an
 

00:53:10.079 --> 00:53:12.549 align:start position:0%
pulse produced by the discharge of an
underlying<00:53:10.559><c> thunderstorm.</c>

00:53:12.549 --> 00:53:12.559 align:start position:0%
underlying thunderstorm.
 

00:53:12.559 --> 00:53:15.430 align:start position:0%
underlying thunderstorm.
So,<00:53:13.119><c> there</c><00:53:13.359><c> we</c><00:53:13.520><c> have</c><00:53:13.680><c> it.</c><00:53:14.319><c> An</c><00:53:14.559><c> introduction</c><00:53:15.119><c> to</c>

00:53:15.430 --> 00:53:15.440 align:start position:0%
So, there we have it. An introduction to
 

00:53:15.440 --> 00:53:17.750 align:start position:0%
So, there we have it. An introduction to
some<00:53:15.680><c> of</c><00:53:15.839><c> the</c><00:53:16.000><c> most</c><00:53:16.319><c> spectacular</c><00:53:17.200><c> transient</c>

00:53:17.750 --> 00:53:17.760 align:start position:0%
some of the most spectacular transient
 

00:53:17.760 --> 00:53:19.670 align:start position:0%
some of the most spectacular transient
luminous<00:53:18.319><c> events</c><00:53:18.640><c> that</c><00:53:18.880><c> have</c><00:53:19.119><c> been</c><00:53:19.280><c> confirmed</c>

00:53:19.670 --> 00:53:19.680 align:start position:0%
luminous events that have been confirmed
 

00:53:19.680 --> 00:53:22.630 align:start position:0%
luminous events that have been confirmed
in<00:53:19.920><c> recent</c><00:53:20.240><c> years.</c><00:53:21.520><c> What</c><00:53:21.760><c> other</c><00:53:22.079><c> luminous</c>

00:53:22.630 --> 00:53:22.640 align:start position:0%
in recent years. What other luminous
 

00:53:22.640 --> 00:53:24.630 align:start position:0%
in recent years. What other luminous
phenomena<00:53:23.200><c> may</c><00:53:23.440><c> be</c><00:53:23.599><c> lurking</c><00:53:23.920><c> in</c><00:53:24.160><c> the</c><00:53:24.319><c> Earth's</c>

00:53:24.630 --> 00:53:24.640 align:start position:0%
phenomena may be lurking in the Earth's
 

00:53:24.640 --> 00:53:27.030 align:start position:0%
phenomena may be lurking in the Earth's
atmosphere?<00:53:25.599><c> It's</c><00:53:25.920><c> tantalizing</c><00:53:26.640><c> to</c><00:53:26.800><c> think</c>

00:53:27.030 --> 00:53:27.040 align:start position:0%
atmosphere? It's tantalizing to think
 

00:53:27.040 --> 00:53:29.430 align:start position:0%
atmosphere? It's tantalizing to think
about.<00:53:27.920><c> And</c><00:53:28.079><c> because</c><00:53:28.400><c> this</c><00:53:28.720><c> is</c><00:53:28.960><c> still</c><00:53:29.200><c> a</c>

00:53:29.430 --> 00:53:29.440 align:start position:0%
about. And because this is still a
 

00:53:29.440 --> 00:53:31.589 align:start position:0%
about. And because this is still a
fairly<00:53:29.760><c> new</c><00:53:30.000><c> field</c><00:53:30.319><c> of</c><00:53:30.480><c> research,</c><00:53:31.280><c> we</c><00:53:31.520><c> can</c>

00:53:31.589 --> 00:53:31.599 align:start position:0%
fairly new field of research, we can
 

00:53:31.599 --> 00:53:33.750 align:start position:0%
fairly new field of research, we can
only<00:53:31.839><c> imagine</c><00:53:32.319><c> what</c><00:53:32.559><c> new</c><00:53:32.800><c> surprises</c><00:53:33.359><c> may</c><00:53:33.599><c> be</c>

00:53:33.750 --> 00:53:33.760 align:start position:0%
only imagine what new surprises may be
 

00:53:33.760 --> 00:53:35.910 align:start position:0%
only imagine what new surprises may be
in<00:53:34.000><c> store</c><00:53:34.160><c> for</c><00:53:34.400><c> us.</c>

00:53:35.910 --> 00:53:35.920 align:start position:0%
in store for us.
 

00:53:35.920 --> 00:53:38.150 align:start position:0%
in store for us.
Want<00:53:36.160><c> more</c><00:53:36.400><c> videos</c><00:53:36.800><c> about</c><00:53:37.040><c> weird</c><00:53:37.440><c> atmospheric</c>

00:53:38.150 --> 00:53:38.160 align:start position:0%
Want more videos about weird atmospheric
 

00:53:38.160 --> 00:53:40.549 align:start position:0%
Want more videos about weird atmospheric
phenomena<00:53:38.720><c> on</c><00:53:38.880><c> Earth?</c><00:53:39.599><c> Let</c><00:53:39.839><c> me</c><00:53:40.000><c> know</c><00:53:40.160><c> in</c><00:53:40.400><c> the</c>

00:53:40.549 --> 00:53:40.559 align:start position:0%
phenomena on Earth? Let me know in the
 

00:53:40.559 --> 00:53:46.950 align:start position:0%
phenomena on Earth? Let me know in the
comments.

00:53:46.950 --> 00:53:46.960 align:start position:0%
 
 

00:53:46.960 --> 00:53:49.190 align:start position:0%
 
I'm<00:53:47.280><c> happy</c><00:53:47.520><c> to</c><00:53:47.680><c> announce</c><00:53:48.000><c> we</c><00:53:48.319><c> have</c><00:53:48.480><c> a</c><00:53:48.720><c> weekly</c>

00:53:49.190 --> 00:53:49.200 align:start position:0%
I'm happy to announce we have a weekly
 

00:53:49.200 --> 00:53:51.190 align:start position:0%
I'm happy to announce we have a weekly
newsletter<00:53:49.760><c> to</c><00:53:50.000><c> keep</c><00:53:50.240><c> up</c><00:53:50.400><c> with</c><00:53:50.720><c> all</c><00:53:50.960><c> the</c>

00:53:51.190 --> 00:53:51.200 align:start position:0%
newsletter to keep up with all the
 

00:53:51.200 --> 00:53:53.349 align:start position:0%
newsletter to keep up with all the
discoveries<00:53:51.680><c> in</c><00:53:51.920><c> our</c><00:53:52.079><c> cosmos.</c><00:53:52.960><c> And</c><00:53:53.119><c> our</c>

00:53:53.349 --> 00:53:53.359 align:start position:0%
discoveries in our cosmos. And our
 

00:53:53.359 --> 00:53:55.270 align:start position:0%
discoveries in our cosmos. And our
designer,<00:53:53.760><c> Peter,</c><00:53:54.480><c> has</c><00:53:54.720><c> made</c><00:53:54.880><c> the</c><00:53:55.119><c> most</c>

00:53:55.270 --> 00:53:55.280 align:start position:0%
designer, Peter, has made the most
 

00:53:55.280 --> 00:53:57.510 align:start position:0%
designer, Peter, has made the most
beautiful<00:53:55.680><c> email</c><00:53:56.079><c> you'll</c><00:53:56.400><c> ever</c><00:53:56.640><c> receive.</c>

00:53:57.510 --> 00:53:57.520 align:start position:0%
beautiful email you'll ever receive.
 

00:53:57.520 --> 00:53:59.990 align:start position:0%
beautiful email you'll ever receive.
Sign<00:53:57.839><c> up</c><00:53:58.079><c> with</c><00:53:58.240><c> the</c><00:53:58.480><c> link</c><00:53:58.720><c> down</c><00:53:58.960><c> below.</c><00:53:59.760><c> It's</c>

00:53:59.990 --> 00:54:00.000 align:start position:0%
Sign up with the link down below. It's
 

00:54:00.000 --> 00:54:01.750 align:start position:0%
Sign up with the link down below. It's
the<00:54:00.160><c> best</c><00:54:00.319><c> way</c><00:54:00.480><c> to</c><00:54:00.720><c> stay</c><00:54:00.960><c> connected</c><00:54:01.359><c> between</c>

00:54:01.750 --> 00:54:01.760 align:start position:0%
the best way to stay connected between
 

00:54:01.760 --> 00:54:04.790 align:start position:0%
the best way to stay connected between
videos.<00:54:02.720><c> Short,</c><00:54:03.280><c> focused</c><00:54:03.760><c> updates</c><00:54:04.160><c> on</c><00:54:04.480><c> what's</c>

00:54:04.790 --> 00:54:04.800 align:start position:0%
videos. Short, focused updates on what's
 

00:54:04.800 --> 00:54:07.349 align:start position:0%
videos. Short, focused updates on what's
new<00:54:05.040><c> and</c><00:54:05.359><c> fascinating</c><00:54:05.920><c> in</c><00:54:06.160><c> space</c><00:54:06.480><c> each</c><00:54:06.720><c> week.</c>

00:54:07.349 --> 00:54:07.359 align:start position:0%
new and fascinating in space each week.
 

00:54:07.359 --> 00:54:10.630 align:start position:0%
new and fascinating in space each week.
No<00:54:07.680><c> spam,</c><00:54:08.319><c> no</c><00:54:08.559><c> filler,</c><00:54:09.280><c> just</c><00:54:09.520><c> the</c><00:54:09.680><c> good</c><00:54:09.920><c> stuff.</c>

00:54:10.630 --> 00:54:10.640 align:start position:0%
No spam, no filler, just the good stuff.
 

00:54:10.640 --> 00:54:13.109 align:start position:0%
No spam, no filler, just the good stuff.
You'll<00:54:10.960><c> get</c><00:54:11.040><c> the</c><00:54:11.280><c> latest</c><00:54:11.520><c> news,</c><00:54:12.160><c> visuals,</c><00:54:12.880><c> and</c>

00:54:13.109 --> 00:54:13.119 align:start position:0%
You'll get the latest news, visuals, and
 

00:54:13.119 --> 00:54:15.030 align:start position:0%
You'll get the latest news, visuals, and
insights<00:54:13.680><c> delivered</c><00:54:14.079><c> straight</c><00:54:14.480><c> into</c><00:54:14.800><c> your</c>

00:54:15.030 --> 00:54:15.040 align:start position:0%
insights delivered straight into your
 

00:54:15.040 --> 00:54:17.670 align:start position:0%
insights delivered straight into your
inbox.<00:54:16.000><c> If</c><00:54:16.240><c> you</c><00:54:16.319><c> enjoy</c><00:54:16.640><c> Astramm</c><00:54:17.200><c> videos,</c>

00:54:17.670 --> 00:54:17.680 align:start position:0%
inbox. If you enjoy Astramm videos,
 

00:54:17.680 --> 00:54:19.990 align:start position:0%
inbox. If you enjoy Astramm videos,
you'll<00:54:18.079><c> love</c><00:54:18.319><c> this.</c><00:54:18.960><c> Join</c><00:54:19.200><c> the</c><00:54:19.359><c> newsletter</c>

00:54:19.990 --> 00:54:20.000 align:start position:0%
you'll love this. Join the newsletter
 

00:54:20.000 --> 00:54:24.000 align:start position:0%
you'll love this. Join the newsletter
and<00:54:20.319><c> stay</c><00:54:20.559><c> curious</c><00:54:20.960><c> with</c><00:54:21.200><c> us.</c>