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Our<00:00:00.800><c> sun</c><00:00:01.360><c> is</c><00:00:01.600><c> a</c><00:00:02.000><c> colossal</c><00:00:02.720><c> ball</c><00:00:03.280><c> of</c><00:00:03.679><c> hydrogen</c>

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Our sun is a colossal ball of hydrogen
 

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Our sun is a colossal ball of hydrogen
and<00:00:04.640><c> helium,</c><00:00:05.759><c> 330,000</c>

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and helium, 330,000
 

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and helium, 330,000
times<00:00:08.000><c> the</c><00:00:08.240><c> mass</c><00:00:08.480><c> of</c><00:00:08.639><c> Earth.</c><00:00:09.679><c> But</c><00:00:09.840><c> the</c><00:00:10.080><c> sun</c>

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times the mass of Earth. But the sun
 

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times the mass of Earth. But the sun
doesn't<00:00:10.559><c> just</c><00:00:10.800><c> form</c><00:00:11.120><c> the</c><00:00:11.360><c> center</c><00:00:11.599><c> of</c><00:00:11.759><c> our</c>

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doesn't just form the center of our
 

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doesn't just form the center of our
solar<00:00:12.320><c> system.</c><00:00:13.440><c> Every</c><00:00:14.000><c> second,</c><00:00:14.960><c> thanks</c><00:00:15.280><c> to</c>

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solar system. Every second, thanks to
 

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solar system. Every second, thanks to
the<00:00:15.599><c> nuclear</c><00:00:16.080><c> fusion</c><00:00:16.480><c> reactions</c><00:00:17.119><c> in</c><00:00:17.359><c> its</c>

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the nuclear fusion reactions in its
 

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the nuclear fusion reactions in its
core,<00:00:18.400><c> it</c><00:00:18.640><c> generates</c><00:00:19.119><c> a</c><00:00:19.439><c> gargantuan</c><00:00:20.720><c> 386</c>

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core, it generates a gargantuan 386
 

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core, it generates a gargantuan 386
trillion<00:00:23.439><c> trillion</c><00:00:24.160><c> jewels</c><00:00:24.640><c> of</c><00:00:24.880><c> energy,</c>

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trillion trillion jewels of energy,
 

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trillion trillion jewels of energy,
175<00:00:27.519><c> quadrillion</c><00:00:28.320><c> of</c><00:00:28.640><c> which</c><00:00:29.279><c> reaches</c><00:00:29.679><c> the</c>

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175 quadrillion of which reaches the
 

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175 quadrillion of which reaches the
earth<00:00:30.320><c> in</c><00:00:30.560><c> the</c><00:00:30.720><c> form</c><00:00:31.119><c> of</c><00:00:31.519><c> sunlight.</c><00:00:32.640><c> And</c><00:00:32.880><c> it's</c>

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earth in the form of sunlight. And it's
 

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earth in the form of sunlight. And it's
this<00:00:33.520><c> radiation</c><00:00:34.079><c> that</c><00:00:34.480><c> provides</c><00:00:35.040><c> pretty</c><00:00:35.360><c> much</c>

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this radiation that provides pretty much
 

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this radiation that provides pretty much
all<00:00:36.000><c> the</c><00:00:36.239><c> energy</c><00:00:36.800><c> we</c><00:00:37.200><c> use</c><00:00:37.520><c> as</c><00:00:37.840><c> humans</c><00:00:38.160><c> on</c>

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all the energy we use as humans on
 

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all the energy we use as humans on
Earth.<00:00:39.440><c> It</c><00:00:39.920><c> underpins</c><00:00:40.640><c> food</c><00:00:40.960><c> chains,</c><00:00:41.760><c> drives</c>

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Earth. It underpins food chains, drives
 

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Earth. It underpins food chains, drives
the<00:00:42.320><c> weather</c><00:00:42.640><c> systems</c><00:00:43.040><c> we</c><00:00:43.280><c> use</c><00:00:43.520><c> for</c>

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the weather systems we use for
 

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the weather systems we use for
renewables,<00:00:44.480><c> and</c><00:00:44.719><c> of</c><00:00:44.960><c> course,</c><00:00:45.520><c> it's</c><00:00:45.840><c> sunlight</c>

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renewables, and of course, it's sunlight
 

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renewables, and of course, it's sunlight
captured<00:00:46.879><c> by</c><00:00:47.280><c> ancient</c><00:00:47.680><c> plants</c><00:00:48.399><c> long</c><00:00:48.719><c> buried</c>

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captured by ancient plants long buried
 

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captured by ancient plants long buried
in<00:00:49.280><c> the</c><00:00:49.360><c> Earth's</c><00:00:49.760><c> crust</c><00:00:50.320><c> that</c><00:00:50.559><c> we're</c><00:00:50.879><c> still</c>

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in the Earth's crust that we're still
 

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in the Earth's crust that we're still
utilizing<00:00:52.000><c> when</c><00:00:52.320><c> we</c><00:00:52.559><c> burn</c><00:00:52.879><c> fossil</c><00:00:53.360><c> fuels.</c><00:00:54.800><c> But</c>

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utilizing when we burn fossil fuels. But
 

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utilizing when we burn fossil fuels. But
what<00:00:55.680><c> if</c><00:00:56.079><c> there</c><00:00:56.320><c> was</c><00:00:56.640><c> a</c><00:00:56.960><c> different</c><00:00:57.360><c> way</c><00:00:57.600><c> to</c>

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what if there was a different way to
 

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what if there was a different way to
power<00:00:58.399><c> our</c><00:00:58.800><c> modern</c><00:00:59.440><c> industrialized</c><00:01:00.320><c> society?</c>

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power our modern industrialized society?
 

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power our modern industrialized society?
What<00:01:01.840><c> if</c><00:01:02.480><c> instead</c><00:01:02.879><c> of</c><00:01:03.199><c> relying</c><00:01:03.600><c> on</c><00:01:03.840><c> photons</c>

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What if instead of relying on photons
 

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What if instead of relying on photons
that<00:01:04.640><c> have</c><00:01:04.960><c> made</c><00:01:05.199><c> their</c><00:01:05.439><c> way</c><00:01:05.680><c> through</c><00:01:06.799><c> 150</c>

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that have made their way through 150
 

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that have made their way through 150
million<00:01:07.680><c> km</c><00:01:08.159><c> of</c><00:01:08.400><c> space,</c><00:01:09.280><c> we</c><00:01:09.920><c> could</c><00:01:10.240><c> create</c><00:01:10.560><c> the</c>

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million km of space, we could create the
 

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million km of space, we could create the
nuclear<00:01:11.280><c> fusion</c><00:01:11.395><c> [music]</c><00:01:11.680><c> reactions</c><00:01:12.159><c> that</c>

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nuclear fusion [music] reactions that
 

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nuclear fusion [music] reactions that
keep<00:01:12.799><c> our</c><00:01:13.040><c> sun</c><00:01:13.360><c> burning</c><00:01:14.159><c> to</c><00:01:14.400><c> grant</c><00:01:14.720><c> us</c><00:01:14.960><c> an</c>

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keep our sun burning to grant us an
 

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keep our sun burning to grant us an
unending<00:01:16.320><c> source</c><00:01:16.720><c> of</c><00:01:17.040><c> clean</c><00:01:17.920><c> and</c><00:01:18.640><c> efficient</c>

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unending source of clean and efficient
 

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unending source of clean and efficient
power?<00:01:20.560><c> What</c><00:01:20.799><c> if</c><00:01:21.520><c> we</c><00:01:22.000><c> could</c><00:01:22.320><c> make</c><00:01:22.640><c> a</c><00:01:23.040><c> star</c><00:01:23.759><c> on</c>

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power? What if we could make a star on
 

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power? What if we could make a star on
Earth?

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Earth?
 

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Earth?
I'm<00:01:26.720><c> Alex</c><00:01:27.040><c> Mccoan</c><00:01:27.759><c> and</c><00:01:28.000><c> you're</c><00:01:28.240><c> watching</c>

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I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
 

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I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
Astramm.<00:01:29.439><c> Join</c><00:01:29.680><c> me</c><00:01:29.840><c> today</c><00:01:30.159><c> as</c><00:01:30.400><c> we</c><00:01:30.560><c> delve</c><00:01:31.040><c> into</c>

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Astramm. Join me today as we delve into
 

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Astramm. Join me today as we delve into
the<00:01:31.680><c> heart</c><00:01:32.000><c> of</c><00:01:32.240><c> our</c><00:01:32.560><c> star</c><00:01:33.360><c> and</c><00:01:33.680><c> find</c><00:01:33.840><c> out</c>

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the heart of our star and find out
 

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the heart of our star and find out
[music]<00:01:34.400><c> if</c><00:01:34.720><c> we</c><00:01:35.040><c> truly</c><00:01:35.759><c> ever</c><00:01:36.159><c> could</c><00:01:36.479><c> unleash</c>

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[music] if we truly ever could unleash
 

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[music] if we truly ever could unleash
its<00:01:37.280><c> power</c><00:01:37.920><c> on</c><00:01:38.240><c> our</c><00:01:38.560><c> planet.</c>

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Humanity,<00:01:42.560><c> it</c><00:01:42.799><c> seems,</c><00:01:43.439><c> has</c><00:01:43.680><c> a</c><00:01:43.920><c> power</c><00:01:44.320><c> problem.</c>

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Humanity, it seems, has a power problem.
 

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Humanity, it seems, has a power problem.
Even<00:01:46.000><c> as</c><00:01:46.320><c> we</c><00:01:46.640><c> burn</c><00:01:46.960><c> through</c><00:01:47.360><c> our</c><00:01:47.840><c> dwindling</c>

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Even as we burn through our dwindling
 

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Even as we burn through our dwindling
fossil<00:01:48.960><c> fuel</c><00:01:49.280><c> reserves</c><00:01:50.079><c> and</c><00:01:50.640><c> climate</c><00:01:51.119><c> chaos</c>

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fossil fuel reserves and climate chaos
 

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fossil fuel reserves and climate chaos
intensifies<00:01:52.479><c> all</c><00:01:52.720><c> around</c><00:01:53.040><c> us,</c><00:01:53.920><c> every</c><00:01:54.320><c> year</c>

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intensifies all around us, every year
 

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intensifies all around us, every year
our<00:01:55.360><c> energy</c><00:01:55.840><c> requirements</c><00:01:56.560><c> rise</c><00:01:56.880><c> by</c><00:01:57.119><c> an</c>

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our energy requirements rise by an
 

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our energy requirements rise by an
estimated<00:01:58.000><c> 1</c><00:01:58.399><c> to</c><00:01:58.719><c> 2%.</c><00:01:59.840><c> The</c><00:02:00.079><c> need</c><00:02:00.240><c> for</c><00:02:00.479><c> a</c>

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estimated 1 to 2%. The need for a
 

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estimated 1 to 2%. The need for a
[music]<00:02:00.799><c> clean,</c><00:02:01.520><c> efficient,</c><00:02:02.079><c> and</c>

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[music] clean, efficient, and
 

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[music] clean, efficient, and
inexhaustible<00:02:03.600><c> energy</c><00:02:04.000><c> source</c><00:02:04.799><c> has</c><00:02:05.280><c> never</c>

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inexhaustible energy source has never
 

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inexhaustible energy source has never
been<00:02:05.840><c> so</c><00:02:06.079><c> acute.</c><00:02:07.360><c> For</c><00:02:07.600><c> many</c><00:02:07.840><c> decades,</c><00:02:08.879><c> this</c>

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been so acute. For many decades, this
 

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been so acute. For many decades, this
has<00:02:09.440><c> been</c><00:02:09.599><c> the</c><00:02:09.920><c> promise</c><00:02:10.479><c> of</c><00:02:10.800><c> nuclear</c><00:02:11.360><c> fusion.</c>

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has been the promise of nuclear fusion.
 

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has been the promise of nuclear fusion.
Unlike<00:02:13.200><c> nuclear</c><00:02:13.760><c> fishision,</c><00:02:14.640><c> which</c><00:02:15.120><c> splits</c>

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Unlike nuclear fishision, which splits
 

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Unlike nuclear fishision, which splits
rare<00:02:16.160><c> and</c><00:02:16.560><c> unstable</c><00:02:17.280><c> isotopes</c><00:02:17.920><c> to</c><00:02:18.160><c> generate</c>

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rare and unstable isotopes to generate
 

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rare and unstable isotopes to generate
power,<00:02:19.440><c> fusion</c><00:02:19.840><c> technology</c><00:02:20.560><c> aims</c><00:02:20.826><c> [music]</c><00:02:20.959><c> to</c>

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power, fusion technology aims [music] to
 

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power, fusion technology aims [music] to
replicate<00:02:21.760><c> the</c><00:02:22.080><c> processes</c><00:02:22.720><c> that</c><00:02:23.040><c> happen</c>

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replicate the processes that happen
 

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replicate the processes that happen
inside<00:02:23.920><c> our</c><00:02:24.319><c> sun,</c><00:02:24.959><c> fusing</c><00:02:25.599><c> hydrogen</c><00:02:26.319><c> into</c>

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inside our sun, fusing hydrogen into
 

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inside our sun, fusing hydrogen into
helium<00:02:27.520><c> and</c><00:02:27.840><c> releasing</c><00:02:28.480><c> a</c><00:02:28.800><c> huge</c><00:02:29.200><c> amount</c><00:02:29.440><c> of</c>

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helium and releasing a huge amount of
 

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helium and releasing a huge amount of
energy<00:02:30.160><c> in</c><00:02:30.400><c> the</c><00:02:30.640><c> process.</c><00:02:30.660><c> [music]</c>

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energy in the process. [music]
 

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energy in the process. [music]
Yet,<00:02:32.319><c> since</c><00:02:32.640><c> fusion</c><00:02:33.120><c> was</c><00:02:33.280><c> first</c><00:02:33.519><c> talked</c><00:02:33.840><c> about</c>

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Yet, since fusion was first talked about
 

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Yet, since fusion was first talked about
as<00:02:34.239><c> a</c><00:02:34.480><c> serious</c><00:02:34.879><c> contender</c><00:02:35.360><c> for</c><00:02:35.599><c> energy</c>

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as a serious contender for energy
 

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as a serious contender for energy
generation<00:02:36.480><c> in</c><00:02:36.720><c> the</c><00:02:36.959><c> 1950s,</c>

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generation in the 1950s,
 

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generation in the 1950s,
it<00:02:38.720><c> has</c><00:02:38.879><c> become</c><00:02:39.280><c> a</c><00:02:39.599><c> cliche</c><00:02:40.400><c> that</c><00:02:40.640><c> is</c>

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it has become a cliche that is
 

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it has become a cliche that is
perpetually<00:02:42.319><c> 30</c><00:02:42.720><c> years</c><00:02:43.120><c> away</c><00:02:43.519><c> from</c><00:02:43.760><c> becoming</c>

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perpetually 30 years away from becoming
 

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perpetually 30 years away from becoming
reality.<00:02:45.680><c> So,</c><00:02:46.160><c> why</c><00:02:46.480><c> then</c><00:02:46.879><c> does</c><00:02:47.120><c> it</c><00:02:47.280><c> seem</c><00:02:47.519><c> that</c>

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reality. So, why then does it seem that
 

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reality. So, why then does it seem that
fusion<00:02:48.319><c> is</c><00:02:48.640><c> always</c><00:02:49.200><c> just</c><00:02:49.680><c> out</c><00:02:49.920><c> of</c><00:02:50.080><c> reach?</c><00:02:51.120><c> And</c>

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fusion is always just out of reach? And
 

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fusion is always just out of reach? And
do<00:02:51.680><c> the</c><00:02:51.920><c> new</c><00:02:52.319><c> private</c><00:02:52.800><c> enterprises</c><00:02:53.440><c> that</c><00:02:53.760><c> have</c>

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do the new private enterprises that have
 

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do the new private enterprises that have
recently<00:02:54.560><c> entered</c><00:02:54.879><c> the</c><00:02:55.120><c> field</c><00:02:56.160><c> really</c><00:02:56.560><c> offer</c>

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recently entered the field really offer
 

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recently entered the field really offer
any<00:02:57.440><c> hope</c><00:02:57.760><c> of</c><00:02:58.000><c> shaking</c><00:02:58.480><c> things</c><00:02:58.720><c> up?</c><00:03:00.080><c> To</c><00:03:00.319><c> begin</c>

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any hope of shaking things up? To begin
 

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any hope of shaking things up? To begin
to<00:03:00.720><c> answer</c><00:03:00.959><c> these</c><00:03:01.280><c> questions,</c><00:03:02.159><c> there</c><00:03:02.400><c> is</c><00:03:02.720><c> no</c>

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to answer these questions, there is no
 

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to answer these questions, there is no
better<00:03:03.280><c> place</c><00:03:03.519><c> to</c><00:03:03.760><c> start</c><00:03:04.239><c> than</c><00:03:04.480><c> the</c><00:03:04.720><c> place</c>

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better place to start than the place
 

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better place to start than the place
that<00:03:05.360><c> inspired</c><00:03:06.080><c> fusion</c><00:03:06.560><c> science</c><00:03:07.040><c> in</c><00:03:07.280><c> the</c>

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that inspired fusion science in the
 

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that inspired fusion science in the
first<00:03:07.680><c> place,</c><00:03:08.560><c> our</c><00:03:08.959><c> sun.</c>

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first place, our sun.
 

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first place, our sun.
As<00:03:12.080><c> strange</c><00:03:12.319><c> as</c><00:03:12.480><c> it</c><00:03:12.720><c> sounds</c><00:03:13.040><c> now,</c><00:03:13.519><c> at</c><00:03:13.760><c> the</c><00:03:14.000><c> turn</c>

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As strange as it sounds now, at the turn
 

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As strange as it sounds now, at the turn
of<00:03:14.400><c> the</c><00:03:14.560><c> last</c><00:03:14.879><c> century,</c><00:03:15.840><c> we</c><00:03:16.159><c> didn't</c><00:03:16.480><c> know</c><00:03:17.120><c> what</c>

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of the last century, we didn't know what
 

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of the last century, we didn't know what
powered<00:03:17.840><c> the</c><00:03:18.000><c> sun.</c><00:03:18.959><c> The</c><00:03:19.200><c> source</c><00:03:19.440><c> of</c><00:03:19.599><c> the</c><00:03:19.840><c> heat</c>

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powered the sun. The source of the heat
 

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powered the sun. The source of the heat
and<00:03:20.480><c> light</c><00:03:20.800><c> that</c><00:03:21.200><c> sustains</c><00:03:21.760><c> all</c><00:03:22.000><c> of</c><00:03:22.159><c> life</c><00:03:22.319><c> on</c>

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and light that sustains all of life on
 

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and light that sustains all of life on
Earth<00:03:23.040><c> was</c><00:03:23.280><c> a</c><00:03:23.519><c> mystery.</c><00:03:24.640><c> The</c><00:03:24.879><c> leading</c><00:03:25.120><c> theory</c>

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Earth was a mystery. The leading theory
 

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Earth was a mystery. The leading theory
was<00:03:25.680><c> that</c><00:03:25.840><c> the</c><00:03:26.000><c> sun's</c><00:03:26.400><c> energy</c><00:03:26.720><c> came</c><00:03:26.959><c> from</c>

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was that the sun's energy came from
 

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was that the sun's energy came from
gravitational<00:03:28.000><c> contraction.</c><00:03:29.120><c> Simply</c><00:03:29.519><c> put,</c>

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gravitational contraction. Simply put,
 

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gravitational contraction. Simply put,
the<00:03:30.080><c> idea</c><00:03:30.480><c> proposed</c><00:03:30.879><c> that</c><00:03:31.120><c> as</c><00:03:31.360><c> a</c><00:03:31.599><c> star</c>

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the idea proposed that as a star
 

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the idea proposed that as a star
gradually<00:03:32.560><c> radiates</c><00:03:33.120><c> energy</c><00:03:33.519><c> to</c><00:03:33.760><c> space,</c><00:03:34.560><c> it</c>

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gradually radiates energy to space, it
 

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gradually radiates energy to space, it
cools<00:03:35.440><c> and</c><00:03:35.680><c> so</c><00:03:36.000><c> collapses</c><00:03:36.560><c> further</c><00:03:36.879><c> under</c><00:03:37.120><c> its</c>

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cools and so collapses further under its
 

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cools and so collapses further under its
own<00:03:37.519><c> gravity,</c><00:03:38.319><c> which</c><00:03:38.640><c> in</c><00:03:38.799><c> turn</c><00:03:39.120><c> causes</c>

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own gravity, which in turn causes
 

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own gravity, which in turn causes
gravitational<00:03:40.319><c> potential</c><00:03:40.799><c> energy</c><00:03:41.360><c> to</c><00:03:41.599><c> be</c>

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gravitational potential energy to be
 

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gravitational potential energy to be
converted<00:03:42.239><c> into</c><00:03:42.560><c> heat</c><00:03:42.799><c> in</c><00:03:43.040><c> the</c><00:03:43.200><c> stars</c><00:03:43.599><c> core.</c>

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converted into heat in the stars core.
 

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converted into heat in the stars core.
Today,<00:03:45.040><c> we</c><00:03:45.200><c> know</c><00:03:45.440><c> that</c><00:03:45.840><c> is</c><00:03:46.319><c> a</c><00:03:46.560><c> genuine</c>

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Today, we know that is a genuine
 

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Today, we know that is a genuine
process.<00:03:48.000><c> Not</c><00:03:48.239><c> only</c><00:03:48.400><c> is</c><00:03:48.560><c> it</c><00:03:48.720><c> involved</c><00:03:49.040><c> in</c><00:03:49.200><c> the</c>

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process. Not only is it involved in the
 

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process. Not only is it involved in the
formation<00:03:49.680><c> of</c><00:03:49.920><c> stars,</c><00:03:50.640><c> it's</c><00:03:50.879><c> also</c><00:03:51.120><c> the</c><00:03:51.440><c> reason</c>

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formation of stars, it's also the reason
 

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formation of stars, it's also the reason
that<00:03:51.840><c> the</c><00:03:52.080><c> gas</c><00:03:52.400><c> giant</c><00:03:52.720><c> Jupiter</c><00:03:53.280><c> radiates</c><00:03:53.920><c> more</c>

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that the gas giant Jupiter radiates more
 

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that the gas giant Jupiter radiates more
energy<00:03:54.560><c> to</c><00:03:54.799><c> space</c><00:03:55.280><c> than</c><00:03:55.519><c> it</c><00:03:55.680><c> receives</c><00:03:56.080><c> from</c>

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energy to space than it receives from
 

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energy to space than it receives from
the<00:03:56.400><c> sun.</c><00:03:57.280><c> In</c><00:03:57.439><c> fact,</c><00:03:57.760><c> the</c><00:03:58.000><c> planet</c><00:03:58.319><c> is</c>

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the sun. In fact, the planet is
 

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the sun. In fact, the planet is
shrinking<00:03:59.040><c> by</c><00:03:59.360><c> about</c><00:03:59.680><c> 2</c><00:04:00.000><c> cm</c><00:04:00.720><c> every</c><00:04:01.040><c> year</c><00:04:01.439><c> under</c>

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shrinking by about 2 cm every year under
 

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shrinking by about 2 cm every year under
its<00:04:01.920><c> own</c><00:04:02.159><c> gravity.</c><00:04:03.040><c> And</c><00:04:03.360><c> as</c><00:04:03.599><c> the</c><00:04:03.840><c> resultant</c>

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its own gravity. And as the resultant
 

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its own gravity. And as the resultant
internal<00:04:05.040><c> heat</c><00:04:05.360><c> works</c><00:04:05.599><c> its</c><00:04:05.840><c> way</c><00:04:06.000><c> from</c><00:04:06.319><c> deep</c><00:04:06.560><c> in</c>

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internal heat works its way from deep in
 

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internal heat works its way from deep in
Jupiter's<00:04:07.280><c> interior</c><00:04:08.080><c> and</c><00:04:08.247><c> [music]</c><00:04:08.400><c> out</c><00:04:08.640><c> into</c>

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Jupiter's interior and [music] out into
 

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Jupiter's interior and [music] out into
space,<00:04:09.840><c> it</c><00:04:10.159><c> drives</c><00:04:10.400><c> the</c><00:04:10.640><c> intense</c><00:04:11.040><c> storms</c><00:04:11.439><c> that</c>

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space, it drives the intense storms that
 

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space, it drives the intense storms that
dance<00:04:12.159><c> across</c><00:04:12.480><c> the</c><00:04:12.720><c> planet's</c><00:04:13.120><c> surface.</c><00:04:14.159><c> But</c>

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dance across the planet's surface. But
 

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dance across the planet's surface. But
when<00:04:14.480><c> it</c><00:04:14.640><c> comes</c><00:04:14.799><c> to</c><00:04:15.040><c> powering</c><00:04:15.599><c> a</c><00:04:16.079><c> star,</c><00:04:17.040><c> one</c>

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when it comes to powering a star, one
 

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when it comes to powering a star, one
scientist<00:04:17.840><c> realized</c><00:04:18.320><c> that</c><00:04:18.639><c> contraction</c>

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scientist realized that contraction
 

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scientist realized that contraction
didn't<00:04:20.000><c> stand</c><00:04:20.320><c> up.</c><00:04:21.280><c> In</c><00:04:21.519><c> a</c><00:04:21.840><c> 1920</c><00:04:22.639><c> paper,</c>

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didn't stand up. In a 1920 paper,
 

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didn't stand up. In a 1920 paper,
physicist<00:04:24.080><c> Arthur</c><00:04:24.479><c> Edington</c><00:04:25.120><c> wrote,</c><00:04:25.759><c> "If</c><00:04:26.080><c> the</c>

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physicist Arthur Edington wrote, "If the
 

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physicist Arthur Edington wrote, "If the
contraction<00:04:27.120><c> theory</c><00:04:27.520><c> were</c><00:04:27.680><c> proposed</c><00:04:28.080><c> today</c>

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contraction theory were proposed today
 

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contraction theory were proposed today
as<00:04:28.720><c> a</c><00:04:29.040><c> novel</c><00:04:29.520><c> hypothesis,</c><00:04:30.639><c> I</c><00:04:30.800><c> do</c><00:04:31.040><c> not</c><00:04:31.199><c> think</c><00:04:31.440><c> it</c>

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as a novel hypothesis, I do not think it
 

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as a novel hypothesis, I do not think it
would<00:04:31.919><c> stand</c><00:04:32.320><c> the</c><00:04:32.639><c> smallest</c><00:04:33.280><c> chance</c><00:04:33.600><c> of</c>

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would stand the smallest chance of
 

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would stand the smallest chance of
acceptance."<00:04:34.960><c> He</c><00:04:35.199><c> argued</c><00:04:35.600><c> that</c><00:04:35.919><c> contraction</c>

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acceptance." He argued that contraction
 

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acceptance." He argued that contraction
would<00:04:36.720><c> be</c><00:04:37.040><c> hopelessly</c><00:04:37.680><c> inadequate</c><00:04:38.240><c> for</c>

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would be hopelessly inadequate for
 

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would be hopelessly inadequate for
powering<00:04:38.880><c> a</c><00:04:39.120><c> body</c><00:04:39.280><c> that</c><00:04:39.520><c> radiates</c><00:04:40.000><c> as</c><00:04:40.160><c> much</c>

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powering a body that radiates as much
 

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powering a body that radiates as much
energy<00:04:40.639><c> as</c><00:04:40.880><c> our</c><00:04:41.199><c> sun.</c><00:04:42.080><c> Suspecting</c><00:04:42.560><c> that</c><00:04:42.800><c> stars</c>

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energy as our sun. Suspecting that stars
 

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energy as our sun. Suspecting that stars
were<00:04:43.440><c> places</c><00:04:43.759><c> in</c><00:04:43.919><c> which</c><00:04:44.160><c> hydrogen</c><00:04:44.639><c> atoms</c><00:04:45.040><c> were</c>

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were places in which hydrogen atoms were
 

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were places in which hydrogen atoms were
cobbled<00:04:45.600><c> together</c><00:04:45.919><c> into</c><00:04:46.240><c> heavier</c><00:04:46.720><c> elements,</c>

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cobbled together into heavier elements,
 

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cobbled together into heavier elements,
Edington<00:04:48.160><c> proposed</c><00:04:48.720><c> a</c><00:04:49.120><c> different</c><00:04:49.520><c> source</c><00:04:49.840><c> of</c>

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Edington proposed a different source of
 

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Edington proposed a different source of
energy.<00:04:50.880><c> Drawing</c><00:04:51.280><c> on</c><00:04:51.600><c> experiments</c><00:04:52.240><c> carried</c>

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energy. Drawing on experiments carried
 

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energy. Drawing on experiments carried
out<00:04:52.720><c> by</c><00:04:53.120><c> fellow</c><00:04:53.520><c> scientist</c><00:04:54.320><c> Francis</c><00:04:54.880><c> Aston.</c>

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out by fellow scientist Francis Aston.
 

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out by fellow scientist Francis Aston.
Aston<00:04:56.800><c> had</c><00:04:56.960><c> shown</c><00:04:57.199><c> that</c><00:04:57.360><c> the</c><00:04:57.520><c> mass</c><00:04:57.759><c> of</c><00:04:57.919><c> a</c>

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Aston had shown that the mass of a
 

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Aston had shown that the mass of a
helium<00:04:58.639><c> nucleus</c><00:04:59.120><c> was</c><00:04:59.600><c> ever</c><00:04:59.919><c> so</c><00:05:00.160><c> slightly</c><00:05:00.560><c> less</c>

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helium nucleus was ever so slightly less
 

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helium nucleus was ever so slightly less
than<00:05:01.040><c> that</c><00:05:01.280><c> of</c><00:05:01.680><c> four</c><00:05:02.080><c> hydrogen</c><00:05:02.639><c> nuclei.</c><00:05:03.840><c> So</c><00:05:04.080><c> if</c>

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than that of four hydrogen nuclei. So if
 

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than that of four hydrogen nuclei. So if
a<00:05:04.479><c> helium</c><00:05:04.960><c> atom</c><00:05:05.280><c> was</c><00:05:05.520><c> just</c><00:05:05.840><c> four</c><00:05:06.160><c> hydrogens's</c>

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a helium atom was just four hydrogens's
 

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a helium atom was just four hydrogens's
fused<00:05:07.199><c> together,</c><00:05:08.000><c> some</c><00:05:08.240><c> mass</c><00:05:08.800><c> was</c><00:05:09.120><c> missing.</c>

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fused together, some mass was missing.
 

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fused together, some mass was missing.
Edington<00:05:11.120><c> believed</c><00:05:11.520><c> that</c><00:05:11.680><c> this</c><00:05:12.000><c> missing</c><00:05:12.320><c> mass</c>

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Edington believed that this missing mass
 

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Edington believed that this missing mass
was<00:05:12.880><c> converted</c><00:05:13.360><c> into</c><00:05:13.680><c> energy</c><00:05:14.400><c> by</c><00:05:14.720><c> Einstein's</c>

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was converted into energy by Einstein's
 

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was converted into energy by Einstein's
E=<00:05:16.160><c> MC².</c><00:05:17.600><c> And</c><00:05:17.759><c> because</c><00:05:18.160><c> C,</c><00:05:18.720><c> the</c><00:05:18.960><c> speed</c><00:05:19.199><c> of</c>

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E= MC². And because C, the speed of
 

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E= MC². And because C, the speed of
light,<00:05:20.080><c> is</c><00:05:20.400><c> such</c><00:05:20.720><c> a</c><00:05:20.960><c> large</c><00:05:21.360><c> number,</c><00:05:22.240><c> the</c>

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light, is such a large number, the
 

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light, is such a large number, the
energy<00:05:22.880><c> generated</c><00:05:23.440><c> from</c><00:05:23.840><c> even</c><00:05:24.160><c> a</c><00:05:24.479><c> tiny</c><00:05:24.880><c> amount</c>

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energy generated from even a tiny amount
 

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energy generated from even a tiny amount
of<00:05:25.280><c> mass</c><00:05:25.759><c> is</c><00:05:26.160><c> huge,</c><00:05:27.199><c> meaning</c><00:05:27.600><c> fusing</c><00:05:28.080><c> hydrogen</c>

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of mass is huge, meaning fusing hydrogen
 

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of mass is huge, meaning fusing hydrogen
into<00:05:28.960><c> helium</c><00:05:29.680><c> would</c><00:05:30.000><c> provide</c><00:05:30.479><c> more</c><00:05:30.720><c> than</c>

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into helium would provide more than
 

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into helium would provide more than
enough<00:05:31.280><c> energy</c><00:05:31.759><c> to</c><00:05:32.000><c> power</c><00:05:32.240><c> the</c><00:05:32.479><c> sun.</c>

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enough energy to power the sun.
 

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enough energy to power the sun.
Edington's<00:05:34.560><c> ideas</c><00:05:34.960><c> were</c><00:05:35.360><c> bold</c><00:05:36.080><c> and</c><00:05:36.400><c> unproven,</c>

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Edington's ideas were bold and unproven,
 

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Edington's ideas were bold and unproven,
but<00:05:37.759><c> they</c><00:05:38.000><c> soon</c><00:05:38.320><c> inspired</c><00:05:39.039><c> serious</c>

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but they soon inspired serious
 

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but they soon inspired serious
theoretical<00:05:40.320><c> work.</c><00:05:41.120><c> And</c><00:05:41.280><c> in</c><00:05:41.520><c> 1929,</c><00:05:42.560><c> the</c><00:05:42.800><c> first</c>

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theoretical work. And in 1929, the first
 

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theoretical work. And in 1929, the first
calculations<00:05:43.680><c> of</c><00:05:43.919><c> stellar</c><00:05:44.400><c> nuclear</c><00:05:44.880><c> fusion</c>

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calculations of stellar nuclear fusion
 

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calculations of stellar nuclear fusion
were<00:05:45.759><c> published</c><00:05:46.160><c> by</c><00:05:46.479><c> Robert</c><00:05:46.960><c> Descort</c>

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were published by Robert Descort
 

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were published by Robert Descort
Atkinson<00:05:48.560><c> and</c><00:05:48.880><c> Fritz</c><00:05:49.520><c> Howmans.</c><00:05:50.880><c> It</c><00:05:51.199><c> turned</c>

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Atkinson and Fritz Howmans. It turned
 

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Atkinson and Fritz Howmans. It turned
out<00:05:51.680><c> that</c><00:05:51.919><c> the</c><00:05:52.160><c> sun</c><00:05:52.560><c> and</c><00:05:52.880><c> all</c><00:05:53.280><c> stars</c><00:05:54.080><c> were</c>

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out that the sun and all stars were
 

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out that the sun and all stars were
giant<00:05:54.960><c> fusion</c><00:05:55.520><c> reactors,</c><00:05:56.720><c> taking</c><00:05:57.039><c> the</c><00:05:57.360><c> most</c>

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giant fusion reactors, taking the most
 

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giant fusion reactors, taking the most
common<00:05:58.000><c> element</c><00:05:58.320><c> in</c><00:05:58.560><c> the</c><00:05:58.800><c> universe,</c>

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common element in the universe,
 

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common element in the universe,
hydrogen,<00:06:00.639><c> and</c><00:06:00.960><c> fusing</c><00:06:01.360><c> it</c><00:06:01.680><c> into</c><00:06:02.000><c> other</c>

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hydrogen, and fusing it into other
 

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hydrogen, and fusing it into other
elements.<00:06:03.360><c> starting</c><00:06:03.919><c> with</c><00:06:04.240><c> helium.</c>

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elements. starting with helium.
 

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elements. starting with helium.
Now,<00:06:06.400><c> replicating</c><00:06:07.039><c> this</c><00:06:07.280><c> process</c><00:06:07.600><c> on</c><00:06:07.919><c> Earth</c>

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Now, replicating this process on Earth
 

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Now, replicating this process on Earth
would<00:06:08.560><c> be</c><00:06:08.800><c> hugely</c><00:06:09.600><c> advantageous,</c><00:06:10.880><c> especially</c>

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would be hugely advantageous, especially
 

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would be hugely advantageous, especially
when<00:06:11.600><c> compared</c><00:06:12.000><c> to</c><00:06:12.160><c> nuclear</c><00:06:12.720><c> fishision,</c><00:06:13.440><c> the</c>

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when compared to nuclear fishision, the
 

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when compared to nuclear fishision, the
process<00:06:14.080><c> that</c><00:06:14.319><c> is</c><00:06:14.479><c> used</c><00:06:14.720><c> in</c><00:06:15.039><c> nuclear</c><00:06:15.440><c> power</c>

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process that is used in nuclear power
 

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process that is used in nuclear power
plants<00:06:16.080><c> today.</c><00:06:17.280><c> Where</c><00:06:17.600><c> fishision</c><00:06:18.160><c> relies</c><00:06:18.560><c> on</c>

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plants today. Where fishision relies on
 

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plants today. Where fishision relies on
splitting<00:06:19.919><c> large</c><00:06:20.240><c> and</c><00:06:20.560><c> rare</c><00:06:20.960><c> unstable</c>

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splitting large and rare unstable
 

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splitting large and rare unstable
isotopes<00:06:22.240><c> such</c><00:06:22.400><c> as</c><00:06:22.800><c> uranium</c><00:06:23.280><c> 235</c><00:06:24.240><c> and</c>

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isotopes such as uranium 235 and
 

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isotopes such as uranium 235 and
plutonium<00:06:25.120><c> 239.</c>

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plutonium 239.
 

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plutonium 239.
Stellar<00:06:27.199><c> nuclear</c><00:06:27.680><c> fusion</c><00:06:28.560><c> relies</c><00:06:28.960><c> on</c>

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Stellar nuclear fusion relies on
 

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Stellar nuclear fusion relies on
hydrogen,<00:06:30.160><c> an</c><00:06:30.400><c> element</c><00:06:30.720><c> that</c><00:06:30.960><c> is</c><00:06:31.280><c> widely</c>

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hydrogen, an element that is widely
 

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hydrogen, an element that is widely
available<00:06:32.160><c> on</c><00:06:32.400><c> Earth</c><00:06:32.880><c> through</c><00:06:33.199><c> the</c>

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available on Earth through the
 

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available on Earth through the
electrolysis<00:06:34.160><c> of</c><00:06:34.479><c> seawater.</c><00:06:35.600><c> And</c><00:06:35.919><c> unlike</c><00:06:36.400><c> the</c>

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electrolysis of seawater. And unlike the
 

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electrolysis of seawater. And unlike the
radioactive<00:06:37.280><c> byproducts</c><00:06:37.840><c> of</c><00:06:38.080><c> fish</c><00:06:38.800><c> that</c>

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radioactive byproducts of fish that
 

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radioactive byproducts of fish that
create<00:06:39.360><c> a</c><00:06:39.680><c> huge</c><00:06:40.160><c> disposal</c><00:06:40.720><c> problem</c><00:06:41.039><c> for</c>

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create a huge disposal problem for
 

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create a huge disposal problem for
modern<00:06:41.759><c> nuclear</c><00:06:42.240><c> power</c><00:06:42.479><c> stations,</c><00:06:43.440><c> the</c>

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modern nuclear power stations, the
 

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modern nuclear power stations, the
byproduct<00:06:44.240><c> of</c><00:06:44.560><c> stellar</c><00:06:45.120><c> fusion</c><00:06:45.759><c> is</c><00:06:46.080><c> helium,</c>

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byproduct of stellar fusion is helium,
 

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byproduct of stellar fusion is helium,
an<00:06:47.280><c> extremely</c><00:06:47.840><c> useful</c><00:06:48.400><c> element.</c>

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an extremely useful element.
 

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an extremely useful element.
Thanks<00:06:50.319><c> to</c><00:06:50.560><c> its</c><00:06:50.960><c> exceptionally</c><00:06:51.680><c> low</c><00:06:52.000><c> boiling</c>

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Thanks to its exceptionally low boiling
 

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Thanks to its exceptionally low boiling
point,<00:06:52.880><c> helium</c><00:06:53.440><c> is</c><00:06:53.600><c> used</c><00:06:53.840><c> to</c><00:06:54.000><c> cool</c><00:06:54.240><c> the</c>

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point, helium is used to cool the
 

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point, helium is used to cool the
magnets<00:06:54.800><c> in</c><00:06:55.039><c> MRI</c><00:06:55.600><c> machines</c><00:06:56.319><c> for</c><00:06:56.720><c> scientific</c>

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magnets in MRI machines for scientific
 

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magnets in MRI machines for scientific
research<00:06:57.759><c> projects</c><00:06:58.160><c> like</c><00:06:58.400><c> CERN,</c><00:06:59.280><c> as</c><00:06:59.520><c> well</c><00:06:59.680><c> as</c>

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research projects like CERN, as well as
 

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research projects like CERN, as well as
in<00:07:00.000><c> the</c><00:07:00.240><c> production</c><00:07:00.479><c> of</c><00:07:00.720><c> microchips.</c><00:07:01.919><c> It's</c><00:07:02.160><c> an</c>

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in the production of microchips. It's an
 

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in the production of microchips. It's an
essential<00:07:02.720><c> element</c><00:07:03.280><c> that</c><00:07:03.599><c> we</c><00:07:03.759><c> actually</c><00:07:04.160><c> need</c>

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essential element that we actually need
 

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essential element that we actually need
more<00:07:04.880><c> of.</c><00:07:05.840><c> So,</c><00:07:06.160><c> how</c><00:07:06.479><c> exactly</c><00:07:07.039><c> do</c><00:07:07.360><c> stars</c>

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more of. So, how exactly do stars
 

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more of. So, how exactly do stars
achieve<00:07:08.319><c> this</c><00:07:08.639><c> alchemy</c><00:07:09.280><c> of</c><00:07:09.599><c> fusing</c><00:07:10.080><c> hydrogen</c>

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achieve this alchemy of fusing hydrogen
 

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achieve this alchemy of fusing hydrogen
into<00:07:10.880><c> helium?</c><00:07:11.919><c> And</c><00:07:12.160><c> how</c><00:07:12.400><c> are</c><00:07:12.560><c> scientists</c>

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into helium? And how are scientists
 

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into helium? And how are scientists
going<00:07:13.360><c> about</c><00:07:14.080><c> trying</c><00:07:14.479><c> to</c><00:07:14.720><c> replicate</c><00:07:15.360><c> the</c>

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going about trying to replicate the
 

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going about trying to replicate the
process?

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process?
 

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process?
Well,<00:07:18.960><c> the</c><00:07:19.280><c> first</c><00:07:19.440><c> thing</c><00:07:19.599><c> to</c><00:07:19.840><c> consider</c><00:07:20.400><c> is</c><00:07:20.639><c> the</c>

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Well, the first thing to consider is the
 

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Well, the first thing to consider is the
reaction<00:07:21.360><c> medium,</c><00:07:22.080><c> the</c><00:07:22.319><c> stuff</c><00:07:22.720><c> stars</c><00:07:23.199><c> are</c>

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reaction medium, the stuff stars are
 

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reaction medium, the stuff stars are
made<00:07:23.680><c> of.</c><00:07:24.720><c> Unlike</c><00:07:25.120><c> matter</c><00:07:25.520><c> on</c><00:07:25.759><c> Earth,</c><00:07:26.319><c> stars</c>

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made of. Unlike matter on Earth, stars
 

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made of. Unlike matter on Earth, stars
aren't<00:07:26.960><c> even</c><00:07:27.199><c> made</c><00:07:27.360><c> of</c><00:07:27.599><c> atoms</c><00:07:28.080><c> and</c><00:07:28.319><c> molecules,</c>

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aren't even made of atoms and molecules,
 

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aren't even made of atoms and molecules,
where<00:07:29.680><c> negatively</c><00:07:30.240><c> charged</c><00:07:30.639><c> electron</c><00:07:31.120><c> clouds</c>

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where negatively charged electron clouds
 

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where negatively charged electron clouds
orbit<00:07:32.319><c> positively</c><00:07:32.960><c> charged</c><00:07:33.280><c> nuclei.</c><00:07:34.560><c> Stars</c>

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orbit positively charged nuclei. Stars
 

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orbit positively charged nuclei. Stars
are<00:07:35.120><c> so</c><00:07:35.360><c> hot</c><00:07:35.919><c> that</c><00:07:36.240><c> electrons</c><00:07:36.800><c> can</c><00:07:37.039><c> escape</c>

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are so hot that electrons can escape
 

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are so hot that electrons can escape
atomic<00:07:38.080><c> orbits</c><00:07:38.639><c> entirely.</c><00:07:40.000><c> The</c><00:07:40.319><c> resulting</c>

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atomic orbits entirely. The resulting
 

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atomic orbits entirely. The resulting
soup<00:07:41.120><c> of</c><00:07:41.440><c> charged</c><00:07:41.840><c> particles,</c><00:07:43.039><c> ions,</c><00:07:43.440><c> and</c>

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soup of charged particles, ions, and
 

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soup of charged particles, ions, and
free<00:07:44.080><c> electrons</c><00:07:45.039><c> is</c><00:07:45.360><c> known</c><00:07:45.680><c> as</c><00:07:46.000><c> plasma.</c><00:07:47.039><c> And</c>

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free electrons is known as plasma. And
 

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free electrons is known as plasma. And
it's<00:07:47.360><c> in</c><00:07:47.599><c> plasma</c><00:07:48.240><c> that</c><00:07:48.479><c> nuclear</c><00:07:48.880><c> fusion</c><00:07:49.280><c> can</c>

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it's in plasma that nuclear fusion can
 

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it's in plasma that nuclear fusion can
take<00:07:49.759><c> place.</c>

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take place.
 

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take place.
Now<00:07:52.160><c> plasma</c><00:07:52.800><c> is</c><00:07:53.199><c> by</c><00:07:53.520><c> far</c><00:07:54.080><c> the</c><00:07:54.400><c> most</c><00:07:54.639><c> common</c>

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Now plasma is by far the most common
 

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Now plasma is by far the most common
material<00:07:55.599><c> in</c><00:07:55.840><c> the</c><00:07:56.080><c> universe</c><00:07:56.879><c> making</c><00:07:57.199><c> up</c><00:07:57.440><c> well</c>

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material in the universe making up well
 

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material in the universe making up well
over<00:07:58.400><c> 99.9%</c>

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over 99.9%
 

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over 99.9%
of<00:08:00.400><c> visible</c><00:08:01.280><c> that</c><00:08:01.520><c> is</c><00:08:02.080><c> nond</c><00:08:02.639><c> dark</c><00:08:03.280><c> matter.</c><00:08:04.560><c> But</c>

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of visible that is nond dark matter. But
 

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of visible that is nond dark matter. But
we<00:08:05.120><c> are</c><00:08:05.360><c> part</c><00:08:05.680><c> of</c><00:08:06.000><c> the</c><00:08:06.400><c> 0.1%.</c>

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we are part of the 0.1%.
 

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we are part of the 0.1%.
That<00:08:08.319><c> small</c><00:08:08.639><c> amount</c><00:08:08.879><c> of</c><00:08:09.039><c> matter</c><00:08:09.280><c> in</c><00:08:09.520><c> the</c>

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That small amount of matter in the
 

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That small amount of matter in the
universe<00:08:09.919><c> that's</c><00:08:10.240><c> cool</c><00:08:10.560><c> enough</c><00:08:10.960><c> that</c><00:08:11.280><c> in</c>

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universe that's cool enough that in
 

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universe that's cool enough that in
general<00:08:12.240><c> electrons</c><00:08:12.720><c> confined</c><00:08:13.120><c> to</c><00:08:13.199><c> orbitals</c>

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general electrons confined to orbitals
 

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general electrons confined to orbitals
and<00:08:14.319><c> chemistry,</c><00:08:14.960><c> not</c><00:08:15.360><c> nuclear</c><00:08:15.840><c> physics,</c>

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and chemistry, not nuclear physics,
 

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and chemistry, not nuclear physics,
dominates,<00:08:17.759><c> allowing</c><00:08:18.240><c> cool</c><00:08:18.479><c> balls</c><00:08:18.879><c> of</c><00:08:19.120><c> rock</c>

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dominates, allowing cool balls of rock
 

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dominates, allowing cool balls of rock
covered<00:08:19.840><c> in</c><00:08:20.080><c> oceans</c><00:08:20.479><c> of</c><00:08:20.639><c> water</c><00:08:21.280><c> like</c><00:08:21.599><c> Earth</c><00:08:22.080><c> to</c>

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covered in oceans of water like Earth to
 

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covered in oceans of water like Earth to
form.<00:08:23.520><c> For</c><00:08:23.840><c> us,</c><00:08:24.639><c> creating</c><00:08:25.199><c> such</c><00:08:25.520><c> conditions,</c>

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form. For us, creating such conditions,
 

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form. For us, creating such conditions,
making<00:08:27.120><c> plasma</c><00:08:27.680><c> that's</c><00:08:28.000><c> hot</c><00:08:28.240><c> enough</c><00:08:28.560><c> to</c>

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making plasma that's hot enough to
 

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making plasma that's hot enough to
sustain<00:08:29.520><c> fusion</c><00:08:30.080><c> and</c><00:08:30.639><c> containing</c><00:08:31.199><c> it</c><00:08:31.919><c> is</c><00:08:32.240><c> a</c>

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sustain fusion and containing it is a
 

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sustain fusion and containing it is a
considerable<00:08:33.200><c> challenge.</c>

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considerable challenge.
 

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considerable challenge.
You<00:08:34.719><c> see,</c><00:08:34.959><c> the</c><00:08:35.200><c> sun</c><00:08:35.599><c> has</c><00:08:36.000><c> one</c><00:08:36.560><c> quite</c><00:08:36.959><c> literal</c>

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You see, the sun has one quite literal
 

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You see, the sun has one quite literal
giant<00:08:38.159><c> advantage</c><00:08:38.640><c> on</c><00:08:38.800><c> its</c><00:08:39.039><c> side.</c><00:08:40.000><c> It's</c><00:08:40.320><c> so</c>

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giant advantage on its side. It's so
 

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giant advantage on its side. It's so
huge<00:08:41.279><c> that</c><00:08:41.599><c> the</c><00:08:41.760><c> force</c><00:08:42.080><c> of</c><00:08:42.240><c> gravity</c><00:08:42.800><c> holds</c><00:08:43.120><c> the</c>

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huge that the force of gravity holds the
 

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huge that the force of gravity holds the
plasma<00:08:43.919><c> in</c><00:08:44.159><c> a</c><00:08:44.399><c> near</c><00:08:45.040><c> perfect</c><00:08:45.440><c> sphere</c><00:08:46.320><c> with</c>

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plasma in a near perfect sphere with
 

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plasma in a near perfect sphere with
pressure<00:08:46.880><c> at</c><00:08:47.120><c> its</c><00:08:47.279><c> core</c><00:08:47.680><c> reaching</c><00:08:48.720><c> 150</c><00:08:49.120><c> g</c><00:08:49.440><c> per</c>

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pressure at its core reaching 150 g per
 

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pressure at its core reaching 150 g per
cime<00:08:50.160><c> cubed.</c><00:08:50.880><c> So</c><00:08:51.120><c> dense</c><00:08:51.600><c> a</c><00:08:51.920><c> teaspoon</c><00:08:52.720><c> would</c>

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cime cubed. So dense a teaspoon would
 

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cime cubed. So dense a teaspoon would
weigh<00:08:53.440><c> close</c><00:08:53.680><c> to</c><00:08:53.920><c> a</c><00:08:54.240><c> kilogram.</c>

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weigh close to a kilogram.
 

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weigh close to a kilogram.
The<00:08:57.040><c> biggest</c><00:08:57.360><c> fusion</c><00:08:57.839><c> reactor</c><00:08:58.320><c> on</c><00:08:58.640><c> Earth,</c><00:08:59.279><c> ITA</c>

00:09:00.070 --> 00:09:00.080 align:start position:0%
The biggest fusion reactor on Earth, ITA
 

00:09:00.080 --> 00:09:02.550 align:start position:0%
The biggest fusion reactor on Earth, ITA
in<00:09:00.320><c> France,</c><00:09:01.120><c> a</c><00:09:01.360><c> leading</c><00:09:01.839><c> international</c>

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in France, a leading international
 

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in France, a leading international
project<00:09:02.880><c> that</c><00:09:03.200><c> hopes</c><00:09:03.519><c> to</c><00:09:03.680><c> be</c><00:09:03.839><c> operational</c><00:09:04.399><c> in</c>

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project that hopes to be operational in
 

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project that hopes to be operational in
2034,<00:09:06.000><c> will</c><00:09:06.240><c> use</c><00:09:06.640><c> just</c><00:09:06.959><c> a</c><00:09:07.279><c> few</c><00:09:07.760><c> g</c><00:09:08.160><c> of</c><00:09:08.320><c> plasma</c>

00:09:08.790 --> 00:09:08.800 align:start position:0%
2034, will use just a few g of plasma
 

00:09:08.800 --> 00:09:12.949 align:start position:0%
2034, will use just a few g of plasma
material<00:09:09.440><c> in</c><00:09:09.680><c> a</c><00:09:09.839><c> chamber</c><00:09:10.240><c> of</c><00:09:10.720><c> 830</c><00:09:11.600><c> cubic</c><00:09:12.000><c> m.</c>

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material in a chamber of 830 cubic m.
 

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material in a chamber of 830 cubic m.
Because<00:09:13.279><c> it's</c><00:09:13.519><c> under</c><00:09:13.839><c> such</c><00:09:14.240><c> low</c><00:09:14.560><c> pressure,</c>

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Because it's under such low pressure,
 

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Because it's under such low pressure,
meaning<00:09:15.680><c> particles</c><00:09:16.240><c> aren't</c><00:09:16.720><c> squeezed</c>

00:09:17.110 --> 00:09:17.120 align:start position:0%
meaning particles aren't squeezed
 

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meaning particles aren't squeezed
together<00:09:17.440><c> like</c><00:09:17.680><c> they</c><00:09:17.839><c> are</c><00:09:18.000><c> in</c><00:09:18.160><c> the</c><00:09:18.320><c> sun,</c><00:09:18.959><c> this</c>

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together like they are in the sun, this
 

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together like they are in the sun, this
plasma<00:09:19.680><c> has</c><00:09:19.920><c> to</c><00:09:20.080><c> be</c><00:09:20.399><c> much,</c><00:09:21.120><c> much</c><00:09:21.519><c> hotter</c><00:09:21.920><c> to</c>

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plasma has to be much, much hotter to
 

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plasma has to be much, much hotter to
achieve<00:09:22.560><c> fusion.</c>

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achieve fusion.
 

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achieve fusion.
50<00:09:24.880><c> million°</c><00:09:25.760><c> C</c><00:09:26.640><c> as</c><00:09:26.880><c> opposed</c><00:09:27.200><c> to</c><00:09:27.760><c> 15</c><00:09:28.240><c> million°</c>

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50 million° C as opposed to 15 million°
 

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50 million° C as opposed to 15 million°
at<00:09:29.440><c> the</c><00:09:29.600><c> core</c><00:09:29.920><c> of</c><00:09:30.080><c> the</c><00:09:30.320><c> sun.</c><00:09:31.519><c> Now,</c><00:09:32.080><c> fairly</c>

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at the core of the sun. Now, fairly
 

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at the core of the sun. Now, fairly
obviously,<00:09:33.279><c> you</c><00:09:33.519><c> can't</c><00:09:33.760><c> just</c><00:09:34.080><c> hold</c><00:09:34.320><c> a</c>

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obviously, you can't just hold a
 

00:09:34.560 --> 00:09:36.470 align:start position:0%
obviously, you can't just hold a
material<00:09:34.959><c> like</c><00:09:35.200><c> this</c><00:09:35.440><c> in</c><00:09:35.600><c> a</c><00:09:35.760><c> container</c><00:09:36.240><c> made</c>

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material like this in a container made
 

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material like this in a container made
of<00:09:36.720><c> normal</c><00:09:37.120><c> matter.</c><00:09:38.320><c> If</c><00:09:38.560><c> it</c><00:09:38.880><c> contacted</c><00:09:39.360><c> the</c>

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of normal matter. If it contacted the
 

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of normal matter. If it contacted the
sides,<00:09:40.080><c> it</c><00:09:40.320><c> would</c><00:09:40.480><c> cool.</c><00:09:41.200><c> Electrons</c><00:09:41.839><c> would</c>

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sides, it would cool. Electrons would
 

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sides, it would cool. Electrons would
condense<00:09:42.480><c> into</c><00:09:42.880><c> atomic</c><00:09:43.360><c> orbitals,</c><00:09:44.240><c> and</c><00:09:44.560><c> it</c>

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condense into atomic orbitals, and it
 

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condense into atomic orbitals, and it
would<00:09:44.959><c> no</c><00:09:45.200><c> longer</c><00:09:45.440><c> be</c><00:09:45.680><c> plasma.</c><00:09:47.040><c> And</c><00:09:47.279><c> of</c>

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would no longer be plasma. And of
 

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would no longer be plasma. And of
course,<00:09:47.839><c> it</c><00:09:48.080><c> goes</c><00:09:48.320><c> without</c><00:09:48.720><c> saying</c><00:09:49.200><c> that</c><00:09:49.440><c> the</c>

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course, it goes without saying that the
 

00:09:49.680 --> 00:09:52.070 align:start position:0%
course, it goes without saying that the
container<00:09:50.240><c> itself</c><00:09:50.880><c> would</c><00:09:51.120><c> be</c><00:09:51.279><c> damaged</c><00:09:51.680><c> beyond</c>

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container itself would be damaged beyond
 

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container itself would be damaged beyond
repair.<00:09:53.040><c> So</c><00:09:53.360><c> the</c><00:09:53.519><c> plasma</c><00:09:54.000><c> needs</c><00:09:54.240><c> to</c><00:09:54.480><c> be</c>

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repair. So the plasma needs to be
 

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repair. So the plasma needs to be
isolated<00:09:55.360><c> in</c><00:09:55.680><c> a</c><00:09:55.920><c> vacuum.</c><00:09:57.200><c> Two</c><00:09:57.519><c> approaches</c>

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isolated in a vacuum. Two approaches
 

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isolated in a vacuum. Two approaches
have<00:09:58.240><c> been</c><00:09:58.399><c> put</c><00:09:58.560><c> forward</c><00:09:58.800><c> to</c><00:09:59.040><c> achieve</c><00:09:59.360><c> this.</c>

00:10:00.070 --> 00:10:00.080 align:start position:0%
have been put forward to achieve this.
 

00:10:00.080 --> 00:10:02.230 align:start position:0%
have been put forward to achieve this.
The<00:10:00.320><c> first</c><00:10:00.480><c> of</c><00:10:00.640><c> which</c><00:10:00.959><c> is</c><00:10:01.519><c> magnetic</c>

00:10:02.230 --> 00:10:02.240 align:start position:0%
The first of which is magnetic
 

00:10:02.240 --> 00:10:05.590 align:start position:0%
The first of which is magnetic
confinement<00:10:02.959><c> fusion.</c><00:10:04.240><c> Because</c><00:10:04.640><c> plasma</c><00:10:05.200><c> is</c><00:10:05.360><c> a</c>

00:10:05.590 --> 00:10:05.600 align:start position:0%
confinement fusion. Because plasma is a
 

00:10:05.600 --> 00:10:08.070 align:start position:0%
confinement fusion. Because plasma is a
soup<00:10:05.920><c> of</c><00:10:06.080><c> charged</c><00:10:06.480><c> particles,</c><00:10:07.440><c> positively</c>

00:10:08.070 --> 00:10:08.080 align:start position:0%
soup of charged particles, positively
 

00:10:08.080 --> 00:10:11.350 align:start position:0%
soup of charged particles, positively
charged<00:10:08.640><c> ions</c><00:10:08.959><c> and</c><00:10:09.519><c> negative</c><00:10:10.000><c> electrons.</c><00:10:11.120><c> It</c>

00:10:11.350 --> 00:10:11.360 align:start position:0%
charged ions and negative electrons. It
 

00:10:11.360 --> 00:10:14.550 align:start position:0%
charged ions and negative electrons. It
can<00:10:11.519><c> be</c><00:10:11.680><c> manipulated</c><00:10:12.480><c> by</c><00:10:12.800><c> magnetic</c><00:10:13.279><c> fields.</c>

00:10:14.550 --> 00:10:14.560 align:start position:0%
can be manipulated by magnetic fields.
 

00:10:14.560 --> 00:10:16.550 align:start position:0%
can be manipulated by magnetic fields.
Magnetic<00:10:15.200><c> confinement</c><00:10:15.680><c> takes</c><00:10:16.000><c> advantage</c><00:10:16.399><c> of</c>

00:10:16.550 --> 00:10:16.560 align:start position:0%
Magnetic confinement takes advantage of
 

00:10:16.560 --> 00:10:19.030 align:start position:0%
Magnetic confinement takes advantage of
this<00:10:16.800><c> by</c><00:10:17.040><c> using</c><00:10:17.279><c> a</c><00:10:17.519><c> ring</c><00:10:17.920><c> of</c><00:10:18.160><c> powerful</c><00:10:18.640><c> magnets</c>

00:10:19.030 --> 00:10:19.040 align:start position:0%
this by using a ring of powerful magnets
 

00:10:19.040 --> 00:10:21.430 align:start position:0%
this by using a ring of powerful magnets
to<00:10:19.279><c> hold</c><00:10:19.519><c> plasma</c><00:10:20.240><c> in</c><00:10:20.480><c> a</c><00:10:20.720><c> continuous</c>

00:10:21.430 --> 00:10:21.440 align:start position:0%
to hold plasma in a continuous
 

00:10:21.440 --> 00:10:23.910 align:start position:0%
to hold plasma in a continuous
donut-shaped<00:10:22.320><c> blob</c><00:10:22.880><c> in</c><00:10:23.120><c> which</c><00:10:23.360><c> fusion</c><00:10:23.760><c> can</c>

00:10:23.910 --> 00:10:23.920 align:start position:0%
donut-shaped blob in which fusion can
 

00:10:23.920 --> 00:10:26.389 align:start position:0%
donut-shaped blob in which fusion can
take<00:10:24.160><c> place.</c><00:10:25.360><c> There</c><00:10:25.600><c> are</c><00:10:25.760><c> a</c><00:10:26.000><c> number</c><00:10:26.160><c> of</c>

00:10:26.389 --> 00:10:26.399 align:start position:0%
take place. There are a number of
 

00:10:26.399 --> 00:10:28.870 align:start position:0%
take place. There are a number of
different<00:10:26.640><c> types</c><00:10:27.360><c> accelerators</c><00:10:28.560><c> and</c>

00:10:28.870 --> 00:10:28.880 align:start position:0%
different types accelerators and
 

00:10:28.880 --> 00:10:32.230 align:start position:0%
different types accelerators and
reversed<00:10:29.600><c> field</c><00:10:30.240><c> pinch</c><00:10:30.800><c> devices</c><00:10:31.839><c> but</c><00:10:32.079><c> the</c>

00:10:32.230 --> 00:10:32.240 align:start position:0%
reversed field pinch devices but the
 

00:10:32.240 --> 00:10:34.550 align:start position:0%
reversed field pinch devices but the
leading<00:10:32.560><c> design</c><00:10:32.880><c> is</c><00:10:33.120><c> called</c><00:10:33.279><c> the</c><00:10:33.519><c> tokamac.</c>

00:10:34.550 --> 00:10:34.560 align:start position:0%
leading design is called the tokamac.
 

00:10:34.560 --> 00:10:36.630 align:start position:0%
leading design is called the tokamac.
This<00:10:34.800><c> is</c><00:10:34.959><c> the</c><00:10:35.120><c> type</c><00:10:35.360><c> of</c><00:10:35.519><c> reactor</c><00:10:36.079><c> which</c><00:10:36.399><c> will</c>

00:10:36.630 --> 00:10:36.640 align:start position:0%
This is the type of reactor which will
 

00:10:36.640 --> 00:10:40.150 align:start position:0%
This is the type of reactor which will
be<00:10:36.800><c> used</c><00:10:37.040><c> at</c><00:10:37.360><c> ITA.</c><00:10:38.399><c> In</c><00:10:38.720><c> contrast,</c><00:10:39.519><c> inertial</c>

00:10:40.150 --> 00:10:40.160 align:start position:0%
be used at ITA. In contrast, inertial
 

00:10:40.160 --> 00:10:41.829 align:start position:0%
be used at ITA. In contrast, inertial
confinement<00:10:40.720><c> fusion,</c><00:10:41.360><c> the</c><00:10:41.600><c> other</c>

00:10:41.829 --> 00:10:41.839 align:start position:0%
confinement fusion, the other
 

00:10:41.839 --> 00:10:43.670 align:start position:0%
confinement fusion, the other
confinement<00:10:42.320><c> method,</c><00:10:43.040><c> takes</c><00:10:43.360><c> its</c>

00:10:43.670 --> 00:10:43.680 align:start position:0%
confinement method, takes its
 

00:10:43.680 --> 00:10:47.430 align:start position:0%
confinement method, takes its
inspiration<00:10:44.240><c> from</c><00:10:45.040><c> thermonuclear</c><00:10:45.920><c> bombs.</c><00:10:47.200><c> It</c>

00:10:47.430 --> 00:10:47.440 align:start position:0%
inspiration from thermonuclear bombs. It
 

00:10:47.440 --> 00:10:50.630 align:start position:0%
inspiration from thermonuclear bombs. It
works<00:10:47.760><c> by</c><00:10:48.320><c> firing</c><00:10:48.880><c> lasers</c><00:10:49.440><c> or</c><00:10:49.760><c> projectiles</c><00:10:50.480><c> at</c>

00:10:50.630 --> 00:10:50.640 align:start position:0%
works by firing lasers or projectiles at
 

00:10:50.640 --> 00:10:53.509 align:start position:0%
works by firing lasers or projectiles at
a<00:10:50.880><c> small</c><00:10:51.279><c> pellet</c><00:10:51.760><c> containing</c><00:10:52.320><c> fusion</c><00:10:52.800><c> fuel,</c>

00:10:53.509 --> 00:10:53.519 align:start position:0%
a small pellet containing fusion fuel,
 

00:10:53.519 --> 00:10:55.670 align:start position:0%
a small pellet containing fusion fuel,
seeking<00:10:53.920><c> to</c><00:10:54.160><c> create</c><00:10:54.640><c> temporary</c><00:10:55.120><c> blobs</c><00:10:55.519><c> of</c>

00:10:55.670 --> 00:10:55.680 align:start position:0%
seeking to create temporary blobs of
 

00:10:55.680 --> 00:10:58.550 align:start position:0%
seeking to create temporary blobs of
plasma<00:10:56.320><c> which</c><00:10:56.640><c> release</c><00:10:57.120><c> fusion</c><00:10:57.600><c> energy</c><00:10:58.320><c> only</c>

00:10:58.550 --> 00:10:58.560 align:start position:0%
plasma which release fusion energy only
 

00:10:58.560 --> 00:11:01.350 align:start position:0%
plasma which release fusion energy only
for<00:10:58.800><c> a</c><00:10:59.120><c> few</c><00:10:59.440><c> nanos</c><00:11:00.399><c> before</c><00:11:00.640><c> the</c><00:11:00.880><c> plasma</c>

00:11:01.350 --> 00:11:01.360 align:start position:0%
for a few nanos before the plasma
 

00:11:01.360 --> 00:11:04.389 align:start position:0%
for a few nanos before the plasma
dissipates.<00:11:02.800><c> Both</c><00:11:03.120><c> of</c><00:11:03.200><c> these</c><00:11:03.440><c> approaches</c><00:11:04.000><c> are</c>

00:11:04.389 --> 00:11:04.399 align:start position:0%
dissipates. Both of these approaches are
 

00:11:04.399 --> 00:11:07.509 align:start position:0%
dissipates. Both of these approaches are
immense<00:11:05.200><c> engineering</c><00:11:05.760><c> challenges</c><00:11:06.640><c> requiring</c>

00:11:07.509 --> 00:11:07.519 align:start position:0%
immense engineering challenges requiring
 

00:11:07.519 --> 00:11:09.269 align:start position:0%
immense engineering challenges requiring
either<00:11:07.920><c> huge</c><00:11:08.240><c> amounts</c><00:11:08.560><c> of</c><00:11:08.720><c> continuous</c>

00:11:09.269 --> 00:11:09.279 align:start position:0%
either huge amounts of continuous
 

00:11:09.279 --> 00:11:12.710 align:start position:0%
either huge amounts of continuous
electricity<00:11:10.000><c> in</c><00:11:10.240><c> the</c><00:11:10.399><c> case</c><00:11:10.560><c> of</c><00:11:10.800><c> MCF</c><00:11:11.760><c> or</c><00:11:12.320><c> even</c>

00:11:12.710 --> 00:11:12.720 align:start position:0%
electricity in the case of MCF or even
 

00:11:12.720 --> 00:11:15.110 align:start position:0%
electricity in the case of MCF or even
larger<00:11:13.120><c> pulses</c><00:11:13.519><c> of</c><00:11:13.760><c> electricity</c><00:11:14.399><c> drawn</c><00:11:14.800><c> from</c>

00:11:15.110 --> 00:11:15.120 align:start position:0%
larger pulses of electricity drawn from
 

00:11:15.120 --> 00:11:17.110 align:start position:0%
larger pulses of electricity drawn from
banks<00:11:15.519><c> of</c><00:11:15.680><c> capacitors</c><00:11:15.967><c> [music]</c><00:11:16.480><c> in</c><00:11:16.720><c> the</c><00:11:16.880><c> case</c>

00:11:17.110 --> 00:11:17.120 align:start position:0%
banks of capacitors [music] in the case
 

00:11:17.120 --> 00:11:20.550 align:start position:0%
banks of capacitors [music] in the case
of<00:11:17.440><c> ICF.</c><00:11:18.800><c> But</c><00:11:19.040><c> not</c><00:11:19.279><c> only</c><00:11:19.440><c> do</c><00:11:19.680><c> the</c><00:11:19.839><c> huge</c><00:11:20.240><c> amounts</c>

00:11:20.550 --> 00:11:20.560 align:start position:0%
of ICF. But not only do the huge amounts
 

00:11:20.560 --> 00:11:22.790 align:start position:0%
of ICF. But not only do the huge amounts
of<00:11:20.720><c> power</c><00:11:21.040><c> involved</c><00:11:21.440><c> put</c><00:11:21.760><c> tremendous</c><00:11:22.480><c> strain</c>

00:11:22.790 --> 00:11:22.800 align:start position:0%
of power involved put tremendous strain
 

00:11:22.800 --> 00:11:25.190 align:start position:0%
of power involved put tremendous strain
on<00:11:23.120><c> components</c><00:11:23.839><c> which</c><00:11:24.160><c> have</c><00:11:24.320><c> to</c><00:11:24.480><c> be</c><00:11:24.720><c> replaced</c>

00:11:25.190 --> 00:11:25.200 align:start position:0%
on components which have to be replaced
 

00:11:25.200 --> 00:11:28.310 align:start position:0%
on components which have to be replaced
frequently,<00:11:26.399><c> it</c><00:11:26.640><c> means</c><00:11:26.880><c> that</c><00:11:27.360><c> for</c><00:11:27.680><c> a</c><00:11:27.920><c> reactor</c>

00:11:28.310 --> 00:11:28.320 align:start position:0%
frequently, it means that for a reactor
 

00:11:28.320 --> 00:11:30.710 align:start position:0%
frequently, it means that for a reactor
to<00:11:28.560><c> be</c><00:11:28.720><c> viable,</c><00:11:29.519><c> the</c><00:11:29.760><c> energy</c><00:11:30.079><c> obtained</c><00:11:30.480><c> from</c>

00:11:30.710 --> 00:11:30.720 align:start position:0%
to be viable, the energy obtained from
 

00:11:30.720 --> 00:11:33.750 align:start position:0%
to be viable, the energy obtained from
the<00:11:30.880><c> fusion</c><00:11:31.279><c> reaction</c><00:11:32.160><c> must</c><00:11:32.560><c> exceed</c><00:11:33.360><c> the</c>

00:11:33.750 --> 00:11:33.760 align:start position:0%
the fusion reaction must exceed the
 

00:11:33.760 --> 00:11:36.230 align:start position:0%
the fusion reaction must exceed the
colossal<00:11:34.399><c> amount</c><00:11:34.640><c> of</c><00:11:34.800><c> energy</c><00:11:35.360><c> required</c><00:11:35.839><c> to</c>

00:11:36.230 --> 00:11:36.240 align:start position:0%
colossal amount of energy required to
 

00:11:36.240 --> 00:11:40.949 align:start position:0%
colossal amount of energy required to
initiate<00:11:36.800><c> it.</c><00:11:37.600><c> A</c><00:11:37.920><c> considerable</c><00:11:38.560><c> challenge.</c>

00:11:40.949 --> 00:11:40.959 align:start position:0%
initiate it. A considerable challenge.
 

00:11:40.959 --> 00:11:43.590 align:start position:0%
initiate it. A considerable challenge.
As<00:11:41.200><c> I</c><00:11:41.440><c> was</c><00:11:41.600><c> saying,</c><00:11:42.079><c> fusion</c><00:11:42.560><c> reactors</c><00:11:43.279><c> take</c>

00:11:43.590 --> 00:11:43.600 align:start position:0%
As I was saying, fusion reactors take
 

00:11:43.600 --> 00:11:46.389 align:start position:0%
As I was saying, fusion reactors take
huge<00:11:44.000><c> amounts</c><00:11:44.240><c> of</c><00:11:44.399><c> energy</c><00:11:44.720><c> to</c><00:11:44.880><c> get</c><00:11:45.040><c> going.</c>

00:11:46.389 --> 00:11:46.399 align:start position:0%
huge amounts of energy to get going.
 

00:11:46.399 --> 00:11:48.790 align:start position:0%
huge amounts of energy to get going.
Now<00:11:46.720><c> you</c><00:11:46.959><c> might</c><00:11:47.120><c> think</c><00:11:47.760><c> surely</c><00:11:48.240><c> once</c><00:11:48.480><c> you</c><00:11:48.640><c> have</c>

00:11:48.790 --> 00:11:48.800 align:start position:0%
Now you might think surely once you have
 

00:11:48.800 --> 00:11:50.949 align:start position:0%
Now you might think surely once you have
surpassed<00:11:49.279><c> this</c><00:11:49.519><c> feat</c><00:11:50.000><c> you've</c><00:11:50.399><c> got</c><00:11:50.720><c> more</c>

00:11:50.949 --> 00:11:50.959 align:start position:0%
surpassed this feat you've got more
 

00:11:50.959 --> 00:11:53.350 align:start position:0%
surpassed this feat you've got more
energy<00:11:51.360><c> out</c><00:11:51.680><c> than</c><00:11:51.839><c> you</c><00:11:52.079><c> put</c><00:11:52.320><c> in.</c><00:11:53.040><c> That</c><00:11:53.200><c> would</c>

00:11:53.350 --> 00:11:53.360 align:start position:0%
energy out than you put in. That would
 

00:11:53.360 --> 00:11:56.870 align:start position:0%
energy out than you put in. That would
be<00:11:53.519><c> it.</c><00:11:54.000><c> A</c><00:11:54.320><c> huge</c><00:11:54.640><c> win.</c><00:11:55.680><c> After</c><00:11:55.920><c> all</c><00:11:56.160><c> the</c><00:11:56.320><c> fuel</c>

00:11:56.870 --> 00:11:56.880 align:start position:0%
be it. A huge win. After all the fuel
 

00:11:56.880 --> 00:12:00.310 align:start position:0%
be it. A huge win. After all the fuel
hydrogen<00:11:57.600><c> is</c><00:11:57.920><c> both</c><00:11:58.320><c> cheap</c><00:11:58.720><c> and</c><00:11:59.040><c> abundant.</c><00:12:00.160><c> But</c>

00:12:00.310 --> 00:12:00.320 align:start position:0%
hydrogen is both cheap and abundant. But
 

00:12:00.320 --> 00:12:02.949 align:start position:0%
hydrogen is both cheap and abundant. But
alas<00:12:01.120><c> it</c><00:12:01.279><c> is</c><00:12:01.440><c> not</c><00:12:01.680><c> that</c><00:12:01.920><c> simple.</c><00:12:02.560><c> And</c><00:12:02.720><c> to</c>

00:12:02.949 --> 00:12:02.959 align:start position:0%
alas it is not that simple. And to
 

00:12:02.959 --> 00:12:05.030 align:start position:0%
alas it is not that simple. And to
understand<00:12:03.360><c> why</c><00:12:03.680><c> we</c><00:12:03.920><c> have</c><00:12:04.000><c> to</c><00:12:04.160><c> look</c><00:12:04.399><c> back</c><00:12:04.720><c> once</c>

00:12:05.030 --> 00:12:05.040 align:start position:0%
understand why we have to look back once
 

00:12:05.040 --> 00:12:07.190 align:start position:0%
understand why we have to look back once
again<00:12:05.279><c> at</c><00:12:05.519><c> our</c><00:12:05.839><c> star</c><00:12:06.399><c> and</c><00:12:06.639><c> the</c><00:12:06.800><c> fusion</c>

00:12:07.190 --> 00:12:07.200 align:start position:0%
again at our star and the fusion
 

00:12:07.200 --> 00:12:09.670 align:start position:0%
again at our star and the fusion
reactions<00:12:07.680><c> that</c><00:12:08.079><c> only</c><00:12:08.480><c> take</c><00:12:08.720><c> place</c><00:12:09.279><c> deep</c>

00:12:09.670 --> 00:12:09.680 align:start position:0%
reactions that only take place deep
 

00:12:09.680 --> 00:12:13.829 align:start position:0%
reactions that only take place deep
inside<00:12:10.160><c> the</c><00:12:10.399><c> stellar</c><00:12:10.800><c> core.</c>

00:12:13.829 --> 00:12:13.839 align:start position:0%
 
 

00:12:13.839 --> 00:12:15.750 align:start position:0%
 
It<00:12:14.079><c> is</c><00:12:14.240><c> here</c><00:12:14.480><c> in</c><00:12:14.720><c> the</c><00:12:14.880><c> sun's</c><00:12:15.200><c> core</c><00:12:15.440><c> that</c>

00:12:15.750 --> 00:12:15.760 align:start position:0%
It is here in the sun's core that
 

00:12:15.760 --> 00:12:18.470 align:start position:0%
It is here in the sun's core that
hydrogen<00:12:16.399><c> is</c><00:12:16.639><c> fused</c><00:12:17.040><c> into</c><00:12:17.360><c> helium</c><00:12:18.000><c> via</c>

00:12:18.470 --> 00:12:18.480 align:start position:0%
hydrogen is fused into helium via
 

00:12:18.480 --> 00:12:21.350 align:start position:0%
hydrogen is fused into helium via
multi-step<00:12:19.360><c> reaction.</c><00:12:20.480><c> Firstly,</c><00:12:21.120><c> two</c>

00:12:21.350 --> 00:12:21.360 align:start position:0%
multi-step reaction. Firstly, two
 

00:12:21.360 --> 00:12:24.069 align:start position:0%
multi-step reaction. Firstly, two
hydrogen<00:12:21.839><c> nuclei</c><00:12:22.639><c> or</c><00:12:22.880><c> single</c><00:12:23.200><c> protons</c>

00:12:24.069 --> 00:12:24.079 align:start position:0%
hydrogen nuclei or single protons
 

00:12:24.079 --> 00:12:26.949 align:start position:0%
hydrogen nuclei or single protons
combine<00:12:24.959><c> with</c><00:12:25.279><c> one</c><00:12:25.680><c> undergoing</c><00:12:26.240><c> a</c><00:12:26.480><c> process</c>

00:12:26.949 --> 00:12:26.959 align:start position:0%
combine with one undergoing a process
 

00:12:26.959 --> 00:12:29.910 align:start position:0%
combine with one undergoing a process
called<00:12:27.360><c> beta</c><00:12:27.839><c> decay</c><00:12:28.480><c> to</c><00:12:28.800><c> transform</c><00:12:29.279><c> it</c><00:12:29.519><c> into</c><00:12:29.760><c> a</c>

00:12:29.910 --> 00:12:29.920 align:start position:0%
called beta decay to transform it into a
 

00:12:29.920 --> 00:12:32.710 align:start position:0%
called beta decay to transform it into a
neutron.<00:12:30.959><c> The</c><00:12:31.200><c> resulting</c><00:12:31.760><c> neutron</c><00:12:32.320><c> proton</c>

00:12:32.710 --> 00:12:32.720 align:start position:0%
neutron. The resulting neutron proton
 

00:12:32.720 --> 00:12:35.350 align:start position:0%
neutron. The resulting neutron proton
pair<00:12:33.120><c> is</c><00:12:33.360><c> a</c><00:12:33.600><c> nucleus</c><00:12:34.079><c> of</c><00:12:34.240><c> a</c><00:12:34.399><c> heavy</c><00:12:34.720><c> isotope</c><00:12:35.200><c> of</c>

00:12:35.350 --> 00:12:35.360 align:start position:0%
pair is a nucleus of a heavy isotope of
 

00:12:35.360 --> 00:12:38.150 align:start position:0%
pair is a nucleus of a heavy isotope of
hydrogen<00:12:36.000><c> known</c><00:12:36.320><c> as</c><00:12:36.639><c> dutyium.</c>

00:12:38.150 --> 00:12:38.160 align:start position:0%
hydrogen known as dutyium.
 

00:12:38.160 --> 00:12:39.990 align:start position:0%
hydrogen known as dutyium.
In<00:12:38.399><c> the</c><00:12:38.560><c> next</c><00:12:38.720><c> step,</c><00:12:39.120><c> another</c><00:12:39.519><c> proton</c>

00:12:39.990 --> 00:12:40.000 align:start position:0%
In the next step, another proton
 

00:12:40.000 --> 00:12:42.230 align:start position:0%
In the next step, another proton
combines<00:12:40.560><c> with</c><00:12:40.720><c> the</c><00:12:40.880><c> dutarium</c><00:12:41.519><c> nucleus</c><00:12:42.000><c> to</c>

00:12:42.230 --> 00:12:42.240 align:start position:0%
combines with the dutarium nucleus to
 

00:12:42.240 --> 00:12:45.590 align:start position:0%
combines with the dutarium nucleus to
generate<00:12:42.720><c> a</c><00:12:43.040><c> helium</c><00:12:43.680><c> 3</c><00:12:44.079><c> nucleus.</c>

00:12:45.590 --> 00:12:45.600 align:start position:0%
generate a helium 3 nucleus.
 

00:12:45.600 --> 00:12:48.710 align:start position:0%
generate a helium 3 nucleus.
In<00:12:45.839><c> the</c><00:12:46.000><c> final</c><00:12:46.240><c> step,</c><00:12:47.040><c> two</c><00:12:47.360><c> of</c><00:12:47.519><c> these</c><00:12:47.839><c> helium</c><00:12:48.480><c> 3</c>

00:12:48.710 --> 00:12:48.720 align:start position:0%
In the final step, two of these helium 3
 

00:12:48.720 --> 00:12:51.750 align:start position:0%
In the final step, two of these helium 3
nuclei<00:12:49.519><c> fuse</c><00:12:49.920><c> to</c><00:12:50.160><c> produce</c><00:12:50.639><c> a</c><00:12:50.880><c> helium</c><00:12:51.440><c> 4</c>

00:12:51.750 --> 00:12:51.760 align:start position:0%
nuclei fuse to produce a helium 4
 

00:12:51.760 --> 00:12:54.790 align:start position:0%
nuclei fuse to produce a helium 4
nucleus<00:12:52.560><c> containing</c><00:12:53.120><c> two</c><00:12:53.440><c> protons</c><00:12:54.160><c> and</c><00:12:54.560><c> two</c>

00:12:54.790 --> 00:12:54.800 align:start position:0%
nucleus containing two protons and two
 

00:12:54.800 --> 00:12:57.509 align:start position:0%
nucleus containing two protons and two
neutrons,<00:12:55.839><c> also</c><00:12:56.160><c> known</c><00:12:56.639><c> as</c><00:12:56.880><c> an</c><00:12:57.120><c> alpha</c>

00:12:57.509 --> 00:12:57.519 align:start position:0%
neutrons, also known as an alpha
 

00:12:57.519 --> 00:13:01.269 align:start position:0%
neutrons, also known as an alpha
particle,<00:12:58.560><c> as</c><00:12:58.800><c> well</c><00:12:59.120><c> as</c><00:12:59.360><c> two</c><00:12:59.680><c> protons.</c>

00:13:01.269 --> 00:13:01.279 align:start position:0%
particle, as well as two protons.
 

00:13:01.279 --> 00:13:03.350 align:start position:0%
particle, as well as two protons.
Now,<00:13:01.680><c> this</c><00:13:01.920><c> may</c><00:13:02.160><c> sound</c><00:13:02.720><c> fairly</c>

00:13:03.350 --> 00:13:03.360 align:start position:0%
Now, this may sound fairly
 

00:13:03.360 --> 00:13:05.990 align:start position:0%
Now, this may sound fairly
straightforward,<00:13:04.320><c> but</c><00:13:04.560><c> it's</c><00:13:04.800><c> not.</c><00:13:05.680><c> The</c>

00:13:05.990 --> 00:13:06.000 align:start position:0%
straightforward, but it's not. The
 

00:13:06.000 --> 00:13:08.710 align:start position:0%
straightforward, but it's not. The
reason<00:13:06.240><c> being</c><00:13:06.959><c> that</c><00:13:07.279><c> even</c><00:13:07.600><c> in</c><00:13:07.839><c> the</c><00:13:08.079><c> sun</c>

00:13:08.710 --> 00:13:08.720 align:start position:0%
reason being that even in the sun
 

00:13:08.720 --> 00:13:11.509 align:start position:0%
reason being that even in the sun
getting<00:13:09.200><c> two</c><00:13:09.680><c> protons</c><00:13:10.240><c> to</c><00:13:10.480><c> react</c><00:13:10.880><c> to</c><00:13:11.120><c> form</c>

00:13:11.509 --> 00:13:11.519 align:start position:0%
getting two protons to react to form
 

00:13:11.519 --> 00:13:14.389 align:start position:0%
getting two protons to react to form
dutyium<00:13:12.560><c> the</c><00:13:12.800><c> first</c><00:13:12.959><c> step</c><00:13:13.120><c> of</c><00:13:13.279><c> the</c><00:13:13.440><c> reaction</c>

00:13:14.389 --> 00:13:14.399 align:start position:0%
dutyium the first step of the reaction
 

00:13:14.399 --> 00:13:18.150 align:start position:0%
dutyium the first step of the reaction
is<00:13:14.800><c> far</c><00:13:15.200><c> from</c><00:13:15.519><c> easy.</c><00:13:16.639><c> Firstly,</c><00:13:17.519><c> in</c><00:13:17.760><c> order</c><00:13:18.000><c> to</c>

00:13:18.150 --> 00:13:18.160 align:start position:0%
is far from easy. Firstly, in order to
 

00:13:18.160 --> 00:13:20.710 align:start position:0%
is far from easy. Firstly, in order to
fuse<00:13:18.639><c> the</c><00:13:18.800><c> protons</c><00:13:19.360><c> must</c><00:13:19.600><c> get</c><00:13:20.000><c> extremely</c>

00:13:20.710 --> 00:13:20.720 align:start position:0%
fuse the protons must get extremely
 

00:13:20.720 --> 00:13:25.350 align:start position:0%
fuse the protons must get extremely
close<00:13:20.959><c> to</c><00:13:21.200><c> each</c><00:13:21.360><c> other</c><00:13:21.920><c> around</c><00:13:22.480><c> 10</c><00:13:23.279><c> ^</c><00:13:23.680><c> -15</c><00:13:24.959><c> m</c>

00:13:25.350 --> 00:13:25.360 align:start position:0%
close to each other around 10 ^ -15 m
 

00:13:25.360 --> 00:13:28.389 align:start position:0%
close to each other around 10 ^ -15 m
apart.<00:13:26.240><c> That</c><00:13:26.480><c> is</c><00:13:26.720><c> so</c><00:13:27.120><c> the</c><00:13:27.440><c> strong</c><00:13:27.920><c> nuclear</c>

00:13:28.389 --> 00:13:28.399 align:start position:0%
apart. That is so the strong nuclear
 

00:13:28.399 --> 00:13:30.629 align:start position:0%
apart. That is so the strong nuclear
force,<00:13:29.040><c> the</c><00:13:29.200><c> force</c><00:13:29.519><c> that</c><00:13:29.680><c> holds</c><00:13:30.079><c> protons</c><00:13:30.480><c> and</c>

00:13:30.629 --> 00:13:30.639 align:start position:0%
force, the force that holds protons and
 

00:13:30.639 --> 00:13:32.629 align:start position:0%
force, the force that holds protons and
neutrons<00:13:31.120><c> together</c><00:13:31.519><c> in</c><00:13:31.760><c> the</c><00:13:31.920><c> nucleus</c><00:13:32.320><c> of</c><00:13:32.399><c> an</c>

00:13:32.629 --> 00:13:32.639 align:start position:0%
neutrons together in the nucleus of an
 

00:13:32.639 --> 00:13:35.190 align:start position:0%
neutrons together in the nucleus of an
atom<00:13:33.360><c> kicks</c><00:13:33.680><c> in</c><00:13:34.240><c> and</c><00:13:34.480><c> they</c><00:13:34.639><c> are</c><00:13:34.800><c> drawn</c>

00:13:35.190 --> 00:13:35.200 align:start position:0%
atom kicks in and they are drawn
 

00:13:35.200 --> 00:13:38.069 align:start position:0%
atom kicks in and they are drawn
together.<00:13:36.399><c> However,</c><00:13:36.880><c> for</c><00:13:37.120><c> two</c><00:13:37.519><c> positively</c>

00:13:38.069 --> 00:13:38.079 align:start position:0%
together. However, for two positively
 

00:13:38.079 --> 00:13:40.629 align:start position:0%
together. However, for two positively
charged<00:13:38.560><c> protons,</c><00:13:39.600><c> getting</c><00:13:39.920><c> this</c><00:13:40.160><c> close</c>

00:13:40.629 --> 00:13:40.639 align:start position:0%
charged protons, getting this close
 

00:13:40.639 --> 00:13:43.670 align:start position:0%
charged protons, getting this close
means<00:13:41.040><c> overcoming</c><00:13:41.760><c> an</c><00:13:42.079><c> immense</c><00:13:42.720><c> amount</c><00:13:43.200><c> of</c>

00:13:43.670 --> 00:13:43.680 align:start position:0%
means overcoming an immense amount of
 

00:13:43.680 --> 00:13:47.190 align:start position:0%
means overcoming an immense amount of
electrostatic<00:13:44.720><c> repulsion.</c><00:13:45.839><c> So</c><00:13:46.160><c> much</c><00:13:46.320><c> so</c><00:13:46.880><c> that</c>

00:13:47.190 --> 00:13:47.200 align:start position:0%
electrostatic repulsion. So much so that
 

00:13:47.200 --> 00:13:49.430 align:start position:0%
electrostatic repulsion. So much so that
even<00:13:47.440><c> the</c><00:13:47.680><c> kinetic</c><00:13:48.079><c> energy</c><00:13:48.560><c> provided</c><00:13:49.040><c> by</c><00:13:49.279><c> the</c>

00:13:49.430 --> 00:13:49.440 align:start position:0%
even the kinetic energy provided by the
 

00:13:49.440 --> 00:13:51.110 align:start position:0%
even the kinetic energy provided by the
extreme<00:13:50.000><c> conditions</c><00:13:50.320><c> at</c><00:13:50.560><c> the</c><00:13:50.639><c> heart</c><00:13:50.880><c> of</c><00:13:50.959><c> the</c>

00:13:51.110 --> 00:13:51.120 align:start position:0%
extreme conditions at the heart of the
 

00:13:51.120 --> 00:13:53.269 align:start position:0%
extreme conditions at the heart of the
sun<00:13:51.680><c> where</c><00:13:52.079><c> protons</c><00:13:52.639><c> are</c><00:13:52.880><c> traveling</c><00:13:53.169><c> [music]</c>

00:13:53.269 --> 00:13:53.279 align:start position:0%
sun where protons are traveling [music]
 

00:13:53.279 --> 00:13:55.990 align:start position:0%
sun where protons are traveling [music]
around<00:13:53.760><c> 500</c><00:13:54.240><c> km/s</c>

00:13:55.990 --> 00:13:56.000 align:start position:0%
around 500 km/s
 

00:13:56.000 --> 00:13:59.189 align:start position:0%
around 500 km/s
is<00:13:56.639><c> wildly</c><00:13:57.440><c> insufficient.</c>

00:13:59.189 --> 00:13:59.199 align:start position:0%
is wildly insufficient.
 

00:13:59.199 --> 00:14:01.990 align:start position:0%
is wildly insufficient.
In<00:13:59.440><c> fact,</c><00:13:59.920><c> protons</c><00:14:00.639><c> have</c><00:14:00.880><c> only</c><00:14:01.360><c> around</c>

00:14:01.990 --> 00:14:02.000 align:start position:0%
In fact, protons have only around
 

00:14:02.000 --> 00:14:04.389 align:start position:0%
In fact, protons have only around
1,000th<00:14:02.959><c> of</c><00:14:03.120><c> the</c><00:14:03.360><c> kinetic</c><00:14:03.760><c> energy</c><00:14:04.079><c> they</c>

00:14:04.389 --> 00:14:04.399 align:start position:0%
1,000th of the kinetic energy they
 

00:14:04.399 --> 00:14:07.110 align:start position:0%
1,000th of the kinetic energy they
require<00:14:04.800><c> to</c><00:14:05.040><c> overcome</c><00:14:05.440><c> this</c><00:14:05.680><c> barrier.</c><00:14:06.800><c> It</c>

00:14:07.110 --> 00:14:07.120 align:start position:0%
require to overcome this barrier. It
 

00:14:07.120 --> 00:14:09.910 align:start position:0%
require to overcome this barrier. It
turns<00:14:07.360><c> out</c><00:14:08.079><c> the</c><00:14:08.480><c> only</c><00:14:08.880><c> reason</c><00:14:09.199><c> the</c><00:14:09.440><c> sun</c><00:14:09.680><c> is</c>

00:14:09.910 --> 00:14:09.920 align:start position:0%
turns out the only reason the sun is
 

00:14:09.920 --> 00:14:13.750 align:start position:0%
turns out the only reason the sun is
able<00:14:10.240><c> to</c><00:14:10.480><c> sustain</c><00:14:11.040><c> fusion</c><00:14:11.519><c> at</c><00:14:11.839><c> all</c><00:14:12.639><c> is</c><00:14:12.959><c> because</c>

00:14:13.750 --> 00:14:13.760 align:start position:0%
able to sustain fusion at all is because
 

00:14:13.760 --> 00:14:17.189 align:start position:0%
able to sustain fusion at all is because
quantum<00:14:14.320><c> effects</c><00:14:14.880><c> come</c><00:14:15.040><c> into</c><00:14:15.360><c> play.</c><00:14:16.480><c> Now</c><00:14:17.040><c> you</c>

00:14:17.189 --> 00:14:17.199 align:start position:0%
quantum effects come into play. Now you
 

00:14:17.199 --> 00:14:19.110 align:start position:0%
quantum effects come into play. Now you
may<00:14:17.440><c> remember</c><00:14:17.760><c> that</c><00:14:18.079><c> according</c><00:14:18.480><c> to</c><00:14:18.720><c> quantum</c>

00:14:19.110 --> 00:14:19.120 align:start position:0%
may remember that according to quantum
 

00:14:19.120 --> 00:14:21.350 align:start position:0%
may remember that according to quantum
physics<00:14:19.760><c> protons</c><00:14:20.320><c> don't</c><00:14:20.639><c> just</c><00:14:20.880><c> act</c><00:14:21.120><c> as</c>

00:14:21.350 --> 00:14:21.360 align:start position:0%
physics protons don't just act as
 

00:14:21.360 --> 00:14:24.470 align:start position:0%
physics protons don't just act as
particles<00:14:22.240><c> they</c><00:14:22.480><c> also</c><00:14:22.720><c> act</c><00:14:22.959><c> as</c><00:14:23.199><c> waves.</c><00:14:24.240><c> This</c>

00:14:24.470 --> 00:14:24.480 align:start position:0%
particles they also act as waves. This
 

00:14:24.480 --> 00:14:28.629 align:start position:0%
particles they also act as waves. This
wave<00:14:24.959><c> behavior</c><00:14:25.440><c> means</c><00:14:25.760><c> that</c><00:14:26.079><c> in</c><00:14:26.560><c> 10</c><00:14:27.120><c> ^</c><00:14:27.600><c> 28</c>

00:14:28.629 --> 00:14:28.639 align:start position:0%
wave behavior means that in 10 ^ 28
 

00:14:28.639 --> 00:14:32.069 align:start position:0%
wave behavior means that in 10 ^ 28
proton<00:14:29.199><c> proton</c><00:14:29.680><c> interactions</c><00:14:30.959><c> the</c><00:14:31.199><c> protons</c>

00:14:32.069 --> 00:14:32.079 align:start position:0%
proton proton interactions the protons
 

00:14:32.079 --> 00:14:34.629 align:start position:0%
proton proton interactions the protons
can<00:14:32.800><c> overcome</c><00:14:33.279><c> this</c><00:14:33.519><c> energy</c><00:14:33.839><c> barrier.</c>

00:14:34.629 --> 00:14:34.639 align:start position:0%
can overcome this energy barrier.
 

00:14:34.639 --> 00:14:36.710 align:start position:0%
can overcome this energy barrier.
getting<00:14:34.959><c> close</c><00:14:35.199><c> enough</c><00:14:35.600><c> that</c><00:14:35.920><c> the</c><00:14:36.160><c> strong</c>

00:14:36.710 --> 00:14:36.720 align:start position:0%
getting close enough that the strong
 

00:14:36.720 --> 00:14:39.509 align:start position:0%
getting close enough that the strong
nuclear<00:14:37.199><c> force</c><00:14:37.680><c> pulls</c><00:14:38.079><c> them</c><00:14:38.240><c> together.</c><00:14:39.279><c> This</c>

00:14:39.509 --> 00:14:39.519 align:start position:0%
nuclear force pulls them together. This
 

00:14:39.519 --> 00:14:43.030 align:start position:0%
nuclear force pulls them together. This
is<00:14:39.760><c> called</c><00:14:40.560><c> quantum</c><00:14:41.279><c> tunneling.</c><00:14:42.480><c> But</c><00:14:42.720><c> even</c>

00:14:43.030 --> 00:14:43.040 align:start position:0%
is called quantum tunneling. But even
 

00:14:43.040 --> 00:14:45.509 align:start position:0%
is called quantum tunneling. But even
when<00:14:43.440><c> protons</c><00:14:44.160><c> are</c><00:14:44.480><c> drawn</c><00:14:44.880><c> together</c><00:14:45.279><c> this</c>

00:14:45.509 --> 00:14:45.519 align:start position:0%
when protons are drawn together this
 

00:14:45.519 --> 00:14:48.150 align:start position:0%
when protons are drawn together this
way,<00:14:46.399><c> there</c><00:14:46.560><c> is</c><00:14:46.800><c> yet</c><00:14:47.120><c> another</c><00:14:47.600><c> effect</c><00:14:47.920><c> to</c>

00:14:48.150 --> 00:14:48.160 align:start position:0%
way, there is yet another effect to
 

00:14:48.160 --> 00:14:50.550 align:start position:0%
way, there is yet another effect to
contend<00:14:48.480><c> with.</c><00:14:49.360><c> The</c><00:14:49.600><c> force</c><00:14:49.839><c> that</c><00:14:50.079><c> mediates</c>

00:14:50.550 --> 00:14:50.560 align:start position:0%
contend with. The force that mediates
 

00:14:50.560 --> 00:14:52.389 align:start position:0%
contend with. The force that mediates
the<00:14:50.800><c> conversion</c><00:14:51.199><c> of</c><00:14:51.440><c> one</c><00:14:51.680><c> of</c><00:14:51.760><c> the</c><00:14:51.920><c> protons</c>

00:14:52.389 --> 00:14:52.399 align:start position:0%
the conversion of one of the protons
 

00:14:52.399 --> 00:14:55.750 align:start position:0%
the conversion of one of the protons
into<00:14:52.720><c> a</c><00:14:52.880><c> neutron</c><00:14:53.600><c> is</c><00:14:53.920><c> the</c><00:14:54.079><c> weak</c><00:14:54.480><c> force,</c><00:14:55.279><c> which</c>

00:14:55.750 --> 00:14:55.760 align:start position:0%
into a neutron is the weak force, which
 

00:14:55.760 --> 00:14:57.910 align:start position:0%
into a neutron is the weak force, which
because<00:14:56.079><c> it</c><00:14:56.320><c> is</c><00:14:56.480><c> controlled</c><00:14:56.880><c> by</c><00:14:57.040><c> the</c><00:14:57.279><c> massive</c>

00:14:57.910 --> 00:14:57.920 align:start position:0%
because it is controlled by the massive
 

00:14:57.920 --> 00:15:01.590 align:start position:0%
because it is controlled by the massive
W<00:14:58.240><c> bzon</c><00:14:59.199><c> is</c><00:14:59.519><c> very</c><00:14:59.920><c> inefficient.</c><00:15:01.120><c> This</c><00:15:01.360><c> leads</c>

00:15:01.590 --> 00:15:01.600 align:start position:0%
W bzon is very inefficient. This leads
 

00:15:01.600 --> 00:15:03.829 align:start position:0%
W bzon is very inefficient. This leads
to<00:15:01.760><c> the</c><00:15:02.000><c> more</c><00:15:02.240><c> likely</c><00:15:02.720><c> product</c><00:15:02.959><c> of</c><00:15:03.199><c> the</c><00:15:03.360><c> proton</c>

00:15:03.829 --> 00:15:03.839 align:start position:0%
to the more likely product of the proton
 

00:15:03.839 --> 00:15:06.230 align:start position:0%
to the more likely product of the proton
proton<00:15:04.160><c> reaction</c><00:15:04.560><c> being</c><00:15:04.800><c> a</c><00:15:05.040><c> proton</c><00:15:05.519><c> pair</c>

00:15:06.230 --> 00:15:06.240 align:start position:0%
proton reaction being a proton pair
 

00:15:06.240 --> 00:15:09.110 align:start position:0%
proton reaction being a proton pair
which<00:15:06.720><c> immediately</c><00:15:07.680><c> decays</c><00:15:08.240><c> back</c><00:15:08.800><c> into</c>

00:15:09.110 --> 00:15:09.120 align:start position:0%
which immediately decays back into
 

00:15:09.120 --> 00:15:11.269 align:start position:0%
which immediately decays back into
single<00:15:09.440><c> protons.</c>

00:15:11.269 --> 00:15:11.279 align:start position:0%
single protons.
 

00:15:11.279 --> 00:15:13.269 align:start position:0%
single protons.
Together<00:15:11.920><c> these</c><00:15:12.240><c> effects</c><00:15:12.720><c> mean</c><00:15:12.880><c> that</c><00:15:13.120><c> the</c>

00:15:13.269 --> 00:15:13.279 align:start position:0%
Together these effects mean that the
 

00:15:13.279 --> 00:15:16.230 align:start position:0%
Together these effects mean that the
rate<00:15:13.440><c> of</c><00:15:13.600><c> proton</c><00:15:14.079><c> conversion</c><00:15:14.480><c> in</c><00:15:14.800><c> our</c><00:15:15.120><c> star</c><00:15:15.760><c> is</c>

00:15:16.230 --> 00:15:16.240 align:start position:0%
rate of proton conversion in our star is
 

00:15:16.240 --> 00:15:19.509 align:start position:0%
rate of proton conversion in our star is
extremely<00:15:17.040><c> slow.</c><00:15:18.000><c> On</c><00:15:18.320><c> average</c><00:15:18.720><c> a</c><00:15:18.880><c> proton</c><00:15:19.279><c> will</c>

00:15:19.509 --> 00:15:19.519 align:start position:0%
extremely slow. On average a proton will
 

00:15:19.519 --> 00:15:23.030 align:start position:0%
extremely slow. On average a proton will
wait<00:15:20.000><c> 10</c><00:15:20.639><c> billion</c><00:15:21.279><c> years</c><00:15:22.079><c> before</c><00:15:22.480><c> undergoing</c>

00:15:23.030 --> 00:15:23.040 align:start position:0%
wait 10 billion years before undergoing
 

00:15:23.040 --> 00:15:26.310 align:start position:0%
wait 10 billion years before undergoing
fusion.<00:15:24.079><c> Indeed,</c><00:15:24.880><c> the</c><00:15:25.279><c> only</c><00:15:25.600><c> reason</c><00:15:26.000><c> the</c>

00:15:26.310 --> 00:15:26.320 align:start position:0%
fusion. Indeed, the only reason the
 

00:15:26.320 --> 00:15:29.030 align:start position:0%
fusion. Indeed, the only reason the
proton<00:15:26.800><c> proton</c><00:15:27.120><c> reaction</c><00:15:27.519><c> proceeds</c><00:15:28.000><c> at</c><00:15:28.320><c> all</c>

00:15:29.030 --> 00:15:29.040 align:start position:0%
proton proton reaction proceeds at all
 

00:15:29.040 --> 00:15:31.509 align:start position:0%
proton proton reaction proceeds at all
is<00:15:29.360><c> because</c><00:15:29.680><c> there</c><00:15:30.000><c> are</c><00:15:30.320><c> a</c><00:15:30.800><c> heck</c><00:15:31.040><c> of</c><00:15:31.199><c> a</c><00:15:31.279><c> lot</c><00:15:31.440><c> of</c>

00:15:31.509 --> 00:15:31.519 align:start position:0%
is because there are a heck of a lot of
 

00:15:31.519 --> 00:15:33.509 align:start position:0%
is because there are a heck of a lot of
protons<00:15:31.920><c> in</c><00:15:32.079><c> the</c><00:15:32.240><c> sun,</c><00:15:32.800><c> allowing</c><00:15:33.199><c> it</c><00:15:33.360><c> to</c>

00:15:33.509 --> 00:15:33.519 align:start position:0%
protons in the sun, allowing it to
 

00:15:33.519 --> 00:15:37.030 align:start position:0%
protons in the sun, allowing it to
convert<00:15:34.079><c> 600</c><00:15:34.800><c> million</c><00:15:35.120><c> tons</c><00:15:35.440><c> of</c><00:15:35.680><c> hydrogen</c><00:15:36.560><c> to</c>

00:15:37.030 --> 00:15:37.040 align:start position:0%
convert 600 million tons of hydrogen to
 

00:15:37.040 --> 00:15:38.550 align:start position:0%
convert 600 million tons of hydrogen to
596

00:15:38.550 --> 00:15:38.560 align:start position:0%
596
 

00:15:38.560 --> 00:15:42.230 align:start position:0%
596
tons<00:15:38.880><c> of</c><00:15:39.040><c> helium</c><00:15:39.600><c> every</c><00:15:40.079><c> second.</c><00:15:41.519><c> This</c><00:15:41.839><c> sounds</c>

00:15:42.230 --> 00:15:42.240 align:start position:0%
tons of helium every second. This sounds
 

00:15:42.240 --> 00:15:44.790 align:start position:0%
tons of helium every second. This sounds
like<00:15:42.399><c> a</c><00:15:42.639><c> lot,</c><00:15:43.360><c> but</c><00:15:43.600><c> it's</c><00:15:43.920><c> actually</c><00:15:44.320><c> only</c><00:15:44.560><c> a</c>

00:15:44.790 --> 00:15:44.800 align:start position:0%
like a lot, but it's actually only a
 

00:15:44.800 --> 00:15:46.790 align:start position:0%
like a lot, but it's actually only a
tiny<00:15:45.120><c> fraction</c><00:15:45.600><c> of</c><00:15:45.760><c> the</c><00:15:45.920><c> hydrogen</c><00:15:46.399><c> available</c>

00:15:46.790 --> 00:15:46.800 align:start position:0%
tiny fraction of the hydrogen available
 

00:15:46.800 --> 00:15:49.749 align:start position:0%
tiny fraction of the hydrogen available
for<00:15:47.040><c> fusion.</c><00:15:48.240><c> Now</c><00:15:48.720><c> stopping</c><00:15:49.040><c> for</c><00:15:49.199><c> a</c><00:15:49.360><c> moment</c><00:15:49.600><c> to</c>

00:15:49.749 --> 00:15:49.759 align:start position:0%
for fusion. Now stopping for a moment to
 

00:15:49.759 --> 00:15:51.990 align:start position:0%
for fusion. Now stopping for a moment to
look<00:15:49.920><c> at</c><00:15:50.000><c> the</c><00:15:50.160><c> big</c><00:15:50.399><c> picture.</c><00:15:51.199><c> This</c><00:15:51.360><c> is</c><00:15:51.600><c> very</c>

00:15:51.990 --> 00:15:52.000 align:start position:0%
look at the big picture. This is very
 

00:15:52.000 --> 00:15:55.030 align:start position:0%
look at the big picture. This is very
good<00:15:52.320><c> news</c><00:15:52.639><c> for</c><00:15:52.880><c> us</c><00:15:53.120><c> earthlings.</c><00:15:54.240><c> It</c><00:15:54.480><c> means</c>

00:15:55.030 --> 00:15:55.040 align:start position:0%
good news for us earthlings. It means
 

00:15:55.040 --> 00:15:57.350 align:start position:0%
good news for us earthlings. It means
instead<00:15:55.519><c> of</c><00:15:55.759><c> annihilating</c><00:15:56.560><c> itself</c><00:15:56.880><c> in</c><00:15:57.120><c> a</c>

00:15:57.350 --> 00:15:57.360 align:start position:0%
instead of annihilating itself in a
 

00:15:57.360 --> 00:16:00.069 align:start position:0%
instead of annihilating itself in a
giant<00:15:57.759><c> thermonuclear</c><00:15:58.720><c> explosion,</c><00:15:59.600><c> the</c><00:15:59.839><c> sun</c>

00:16:00.069 --> 00:16:00.079 align:start position:0%
giant thermonuclear explosion, the sun
 

00:16:00.079 --> 00:16:02.310 align:start position:0%
giant thermonuclear explosion, the sun
has<00:16:00.320><c> been</c><00:16:00.720><c> gently</c><00:16:01.519><c> burning</c><00:16:01.839><c> through</c><00:16:02.079><c> its</c>

00:16:02.310 --> 00:16:02.320 align:start position:0%
has been gently burning through its
 

00:16:02.320 --> 00:16:05.030 align:start position:0%
has been gently burning through its
hydrogen<00:16:02.800><c> stocks</c><00:16:03.279><c> for</c><00:16:03.519><c> around</c><00:16:03.920><c> 4.6</c><00:16:04.639><c> billion</c>

00:16:05.030 --> 00:16:05.040 align:start position:0%
hydrogen stocks for around 4.6 billion
 

00:16:05.040 --> 00:16:07.430 align:start position:0%
hydrogen stocks for around 4.6 billion
years<00:16:05.680><c> and</c><00:16:05.920><c> will</c><00:16:06.240><c> continue</c><00:16:06.560><c> to</c><00:16:06.800><c> do</c><00:16:06.959><c> so</c><00:16:07.199><c> for</c><00:16:07.440><c> at</c>

00:16:07.430 --> 00:16:07.440 align:start position:0%
years and will continue to do so for at
 

00:16:07.440 --> 00:16:10.389 align:start position:0%
years and will continue to do so for at
least<00:16:07.759><c> a</c><00:16:08.000><c> few</c><00:16:08.160><c> billion</c><00:16:08.480><c> more.</c><00:16:09.680><c> It's</c><00:16:10.000><c> only</c>

00:16:10.389 --> 00:16:10.399 align:start position:0%
least a few billion more. It's only
 

00:16:10.399 --> 00:16:12.470 align:start position:0%
least a few billion more. It's only
because<00:16:10.959><c> protons</c><00:16:11.519><c> are</c><00:16:11.680><c> so</c><00:16:12.000><c> slow</c><00:16:12.240><c> at</c>

00:16:12.470 --> 00:16:12.480 align:start position:0%
because protons are so slow at
 

00:16:12.480 --> 00:16:15.189 align:start position:0%
because protons are so slow at
converting<00:16:12.880><c> into</c><00:16:13.279><c> detium</c><00:16:14.320><c> that</c><00:16:14.560><c> we</c><00:16:14.800><c> are</c><00:16:14.959><c> here</c>

00:16:15.189 --> 00:16:15.199 align:start position:0%
converting into detium that we are here
 

00:16:15.199 --> 00:16:17.030 align:start position:0%
converting into detium that we are here
at<00:16:15.519><c> all.</c>

00:16:17.030 --> 00:16:17.040 align:start position:0%
at all.
 

00:16:17.040 --> 00:16:20.470 align:start position:0%
at all.
For<00:16:17.279><c> fusion</c><00:16:17.839><c> on</c><00:16:18.399><c> earth</c><00:16:19.279><c> on</c><00:16:19.440><c> the</c><00:16:19.600><c> other</c><00:16:19.759><c> hand,</c>

00:16:20.470 --> 00:16:20.480 align:start position:0%
For fusion on earth on the other hand,
 

00:16:20.480 --> 00:16:24.150 align:start position:0%
For fusion on earth on the other hand,
it<00:16:20.800><c> is</c><00:16:21.360><c> bad</c><00:16:21.680><c> news.</c><00:16:22.720><c> It</c><00:16:22.959><c> means</c><00:16:23.199><c> the</c><00:16:23.440><c> probability</c>

00:16:24.150 --> 00:16:24.160 align:start position:0%
it is bad news. It means the probability
 

00:16:24.160 --> 00:16:27.269 align:start position:0%
it is bad news. It means the probability
of<00:16:24.560><c> proton</c><00:16:25.279><c> proton</c><00:16:25.759><c> reactions</c><00:16:26.399><c> happening</c>

00:16:27.269 --> 00:16:27.279 align:start position:0%
of proton proton reactions happening
 

00:16:27.279 --> 00:16:29.590 align:start position:0%
of proton proton reactions happening
where<00:16:27.600><c> we</c><00:16:27.839><c> have</c><00:16:28.320><c> much</c><00:16:28.406><c> [music]</c><00:16:28.639><c> less</c><00:16:28.959><c> plasma</c>

00:16:29.590 --> 00:16:29.600 align:start position:0%
where we have much [music] less plasma
 

00:16:29.600 --> 00:16:34.310 align:start position:0%
where we have much [music] less plasma
and<00:16:29.839><c> much</c><00:16:30.079><c> less</c><00:16:30.399><c> time</c><00:16:31.440><c> is</c><00:16:32.399><c> essentially</c><00:16:32.959><c> zero.</c>

00:16:34.310 --> 00:16:34.320 align:start position:0%
and much less time is essentially zero.
 

00:16:34.320 --> 00:16:37.350 align:start position:0%
and much less time is essentially zero.
Indeed,<00:16:34.959><c> the</c><00:16:35.199><c> reaction</c><00:16:35.759><c> has</c><00:16:36.240><c> never</c><00:16:36.880><c> been</c>

00:16:37.350 --> 00:16:37.360 align:start position:0%
Indeed, the reaction has never been
 

00:16:37.360 --> 00:16:40.069 align:start position:0%
Indeed, the reaction has never been
experimentally<00:16:38.320><c> measured.</c><00:16:39.279><c> In</c><00:16:39.519><c> fact,</c>

00:16:40.069 --> 00:16:40.079 align:start position:0%
experimentally measured. In fact,
 

00:16:40.079 --> 00:16:42.310 align:start position:0%
experimentally measured. In fact,
looking<00:16:40.480><c> at</c><00:16:40.639><c> the</c><00:16:40.880><c> problem</c><00:16:41.120><c> in</c><00:16:41.360><c> the</c><00:16:41.600><c> most</c><00:16:41.839><c> basic</c>

00:16:42.310 --> 00:16:42.320 align:start position:0%
looking at the problem in the most basic
 

00:16:42.320 --> 00:16:46.550 align:start position:0%
looking at the problem in the most basic
and<00:16:42.880><c> fundamental</c><00:16:43.759><c> way,</c><00:16:44.720><c> it</c><00:16:45.040><c> is</c><00:16:45.600><c> statistically</c>

00:16:46.550 --> 00:16:46.560 align:start position:0%
and fundamental way, it is statistically
 

00:16:46.560 --> 00:16:49.110 align:start position:0%
and fundamental way, it is statistically
impossible<00:16:47.440><c> to</c><00:16:47.759><c> achieve</c><00:16:48.240><c> proton</c><00:16:48.720><c> proton</c>

00:16:49.110 --> 00:16:49.120 align:start position:0%
impossible to achieve proton proton
 

00:16:49.120 --> 00:16:53.350 align:start position:0%
impossible to achieve proton proton
fusion<00:16:49.519><c> on</c><00:16:49.839><c> Earth</c><00:16:50.480><c> in</c><00:16:50.800><c> any</c><00:16:51.440><c> meaningful</c><00:16:52.079><c> way.</c>

00:16:53.350 --> 00:16:53.360 align:start position:0%
fusion on Earth in any meaningful way.
 

00:16:53.360 --> 00:16:55.670 align:start position:0%
fusion on Earth in any meaningful way.
So,<00:16:53.759><c> what</c><00:16:54.079><c> are</c><00:16:54.639><c> all</c><00:16:54.880><c> these</c><00:16:55.199><c> fusion</c>

00:16:55.670 --> 00:16:55.680 align:start position:0%
So, what are all these fusion
 

00:16:55.680 --> 00:16:58.710 align:start position:0%
So, what are all these fusion
researchers<00:16:56.399><c> doing?</c><00:16:57.199><c> Why</c><00:16:57.519><c> do</c><00:16:57.680><c> we</c><00:16:57.920><c> even</c><00:16:58.160><c> bother</c>

00:16:58.710 --> 00:16:58.720 align:start position:0%
researchers doing? Why do we even bother
 

00:16:58.720 --> 00:17:02.629 align:start position:0%
researchers doing? Why do we even bother
trying?<00:17:00.160><c> Well,</c><00:17:00.959><c> they</c><00:17:01.360><c> are</c><00:17:01.600><c> not</c><00:17:01.920><c> attempting</c><00:17:02.480><c> to</c>

00:17:02.629 --> 00:17:02.639 align:start position:0%
trying? Well, they are not attempting to
 

00:17:02.639 --> 00:17:05.510 align:start position:0%
trying? Well, they are not attempting to
fuse<00:17:03.040><c> protons.</c><00:17:04.240><c> Instead,</c><00:17:04.880><c> they</c><00:17:05.120><c> are</c><00:17:05.360><c> trying</c>

00:17:05.510 --> 00:17:05.520 align:start position:0%
fuse protons. Instead, they are trying
 

00:17:05.520 --> 00:17:07.909 align:start position:0%
fuse protons. Instead, they are trying
to<00:17:05.760><c> fuse</c><00:17:06.240><c> alternative</c><00:17:07.120><c> combinations</c><00:17:07.760><c> of</c>

00:17:07.909 --> 00:17:07.919 align:start position:0%
to fuse alternative combinations of
 

00:17:07.919 --> 00:17:13.189 align:start position:0%
to fuse alternative combinations of
nuclei<00:17:08.720><c> that</c><00:17:09.039><c> are</c><00:17:09.679><c> much</c><00:17:10.079><c> more</c><00:17:10.400><c> reactive.</c>

00:17:13.189 --> 00:17:13.199 align:start position:0%
nuclei that are much more reactive.
 

00:17:13.199 --> 00:17:16.309 align:start position:0%
nuclei that are much more reactive.
Back<00:17:13.439><c> in</c><00:17:13.600><c> the</c><00:17:13.760><c> 1930s,</c><00:17:14.959><c> Mark</c><00:17:15.280><c> Olphant,</c><00:17:16.079><c> a</c>

00:17:16.309 --> 00:17:16.319 align:start position:0%
Back in the 1930s, Mark Olphant, a
 

00:17:16.319 --> 00:17:19.029 align:start position:0%
Back in the 1930s, Mark Olphant, a
student<00:17:16.640><c> of</c><00:17:17.120><c> Ernest</c><00:17:17.520><c> Rutherford,</c><00:17:18.480><c> conducted</c>

00:17:19.029 --> 00:17:19.039 align:start position:0%
student of Ernest Rutherford, conducted
 

00:17:19.039 --> 00:17:21.750 align:start position:0%
student of Ernest Rutherford, conducted
a<00:17:19.360><c> series</c><00:17:19.600><c> of</c><00:17:19.839><c> experiments.</c><00:17:20.959><c> He</c><00:17:21.280><c> fired</c>

00:17:21.750 --> 00:17:21.760 align:start position:0%
a series of experiments. He fired
 

00:17:21.760 --> 00:17:24.230 align:start position:0%
a series of experiments. He fired
dutyium<00:17:22.400><c> nuclei</c><00:17:23.039><c> at</c><00:17:23.360><c> one</c><00:17:23.520><c> another,</c>

00:17:24.230 --> 00:17:24.240 align:start position:0%
dutyium nuclei at one another,
 

00:17:24.240 --> 00:17:26.630 align:start position:0%
dutyium nuclei at one another,
generating<00:17:24.880><c> other</c><00:17:25.360><c> exotic</c><00:17:25.919><c> hydrogen</c><00:17:26.400><c> and</c>

00:17:26.630 --> 00:17:26.640 align:start position:0%
generating other exotic hydrogen and
 

00:17:26.640 --> 00:17:29.510 align:start position:0%
generating other exotic hydrogen and
helium<00:17:27.120><c> isotopes</c><00:17:28.079><c> and</c><00:17:28.240><c> thus</c><00:17:28.559><c> proving</c><00:17:29.120><c> that</c>

00:17:29.510 --> 00:17:29.520 align:start position:0%
helium isotopes and thus proving that
 

00:17:29.520 --> 00:17:32.310 align:start position:0%
helium isotopes and thus proving that
heavy<00:17:29.919><c> hydrogen</c><00:17:30.400><c> nuclei</c><00:17:31.280><c> could</c><00:17:31.679><c> be</c><00:17:31.919><c> made</c><00:17:32.160><c> to</c>

00:17:32.310 --> 00:17:32.320 align:start position:0%
heavy hydrogen nuclei could be made to
 

00:17:32.320 --> 00:17:34.950 align:start position:0%
heavy hydrogen nuclei could be made to
react<00:17:32.640><c> with</c><00:17:32.799><c> one</c><00:17:33.039><c> another.</c><00:17:34.000><c> Today,</c><00:17:34.480><c> fusion</c>

00:17:34.950 --> 00:17:34.960 align:start position:0%
react with one another. Today, fusion
 

00:17:34.960 --> 00:17:37.270 align:start position:0%
react with one another. Today, fusion
scientists<00:17:35.440><c> favor</c><00:17:35.840><c> a</c><00:17:36.080><c> combination</c><00:17:36.799><c> that</c><00:17:37.039><c> was</c>

00:17:37.270 --> 00:17:37.280 align:start position:0%
scientists favor a combination that was
 

00:17:37.280 --> 00:17:39.990 align:start position:0%
scientists favor a combination that was
first<00:17:37.600><c> put</c><00:17:37.760><c> to</c><00:17:38.000><c> use</c><00:17:38.240><c> in</c><00:17:38.400><c> the</c><00:17:38.640><c> Hbomb.</c><00:17:39.600><c> One</c><00:17:39.760><c> that</c>

00:17:39.990 --> 00:17:40.000 align:start position:0%
first put to use in the Hbomb. One that
 

00:17:40.000 --> 00:17:42.950 align:start position:0%
first put to use in the Hbomb. One that
is<00:17:40.559><c> 24</c><00:17:41.200><c> orders</c><00:17:41.600><c> of</c><00:17:41.760><c> magnitude</c><00:17:42.320><c> more</c><00:17:42.559><c> reactive</c>

00:17:42.950 --> 00:17:42.960 align:start position:0%
is 24 orders of magnitude more reactive
 

00:17:42.960 --> 00:17:46.070 align:start position:0%
is 24 orders of magnitude more reactive
than<00:17:43.200><c> protons</c><00:17:43.679><c> alone.</c><00:17:44.559><c> It</c><00:17:44.799><c> is</c><00:17:45.120><c> dutyium.</c>

00:17:46.070 --> 00:17:46.080 align:start position:0%
than protons alone. It is dutyium.
 

00:17:46.080 --> 00:17:48.710 align:start position:0%
than protons alone. It is dutyium.
Remember<00:17:46.640><c> this</c><00:17:46.880><c> is</c><00:17:47.200><c> classic</c><00:17:47.679><c> heavy</c><00:17:48.000><c> hydrogen</c>

00:17:48.710 --> 00:17:48.720 align:start position:0%
Remember this is classic heavy hydrogen
 

00:17:48.720 --> 00:17:52.390 align:start position:0%
Remember this is classic heavy hydrogen
consisting<00:17:49.280><c> of</c><00:17:49.840><c> one</c><00:17:50.160><c> proton</c><00:17:50.720><c> and</c><00:17:51.120><c> one</c><00:17:51.360><c> neutron</c>

00:17:52.390 --> 00:17:52.400 align:start position:0%
consisting of one proton and one neutron
 

00:17:52.400 --> 00:17:55.590 align:start position:0%
consisting of one proton and one neutron
and<00:17:53.039><c> tritium</c><00:17:53.919><c> the</c><00:17:54.160><c> even</c><00:17:54.559><c> heavier</c><00:17:54.960><c> isotope</c><00:17:55.520><c> of</c>

00:17:55.590 --> 00:17:55.600 align:start position:0%
and tritium the even heavier isotope of
 

00:17:55.600 --> 00:17:57.830 align:start position:0%
and tritium the even heavier isotope of
hydrogen<00:17:56.240><c> with</c><00:17:56.559><c> one</c><00:17:56.799><c> proton</c><00:17:57.200><c> and</c><00:17:57.520><c> two</c>

00:17:57.830 --> 00:17:57.840 align:start position:0%
hydrogen with one proton and two
 

00:17:57.840 --> 00:18:00.470 align:start position:0%
hydrogen with one proton and two
neutrons<00:17:58.320><c> in</c><00:17:58.480><c> its</c><00:17:58.640><c> nucleus.</c><00:17:59.760><c> The</c><00:18:00.000><c> reason</c><00:18:00.240><c> this</c>

00:18:00.470 --> 00:18:00.480 align:start position:0%
neutrons in its nucleus. The reason this
 

00:18:00.480 --> 00:18:03.510 align:start position:0%
neutrons in its nucleus. The reason this
combination<00:18:01.360><c> is</c><00:18:01.760><c> so</c><00:18:02.080><c> much</c><00:18:02.240><c> more</c><00:18:02.480><c> reactive</c><00:18:03.200><c> is</c>

00:18:03.510 --> 00:18:03.520 align:start position:0%
combination is so much more reactive is
 

00:18:03.520 --> 00:18:05.350 align:start position:0%
combination is so much more reactive is
that<00:18:03.679><c> these</c><00:18:04.080><c> extra</c><00:18:04.480><c> neutrons</c><00:18:05.039><c> lead</c><00:18:05.347><c> [music]</c>

00:18:05.350 --> 00:18:05.360 align:start position:0%
that these extra neutrons lead [music]
 

00:18:05.360 --> 00:18:08.549 align:start position:0%
that these extra neutrons lead [music]
to<00:18:05.600><c> a</c><00:18:05.919><c> greater</c><00:18:06.400><c> strong</c><00:18:06.720><c> force</c><00:18:07.520><c> and</c><00:18:08.160><c> there</c><00:18:08.400><c> is</c>

00:18:08.549 --> 00:18:08.559 align:start position:0%
to a greater strong force and there is
 

00:18:08.559 --> 00:18:10.789 align:start position:0%
to a greater strong force and there is
no<00:18:08.799><c> need</c><00:18:08.960><c> for</c><00:18:09.200><c> one</c><00:18:09.440><c> proton</c><00:18:09.840><c> to</c><00:18:10.000><c> undergo</c><00:18:10.480><c> weak</c>

00:18:10.789 --> 00:18:10.799 align:start position:0%
no need for one proton to undergo weak
 

00:18:10.799 --> 00:18:13.430 align:start position:0%
no need for one proton to undergo weak
force<00:18:11.360><c> mediated</c><00:18:11.840><c> beta</c><00:18:12.240><c> decay</c><00:18:12.880><c> into</c><00:18:13.200><c> a</c>

00:18:13.430 --> 00:18:13.440 align:start position:0%
force mediated beta decay into a
 

00:18:13.440 --> 00:18:15.110 align:start position:0%
force mediated beta decay into a
neutron.

00:18:15.110 --> 00:18:15.120 align:start position:0%
neutron.
 

00:18:15.120 --> 00:18:18.150 align:start position:0%
neutron.
Now,<00:18:15.760><c> dutarium</c><00:18:16.480><c> and</c><00:18:16.880><c> tritium</c><00:18:17.520><c> aren't</c><00:18:17.840><c> just</c>

00:18:18.150 --> 00:18:18.160 align:start position:0%
Now, dutarium and tritium aren't just
 

00:18:18.160 --> 00:18:19.747 align:start position:0%
Now, dutarium and tritium aren't just
more<00:18:18.480><c> reactive</c><00:18:18.960><c> than</c><00:18:19.120><c> the</c><00:18:19.280><c> protons</c><00:18:19.679><c> that</c>

00:18:19.747 --> 00:18:19.757 align:start position:0%
more reactive than the protons that
 

00:18:19.757 --> 00:18:21.750 align:start position:0%
more reactive than the protons that
[music]<00:18:19.919><c> power</c><00:18:20.080><c> the</c><00:18:20.320><c> sun.</c><00:18:20.960><c> They</c><00:18:21.200><c> also</c><00:18:21.600><c> give</c>

00:18:21.750 --> 00:18:21.760 align:start position:0%
[music] power the sun. They also give
 

00:18:21.760 --> 00:18:24.549 align:start position:0%
[music] power the sun. They also give
rise<00:18:22.080><c> to</c><00:18:22.400><c> different</c><00:18:22.799><c> reaction</c><00:18:23.440><c> products.</c>

00:18:24.549 --> 00:18:24.559 align:start position:0%
rise to different reaction products.
 

00:18:24.559 --> 00:18:26.710 align:start position:0%
rise to different reaction products.
Instead<00:18:24.960><c> of</c><00:18:25.120><c> generating</c><00:18:25.600><c> an</c><00:18:25.840><c> alpha</c><00:18:26.240><c> particle</c>

00:18:26.710 --> 00:18:26.720 align:start position:0%
Instead of generating an alpha particle
 

00:18:26.720 --> 00:18:29.590 align:start position:0%
Instead of generating an alpha particle
and<00:18:27.039><c> two</c><00:18:27.360><c> protons,</c><00:18:28.400><c> they</c><00:18:28.720><c> make</c><00:18:28.960><c> an</c><00:18:29.200><c> alpha</c>

00:18:29.590 --> 00:18:29.600 align:start position:0%
and two protons, they make an alpha
 

00:18:29.600 --> 00:18:32.230 align:start position:0%
and two protons, they make an alpha
particle<00:18:30.080><c> and</c><00:18:30.320><c> a</c><00:18:30.480><c> neutron.</c><00:18:31.440><c> But</c><00:18:31.600><c> like</c><00:18:31.840><c> the</c>

00:18:32.230 --> 00:18:32.240 align:start position:0%
particle and a neutron. But like the
 

00:18:32.240 --> 00:18:34.789 align:start position:0%
particle and a neutron. But like the
proton<00:18:32.720><c> proton</c><00:18:33.120><c> reaction</c><00:18:33.520><c> chain,</c><00:18:34.160><c> they</c><00:18:34.480><c> still</c>

00:18:34.789 --> 00:18:34.799 align:start position:0%
proton proton reaction chain, they still
 

00:18:34.799 --> 00:18:37.510 align:start position:0%
proton proton reaction chain, they still
produce<00:18:34.822><c> [music]</c><00:18:35.200><c> a</c><00:18:35.520><c> ton</c><00:18:35.840><c> of</c><00:18:36.080><c> energy.</c><00:18:37.120><c> Energy</c>

00:18:37.510 --> 00:18:37.520 align:start position:0%
produce [music] a ton of energy. Energy
 

00:18:37.520 --> 00:18:40.630 align:start position:0%
produce [music] a ton of energy. Energy
that<00:18:37.840><c> we</c><00:18:38.080><c> can</c><00:18:38.240><c> use</c><00:18:38.400><c> to</c><00:18:38.640><c> generate</c><00:18:39.200><c> electricity.</c>

00:18:40.630 --> 00:18:40.640 align:start position:0%
that we can use to generate electricity.
 

00:18:40.640 --> 00:18:43.830 align:start position:0%
that we can use to generate electricity.
Just<00:18:41.120><c> one</c><00:18:41.440><c> gram</c><00:18:41.760><c> of</c><00:18:41.919><c> detium</c><00:18:42.559><c> tritium</c><00:18:43.200><c> fuel</c>

00:18:43.830 --> 00:18:43.840 align:start position:0%
Just one gram of detium tritium fuel
 

00:18:43.840 --> 00:18:48.310 align:start position:0%
Just one gram of detium tritium fuel
holds<00:18:44.240><c> energy</c><00:18:44.720><c> equivalent</c><00:18:45.440><c> to</c><00:18:46.080><c> 2,400</c>

00:18:48.310 --> 00:18:48.320 align:start position:0%
holds energy equivalent to 2,400
 

00:18:48.320 --> 00:18:50.630 align:start position:0%
holds energy equivalent to 2,400
gall<00:18:48.720><c> of</c><00:18:48.960><c> oil.</c>

00:18:50.630 --> 00:18:50.640 align:start position:0%
gall of oil.
 

00:18:50.640 --> 00:18:53.190 align:start position:0%
gall of oil.
So<00:18:51.120><c> if</c><00:18:51.360><c> we've</c><00:18:52.000><c> identified</c><00:18:52.400><c> more</c><00:18:52.720><c> reactive</c>

00:18:53.190 --> 00:18:53.200 align:start position:0%
So if we've identified more reactive
 

00:18:53.200 --> 00:18:55.110 align:start position:0%
So if we've identified more reactive
starting<00:18:53.600><c> materials</c><00:18:54.080><c> that</c><00:18:54.400><c> give</c><00:18:54.559><c> us</c><00:18:54.799><c> plenty</c>

00:18:55.110 --> 00:18:55.120 align:start position:0%
starting materials that give us plenty
 

00:18:55.120 --> 00:18:58.870 align:start position:0%
starting materials that give us plenty
of<00:18:55.280><c> energy</c><00:18:55.679><c> out,</c><00:18:56.480><c> what's</c><00:18:56.799><c> the</c><00:18:57.120><c> problem</c><00:18:57.440><c> now?</c>

00:18:58.870 --> 00:18:58.880 align:start position:0%
of energy out, what's the problem now?
 

00:18:58.880 --> 00:19:01.430 align:start position:0%
of energy out, what's the problem now?
Well,<00:18:59.280><c> it's</c><00:18:59.600><c> not</c><00:19:00.080><c> one</c><00:19:00.480><c> problem,</c><00:19:01.120><c> but</c>

00:19:01.430 --> 00:19:01.440 align:start position:0%
Well, it's not one problem, but
 

00:19:01.440 --> 00:19:04.230 align:start position:0%
Well, it's not one problem, but
problems.<00:19:02.880><c> Let's</c><00:19:03.200><c> start</c><00:19:03.600><c> with</c><00:19:03.919><c> those</c>

00:19:04.230 --> 00:19:04.240 align:start position:0%
problems. Let's start with those
 

00:19:04.240 --> 00:19:07.430 align:start position:0%
problems. Let's start with those
neutrons.

00:19:07.430 --> 00:19:07.440 align:start position:0%
 
 

00:19:07.440 --> 00:19:09.830 align:start position:0%
 
Being<00:19:07.760><c> lighter</c><00:19:08.160><c> than</c><00:19:08.400><c> alpha</c><00:19:08.799><c> particles,</c><00:19:09.520><c> they</c>

00:19:09.830 --> 00:19:09.840 align:start position:0%
Being lighter than alpha particles, they
 

00:19:09.840 --> 00:19:11.830 align:start position:0%
Being lighter than alpha particles, they
carry<00:19:10.240><c> most</c><00:19:10.480><c> of</c><00:19:10.640><c> the</c><00:19:10.880><c> energy</c><00:19:11.120><c> of</c><00:19:11.280><c> the</c><00:19:11.440><c> fusion</c>

00:19:11.830 --> 00:19:11.840 align:start position:0%
carry most of the energy of the fusion
 

00:19:11.840 --> 00:19:14.310 align:start position:0%
carry most of the energy of the fusion
reaction<00:19:12.559><c> and</c><00:19:12.799><c> so</c><00:19:13.120><c> have</c><00:19:13.280><c> to</c><00:19:13.440><c> be</c><00:19:13.600><c> captured</c><00:19:14.080><c> in</c>

00:19:14.310 --> 00:19:14.320 align:start position:0%
reaction and so have to be captured in
 

00:19:14.320 --> 00:19:16.710 align:start position:0%
reaction and so have to be captured in
order<00:19:14.559><c> for</c><00:19:14.720><c> their</c><00:19:14.960><c> energy</c><00:19:15.200><c> to</c><00:19:15.360><c> be</c><00:19:15.520><c> put</c><00:19:15.679><c> to</c><00:19:15.840><c> use.</c>

00:19:16.710 --> 00:19:16.720 align:start position:0%
order for their energy to be put to use.
 

00:19:16.720 --> 00:19:18.950 align:start position:0%
order for their energy to be put to use.
But<00:19:16.960><c> controlling</c><00:19:17.440><c> a</c><00:19:17.760><c> subatomic</c><00:19:18.480><c> particle</c>

00:19:18.950 --> 00:19:18.960 align:start position:0%
But controlling a subatomic particle
 

00:19:18.960 --> 00:19:22.870 align:start position:0%
But controlling a subatomic particle
with<00:19:19.280><c> no</c><00:19:19.600><c> charge</c><00:19:20.400><c> is</c><00:19:20.720><c> no</c><00:19:21.039><c> mean</c><00:19:21.280><c> feat.</c><00:19:22.320><c> Neutrons</c>

00:19:22.870 --> 00:19:22.880 align:start position:0%
with no charge is no mean feat. Neutrons
 

00:19:22.880 --> 00:19:24.870 align:start position:0%
with no charge is no mean feat. Neutrons
aren't<00:19:23.120><c> affected</c><00:19:23.520><c> by</c><00:19:23.679><c> the</c><00:19:24.000><c> powerful</c><00:19:24.480><c> magnetic</c>

00:19:24.870 --> 00:19:24.880 align:start position:0%
aren't affected by the powerful magnetic
 

00:19:24.880 --> 00:19:27.110 align:start position:0%
aren't affected by the powerful magnetic
fields<00:19:25.200><c> containing</c><00:19:25.520><c> the</c><00:19:25.679><c> plasma</c><00:19:26.480><c> and</c><00:19:26.720><c> so</c>

00:19:27.110 --> 00:19:27.120 align:start position:0%
fields containing the plasma and so
 

00:19:27.120 --> 00:19:29.190 align:start position:0%
fields containing the plasma and so
stream<00:19:27.520><c> out</c><00:19:27.679><c> of</c><00:19:27.840><c> the</c><00:19:28.080><c> reactor</c><00:19:28.480><c> in</c><00:19:28.799><c> all</c>

00:19:29.190 --> 00:19:29.200 align:start position:0%
stream out of the reactor in all
 

00:19:29.200 --> 00:19:31.669 align:start position:0%
stream out of the reactor in all
directions<00:19:29.843><c> [music]</c><00:19:30.000><c> at</c><00:19:30.720><c> 16</c><00:19:31.039><c> the</c><00:19:31.360><c> speed</c><00:19:31.520><c> of</c>

00:19:31.669 --> 00:19:31.679 align:start position:0%
directions [music] at 16 the speed of
 

00:19:31.679 --> 00:19:34.549 align:start position:0%
directions [music] at 16 the speed of
light.<00:19:32.799><c> To</c><00:19:33.039><c> deal</c><00:19:33.200><c> with</c><00:19:33.360><c> this,</c><00:19:33.760><c> most</c><00:19:34.080><c> reactor</c>

00:19:34.549 --> 00:19:34.559 align:start position:0%
light. To deal with this, most reactor
 

00:19:34.559 --> 00:19:36.390 align:start position:0%
light. To deal with this, most reactor
designs<00:19:35.039><c> utilize</c><00:19:35.440><c> something</c><00:19:35.760><c> called</c><00:19:36.080><c> a</c>

00:19:36.390 --> 00:19:36.400 align:start position:0%
designs utilize something called a
 

00:19:36.400 --> 00:19:38.789 align:start position:0%
designs utilize something called a
blanket,<00:19:37.440><c> a</c><00:19:37.840><c> layer</c><00:19:38.160><c> surrounding</c><00:19:38.559><c> the</c>

00:19:38.789 --> 00:19:38.799 align:start position:0%
blanket, a layer surrounding the
 

00:19:38.799 --> 00:19:40.630 align:start position:0%
blanket, a layer surrounding the
reaction<00:19:39.280><c> chamber</c><00:19:39.840><c> that's</c><00:19:40.160><c> designed</c><00:19:40.480><c> to</c>

00:19:40.630 --> 00:19:40.640 align:start position:0%
reaction chamber that's designed to
 

00:19:40.640 --> 00:19:43.029 align:start position:0%
reaction chamber that's designed to
absorb<00:19:41.120><c> higher</c><00:19:41.520><c> energy</c><00:19:41.919><c> neutrons</c><00:19:42.559><c> and</c><00:19:42.799><c> heat</c>

00:19:43.029 --> 00:19:43.039 align:start position:0%
absorb higher energy neutrons and heat
 

00:19:43.039 --> 00:19:45.830 align:start position:0%
absorb higher energy neutrons and heat
up.<00:19:43.919><c> This</c><00:19:44.240><c> heat</c><00:19:44.799><c> can</c><00:19:45.039><c> then</c><00:19:45.200><c> be</c><00:19:45.360><c> used</c><00:19:45.600><c> to</c>

00:19:45.830 --> 00:19:45.840 align:start position:0%
up. This heat can then be used to
 

00:19:45.840 --> 00:19:48.470 align:start position:0%
up. This heat can then be used to
generate<00:19:46.240><c> steam,</c><00:19:47.039><c> drive</c><00:19:47.360><c> a</c><00:19:47.600><c> turbine,</c><00:19:48.240><c> and</c>

00:19:48.470 --> 00:19:48.480 align:start position:0%
generate steam, drive a turbine, and
 

00:19:48.480 --> 00:19:51.590 align:start position:0%
generate steam, drive a turbine, and
generate<00:19:48.960><c> electricity.</c><00:19:50.320><c> But</c><00:19:50.559><c> this</c><00:19:50.960><c> approach</c>

00:19:51.590 --> 00:19:51.600 align:start position:0%
generate electricity. But this approach
 

00:19:51.600 --> 00:19:54.310 align:start position:0%
generate electricity. But this approach
is<00:19:52.000><c> far</c><00:19:52.240><c> from</c><00:19:52.480><c> perfect.</c><00:19:53.440><c> Neutrons</c><00:19:54.000><c> aren't</c>

00:19:54.310 --> 00:19:54.320 align:start position:0%
is far from perfect. Neutrons aren't
 

00:19:54.320 --> 00:19:56.549 align:start position:0%
is far from perfect. Neutrons aren't
just<00:19:54.480><c> absorbed</c><00:19:54.880><c> by</c><00:19:55.039><c> the</c><00:19:55.200><c> blanket.</c><00:19:55.919><c> They</c><00:19:56.240><c> ping</c>

00:19:56.549 --> 00:19:56.559 align:start position:0%
just absorbed by the blanket. They ping
 

00:19:56.559 --> 00:19:58.390 align:start position:0%
just absorbed by the blanket. They ping
about<00:19:56.960><c> everywhere,</c><00:19:57.520><c> damaging</c><00:19:58.000><c> everything</c>

00:19:58.390 --> 00:19:58.400 align:start position:0%
about everywhere, damaging everything
 

00:19:58.400 --> 00:20:01.110 align:start position:0%
about everywhere, damaging everything
they<00:19:58.640><c> hit.</c><00:19:59.520><c> This</c><00:19:59.919><c> hugely</c><00:20:00.559><c> limits</c><00:20:00.960><c> the</c>

00:20:01.110 --> 00:20:01.120 align:start position:0%
they hit. This hugely limits the
 

00:20:01.120 --> 00:20:03.510 align:start position:0%
they hit. This hugely limits the
lifespan<00:20:01.283><c> [music]</c><00:20:01.679><c> of</c><00:20:02.080><c> many</c><00:20:02.480><c> components,</c>

00:20:03.510 --> 00:20:03.520 align:start position:0%
lifespan [music] of many components,
 

00:20:03.520 --> 00:20:06.390 align:start position:0%
lifespan [music] of many components,
particularly<00:20:04.080><c> the</c><00:20:04.320><c> reactor</c><00:20:04.799><c> walls.</c><00:20:06.080><c> Another</c>

00:20:06.390 --> 00:20:06.400 align:start position:0%
particularly the reactor walls. Another
 

00:20:06.400 --> 00:20:08.630 align:start position:0%
particularly the reactor walls. Another
issue<00:20:06.880><c> stems</c><00:20:07.178><c> [music]</c><00:20:07.280><c> from</c><00:20:07.520><c> the</c><00:20:07.919><c> reactants</c>

00:20:08.630 --> 00:20:08.640 align:start position:0%
issue stems [music] from the reactants
 

00:20:08.640 --> 00:20:12.070 align:start position:0%
issue stems [music] from the reactants
themselves.<00:20:10.000><c> While</c><00:20:10.320><c> dutarium</c><00:20:11.120><c> is</c><00:20:11.520><c> relatively</c>

00:20:12.070 --> 00:20:12.080 align:start position:0%
themselves. While dutarium is relatively
 

00:20:12.080 --> 00:20:14.390 align:start position:0%
themselves. While dutarium is relatively
common,<00:20:12.799><c> being</c><00:20:13.120><c> easily</c><00:20:13.600><c> extracted</c><00:20:14.080><c> from</c>

00:20:14.390 --> 00:20:14.400 align:start position:0%
common, being easily extracted from
 

00:20:14.400 --> 00:20:18.470 align:start position:0%
common, being easily extracted from
seawater<00:20:15.440><c> and</c><00:20:15.840><c> cheap</c><00:20:16.320><c> at</c><00:20:16.720><c> $13</c><00:20:17.360><c> a</c><00:20:17.600><c> gram,</c>

00:20:18.470 --> 00:20:18.480 align:start position:0%
seawater and cheap at $13 a gram,
 

00:20:18.480 --> 00:20:21.909 align:start position:0%
seawater and cheap at $13 a gram,
tritium<00:20:19.360><c> is</c><00:20:19.600><c> neither.</c><00:20:20.720><c> It</c><00:20:20.960><c> has</c><00:20:21.120><c> a</c><00:20:21.280><c> halflife</c><00:20:21.760><c> of</c>

00:20:21.909 --> 00:20:21.919 align:start position:0%
tritium is neither. It has a halflife of
 

00:20:21.919 --> 00:20:25.510 align:start position:0%
tritium is neither. It has a halflife of
just<00:20:22.160><c> 12.3</c><00:20:23.039><c> years.</c><00:20:23.919><c> And</c><00:20:24.160><c> the</c><00:20:24.480><c> only</c><00:20:25.039><c> commercial</c>

00:20:25.510 --> 00:20:25.520 align:start position:0%
just 12.3 years. And the only commercial
 

00:20:25.520 --> 00:20:29.590 align:start position:0%
just 12.3 years. And the only commercial
source<00:20:26.320><c> are</c><00:20:26.720><c> Canada's</c><00:20:27.520><c> 19</c><00:20:28.080><c> dutarium</c><00:20:28.960><c> uranium</c>

00:20:29.590 --> 00:20:29.600 align:start position:0%
source are Canada's 19 dutarium uranium
 

00:20:29.600 --> 00:20:32.630 align:start position:0%
source are Canada's 19 dutarium uranium
nuclear<00:20:30.159><c> reactors</c><00:20:31.039><c> which</c><00:20:31.360><c> produce</c><00:20:31.919><c> just</c><00:20:32.320><c> half</c>

00:20:32.630 --> 00:20:32.640 align:start position:0%
nuclear reactors which produce just half
 

00:20:32.640 --> 00:20:35.909 align:start position:0%
nuclear reactors which produce just half
a<00:20:32.880><c> kilogram</c><00:20:33.520><c> of</c><00:20:33.679><c> tritium</c><00:20:34.320><c> a</c><00:20:34.640><c> year</c><00:20:35.200><c> as</c><00:20:35.440><c> a</c><00:20:35.600><c> waste</c>

00:20:35.909 --> 00:20:35.919 align:start position:0%
a kilogram of tritium a year as a waste
 

00:20:35.919 --> 00:20:39.270 align:start position:0%
a kilogram of tritium a year as a waste
product.<00:20:37.280><c> Now</c><00:20:37.840><c> ITA</c><00:20:38.240><c> estimates</c><00:20:38.720><c> that</c><00:20:38.960><c> a</c>

00:20:39.270 --> 00:20:39.280 align:start position:0%
product. Now ITA estimates that a
 

00:20:39.280 --> 00:20:41.510 align:start position:0%
product. Now ITA estimates that a
commercial<00:20:39.919><c> fusion</c><00:20:40.400><c> plant</c><00:20:40.799><c> would</c><00:20:41.039><c> require</c>

00:20:41.510 --> 00:20:41.520 align:start position:0%
commercial fusion plant would require
 

00:20:41.520 --> 00:20:45.669 align:start position:0%
commercial fusion plant would require
around<00:20:42.640><c> 125</c><00:20:43.360><c> kg</c><00:20:43.840><c> of</c><00:20:44.000><c> tritium</c><00:20:44.400><c> a</c><00:20:44.559><c> year</c><00:20:44.720><c> to</c><00:20:44.880><c> run.</c>

00:20:45.669 --> 00:20:45.679 align:start position:0%
around 125 kg of tritium a year to run.
 

00:20:45.679 --> 00:20:48.310 align:start position:0%
around 125 kg of tritium a year to run.
Current<00:20:46.080><c> global</c><00:20:46.640><c> tritium</c><00:20:47.120><c> reserves</c><00:20:47.919><c> are</c>

00:20:48.310 --> 00:20:48.320 align:start position:0%
Current global tritium reserves are
 

00:20:48.320 --> 00:20:52.149 align:start position:0%
Current global tritium reserves are
around<00:20:49.039><c> 25</c><00:20:49.679><c> kg.</c><00:20:50.720><c> And</c><00:20:50.880><c> as</c><00:20:51.120><c> half</c><00:20:51.440><c> of</c><00:20:51.679><c> Canada's</c>

00:20:52.149 --> 00:20:52.159 align:start position:0%
around 25 kg. And as half of Canada's
 

00:20:52.159 --> 00:20:54.310 align:start position:0%
around 25 kg. And as half of Canada's
reactors<00:20:52.640><c> are</c><00:20:52.880><c> due</c><00:20:53.120><c> to</c><00:20:53.280><c> be</c><00:20:53.520><c> decommissioned</c>

00:20:54.310 --> 00:20:54.320 align:start position:0%
reactors are due to be decommissioned
 

00:20:54.320 --> 00:20:57.990 align:start position:0%
reactors are due to be decommissioned
this<00:20:54.559><c> decade,</c><00:20:55.600><c> this</c><00:20:55.919><c> tiny</c><00:20:56.559><c> reserve</c><00:20:57.360><c> is</c><00:20:57.679><c> quite</c>

00:20:57.990 --> 00:20:58.000 align:start position:0%
this decade, this tiny reserve is quite
 

00:20:58.000 --> 00:21:01.350 align:start position:0%
this decade, this tiny reserve is quite
literally<00:20:58.799><c> going</c><00:20:59.039><c> to</c><00:20:59.280><c> decay</c><00:20:59.760><c> away.</c><00:21:00.880><c> But</c><00:21:01.120><c> of</c>

00:21:01.350 --> 00:21:01.360 align:start position:0%
literally going to decay away. But of
 

00:21:01.360 --> 00:21:03.430 align:start position:0%
literally going to decay away. But of
course,<00:21:01.919><c> scientists</c><00:21:02.400><c> do</c><00:21:02.640><c> have</c><00:21:02.799><c> a</c><00:21:02.960><c> solution</c><00:21:03.200><c> up</c>

00:21:03.430 --> 00:21:03.440 align:start position:0%
course, scientists do have a solution up
 

00:21:03.440 --> 00:21:05.110 align:start position:0%
course, scientists do have a solution up
their<00:21:03.600><c> sleeves</c><00:21:03.840><c> for</c><00:21:04.000><c> the</c><00:21:04.159><c> tritium</c><00:21:04.720><c> supply</c>

00:21:05.110 --> 00:21:05.120 align:start position:0%
their sleeves for the tritium supply
 

00:21:05.120 --> 00:21:08.070 align:start position:0%
their sleeves for the tritium supply
problem.<00:21:06.320><c> As</c><00:21:06.559><c> well</c><00:21:06.640><c> as</c><00:21:06.880><c> carrying</c><00:21:07.360><c> energy</c><00:21:07.840><c> out</c>

00:21:08.070 --> 00:21:08.080 align:start position:0%
problem. As well as carrying energy out
 

00:21:08.080 --> 00:21:10.390 align:start position:0%
problem. As well as carrying energy out
of<00:21:08.240><c> the</c><00:21:08.400><c> reactor,</c><00:21:09.280><c> those</c><00:21:09.600><c> high</c><00:21:10.000><c> energy</c>

00:21:10.390 --> 00:21:10.400 align:start position:0%
of the reactor, those high energy
 

00:21:10.400 --> 00:21:13.270 align:start position:0%
of the reactor, those high energy
neutrons<00:21:11.039><c> produced</c><00:21:11.520><c> by</c><00:21:11.919><c> dutarium</c><00:21:12.720><c> tritium</c>

00:21:13.270 --> 00:21:13.280 align:start position:0%
neutrons produced by dutarium tritium
 

00:21:13.280 --> 00:21:15.990 align:start position:0%
neutrons produced by dutarium tritium
fusion<00:21:14.159><c> can</c><00:21:14.400><c> be</c><00:21:14.559><c> used</c><00:21:14.799><c> for</c><00:21:15.120><c> something</c><00:21:15.520><c> called</c>

00:21:15.990 --> 00:21:16.000 align:start position:0%
fusion can be used for something called
 

00:21:16.000 --> 00:21:19.510 align:start position:0%
fusion can be used for something called
tritium<00:21:16.720><c> breeding.</c><00:21:18.080><c> The</c><00:21:18.320><c> idea</c><00:21:18.640><c> is</c><00:21:19.039><c> that</c><00:21:19.280><c> you</c>

00:21:19.510 --> 00:21:19.520 align:start position:0%
tritium breeding. The idea is that you
 

00:21:19.520 --> 00:21:21.350 align:start position:0%
tritium breeding. The idea is that you
make<00:21:19.760><c> the</c><00:21:19.919><c> blanket</c><00:21:20.400><c> surrounding</c><00:21:20.799><c> the</c><00:21:20.960><c> reactor</c>

00:21:21.350 --> 00:21:21.360 align:start position:0%
make the blanket surrounding the reactor
 

00:21:21.360 --> 00:21:22.549 align:start position:0%
make the blanket surrounding the reactor
out<00:21:21.600><c> of</c><00:21:21.679><c> a</c><00:21:21.849><c> [music]</c><00:21:21.919><c> substance</c><00:21:22.240><c> that</c>

00:21:22.549 --> 00:21:22.559 align:start position:0%
out of a [music] substance that
 

00:21:22.559 --> 00:21:25.190 align:start position:0%
out of a [music] substance that
generates<00:21:23.120><c> tritium</c><00:21:23.840><c> when</c><00:21:24.320><c> bombarded</c><00:21:24.960><c> by</c>

00:21:25.190 --> 00:21:25.200 align:start position:0%
generates tritium when bombarded by
 

00:21:25.200 --> 00:21:27.669 align:start position:0%
generates tritium when bombarded by
neutrons.<00:21:26.320><c> The</c><00:21:26.559><c> substance</c><00:21:27.039><c> preferred</c><00:21:27.440><c> by</c>

00:21:27.669 --> 00:21:27.679 align:start position:0%
neutrons. The substance preferred by
 

00:21:27.679 --> 00:21:30.870 align:start position:0%
neutrons. The substance preferred by
most<00:21:28.080><c> fusion</c><00:21:28.480><c> researchers</c><00:21:29.120><c> is</c><00:21:29.760><c> lithium,</c>

00:21:30.870 --> 00:21:30.880 align:start position:0%
most fusion researchers is lithium,
 

00:21:30.880 --> 00:21:33.909 align:start position:0%
most fusion researchers is lithium,
which<00:21:31.280><c> upon</c><00:21:31.760><c> absorbing</c><00:21:32.320><c> a</c><00:21:32.559><c> neutron</c><00:21:33.360><c> helpfully</c>

00:21:33.909 --> 00:21:33.919 align:start position:0%
which upon absorbing a neutron helpfully
 

00:21:33.919 --> 00:21:38.950 align:start position:0%
which upon absorbing a neutron helpfully
decays<00:21:34.559><c> into</c><00:21:34.960><c> a</c><00:21:35.200><c> helium</c><00:21:35.760><c> atom</c><00:21:36.400><c> and</c><00:21:37.280><c> tritium.</c>

00:21:38.950 --> 00:21:38.960 align:start position:0%
decays into a helium atom and tritium.
 

00:21:38.960 --> 00:21:41.270 align:start position:0%
decays into a helium atom and tritium.
However,<00:21:39.440><c> as</c><00:21:39.679><c> ever</c><00:21:40.080><c> in</c><00:21:40.320><c> fusion,</c><00:21:41.039><c> this</c>

00:21:41.270 --> 00:21:41.280 align:start position:0%
However, as ever in fusion, this
 

00:21:41.280 --> 00:21:42.789 align:start position:0%
However, as ever in fusion, this
solution<00:21:41.840><c> comes</c><00:21:42.080><c> with</c><00:21:42.154><c> [music]</c><00:21:42.320><c> its</c><00:21:42.559><c> own</c>

00:21:42.789 --> 00:21:42.799 align:start position:0%
solution comes with [music] its own
 

00:21:42.799 --> 00:21:45.909 align:start position:0%
solution comes with [music] its own
problem.<00:21:43.840><c> If</c><00:21:44.080><c> each</c><00:21:44.400><c> dutyium</c><00:21:45.039><c> tritium</c><00:21:45.520><c> fusion</c>

00:21:45.909 --> 00:21:45.919 align:start position:0%
problem. If each dutyium tritium fusion
 

00:21:45.919 --> 00:21:49.029 align:start position:0%
problem. If each dutyium tritium fusion
reaction<00:21:46.640><c> generates</c><00:21:47.280><c> one</c><00:21:47.600><c> neutron,</c><00:21:48.640><c> which</c>

00:21:49.029 --> 00:21:49.039 align:start position:0%
reaction generates one neutron, which
 

00:21:49.039 --> 00:21:51.669 align:start position:0%
reaction generates one neutron, which
via<00:21:49.360><c> lithium</c><00:21:50.080><c> can</c><00:21:50.320><c> be</c><00:21:50.480><c> used</c><00:21:50.720><c> to</c><00:21:50.880><c> generate</c><00:21:51.360><c> one</c>

00:21:51.669 --> 00:21:51.679 align:start position:0%
via lithium can be used to generate one
 

00:21:51.679 --> 00:21:54.549 align:start position:0%
via lithium can be used to generate one
neutitium,<00:21:53.039><c> you</c><00:21:53.280><c> would</c><00:21:53.440><c> need</c><00:21:53.600><c> to</c><00:21:53.840><c> operate</c><00:21:54.240><c> at</c>

00:21:54.549 --> 00:21:54.559 align:start position:0%
neutitium, you would need to operate at
 

00:21:54.559 --> 00:21:58.470 align:start position:0%
neutitium, you would need to operate at
an<00:21:54.799><c> impossible</c><00:21:56.159><c> 100%</c><00:21:57.039><c> efficiency</c><00:21:57.919><c> to</c><00:21:58.159><c> prevent</c>

00:21:58.470 --> 00:21:58.480 align:start position:0%
an impossible 100% efficiency to prevent
 

00:21:58.480 --> 00:21:59.830 align:start position:0%
an impossible 100% efficiency to prevent
your<00:21:58.530><c> [music]</c><00:21:58.720><c> tritium</c><00:21:59.280><c> supply</c><00:21:59.600><c> from</c>

00:21:59.830 --> 00:21:59.840 align:start position:0%
your [music] tritium supply from
 

00:21:59.840 --> 00:22:02.470 align:start position:0%
your [music] tritium supply from
dwindling.<00:22:01.120><c> The</c><00:22:01.360><c> answer</c><00:22:01.679><c> most</c><00:22:02.000><c> fusion</c>

00:22:02.470 --> 00:22:02.480 align:start position:0%
dwindling. The answer most fusion
 

00:22:02.480 --> 00:22:04.950 align:start position:0%
dwindling. The answer most fusion
researchers<00:22:03.039><c> favor</c><00:22:03.679><c> is</c><00:22:03.919><c> to</c><00:22:04.080><c> add</c><00:22:04.480><c> layers</c><00:22:04.720><c> of</c>

00:22:04.950 --> 00:22:04.960 align:start position:0%
researchers favor is to add layers of
 

00:22:04.960 --> 00:22:07.350 align:start position:0%
researchers favor is to add layers of
other<00:22:05.280><c> elements</c><00:22:05.760><c> like</c><00:22:06.240><c> burillium</c><00:22:06.960><c> that</c><00:22:07.200><c> can</c>

00:22:07.350 --> 00:22:07.360 align:start position:0%
other elements like burillium that can
 

00:22:07.360 --> 00:22:10.149 align:start position:0%
other elements like burillium that can
act<00:22:07.520><c> as</c><00:22:07.919><c> neutron</c><00:22:08.480><c> multipliers,</c><00:22:09.600><c> absorbing</c>

00:22:10.149 --> 00:22:10.159 align:start position:0%
act as neutron multipliers, absorbing
 

00:22:10.159 --> 00:22:13.350 align:start position:0%
act as neutron multipliers, absorbing
one<00:22:10.400><c> neutron</c><00:22:11.039><c> and</c><00:22:11.360><c> spitting</c><00:22:11.840><c> out</c><00:22:12.159><c> two.</c>

00:22:13.350 --> 00:22:13.360 align:start position:0%
one neutron and spitting out two.
 

00:22:13.360 --> 00:22:16.950 align:start position:0%
one neutron and spitting out two.
But<00:22:13.840><c> not</c><00:22:14.159><c> only</c><00:22:14.480><c> is</c><00:22:14.880><c> burillium</c><00:22:15.520><c> toxic,</c><00:22:16.559><c> it</c><00:22:16.799><c> is</c>

00:22:16.950 --> 00:22:16.960 align:start position:0%
But not only is burillium toxic, it is
 

00:22:16.960 --> 00:22:19.990 align:start position:0%
But not only is burillium toxic, it is
also<00:22:17.440><c> in</c><00:22:17.679><c> short</c><00:22:17.919><c> supply</c><00:22:18.720><c> and</c><00:22:19.280><c> contaminated</c>

00:22:19.990 --> 00:22:20.000 align:start position:0%
also in short supply and contaminated
 

00:22:20.000 --> 00:22:22.710 align:start position:0%
also in short supply and contaminated
with<00:22:20.480><c> uranium,</c><00:22:21.440><c> which</c><00:22:21.760><c> then</c><00:22:22.000><c> bombarded</c><00:22:22.559><c> with</c>

00:22:22.710 --> 00:22:22.720 align:start position:0%
with uranium, which then bombarded with
 

00:22:22.720 --> 00:22:25.350 align:start position:0%
with uranium, which then bombarded with
neutrons<00:22:23.760><c> leads</c><00:22:24.159><c> to</c><00:22:24.480><c> radioactive</c>

00:22:25.350 --> 00:22:25.360 align:start position:0%
neutrons leads to radioactive
 

00:22:25.360 --> 00:22:28.630 align:start position:0%
neutrons leads to radioactive
byproducts,<00:22:26.640><c> less</c><00:22:26.880><c> than</c><00:22:27.039><c> ideal.</c><00:22:28.320><c> And</c>

00:22:28.630 --> 00:22:28.640 align:start position:0%
byproducts, less than ideal. And
 

00:22:28.640 --> 00:22:30.070 align:start position:0%
byproducts, less than ideal. And
regardless,<00:22:29.280><c> there</c><00:22:29.440><c> are</c><00:22:29.679><c> concerns</c><00:22:29.970><c> [music]</c>

00:22:30.070 --> 00:22:30.080 align:start position:0%
regardless, there are concerns [music]
 

00:22:30.080 --> 00:22:32.789 align:start position:0%
regardless, there are concerns [music]
that<00:22:30.400><c> even</c><00:22:30.799><c> with</c><00:22:31.200><c> breeding,</c><00:22:32.000><c> most</c><00:22:32.240><c> reactors</c>

00:22:32.789 --> 00:22:32.799 align:start position:0%
that even with breeding, most reactors
 

00:22:32.799 --> 00:22:34.390 align:start position:0%
that even with breeding, most reactors
would<00:22:33.120><c> struggle</c><00:22:33.440><c> to</c><00:22:33.679><c> generate</c><00:22:34.080><c> enough</c>

00:22:34.390 --> 00:22:34.400 align:start position:0%
would struggle to generate enough
 

00:22:34.400 --> 00:22:37.110 align:start position:0%
would struggle to generate enough
tritium<00:22:35.039><c> to</c><00:22:35.360><c> be</c><00:22:35.520><c> viable.</c>

00:22:37.110 --> 00:22:37.120 align:start position:0%
tritium to be viable.
 

00:22:37.120 --> 00:22:38.870 align:start position:0%
tritium to be viable.
So,<00:22:37.679><c> at</c><00:22:37.919><c> this</c><00:22:38.080><c> point,</c><00:22:38.320><c> you</c><00:22:38.559><c> might</c><00:22:38.720><c> be</c>

00:22:38.870 --> 00:22:38.880 align:start position:0%
So, at this point, you might be
 

00:22:38.880 --> 00:22:41.990 align:start position:0%
So, at this point, you might be
thinking,<00:22:39.600><c> "Hang</c><00:22:39.919><c> on</c><00:22:40.080><c> a</c><00:22:40.320><c> minute.</c><00:22:40.960><c> It</c><00:22:41.280><c> seems</c><00:22:41.679><c> a</c>

00:22:41.990 --> 00:22:42.000 align:start position:0%
thinking, "Hang on a minute. It seems a
 

00:22:42.000 --> 00:22:44.549 align:start position:0%
thinking, "Hang on a minute. It seems a
lot<00:22:42.159><c> of</c><00:22:42.320><c> the</c><00:22:42.559><c> touted</c><00:22:43.039><c> advantages</c><00:22:43.520><c> of</c><00:22:43.760><c> fusion,</c>

00:22:44.549 --> 00:22:44.559 align:start position:0%
lot of the touted advantages of fusion,
 

00:22:44.559 --> 00:22:46.870 align:start position:0%
lot of the touted advantages of fusion,
bountiful<00:22:45.120><c> energy,</c><00:22:45.840><c> plentiful</c><00:22:46.400><c> starting</c>

00:22:46.870 --> 00:22:46.880 align:start position:0%
bountiful energy, plentiful starting
 

00:22:46.880 --> 00:22:50.070 align:start position:0%
bountiful energy, plentiful starting
materials,<00:22:47.760><c> innocuous,</c><00:22:48.720><c> if</c><00:22:48.960><c> even</c><00:22:49.600><c> useful</c>

00:22:50.070 --> 00:22:50.080 align:start position:0%
materials, innocuous, if even useful
 

00:22:50.080 --> 00:22:53.830 align:start position:0%
materials, innocuous, if even useful
byproducts,<00:22:51.120><c> are</c><00:22:51.440><c> kind</c><00:22:51.600><c> of</c><00:22:52.080><c> falling</c><00:22:52.480><c> away."</c>

00:22:53.830 --> 00:22:53.840 align:start position:0%
byproducts, are kind of falling away."
 

00:22:53.840 --> 00:22:57.029 align:start position:0%
byproducts, are kind of falling away."
Well,<00:22:54.480><c> you'd</c><00:22:54.799><c> be</c><00:22:54.960><c> right.</c><00:22:55.760><c> We're</c><00:22:56.320><c> not</c><00:22:56.640><c> fusing</c>

00:22:57.029 --> 00:22:57.039 align:start position:0%
Well, you'd be right. We're not fusing
 

00:22:57.039 --> 00:22:59.350 align:start position:0%
Well, you'd be right. We're not fusing
hydrogen,<00:22:57.840><c> or</c><00:22:58.080><c> at</c><00:22:58.080><c> least</c><00:22:58.400><c> the</c><00:22:58.640><c> same</c><00:22:58.799><c> isotopes</c>

00:22:59.350 --> 00:22:59.360 align:start position:0%
hydrogen, or at least the same isotopes
 

00:22:59.360 --> 00:23:01.430 align:start position:0%
hydrogen, or at least the same isotopes
of<00:22:59.440><c> hydrogen</c><00:22:59.840><c> that</c><00:23:00.080><c> the</c><00:23:00.240><c> star</c><00:23:00.559><c> fuses.</c><00:23:01.280><c> And</c>

00:23:01.430 --> 00:23:01.440 align:start position:0%
of hydrogen that the star fuses. And
 

00:23:01.440 --> 00:23:03.990 align:start position:0%
of hydrogen that the star fuses. And
we're<00:23:01.679><c> not</c><00:23:01.919><c> making</c><00:23:02.320><c> just</c><00:23:02.640><c> helium,</c><00:23:03.520><c> but</c><00:23:03.760><c> a</c>

00:23:03.990 --> 00:23:04.000 align:start position:0%
we're not making just helium, but a
 

00:23:04.000 --> 00:23:06.310 align:start position:0%
we're not making just helium, but a
bunch<00:23:04.240><c> of</c><00:23:04.400><c> other</c><00:23:04.799><c> radioactive</c><00:23:05.600><c> products</c><00:23:06.000><c> as</c>

00:23:06.310 --> 00:23:06.320 align:start position:0%
bunch of other radioactive products as
 

00:23:06.320 --> 00:23:09.510 align:start position:0%
bunch of other radioactive products as
well.<00:23:07.440><c> The</c><00:23:07.679><c> simple</c><00:23:08.080><c> truth,</c><00:23:08.640><c> no</c><00:23:08.720><c> matter</c><00:23:09.280><c> what</c>

00:23:09.510 --> 00:23:09.520 align:start position:0%
well. The simple truth, no matter what
 

00:23:09.520 --> 00:23:12.549 align:start position:0%
well. The simple truth, no matter what
the<00:23:09.760><c> headlines</c><00:23:10.240><c> say,</c><00:23:10.880><c> is</c><00:23:11.120><c> that</c><00:23:11.679><c> we</c><00:23:12.000><c> can't</c><00:23:12.400><c> make</c>

00:23:12.549 --> 00:23:12.559 align:start position:0%
the headlines say, is that we can't make
 

00:23:12.559 --> 00:23:15.190 align:start position:0%
the headlines say, is that we can't make
a<00:23:12.799><c> star</c><00:23:12.960><c> on</c><00:23:13.200><c> Earth.</c><00:23:14.080><c> And</c><00:23:14.240><c> the</c><00:23:14.400><c> shortcuts</c><00:23:14.960><c> to</c>

00:23:15.190 --> 00:23:15.200 align:start position:0%
a star on Earth. And the shortcuts to
 

00:23:15.200 --> 00:23:17.750 align:start position:0%
a star on Earth. And the shortcuts to
create<00:23:15.600><c> something</c><00:23:16.080><c> approximating</c><00:23:16.960><c> one,</c>

00:23:17.750 --> 00:23:17.760 align:start position:0%
create something approximating one,
 

00:23:17.760 --> 00:23:19.510 align:start position:0%
create something approximating one,
create<00:23:18.159><c> a</c><00:23:18.400><c> world</c><00:23:18.720><c> of</c><00:23:18.960><c> engineering</c>

00:23:19.510 --> 00:23:19.520 align:start position:0%
create a world of engineering
 

00:23:19.520 --> 00:23:22.789 align:start position:0%
create a world of engineering
challenges.<00:23:20.799><c> This</c><00:23:21.039><c> is</c><00:23:21.200><c> why</c><00:23:21.840><c> since</c><00:23:22.159><c> the</c><00:23:22.480><c> first</c>

00:23:22.789 --> 00:23:22.799 align:start position:0%
challenges. This is why since the first
 

00:23:22.799 --> 00:23:25.270 align:start position:0%
challenges. This is why since the first
fusion<00:23:23.200><c> reactor</c><00:23:23.679><c> patent</c><00:23:24.240><c> was</c><00:23:24.480><c> granted</c><00:23:24.960><c> in</c>

00:23:25.270 --> 00:23:25.280 align:start position:0%
fusion reactor patent was granted in
 

00:23:25.280 --> 00:23:26.950 align:start position:0%
fusion reactor patent was granted in
1946,

00:23:26.950 --> 00:23:26.960 align:start position:0%
1946,
 

00:23:26.960 --> 00:23:29.590 align:start position:0%
1946,
fusion<00:23:27.520><c> has</c><00:23:27.840><c> always</c><00:23:28.240><c> seemed</c><00:23:28.720><c> just</c><00:23:29.200><c> out</c><00:23:29.440><c> of</c>

00:23:29.590 --> 00:23:29.600 align:start position:0%
fusion has always seemed just out of
 

00:23:29.600 --> 00:23:33.190 align:start position:0%
fusion has always seemed just out of
reach.<00:23:30.480><c> Each</c><00:23:30.799><c> solution</c><00:23:31.840><c> comes</c><00:23:32.320><c> with</c><00:23:32.559><c> a</c><00:23:32.799><c> new</c>

00:23:33.190 --> 00:23:33.200 align:start position:0%
reach. Each solution comes with a new
 

00:23:33.200 --> 00:23:37.270 align:start position:0%
reach. Each solution comes with a new
set<00:23:33.506><c> [music]</c><00:23:33.520><c> of</c><00:23:33.840><c> problems.</c>

00:23:37.270 --> 00:23:37.280 align:start position:0%
 
 

00:23:37.280 --> 00:23:40.630 align:start position:0%
 
But<00:23:37.919><c> not</c><00:23:38.240><c> all</c><00:23:38.559><c> hope</c><00:23:38.799><c> is</c><00:23:39.039><c> lost.</c><00:23:40.000><c> In</c><00:23:40.320><c> recent</c>

00:23:40.630 --> 00:23:40.640 align:start position:0%
But not all hope is lost. In recent
 

00:23:40.640 --> 00:23:43.029 align:start position:0%
But not all hope is lost. In recent
years,<00:23:41.200><c> things</c><00:23:41.600><c> do</c><00:23:41.919><c> seem</c><00:23:42.240><c> to</c><00:23:42.400><c> be</c><00:23:42.559><c> changing</c>

00:23:43.029 --> 00:23:43.039 align:start position:0%
years, things do seem to be changing
 

00:23:43.039 --> 00:23:45.110 align:start position:0%
years, things do seem to be changing
with<00:23:43.360><c> some</c><00:23:43.600><c> hugely</c><00:23:44.159><c> significant</c><00:23:44.720><c> science</c>

00:23:45.110 --> 00:23:45.120 align:start position:0%
with some hugely significant science
 

00:23:45.120 --> 00:23:48.710 align:start position:0%
with some hugely significant science
breakthroughs.<00:23:46.320><c> In</c><00:23:46.559><c> December</c><00:23:47.120><c> 2022,</c><00:23:48.320><c> for</c><00:23:48.480><c> the</c>

00:23:48.710 --> 00:23:48.720 align:start position:0%
breakthroughs. In December 2022, for the
 

00:23:48.720 --> 00:23:51.830 align:start position:0%
breakthroughs. In December 2022, for the
first<00:23:48.960><c> time</c><00:23:49.360><c> ever,</c><00:23:50.559><c> more</c><00:23:51.039><c> energy</c><00:23:51.520><c> was</c>

00:23:51.830 --> 00:23:51.840 align:start position:0%
first time ever, more energy was
 

00:23:51.840 --> 00:23:54.470 align:start position:0%
first time ever, more energy was
obtained<00:23:52.320><c> from</c><00:23:52.559><c> a</c><00:23:52.720><c> fusion</c><00:23:53.120><c> reaction</c><00:23:53.919><c> than</c><00:23:54.159><c> was</c>

00:23:54.470 --> 00:23:54.480 align:start position:0%
obtained from a fusion reaction than was
 

00:23:54.480 --> 00:23:57.029 align:start position:0%
obtained from a fusion reaction than was
required<00:23:54.960><c> to</c><00:23:55.200><c> initiate</c><00:23:55.679><c> it.</c><00:23:56.400><c> A</c><00:23:56.720><c> challenge</c>

00:23:57.029 --> 00:23:57.039 align:start position:0%
required to initiate it. A challenge
 

00:23:57.039 --> 00:24:00.549 align:start position:0%
required to initiate it. A challenge
that<00:23:57.280><c> had</c><00:23:57.600><c> eluded</c><00:23:58.240><c> researchers</c><00:23:58.799><c> for</c><00:23:59.120><c> decades.</c>

00:24:00.549 --> 00:24:00.559 align:start position:0%
that had eluded researchers for decades.
 

00:24:00.559 --> 00:24:03.110 align:start position:0%
that had eluded researchers for decades.
At<00:24:00.799><c> the</c><00:24:00.960><c> National</c><00:24:01.440><c> Ignition</c><00:24:01.919><c> Facility,</c><00:24:02.799><c> a</c>

00:24:03.110 --> 00:24:03.120 align:start position:0%
At the National Ignition Facility, a
 

00:24:03.120 --> 00:24:06.390 align:start position:0%
At the National Ignition Facility, a
research<00:24:03.600><c> scale</c><00:24:04.000><c> ICF</c><00:24:04.720><c> reactor</c><00:24:05.200><c> in</c><00:24:05.360><c> the</c><00:24:05.520><c> US,</c>

00:24:06.390 --> 00:24:06.400 align:start position:0%
research scale ICF reactor in the US,
 

00:24:06.400 --> 00:24:09.750 align:start position:0%
research scale ICF reactor in the US,
3.15<00:24:07.760><c> megajou</c><00:24:08.400><c> of</c><00:24:08.559><c> energy</c><00:24:08.960><c> was</c><00:24:09.200><c> obtained</c><00:24:09.520><c> from</c>

00:24:09.750 --> 00:24:09.760 align:start position:0%
3.15 megajou of energy was obtained from
 

00:24:09.760 --> 00:24:13.750 align:start position:0%
3.15 megajou of energy was obtained from
a<00:24:10.000><c> tiny</c><00:24:10.400><c> pallet</c><00:24:11.039><c> of</c><00:24:11.360><c> DT</c><00:24:11.919><c> fuel</c><00:24:12.799><c> using</c><00:24:13.120><c> an</c><00:24:13.360><c> energy</c>

00:24:13.750 --> 00:24:13.760 align:start position:0%
a tiny pallet of DT fuel using an energy
 

00:24:13.760 --> 00:24:17.510 align:start position:0%
a tiny pallet of DT fuel using an energy
input<00:24:14.159><c> of</c><00:24:14.559><c> 2.05</c><00:24:15.919><c> megajou.</c>

00:24:17.510 --> 00:24:17.520 align:start position:0%
input of 2.05 megajou.
 

00:24:17.520 --> 00:24:21.269 align:start position:0%
input of 2.05 megajou.
Then<00:24:17.840><c> in</c><00:24:18.159><c> late</c><00:24:18.559><c> 2023,</c><00:24:19.840><c> the</c><00:24:20.080><c> experimental</c><00:24:20.880><c> jet</c>

00:24:21.269 --> 00:24:21.279 align:start position:0%
Then in late 2023, the experimental jet
 

00:24:21.279 --> 00:24:24.630 align:start position:0%
Then in late 2023, the experimental jet
reactor<00:24:21.760><c> in</c><00:24:21.919><c> the</c><00:24:22.080><c> UK,</c><00:24:22.720><c> the</c><00:24:22.799><c> atkamak</c><00:24:24.000><c> generated</c>

00:24:24.630 --> 00:24:24.640 align:start position:0%
reactor in the UK, the atkamak generated
 

00:24:24.640 --> 00:24:28.630 align:start position:0%
reactor in the UK, the atkamak generated
a<00:24:25.039><c> world</c><00:24:25.600><c> record</c><00:24:26.320><c> 69</c><00:24:27.200><c> megajou</c><00:24:27.840><c> of</c><00:24:27.919><c> energy</c><00:24:28.320><c> from</c>

00:24:28.630 --> 00:24:28.640 align:start position:0%
a world record 69 megajou of energy from
 

00:24:28.640 --> 00:24:33.110 align:start position:0%
a world record 69 megajou of energy from
just<00:24:29.360><c> 0.2</c><00:24:30.720><c> mg</c><00:24:31.279><c> of</c><00:24:31.520><c> DT</c><00:24:31.919><c> fuel.</c><00:24:32.456><c> [music]</c><00:24:32.880><c> And</c>

00:24:33.110 --> 00:24:33.120 align:start position:0%
just 0.2 mg of DT fuel. [music] And
 

00:24:33.120 --> 00:24:35.590 align:start position:0%
just 0.2 mg of DT fuel. [music] And
while<00:24:33.679><c> international</c><00:24:34.240><c> bermoths</c><00:24:34.799><c> like</c><00:24:35.200><c> it</c>

00:24:35.590 --> 00:24:35.600 align:start position:0%
while international bermoths like it
 

00:24:35.600 --> 00:24:38.230 align:start position:0%
while international bermoths like it
inch<00:24:35.919><c> closer</c><00:24:36.240><c> to</c><00:24:36.400><c> operation,</c><00:24:37.440><c> a</c><00:24:37.679><c> flurry</c><00:24:38.000><c> of</c>

00:24:38.230 --> 00:24:38.240 align:start position:0%
inch closer to operation, a flurry of
 

00:24:38.240 --> 00:24:40.310 align:start position:0%
inch closer to operation, a flurry of
private<00:24:38.720><c> investment</c><00:24:39.279><c> has</c><00:24:39.520><c> also</c><00:24:39.840><c> entered</c><00:24:40.080><c> the</c>

00:24:40.310 --> 00:24:40.320 align:start position:0%
private investment has also entered the
 

00:24:40.320 --> 00:24:42.789 align:start position:0%
private investment has also entered the
field<00:24:40.880><c> exploring</c><00:24:41.600><c> alternative</c><00:24:42.320><c> fusion</c>

00:24:42.789 --> 00:24:42.799 align:start position:0%
field exploring alternative fusion
 

00:24:42.799 --> 00:24:45.029 align:start position:0%
field exploring alternative fusion
technologies.<00:24:44.159><c> One</c><00:24:44.400><c> is</c><00:24:44.720><c> the</c>

00:24:45.029 --> 00:24:45.039 align:start position:0%
technologies. One is the
 

00:24:45.039 --> 00:24:47.510 align:start position:0%
technologies. One is the
Massachusetts-based<00:24:46.320><c> Commonwealth</c><00:24:47.039><c> Fusion</c>

00:24:47.510 --> 00:24:47.520 align:start position:0%
Massachusetts-based Commonwealth Fusion
 

00:24:47.520 --> 00:24:50.390 align:start position:0%
Massachusetts-based Commonwealth Fusion
Systems<00:24:48.320><c> backed</c><00:24:48.720><c> by</c><00:24:48.960><c> Google,</c><00:24:49.600><c> Nvidia,</c><00:24:50.159><c> and</c>

00:24:50.390 --> 00:24:50.400 align:start position:0%
Systems backed by Google, Nvidia, and
 

00:24:50.400 --> 00:24:53.029 align:start position:0%
Systems backed by Google, Nvidia, and
Bill<00:24:50.720><c> Gates.</c><00:24:51.520><c> It</c><00:24:51.760><c> proposes</c><00:24:52.400><c> using</c><00:24:52.799><c> high</c>

00:24:53.029 --> 00:24:53.039 align:start position:0%
Bill Gates. It proposes using high
 

00:24:53.039 --> 00:24:55.590 align:start position:0%
Bill Gates. It proposes using high
temperature<00:24:53.840><c> superconducting</c><00:24:54.799><c> magnets</c><00:24:55.360><c> to</c>

00:24:55.590 --> 00:24:55.600 align:start position:0%
temperature superconducting magnets to
 

00:24:55.600 --> 00:24:59.430 align:start position:0%
temperature superconducting magnets to
produce<00:24:55.919><c> a</c><00:24:56.240><c> more</c><00:24:56.640><c> compact</c><00:24:57.120><c> tokamac.</c><00:24:58.480><c> CFS</c>

00:24:59.430 --> 00:24:59.440 align:start position:0%
produce a more compact tokamac. CFS
 

00:24:59.440 --> 00:25:01.269 align:start position:0%
produce a more compact tokamac. CFS
claims<00:24:59.760><c> it</c><00:25:00.000><c> will</c><00:25:00.159><c> have</c><00:25:00.320><c> a</c><00:25:00.480><c> commercial</c><00:25:00.880><c> plant</c>

00:25:01.269 --> 00:25:01.279 align:start position:0%
claims it will have a commercial plant
 

00:25:01.279 --> 00:25:04.070 align:start position:0%
claims it will have a commercial plant
online<00:25:01.679><c> by</c><00:25:02.000><c> the</c><00:25:02.159><c> early</c><00:25:02.559><c> 2030s.</c>

00:25:04.070 --> 00:25:04.080 align:start position:0%
online by the early 2030s.
 

00:25:04.080 --> 00:25:06.470 align:start position:0%
online by the early 2030s.
Another<00:25:04.480><c> outfit</c><00:25:05.039><c> based</c><00:25:05.440><c> out</c><00:25:05.679><c> of</c><00:25:05.919><c> Washington</c>

00:25:06.470 --> 00:25:06.480 align:start position:0%
Another outfit based out of Washington
 

00:25:06.480 --> 00:25:09.190 align:start position:0%
Another outfit based out of Washington
State,<00:25:07.039><c> Helion,</c><00:25:08.000><c> believes</c><00:25:08.400><c> it</c><00:25:08.720><c> is</c><00:25:08.880><c> going</c><00:25:09.039><c> to</c>

00:25:09.190 --> 00:25:09.200 align:start position:0%
State, Helion, believes it is going to
 

00:25:09.200 --> 00:25:11.669 align:start position:0%
State, Helion, believes it is going to
get<00:25:09.279><c> there</c><00:25:09.600><c> even</c><00:25:09.919><c> earlier.</c><00:25:11.039><c> Backed</c><00:25:11.360><c> by</c><00:25:11.520><c> the</c>

00:25:11.669 --> 00:25:11.679 align:start position:0%
get there even earlier. Backed by the
 

00:25:11.679 --> 00:25:14.070 align:start position:0%
get there even earlier. Backed by the
likes<00:25:11.919><c> of</c><00:25:12.159><c> Sam</c><00:25:12.400><c> Alolman,</c><00:25:13.120><c> this</c><00:25:13.360><c> company</c><00:25:13.760><c> has</c>

00:25:14.070 --> 00:25:14.080 align:start position:0%
likes of Sam Alolman, this company has
 

00:25:14.080 --> 00:25:15.990 align:start position:0%
likes of Sam Alolman, this company has
taken<00:25:14.400><c> a</c><00:25:14.720><c> completely</c><00:25:15.279><c> new</c><00:25:15.520><c> approach</c><00:25:15.840><c> to</c>

00:25:15.990 --> 00:25:16.000 align:start position:0%
taken a completely new approach to
 

00:25:16.000 --> 00:25:18.789 align:start position:0%
taken a completely new approach to
reactor<00:25:16.480><c> design.</c><00:25:17.279><c> It</c><00:25:17.520><c> fires</c><00:25:18.000><c> two</c><00:25:18.320><c> rings</c><00:25:18.640><c> of</c>

00:25:18.789 --> 00:25:18.799 align:start position:0%
reactor design. It fires two rings of
 

00:25:18.799 --> 00:25:22.230 align:start position:0%
reactor design. It fires two rings of
plasma<00:25:19.200><c> together</c><00:25:19.520><c> at</c><00:25:19.919><c> a</c><00:25:20.159><c> million</c><00:25:20.720><c> kmh</c><00:25:22.000><c> to</c>

00:25:22.230 --> 00:25:22.240 align:start position:0%
plasma together at a million kmh to
 

00:25:22.240 --> 00:25:24.870 align:start position:0%
plasma together at a million kmh to
generate<00:25:22.799><c> fusion</c><00:25:23.360><c> conditions,</c><00:25:24.159><c> a</c><00:25:24.400><c> sort</c><00:25:24.640><c> of</c>

00:25:24.870 --> 00:25:24.880 align:start position:0%
generate fusion conditions, a sort of
 

00:25:24.880 --> 00:25:27.269 align:start position:0%
generate fusion conditions, a sort of
halfway<00:25:25.360><c> house</c><00:25:25.679><c> between</c><00:25:26.159><c> magnetic</c><00:25:26.880><c> and</c>

00:25:27.269 --> 00:25:27.279 align:start position:0%
halfway house between magnetic and
 

00:25:27.279 --> 00:25:29.669 align:start position:0%
halfway house between magnetic and
inertial<00:25:27.919><c> confinement.</c><00:25:29.039><c> This</c><00:25:29.279><c> approach</c>

00:25:29.669 --> 00:25:29.679 align:start position:0%
inertial confinement. This approach
 

00:25:29.679 --> 00:25:32.070 align:start position:0%
inertial confinement. This approach
allows<00:25:30.080><c> them</c><00:25:30.240><c> to</c><00:25:30.400><c> react</c><00:25:30.799><c> dutyium</c><00:25:31.600><c> not</c><00:25:31.840><c> with</c>

00:25:32.070 --> 00:25:32.080 align:start position:0%
allows them to react dutyium not with
 

00:25:32.080 --> 00:25:34.310 align:start position:0%
allows them to react dutyium not with
tritium<00:25:32.799><c> but</c><00:25:33.039><c> a</c><00:25:33.279><c> reactive</c><00:25:33.760><c> isotope</c><00:25:34.240><c> of</c>

00:25:34.310 --> 00:25:34.320 align:start position:0%
tritium but a reactive isotope of
 

00:25:34.320 --> 00:25:37.350 align:start position:0%
tritium but a reactive isotope of
helium,<00:25:34.960><c> helium</c><00:25:35.520><c> 3,</c><00:25:36.240><c> doing</c><00:25:36.559><c> away</c><00:25:36.960><c> with</c><00:25:37.200><c> the</c>

00:25:37.350 --> 00:25:37.360 align:start position:0%
helium, helium 3, doing away with the
 

00:25:37.360 --> 00:25:40.310 align:start position:0%
helium, helium 3, doing away with the
problematic<00:25:37.919><c> tritium</c><00:25:38.559><c> entirely.</c>

00:25:40.310 --> 00:25:40.320 align:start position:0%
problematic tritium entirely.
 

00:25:40.320 --> 00:25:42.789 align:start position:0%
problematic tritium entirely.
The<00:25:40.480><c> use</c><00:25:40.640><c> of</c><00:25:40.799><c> helium</c><00:25:41.279><c> 3</c><00:25:41.600><c> is</c><00:25:41.760><c> key</c><00:25:42.000><c> to</c><00:25:42.240><c> helium's</c>

00:25:42.789 --> 00:25:42.799 align:start position:0%
The use of helium 3 is key to helium's
 

00:25:42.799 --> 00:25:45.029 align:start position:0%
The use of helium 3 is key to helium's
approach<00:25:43.520><c> because</c><00:25:43.919><c> instead</c><00:25:44.320><c> of</c><00:25:44.480><c> producing</c><00:25:44.799><c> an</c>

00:25:45.029 --> 00:25:45.039 align:start position:0%
approach because instead of producing an
 

00:25:45.039 --> 00:25:47.269 align:start position:0%
approach because instead of producing an
alpha<00:25:45.360><c> particle</c><00:25:45.760><c> and</c><00:25:46.000><c> a</c><00:25:46.159><c> neutron,</c><00:25:46.960><c> these</c>

00:25:47.269 --> 00:25:47.279 align:start position:0%
alpha particle and a neutron, these
 

00:25:47.279 --> 00:25:49.190 align:start position:0%
alpha particle and a neutron, these
reactants<00:25:47.760><c> generate</c><00:25:48.080><c> an</c><00:25:48.240><c> alpha</c><00:25:48.640><c> particle</c><00:25:48.960><c> and</c>

00:25:49.190 --> 00:25:49.200 align:start position:0%
reactants generate an alpha particle and
 

00:25:49.200 --> 00:25:52.149 align:start position:0%
reactants generate an alpha particle and
a<00:25:49.360><c> proton.</c><00:25:50.480><c> Vitally,</c><00:25:51.279><c> this</c><00:25:51.520><c> means</c><00:25:51.760><c> there</c><00:25:52.000><c> is</c>

00:25:52.149 --> 00:25:52.159 align:start position:0%
a proton. Vitally, this means there is
 

00:25:52.159 --> 00:25:54.630 align:start position:0%
a proton. Vitally, this means there is
no<00:25:52.640><c> neutral</c><00:25:53.120><c> particle</c><00:25:53.679><c> whizzing</c><00:25:54.080><c> off</c><00:25:54.320><c> out</c><00:25:54.480><c> of</c>

00:25:54.630 --> 00:25:54.640 align:start position:0%
no neutral particle whizzing off out of
 

00:25:54.640 --> 00:25:57.029 align:start position:0%
no neutral particle whizzing off out of
the<00:25:54.799><c> reactor</c><00:25:55.279><c> carrying</c><00:25:55.760><c> all</c><00:25:56.000><c> the</c><00:25:56.240><c> energy.</c>

00:25:57.029 --> 00:25:57.039 align:start position:0%
the reactor carrying all the energy.
 

00:25:57.039 --> 00:25:59.990 align:start position:0%
the reactor carrying all the energy.
Energy<00:25:57.520><c> is</c><00:25:57.760><c> retained</c><00:25:58.400><c> within</c><00:25:59.200><c> the</c><00:25:59.520><c> plasma</c>

00:25:59.990 --> 00:26:00.000 align:start position:0%
Energy is retained within the plasma
 

00:26:00.000 --> 00:26:03.110 align:start position:0%
Energy is retained within the plasma
itself.<00:26:01.279><c> As</c><00:26:01.520><c> the</c><00:26:01.679><c> reaction</c><00:26:02.080><c> proceeds,</c><00:26:02.880><c> the</c>

00:26:03.110 --> 00:26:03.120 align:start position:0%
itself. As the reaction proceeds, the
 

00:26:03.120 --> 00:26:05.269 align:start position:0%
itself. As the reaction proceeds, the
energy<00:26:03.440><c> generates</c><00:26:03.919><c> an</c><00:26:04.240><c> increase</c><00:26:04.559><c> in</c><00:26:04.799><c> internal</c>

00:26:05.269 --> 00:26:05.279 align:start position:0%
energy generates an increase in internal
 

00:26:05.279 --> 00:26:08.070 align:start position:0%
energy generates an increase in internal
pressure<00:26:05.919><c> and</c><00:26:06.240><c> a</c><00:26:06.480><c> change</c><00:26:06.640><c> in</c><00:26:06.880><c> magnetic</c><00:26:07.360><c> field,</c>

00:26:08.070 --> 00:26:08.080 align:start position:0%
pressure and a change in magnetic field,
 

00:26:08.080 --> 00:26:09.750 align:start position:0%
pressure and a change in magnetic field,
which<00:26:08.320><c> can</c><00:26:08.559><c> be</c><00:26:08.720><c> used</c><00:26:08.960><c> to</c><00:26:09.120><c> generate</c>

00:26:09.750 --> 00:26:09.760 align:start position:0%
which can be used to generate
 

00:26:09.760 --> 00:26:12.950 align:start position:0%
which can be used to generate
electricity<00:26:10.480><c> directly.</c><00:26:11.679><c> No</c><00:26:12.000><c> Victorian</c><00:26:12.640><c> steam</c>

00:26:12.950 --> 00:26:12.960 align:start position:0%
electricity directly. No Victorian steam
 

00:26:12.960 --> 00:26:16.630 align:start position:0%
electricity directly. No Victorian steam
turbines<00:26:13.520><c> involved</c><00:26:14.000><c> at</c><00:26:14.240><c> all.</c><00:26:15.679><c> So,</c><00:26:16.159><c> what's</c><00:26:16.480><c> the</c>

00:26:16.630 --> 00:26:16.640 align:start position:0%
turbines involved at all. So, what's the
 

00:26:16.640 --> 00:26:19.830 align:start position:0%
turbines involved at all. So, what's the
catch,<00:26:16.960><c> you</c><00:26:17.120><c> might</c><00:26:17.279><c> rightfully</c><00:26:17.840><c> ask?</c><00:26:18.960><c> Well,</c>

00:26:19.830 --> 00:26:19.840 align:start position:0%
catch, you might rightfully ask? Well,
 

00:26:19.840 --> 00:26:22.630 align:start position:0%
catch, you might rightfully ask? Well,
just<00:26:20.080><c> like</c><00:26:20.400><c> tritium,</c><00:26:21.200><c> helium</c><00:26:21.760><c> 3</c><00:26:22.159><c> is</c>

00:26:22.630 --> 00:26:22.640 align:start position:0%
just like tritium, helium 3 is
 

00:26:22.640 --> 00:26:25.190 align:start position:0%
just like tritium, helium 3 is
incredibly<00:26:23.360><c> rare</c><00:26:23.808><c> [music]</c><00:26:24.159><c> and</c><00:26:24.480><c> also</c><00:26:24.799><c> has</c><00:26:25.039><c> to</c>

00:26:25.190 --> 00:26:25.200 align:start position:0%
incredibly rare [music] and also has to
 

00:26:25.200 --> 00:26:28.310 align:start position:0%
incredibly rare [music] and also has to
be<00:26:25.360><c> bred</c><00:26:26.159><c> this</c><00:26:26.400><c> time</c><00:26:26.640><c> from</c><00:26:26.960><c> dutarium</c><00:26:27.679><c> dutarium</c>

00:26:28.310 --> 00:26:28.320 align:start position:0%
be bred this time from dutarium dutarium
 

00:26:28.320 --> 00:26:31.590 align:start position:0%
be bred this time from dutarium dutarium
reaction.<00:26:29.200><c> And</c><00:26:29.520><c> this</c><00:26:29.840><c> process</c><00:26:30.640><c> does</c><00:26:31.200><c> generate</c>

00:26:31.590 --> 00:26:31.600 align:start position:0%
reaction. And this process does generate
 

00:26:31.600 --> 00:26:34.710 align:start position:0%
reaction. And this process does generate
those<00:26:32.000><c> pesky</c><00:26:32.480><c> reactor</c><00:26:32.960><c> damaging</c><00:26:33.360><c> neutrons.</c>

00:26:34.710 --> 00:26:34.720 align:start position:0%
those pesky reactor damaging neutrons.
 

00:26:34.720 --> 00:26:37.190 align:start position:0%
those pesky reactor damaging neutrons.
One<00:26:34.880><c> of</c><00:26:35.039><c> Helium's</c><00:26:35.600><c> proposed</c><00:26:35.919><c> solutions</c><00:26:36.720><c> is</c><00:26:36.960><c> to</c>

00:26:37.190 --> 00:26:37.200 align:start position:0%
One of Helium's proposed solutions is to
 

00:26:37.200 --> 00:26:39.029 align:start position:0%
One of Helium's proposed solutions is to
separate<00:26:37.520><c> the</c><00:26:37.679><c> two</c><00:26:37.919><c> reactions,</c><00:26:38.640><c> having</c>

00:26:39.029 --> 00:26:39.039 align:start position:0%
separate the two reactions, having
 

00:26:39.039 --> 00:26:40.789 align:start position:0%
separate the two reactions, having
commercial<00:26:39.440><c> plants</c><00:26:39.679><c> that</c><00:26:39.840><c> will</c><00:26:40.000><c> use</c><00:26:40.159><c> detium</c>

00:26:40.789 --> 00:26:40.799 align:start position:0%
commercial plants that will use detium
 

00:26:40.799 --> 00:26:43.029 align:start position:0%
commercial plants that will use detium
helium<00:26:41.279><c> 3</c><00:26:41.679><c> and</c><00:26:41.919><c> feeder</c><00:26:42.320><c> reactors</c>

00:26:43.029 --> 00:26:43.039 align:start position:0%
helium 3 and feeder reactors
 

00:26:43.039 --> 00:26:45.269 align:start position:0%
helium 3 and feeder reactors
specifically<00:26:43.600><c> for</c><00:26:43.840><c> generating</c><00:26:44.320><c> helium</c><00:26:44.799><c> 3</c>

00:26:45.269 --> 00:26:45.279 align:start position:0%
specifically for generating helium 3
 

00:26:45.279 --> 00:26:46.730 align:start position:0%
specifically for generating helium 3
that<00:26:45.520><c> have</c><00:26:45.760><c> planned</c><00:26:46.320><c> shorter</c><00:26:46.720><c> lifespans.</c>

00:26:46.730 --> 00:26:46.740 align:start position:0%
that have planned shorter lifespans.
 

00:26:46.740 --> 00:26:48.310 align:start position:0%
that have planned shorter lifespans.
[music]

00:26:48.310 --> 00:26:48.320 align:start position:0%
[music]
 

00:26:48.320 --> 00:26:50.230 align:start position:0%
[music]
But<00:26:48.480><c> there</c><00:26:48.720><c> is</c><00:26:48.960><c> another</c><00:26:49.200><c> issue</c><00:26:49.440><c> with</c><00:26:49.600><c> detium</c>

00:26:50.230 --> 00:26:50.240 align:start position:0%
But there is another issue with detium
 

00:26:50.240 --> 00:26:53.190 align:start position:0%
But there is another issue with detium
helium<00:26:50.720><c> 3.</c><00:26:51.600><c> This</c><00:26:51.760><c> mixture</c><00:26:52.320><c> requires</c><00:26:52.880><c> much</c>

00:26:53.190 --> 00:26:53.200 align:start position:0%
helium 3. This mixture requires much
 

00:26:53.200 --> 00:26:55.350 align:start position:0%
helium 3. This mixture requires much
higher<00:26:53.600><c> temperatures</c><00:26:54.080><c> and</c><00:26:54.320><c> fuel</c><00:26:54.640><c> densities</c>

00:26:55.350 --> 00:26:55.360 align:start position:0%
higher temperatures and fuel densities
 

00:26:55.360 --> 00:26:58.390 align:start position:0%
higher temperatures and fuel densities
than<00:26:55.679><c> conventional</c><00:26:56.240><c> detium</c><00:26:56.799><c> tritium</c><00:26:57.279><c> fuel.</c>

00:26:58.390 --> 00:26:58.400 align:start position:0%
than conventional detium tritium fuel.
 

00:26:58.400 --> 00:27:00.950 align:start position:0%
than conventional detium tritium fuel.
Huge<00:26:59.120><c> pulses</c><00:26:59.600><c> of</c><00:26:59.840><c> electricity</c><00:27:00.320><c> are</c><00:27:00.640><c> needed</c>

00:27:00.950 --> 00:27:00.960 align:start position:0%
Huge pulses of electricity are needed
 

00:27:00.960 --> 00:27:03.190 align:start position:0%
Huge pulses of electricity are needed
each<00:27:01.360><c> time</c><00:27:01.600><c> the</c><00:27:01.840><c> reactor</c><00:27:02.240><c> fires</c><00:27:02.640><c> to</c><00:27:02.799><c> generate</c>

00:27:03.190 --> 00:27:03.200 align:start position:0%
each time the reactor fires to generate
 

00:27:03.200 --> 00:27:05.190 align:start position:0%
each time the reactor fires to generate
fusion<00:27:03.600><c> conditions,</c><00:27:04.418><c> [music]</c><00:27:04.480><c> which</c><00:27:04.720><c> puts</c>

00:27:05.190 --> 00:27:05.200 align:start position:0%
fusion conditions, [music] which puts
 

00:27:05.200 --> 00:27:07.269 align:start position:0%
fusion conditions, [music] which puts
immense<00:27:05.679><c> strain</c><00:27:06.000><c> on</c><00:27:06.240><c> electricity</c><00:27:06.880><c> supplies</c>

00:27:07.269 --> 00:27:07.279 align:start position:0%
immense strain on electricity supplies
 

00:27:07.279 --> 00:27:09.430 align:start position:0%
immense strain on electricity supplies
and<00:27:07.520><c> reactor</c><00:27:07.919><c> components.</c><00:27:08.880><c> It's</c><00:27:09.120><c> a</c>

00:27:09.430 --> 00:27:09.440 align:start position:0%
and reactor components. It's a
 

00:27:09.440 --> 00:27:11.190 align:start position:0%
and reactor components. It's a
considerable<00:27:10.159><c> engineering</c><00:27:10.720><c> hurdle</c><00:27:11.039><c> for</c>

00:27:11.190 --> 00:27:11.200 align:start position:0%
considerable engineering hurdle for
 

00:27:11.200 --> 00:27:13.269 align:start position:0%
considerable engineering hurdle for
Helium<00:27:11.679><c> to</c><00:27:11.840><c> overcome</c><00:27:12.480><c> as</c><00:27:12.720><c> the</c><00:27:12.960><c> company</c>

00:27:13.269 --> 00:27:13.279 align:start position:0%
Helium to overcome as the company
 

00:27:13.279 --> 00:27:15.510 align:start position:0%
Helium to overcome as the company
embarks<00:27:13.760><c> on</c><00:27:14.000><c> building</c><00:27:14.320><c> its</c><00:27:14.640><c> first</c><00:27:14.960><c> commercial</c>

00:27:15.510 --> 00:27:15.520 align:start position:0%
embarks on building its first commercial
 

00:27:15.520 --> 00:27:19.029 align:start position:0%
embarks on building its first commercial
scale<00:27:15.840><c> reactor,</c><00:27:16.960><c> but</c><00:27:17.520><c> CEO</c><00:27:18.080><c> David</c><00:27:18.480><c> Curtley</c>

00:27:19.029 --> 00:27:19.039 align:start position:0%
scale reactor, but CEO David Curtley
 

00:27:19.039 --> 00:27:21.269 align:start position:0%
scale reactor, but CEO David Curtley
claims<00:27:19.600><c> this</c><00:27:19.919><c> plant</c><00:27:20.159><c> will</c><00:27:20.320><c> be</c><00:27:20.480><c> online</c><00:27:20.960><c> and</c>

00:27:21.269 --> 00:27:21.279 align:start position:0%
claims this plant will be online and
 

00:27:21.279 --> 00:27:23.269 align:start position:0%
claims this plant will be online and
supplying<00:27:21.760><c> power</c><00:27:22.080><c> to</c><00:27:22.320><c> Microsoft</c><00:27:22.960><c> data</c>

00:27:23.269 --> 00:27:23.279 align:start position:0%
supplying power to Microsoft data
 

00:27:23.279 --> 00:27:27.269 align:start position:0%
supplying power to Microsoft data
centers<00:27:23.919><c> by</c><00:27:24.400><c> 2028.</c>

00:27:27.269 --> 00:27:27.279 align:start position:0%
centers by 2028.
 

00:27:27.279 --> 00:27:29.990 align:start position:0%
centers by 2028.
Now<00:27:27.760><c> whether</c><00:27:28.080><c> or</c><00:27:28.320><c> not</c><00:27:28.559><c> this</c><00:27:28.880><c> comes</c><00:27:29.120><c> to</c><00:27:29.279><c> pass,</c>

00:27:29.990 --> 00:27:30.000 align:start position:0%
Now whether or not this comes to pass,
 

00:27:30.000 --> 00:27:32.710 align:start position:0%
Now whether or not this comes to pass,
only<00:27:30.320><c> time</c><00:27:30.559><c> will</c><00:27:30.799><c> tell.</c><00:27:31.760><c> However,</c><00:27:32.240><c> even</c><00:27:32.480><c> if</c>

00:27:32.710 --> 00:27:32.720 align:start position:0%
only time will tell. However, even if
 

00:27:32.720 --> 00:27:34.470 align:start position:0%
only time will tell. However, even if
none<00:27:32.960><c> of</c><00:27:33.039><c> these</c><00:27:33.279><c> private</c><00:27:33.600><c> ventures</c><00:27:34.000><c> hit</c><00:27:34.240><c> their</c>

00:27:34.470 --> 00:27:34.480 align:start position:0%
none of these private ventures hit their
 

00:27:34.480 --> 00:27:36.870 align:start position:0%
none of these private ventures hit their
well<00:27:34.799><c> publicized</c><00:27:35.440><c> milestones,</c><00:27:36.559><c> the</c><00:27:36.799><c> fact</c>

00:27:36.870 --> 00:27:36.880 align:start position:0%
well publicized milestones, the fact
 

00:27:36.880 --> 00:27:39.190 align:start position:0%
well publicized milestones, the fact
that<00:27:37.120><c> this</c><00:27:37.360><c> investment</c><00:27:37.919><c> exists</c><00:27:38.320><c> at</c><00:27:38.559><c> all</c>

00:27:39.190 --> 00:27:39.200 align:start position:0%
that this investment exists at all
 

00:27:39.200 --> 00:27:41.350 align:start position:0%
that this investment exists at all
reflects<00:27:39.600><c> the</c><00:27:39.840><c> moment</c><00:27:40.320><c> the</c><00:27:40.559><c> fusion</c><00:27:41.039><c> sector</c>

00:27:41.350 --> 00:27:41.360 align:start position:0%
reflects the moment the fusion sector
 

00:27:41.360 --> 00:27:45.510 align:start position:0%
reflects the moment the fusion sector
finds<00:27:41.600><c> itself</c><00:27:41.919><c> in</c><00:27:43.200><c> new</c><00:27:43.840><c> algorithmic</c><00:27:44.720><c> and</c><00:27:45.120><c> AI</c>

00:27:45.510 --> 00:27:45.520 align:start position:0%
finds itself in new algorithmic and AI
 

00:27:45.520 --> 00:27:48.070 align:start position:0%
finds itself in new algorithmic and AI
tools<00:27:45.919><c> now</c><00:27:46.080><c> at</c><00:27:46.240><c> their</c><00:27:46.480><c> disposal.</c><00:27:47.440><c> For</c><00:27:47.679><c> many</c><00:27:47.840><c> in</c>

00:27:48.070 --> 00:27:48.080 align:start position:0%
tools now at their disposal. For many in
 

00:27:48.080 --> 00:27:50.710 align:start position:0%
tools now at their disposal. For many in
the<00:27:48.240><c> field,</c><00:27:48.559><c> it</c><00:27:48.880><c> does</c><00:27:49.200><c> feel</c><00:27:49.520><c> like</c><00:27:49.840><c> fusion</c><00:27:50.320><c> is</c>

00:27:50.710 --> 00:27:50.720 align:start position:0%
the field, it does feel like fusion is
 

00:27:50.720 --> 00:27:53.510 align:start position:0%
the field, it does feel like fusion is
finally<00:27:51.279><c> inching</c><00:27:51.760><c> closer</c><00:27:52.080><c> to</c><00:27:52.240><c> reality.</c><00:27:53.279><c> And</c>

00:27:53.510 --> 00:27:53.520 align:start position:0%
finally inching closer to reality. And
 

00:27:53.520 --> 00:27:55.110 align:start position:0%
finally inching closer to reality. And
though<00:27:53.840><c> unsolved</c><00:27:54.399><c> scientific</c><00:27:54.880><c> and</c>

00:27:55.110 --> 00:27:55.120 align:start position:0%
though unsolved scientific and
 

00:27:55.120 --> 00:27:57.590 align:start position:0%
though unsolved scientific and
engineering<00:27:55.679><c> problems</c><00:27:56.159><c> exist,</c><00:27:57.200><c> regardless</c>

00:27:57.590 --> 00:27:57.600 align:start position:0%
engineering problems exist, regardless
 

00:27:57.600 --> 00:28:00.070 align:start position:0%
engineering problems exist, regardless
of<00:27:57.760><c> the</c><00:27:58.000><c> approach</c><00:27:58.399><c> used,</c><00:27:59.200><c> the</c><00:27:59.440><c> diversity</c><00:27:59.919><c> of</c>

00:28:00.070 --> 00:28:00.080 align:start position:0%
of the approach used, the diversity of
 

00:28:00.080 --> 00:28:02.789 align:start position:0%
of the approach used, the diversity of
fusion<00:28:00.480><c> technologies</c><00:28:01.039><c> that</c><00:28:01.360><c> now</c><00:28:01.679><c> exist</c><00:28:02.159><c> is</c><00:28:02.480><c> a</c>

00:28:02.789 --> 00:28:02.799 align:start position:0%
fusion technologies that now exist is a
 

00:28:02.799 --> 00:28:06.950 align:start position:0%
fusion technologies that now exist is a
huge<00:28:03.279><c> bonus.</c><00:28:04.720><c> So</c><00:28:05.440><c> while</c><00:28:05.760><c> we'll</c><00:28:06.320><c> never</c><00:28:06.640><c> be</c><00:28:06.799><c> able</c>

00:28:06.950 --> 00:28:06.960 align:start position:0%
huge bonus. So while we'll never be able
 

00:28:06.960 --> 00:28:10.630 align:start position:0%
huge bonus. So while we'll never be able
to<00:28:07.200><c> recreate</c><00:28:07.760><c> a</c><00:28:08.159><c> star</c><00:28:08.559><c> on</c><00:28:08.799><c> Earth,</c><00:28:09.760><c> it</c><00:28:10.080><c> is</c><00:28:10.320><c> very</c>

00:28:10.630 --> 00:28:10.640 align:start position:0%
to recreate a star on Earth, it is very
 

00:28:10.640 --> 00:28:14.149 align:start position:0%
to recreate a star on Earth, it is very
possible<00:28:11.360><c> that</c><00:28:11.600><c> the</c><00:28:11.919><c> one</c><00:28:12.559><c> or</c><00:28:12.880><c> even</c><00:28:13.360><c> several</c><00:28:13.919><c> of</c>

00:28:14.149 --> 00:28:14.159 align:start position:0%
possible that the one or even several of
 

00:28:14.159 --> 00:28:16.230 align:start position:0%
possible that the one or even several of
the<00:28:14.399><c> approximations</c><00:28:15.440><c> we</c><00:28:15.679><c> are</c><00:28:15.840><c> trying</c><00:28:16.000><c> to</c>

00:28:16.230 --> 00:28:16.240 align:start position:0%
the approximations we are trying to
 

00:28:16.240 --> 00:28:18.789 align:start position:0%
the approximations we are trying to
build<00:28:16.720><c> will</c><00:28:16.960><c> play</c><00:28:17.200><c> a</c><00:28:17.520><c> pivotal</c><00:28:18.080><c> role</c><00:28:18.399><c> in</c><00:28:18.640><c> the</c>

00:28:18.789 --> 00:28:18.799 align:start position:0%
build will play a pivotal role in the
 

00:28:18.799 --> 00:28:21.909 align:start position:0%
build will play a pivotal role in the
energy<00:28:19.089><c> [music]</c><00:28:19.279><c> landscape</c><00:28:19.760><c> of</c><00:28:20.000><c> the</c><00:28:20.159><c> future.</c>

00:28:21.909 --> 00:28:21.919 align:start position:0%
energy [music] landscape of the future.
 

00:28:21.919 --> 00:28:24.470 align:start position:0%
energy [music] landscape of the future.
I'll<00:28:22.240><c> end</c><00:28:22.399><c> by</c><00:28:22.640><c> returning</c><00:28:23.279><c> to</c><00:28:23.600><c> Edington</c><00:28:24.240><c> and</c>

00:28:24.470 --> 00:28:24.480 align:start position:0%
I'll end by returning to Edington and
 

00:28:24.480 --> 00:28:27.190 align:start position:0%
I'll end by returning to Edington and
his<00:28:24.720><c> 1920</c><00:28:25.440><c> musings</c><00:28:25.919><c> on</c><00:28:26.080><c> the</c><00:28:26.240><c> energy</c><00:28:26.720><c> powering</c>

00:28:27.190 --> 00:28:27.200 align:start position:0%
his 1920 musings on the energy powering
 

00:28:27.200 --> 00:28:30.950 align:start position:0%
his 1920 musings on the energy powering
stars.<00:28:28.480><c> A</c><00:28:28.720><c> star</c><00:28:29.039><c> is</c><00:28:29.279><c> drawing</c><00:28:29.679><c> on</c><00:28:30.000><c> some</c><00:28:30.399><c> vast</c>

00:28:30.950 --> 00:28:30.960 align:start position:0%
stars. A star is drawing on some vast
 

00:28:30.960 --> 00:28:33.909 align:start position:0%
stars. A star is drawing on some vast
reservoir<00:28:31.520><c> of</c><00:28:31.679><c> energy</c><00:28:32.559><c> by</c><00:28:32.799><c> means</c><00:28:33.279><c> unknown</c><00:28:33.760><c> to</c>

00:28:33.909 --> 00:28:33.919 align:start position:0%
reservoir of energy by means unknown to
 

00:28:33.919 --> 00:28:37.350 align:start position:0%
reservoir of energy by means unknown to
us.<00:28:34.799><c> This</c><00:28:35.120><c> reservoir</c><00:28:35.760><c> can</c><00:28:36.080><c> scarcely</c><00:28:36.640><c> be</c><00:28:36.960><c> other</c>

00:28:37.350 --> 00:28:37.360 align:start position:0%
us. This reservoir can scarcely be other
 

00:28:37.360 --> 00:28:40.310 align:start position:0%
us. This reservoir can scarcely be other
than<00:28:37.600><c> the</c><00:28:37.760><c> subatomic</c><00:28:38.480><c> energy</c><00:28:39.360><c> which</c><00:28:39.919><c> it</c><00:28:40.159><c> is</c>

00:28:40.310 --> 00:28:40.320 align:start position:0%
than the subatomic energy which it is
 

00:28:40.320 --> 00:28:43.909 align:start position:0%
than the subatomic energy which it is
known<00:28:41.200><c> exists</c><00:28:41.679><c> abundantly</c><00:28:42.320><c> in</c><00:28:42.640><c> all</c><00:28:42.799><c> matter.</c>

00:28:43.909 --> 00:28:43.919 align:start position:0%
known exists abundantly in all matter.
 

00:28:43.919 --> 00:28:46.070 align:start position:0%
known exists abundantly in all matter.
We<00:28:44.159><c> sometimes</c><00:28:44.640><c> dream</c><00:28:44.880><c> that</c><00:28:45.120><c> man</c><00:28:45.440><c> will</c><00:28:45.679><c> one</c><00:28:45.919><c> day</c>

00:28:46.070 --> 00:28:46.080 align:start position:0%
We sometimes dream that man will one day
 

00:28:46.080 --> 00:28:48.549 align:start position:0%
We sometimes dream that man will one day
learn<00:28:46.480><c> how</c><00:28:46.720><c> to</c><00:28:46.960><c> release</c><00:28:47.279><c> it</c><00:28:47.600><c> and</c><00:28:47.919><c> use</c><00:28:48.080><c> it</c><00:28:48.320><c> for</c>

00:28:48.549 --> 00:28:48.559 align:start position:0%
learn how to release it and use it for
 

00:28:48.559 --> 00:28:51.990 align:start position:0%
learn how to release it and use it for
his<00:28:48.799><c> service.</c><00:28:49.679><c> The</c><00:28:50.000><c> store</c><00:28:50.640><c> is</c><00:28:51.039><c> well</c><00:28:51.440><c> night</c>

00:28:51.990 --> 00:28:52.000 align:start position:0%
his service. The store is well night
 

00:28:52.000 --> 00:28:53.510 align:start position:0%
his service. The store is well night
inexhaustible.

00:28:53.510 --> 00:28:53.520 align:start position:0%
inexhaustible.
 

00:28:53.520 --> 00:28:57.350 align:start position:0%
inexhaustible.
If<00:28:53.760><c> only</c><00:28:54.320><c> it</c><00:28:54.559><c> can</c><00:28:54.720><c> be</c><00:28:54.880><c> tapped.</c><00:28:56.159><c> Maybe</c><00:28:56.559><c> finally</c>

00:28:57.350 --> 00:28:57.360 align:start position:0%
If only it can be tapped. Maybe finally
 

00:28:57.360 --> 00:28:59.669 align:start position:0%
If only it can be tapped. Maybe finally
it<00:28:57.600><c> won't</c><00:28:57.760><c> be</c><00:28:57.919><c> another</c><00:28:58.320><c> 30</c><00:28:58.640><c> years</c><00:28:59.120><c> until</c><00:28:59.440><c> we</c>

00:28:59.669 --> 00:28:59.679 align:start position:0%
it won't be another 30 years until we
 

00:28:59.679 --> 00:29:04.870 align:start position:0%
it won't be another 30 years until we
find<00:28:59.919><c> out</c><00:29:00.240><c> if</c><00:29:00.480><c> it</c><00:29:00.720><c> can.</c>

00:29:04.870 --> 00:29:04.880 align:start position:0%
 
 

00:29:04.880 --> 00:29:07.430 align:start position:0%
 
If<00:29:05.120><c> I</c><00:29:05.360><c> tell</c><00:29:05.600><c> you</c><00:29:05.840><c> to</c><00:29:06.000><c> imagine</c><00:29:06.320><c> a</c><00:29:06.559><c> telescope,</c>

00:29:07.430 --> 00:29:07.440 align:start position:0%
If I tell you to imagine a telescope,
 

00:29:07.440 --> 00:29:10.710 align:start position:0%
If I tell you to imagine a telescope,
what<00:29:07.760><c> do</c><00:29:07.919><c> you</c><00:29:08.159><c> see?</c><00:29:09.360><c> Perhaps</c><00:29:09.840><c> you</c><00:29:10.080><c> picture</c><00:29:10.399><c> an</c>

00:29:10.710 --> 00:29:10.720 align:start position:0%
what do you see? Perhaps you picture an
 

00:29:10.720 --> 00:29:12.950 align:start position:0%
what do you see? Perhaps you picture an
old<00:29:10.960><c> wooden</c><00:29:11.279><c> cylinder</c><00:29:11.760><c> with</c><00:29:12.080><c> lenses</c><00:29:12.480><c> at</c><00:29:12.720><c> both</c>

00:29:12.950 --> 00:29:12.960 align:start position:0%
old wooden cylinder with lenses at both
 

00:29:12.960 --> 00:29:15.190 align:start position:0%
old wooden cylinder with lenses at both
ends,<00:29:13.600><c> similar</c><00:29:13.919><c> to</c><00:29:14.080><c> the</c><00:29:14.240><c> one</c><00:29:14.399><c> that</c><00:29:14.559><c> Galileo</c>

00:29:15.190 --> 00:29:15.200 align:start position:0%
ends, similar to the one that Galileo
 

00:29:15.200 --> 00:29:17.350 align:start position:0%
ends, similar to the one that Galileo
Galilee<00:29:15.840><c> first</c><00:29:16.159><c> used</c><00:29:16.480><c> to</c><00:29:16.640><c> gaze</c><00:29:16.960><c> up</c><00:29:17.120><c> at</c><00:29:17.279><c> the</c>

00:29:17.350 --> 00:29:17.360 align:start position:0%
Galilee first used to gaze up at the
 

00:29:17.360 --> 00:29:20.149 align:start position:0%
Galilee first used to gaze up at the
heavens<00:29:17.760><c> and</c><00:29:18.080><c> see</c><00:29:18.240><c> the</c><00:29:18.399><c> moons</c><00:29:18.720><c> of</c><00:29:18.799><c> Jupiter.</c><00:29:19.919><c> Or</c>

00:29:20.149 --> 00:29:20.159 align:start position:0%
heavens and see the moons of Jupiter. Or
 

00:29:20.159 --> 00:29:21.990 align:start position:0%
heavens and see the moons of Jupiter. Or
maybe<00:29:20.399><c> your</c><00:29:20.640><c> mind</c><00:29:20.880><c> is</c><00:29:21.120><c> constructing</c><00:29:21.679><c> a</c>

00:29:21.990 --> 00:29:22.000 align:start position:0%
maybe your mind is constructing a
 

00:29:22.000 --> 00:29:23.925 align:start position:0%
maybe your mind is constructing a
cathedral-sized<00:29:22.960><c> dome</c><00:29:23.440><c> with</c><00:29:23.679><c> mirrors</c>

00:29:23.925 --> 00:29:23.935 align:start position:0%
cathedral-sized dome with mirrors
 

00:29:23.935 --> 00:29:26.230 align:start position:0%
cathedral-sized dome with mirrors
[music]<00:29:24.159><c> as</c><00:29:24.480><c> big</c><00:29:24.720><c> as</c><00:29:24.960><c> tennis</c><00:29:25.360><c> courts,</c><00:29:26.080><c> like</c>

00:29:26.230 --> 00:29:26.240 align:start position:0%
[music] as big as tennis courts, like
 

00:29:26.240 --> 00:29:28.149 align:start position:0%
[music] as big as tennis courts, like
the<00:29:26.480><c> telescopes</c><00:29:27.120><c> high</c><00:29:27.279><c> up</c><00:29:27.520><c> in</c><00:29:27.679><c> the</c><00:29:27.840><c> mountains</c>

00:29:28.149 --> 00:29:28.159 align:start position:0%
the telescopes high up in the mountains
 

00:29:28.159 --> 00:29:31.510 align:start position:0%
the telescopes high up in the mountains
of<00:29:28.399><c> Chile</c><00:29:28.880><c> and</c><00:29:29.200><c> Hawaii.</c><00:29:30.320><c> Or</c><00:29:30.640><c> you</c><00:29:30.960><c> could</c><00:29:31.200><c> even</c>

00:29:31.510 --> 00:29:31.520 align:start position:0%
of Chile and Hawaii. Or you could even
 

00:29:31.520 --> 00:29:33.110 align:start position:0%
of Chile and Hawaii. Or you could even
be<00:29:31.760><c> drifting</c><00:29:31.795><c> [music]</c><00:29:32.159><c> onto</c><00:29:32.559><c> visions</c><00:29:32.880><c> of</c>

00:29:33.110 --> 00:29:33.120 align:start position:0%
be drifting [music] onto visions of
 

00:29:33.120 --> 00:29:35.269 align:start position:0%
be drifting [music] onto visions of
enormous<00:29:33.679><c> dishes</c><00:29:34.399><c> like</c><00:29:34.640><c> the</c><00:29:34.799><c> infamous</c>

00:29:35.269 --> 00:29:35.279 align:start position:0%
enormous dishes like the infamous
 

00:29:35.279 --> 00:29:37.909 align:start position:0%
enormous dishes like the infamous
Arosibo<00:29:36.000><c> telescope</c><00:29:36.720><c> that</c><00:29:37.039><c> once</c><00:29:37.360><c> captured</c>

00:29:37.909 --> 00:29:37.919 align:start position:0%
Arosibo telescope that once captured
 

00:29:37.919 --> 00:29:41.190 align:start position:0%
Arosibo telescope that once captured
radio<00:29:38.320><c> waves</c><00:29:38.720><c> from</c><00:29:39.039><c> across</c><00:29:39.440><c> the</c><00:29:39.679><c> cosmos.</c><00:29:40.960><c> What</c>

00:29:41.190 --> 00:29:41.200 align:start position:0%
radio waves from across the cosmos. What
 

00:29:41.200 --> 00:29:44.310 align:start position:0%
radio waves from across the cosmos. What
you<00:29:41.440><c> probably</c><00:29:42.000><c> aren't</c><00:29:42.399><c> imagining</c><00:29:43.279><c> is</c><00:29:43.520><c> a</c><00:29:43.840><c> cubic</c>

00:29:44.310 --> 00:29:44.320 align:start position:0%
you probably aren't imagining is a cubic
 

00:29:44.320 --> 00:29:46.630 align:start position:0%
you probably aren't imagining is a cubic
kilometer<00:29:44.880><c> of</c><00:29:45.200><c> ancient</c><00:29:45.679><c> ice</c><00:29:46.159><c> under</c><00:29:46.480><c> the</c>

00:29:46.630 --> 00:29:46.640 align:start position:0%
kilometer of ancient ice under the
 

00:29:46.640 --> 00:29:49.430 align:start position:0%
kilometer of ancient ice under the
surface<00:29:47.039><c> of</c><00:29:47.200><c> our</c><00:29:47.440><c> planet</c><00:29:47.919><c> south</c><00:29:48.159><c> pole.</c><00:29:49.200><c> And</c>

00:29:49.430 --> 00:29:49.440 align:start position:0%
surface of our planet south pole. And
 

00:29:49.440 --> 00:29:52.310 align:start position:0%
surface of our planet south pole. And
yet<00:29:50.159><c> deep</c><00:29:50.480><c> below</c><00:29:50.880><c> the</c><00:29:51.120><c> frigid</c><00:29:51.679><c> landscape</c><00:29:52.080><c> of</c>

00:29:52.310 --> 00:29:52.320 align:start position:0%
yet deep below the frigid landscape of
 

00:29:52.320 --> 00:29:56.630 align:start position:0%
yet deep below the frigid landscape of
Antarctica,<00:29:53.520><c> there</c><00:29:53.760><c> lies</c><00:29:54.399><c> precisely</c><00:29:55.200><c> this.</c><00:29:56.320><c> A</c>

00:29:56.630 --> 00:29:56.640 align:start position:0%
Antarctica, there lies precisely this. A
 

00:29:56.640 --> 00:29:58.789 align:start position:0%
Antarctica, there lies precisely this. A
strange<00:29:57.039><c> telescope</c><00:29:57.600><c> in</c><00:29:57.919><c> one</c><00:29:58.080><c> of</c><00:29:58.159><c> the</c><00:29:58.399><c> most</c>

00:29:58.789 --> 00:29:58.799 align:start position:0%
strange telescope in one of the most
 

00:29:58.799 --> 00:30:01.350 align:start position:0%
strange telescope in one of the most
inhospitable<00:29:59.840><c> environments</c><00:30:00.320><c> on</c><00:30:00.559><c> Earth,</c>

00:30:01.350 --> 00:30:01.360 align:start position:0%
inhospitable environments on Earth,
 

00:30:01.360 --> 00:30:04.389 align:start position:0%
inhospitable environments on Earth,
designed<00:30:01.760><c> to</c><00:30:01.919><c> observe</c><00:30:02.720><c> not</c><00:30:03.200><c> visible</c><00:30:03.600><c> light,</c>

00:30:04.389 --> 00:30:04.399 align:start position:0%
designed to observe not visible light,
 

00:30:04.399 --> 00:30:07.750 align:start position:0%
designed to observe not visible light,
but<00:30:04.720><c> instead</c><00:30:05.440><c> one</c><00:30:05.760><c> of</c><00:30:06.000><c> the</c><00:30:06.159><c> most</c><00:30:06.559><c> unusual</c><00:30:07.360><c> and</c>

00:30:07.750 --> 00:30:07.760 align:start position:0%
but instead one of the most unusual and
 

00:30:07.760 --> 00:30:10.950 align:start position:0%
but instead one of the most unusual and
elusive<00:30:08.399><c> particles</c><00:30:08.880><c> in</c><00:30:09.120><c> the</c><00:30:09.360><c> universe.</c><00:30:10.720><c> I'm</c>

00:30:10.950 --> 00:30:10.960 align:start position:0%
elusive particles in the universe. I'm
 

00:30:10.960 --> 00:30:13.510 align:start position:0%
elusive particles in the universe. I'm
Alex<00:30:11.279><c> Mccoan</c><00:30:12.000><c> and</c><00:30:12.240><c> you're</c><00:30:12.399><c> watching</c><00:30:12.720><c> Astramm.</c>

00:30:13.510 --> 00:30:13.520 align:start position:0%
Alex Mccoan and you're watching Astramm.
 

00:30:13.520 --> 00:30:15.830 align:start position:0%
Alex Mccoan and you're watching Astramm.
And<00:30:13.760><c> today</c><00:30:14.080><c> we're</c><00:30:14.399><c> joining</c><00:30:14.720><c> the</c><00:30:15.039><c> Ice</c><00:30:15.440><c> Cube</c>

00:30:15.830 --> 00:30:15.840 align:start position:0%
And today we're joining the Ice Cube
 

00:30:15.840 --> 00:30:18.950 align:start position:0%
And today we're joining the Ice Cube
Observatory<00:30:16.559><c> in</c><00:30:16.799><c> its</c><00:30:17.039><c> hunt</c><00:30:17.360><c> for</c><00:30:17.679><c> nutrinos,</c>

00:30:18.950 --> 00:30:18.960 align:start position:0%
Observatory in its hunt for nutrinos,
 

00:30:18.960 --> 00:30:22.789 align:start position:0%
Observatory in its hunt for nutrinos,
also<00:30:19.279><c> known</c><00:30:19.760><c> as</c><00:30:20.080><c> ghost</c><00:30:20.480><c> particles.</c>

00:30:22.789 --> 00:30:22.799 align:start position:0%
also known as ghost particles.
 

00:30:22.799 --> 00:30:25.590 align:start position:0%
also known as ghost particles.
If<00:30:23.120><c> you</c><00:30:23.360><c> stood</c><00:30:23.600><c> on</c><00:30:23.840><c> this</c><00:30:24.240><c> icy</c><00:30:24.559><c> surface,</c><00:30:25.279><c> you</c>

00:30:25.590 --> 00:30:25.600 align:start position:0%
If you stood on this icy surface, you
 

00:30:25.600 --> 00:30:27.430 align:start position:0%
If you stood on this icy surface, you
might<00:30:25.840><c> not</c><00:30:26.080><c> be</c><00:30:26.240><c> aware</c><00:30:26.559><c> that</c><00:30:26.880><c> some</c><00:30:27.120><c> of</c><00:30:27.200><c> the</c>

00:30:27.430 --> 00:30:27.440 align:start position:0%
might not be aware that some of the
 

00:30:27.440 --> 00:30:29.909 align:start position:0%
might not be aware that some of the
rarest<00:30:28.000><c> events</c><00:30:28.399><c> in</c><00:30:28.640><c> the</c><00:30:28.799><c> universe</c><00:30:29.279><c> are</c><00:30:29.600><c> being</c>

00:30:29.909 --> 00:30:29.919 align:start position:0%
rarest events in the universe are being
 

00:30:29.919 --> 00:30:32.710 align:start position:0%
rarest events in the universe are being
observed<00:30:30.480><c> beneath</c><00:30:30.880><c> your</c><00:30:31.120><c> feet.</c><00:30:32.080><c> Located</c><00:30:32.559><c> at</c>

00:30:32.710 --> 00:30:32.720 align:start position:0%
observed beneath your feet. Located at
 

00:30:32.720 --> 00:30:34.789 align:start position:0%
observed beneath your feet. Located at
the<00:30:32.960><c> most</c><00:30:33.120><c> southerntherly</c><00:30:33.760><c> human</c><00:30:34.240><c> occupied</c>

00:30:34.789 --> 00:30:34.799 align:start position:0%
the most southerntherly human occupied
 

00:30:34.799 --> 00:30:37.590 align:start position:0%
the most southerntherly human occupied
base<00:30:35.120><c> in</c><00:30:35.360><c> the</c><00:30:35.600><c> world,</c><00:30:36.080><c> the</c><00:30:36.240><c> Amson</c><00:30:36.880><c> Scott</c><00:30:37.360><c> South</c>

00:30:37.590 --> 00:30:37.600 align:start position:0%
base in the world, the Amson Scott South
 

00:30:37.600 --> 00:30:40.630 align:start position:0%
base in the world, the Amson Scott South
pole<00:30:38.000><c> station,</c><00:30:38.880><c> Ice</c><00:30:39.120><c> Cube</c><00:30:39.520><c> makes</c><00:30:39.760><c> use</c><00:30:40.159><c> of</c><00:30:40.399><c> the</c>

00:30:40.630 --> 00:30:40.640 align:start position:0%
pole station, Ice Cube makes use of the
 

00:30:40.640 --> 00:30:43.669 align:start position:0%
pole station, Ice Cube makes use of the
very<00:30:41.200><c> ice</c><00:30:41.520><c> in</c><00:30:41.760><c> which</c><00:30:41.919><c> it</c><00:30:42.159><c> is</c><00:30:42.320><c> built</c><00:30:42.720><c> to</c><00:30:42.960><c> observe</c>

00:30:43.669 --> 00:30:43.679 align:start position:0%
very ice in which it is built to observe
 

00:30:43.679 --> 00:30:47.750 align:start position:0%
very ice in which it is built to observe
high<00:30:44.159><c> energy</c><00:30:44.559><c> nutrino</c><00:30:45.200><c> particles.</c><00:30:46.480><c> But</c><00:30:46.880><c> why?</c>

00:30:47.750 --> 00:30:47.760 align:start position:0%
high energy nutrino particles. But why?
 

00:30:47.760 --> 00:30:50.470 align:start position:0%
high energy nutrino particles. But why?
Why<00:30:48.159><c> this</c><00:30:48.480><c> extreme</c><00:30:49.120><c> environment</c><00:30:49.760><c> and</c><00:30:50.000><c> weird</c>

00:30:50.470 --> 00:30:50.480 align:start position:0%
Why this extreme environment and weird
 

00:30:50.480 --> 00:30:51.909 align:start position:0%
Why this extreme environment and weird
design?

00:30:51.909 --> 00:30:51.919 align:start position:0%
design?
 

00:30:51.919 --> 00:30:55.269 align:start position:0%
design?
Because<00:30:52.559><c> nutrinos</c><00:30:53.440><c> are</c><00:30:53.679><c> weird,</c><00:30:54.880><c> really</c>

00:30:55.269 --> 00:30:55.279 align:start position:0%
Because nutrinos are weird, really
 

00:30:55.279 --> 00:30:58.470 align:start position:0%
Because nutrinos are weird, really
weird.<00:30:56.640><c> Nutrinos</c><00:30:57.440><c> are</c><00:30:57.760><c> fundamental</c>

00:30:58.470 --> 00:30:58.480 align:start position:0%
weird. Nutrinos are fundamental
 

00:30:58.480 --> 00:31:01.350 align:start position:0%
weird. Nutrinos are fundamental
particles<00:30:59.200><c> like</c><00:30:59.600><c> quarks</c><00:31:00.080><c> and</c><00:31:00.240><c> electrons.</c>

00:31:01.350 --> 00:31:01.360 align:start position:0%
particles like quarks and electrons.
 

00:31:01.360 --> 00:31:03.510 align:start position:0%
particles like quarks and electrons.
Most<00:31:01.600><c> of</c><00:31:01.760><c> these</c><00:31:02.000><c> nutrinos</c><00:31:02.640><c> arrive</c><00:31:02.960><c> at</c><00:31:03.200><c> Earth</c>

00:31:03.510 --> 00:31:03.520 align:start position:0%
Most of these nutrinos arrive at Earth
 

00:31:03.520 --> 00:31:05.510 align:start position:0%
Most of these nutrinos arrive at Earth
from<00:31:03.760><c> the</c><00:31:03.919><c> sun</c><00:31:04.559><c> where</c><00:31:04.799><c> they</c><00:31:05.039><c> are</c><00:31:05.200><c> released</c>

00:31:05.510 --> 00:31:05.520 align:start position:0%
from the sun where they are released
 

00:31:05.520 --> 00:31:07.990 align:start position:0%
from the sun where they are released
from<00:31:05.679><c> the</c><00:31:05.919><c> nuclear</c><00:31:06.399><c> fusion</c><00:31:06.720><c> reactions</c><00:31:07.520><c> raging</c>

00:31:07.990 --> 00:31:08.000 align:start position:0%
from the nuclear fusion reactions raging
 

00:31:08.000 --> 00:31:10.870 align:start position:0%
from the nuclear fusion reactions raging
inside<00:31:08.480><c> its</c><00:31:08.720><c> core.</c><00:31:09.679><c> Other</c><00:31:10.000><c> nutrinos</c><00:31:10.640><c> will</c>

00:31:10.870 --> 00:31:10.880 align:start position:0%
inside its core. Other nutrinos will
 

00:31:10.880 --> 00:31:13.430 align:start position:0%
inside its core. Other nutrinos will
have<00:31:11.039><c> come</c><00:31:11.279><c> from</c><00:31:11.520><c> more</c><00:31:11.840><c> cataclysmic</c><00:31:12.559><c> origins</c>

00:31:13.430 --> 00:31:13.440 align:start position:0%
have come from more cataclysmic origins
 

00:31:13.440 --> 00:31:15.590 align:start position:0%
have come from more cataclysmic origins
such<00:31:13.600><c> as</c><00:31:13.760><c> a</c><00:31:14.000><c> super</c><00:31:14.240><c> massive</c><00:31:14.640><c> black</c><00:31:14.880><c> hole,</c>

00:31:15.590 --> 00:31:15.600 align:start position:0%
such as a super massive black hole,
 

00:31:15.600 --> 00:31:18.630 align:start position:0%
such as a super massive black hole,
supernova,<00:31:16.720><c> or</c><00:31:17.039><c> any</c><00:31:17.360><c> other</c><00:31:17.679><c> cosmic</c><00:31:18.159><c> event</c>

00:31:18.630 --> 00:31:18.640 align:start position:0%
supernova, or any other cosmic event
 

00:31:18.640 --> 00:31:21.190 align:start position:0%
supernova, or any other cosmic event
with<00:31:18.880><c> enough</c><00:31:19.279><c> energy</c><00:31:19.760><c> to</c><00:31:20.000><c> rip</c><00:31:20.399><c> atoms</c><00:31:20.880><c> into</c>

00:31:21.190 --> 00:31:21.200 align:start position:0%
with enough energy to rip atoms into
 

00:31:21.200 --> 00:31:24.230 align:start position:0%
with enough energy to rip atoms into
their<00:31:21.440><c> subatomic</c><00:31:22.320><c> particles.</c><00:31:23.600><c> Similar</c><00:31:23.919><c> to</c>

00:31:24.230 --> 00:31:24.240 align:start position:0%
their subatomic particles. Similar to
 

00:31:24.240 --> 00:31:26.230 align:start position:0%
their subatomic particles. Similar to
electrons,<00:31:25.039><c> nutrinos</c><00:31:25.760><c> belong</c><00:31:25.919><c> to</c><00:31:26.080><c> the</c>

00:31:26.230 --> 00:31:26.240 align:start position:0%
electrons, nutrinos belong to the
 

00:31:26.240 --> 00:31:28.710 align:start position:0%
electrons, nutrinos belong to the
leptton<00:31:26.720><c> family</c><00:31:27.039><c> of</c><00:31:27.279><c> particles,</c><00:31:28.240><c> meaning</c>

00:31:28.710 --> 00:31:28.720 align:start position:0%
leptton family of particles, meaning
 

00:31:28.720 --> 00:31:30.950 align:start position:0%
leptton family of particles, meaning
that<00:31:28.960><c> they</c><00:31:29.279><c> do</c><00:31:29.520><c> not</c><00:31:29.840><c> interact</c><00:31:30.399><c> with</c><00:31:30.640><c> other</c>

00:31:30.950 --> 00:31:30.960 align:start position:0%
that they do not interact with other
 

00:31:30.960 --> 00:31:33.430 align:start position:0%
that they do not interact with other
matter<00:31:31.360><c> through</c><00:31:31.679><c> the</c><00:31:32.000><c> strong</c><00:31:32.399><c> nuclear</c><00:31:32.960><c> force</c>

00:31:33.430 --> 00:31:33.440 align:start position:0%
matter through the strong nuclear force
 

00:31:33.440 --> 00:31:35.669 align:start position:0%
matter through the strong nuclear force
that<00:31:33.760><c> binds</c><00:31:34.159><c> other</c><00:31:34.480><c> subatomic</c><00:31:35.200><c> particles</c>

00:31:35.669 --> 00:31:35.679 align:start position:0%
that binds other subatomic particles
 

00:31:35.679 --> 00:31:38.789 align:start position:0%
that binds other subatomic particles
like<00:31:36.080><c> protons</c><00:31:36.640><c> and</c><00:31:36.799><c> neutrons</c><00:31:37.360><c> together.</c>

00:31:38.789 --> 00:31:38.799 align:start position:0%
like protons and neutrons together.
 

00:31:38.799 --> 00:31:42.070 align:start position:0%
like protons and neutrons together.
Unlike<00:31:39.440><c> electrons,</c><00:31:40.480><c> they</c><00:31:40.720><c> are</c><00:31:40.960><c> neutral</c><00:31:41.760><c> and</c>

00:31:42.070 --> 00:31:42.080 align:start position:0%
Unlike electrons, they are neutral and
 

00:31:42.080 --> 00:31:45.269 align:start position:0%
Unlike electrons, they are neutral and
have<00:31:42.320><c> almost</c><00:31:42.799><c> no</c><00:31:43.200><c> mass</c><00:31:43.679><c> whatsoever.</c>

00:31:45.269 --> 00:31:45.279 align:start position:0%
have almost no mass whatsoever.
 

00:31:45.279 --> 00:31:48.470 align:start position:0%
have almost no mass whatsoever.
This<00:31:45.600><c> lack</c><00:31:45.919><c> of</c><00:31:46.080><c> charge</c><00:31:46.640><c> and</c><00:31:46.960><c> tiny</c><00:31:47.360><c> mass</c><00:31:48.159><c> means</c>

00:31:48.470 --> 00:31:48.480 align:start position:0%
This lack of charge and tiny mass means
 

00:31:48.480 --> 00:31:50.470 align:start position:0%
This lack of charge and tiny mass means
that<00:31:48.640><c> they</c><00:31:48.960><c> can</c><00:31:49.200><c> only</c><00:31:49.600><c> interact</c><00:31:50.000><c> with</c><00:31:50.240><c> other</c>

00:31:50.470 --> 00:31:50.480 align:start position:0%
that they can only interact with other
 

00:31:50.480 --> 00:31:52.389 align:start position:0%
that they can only interact with other
particles<00:31:51.120><c> through</c><00:31:51.360><c> the</c><00:31:51.519><c> weak</c><00:31:51.919><c> nuclear</c>

00:31:52.389 --> 00:31:52.399 align:start position:0%
particles through the weak nuclear
 

00:31:52.399 --> 00:31:55.190 align:start position:0%
particles through the weak nuclear
force,<00:31:53.039><c> giving</c><00:31:53.360><c> them</c><00:31:53.600><c> their</c><00:31:54.000><c> ghostly</c><00:31:54.559><c> quality</c>

00:31:55.190 --> 00:31:55.200 align:start position:0%
force, giving them their ghostly quality
 

00:31:55.200 --> 00:31:56.630 align:start position:0%
force, giving them their ghostly quality
and<00:31:55.440><c> making</c><00:31:55.679><c> them</c><00:31:55.919><c> one</c><00:31:56.080><c> of</c><00:31:56.240><c> the</c><00:31:56.399><c> most</c>

00:31:56.630 --> 00:31:56.640 align:start position:0%
and making them one of the most
 

00:31:56.640 --> 00:31:58.630 align:start position:0%
and making them one of the most
difficult<00:31:57.120><c> particles</c><00:31:57.679><c> for</c><00:31:58.000><c> scientists</c><00:31:58.399><c> to</c>

00:31:58.630 --> 00:31:58.640 align:start position:0%
difficult particles for scientists to
 

00:31:58.640 --> 00:32:02.070 align:start position:0%
difficult particles for scientists to
detect.<00:31:59.679><c> So</c><00:31:59.919><c> much</c><00:32:00.159><c> so</c><00:32:00.720><c> that</c><00:32:01.039><c> even</c><00:32:01.279><c> when</c><00:32:01.519><c> we</c><00:32:01.760><c> do</c>

00:32:02.070 --> 00:32:02.080 align:start position:0%
detect. So much so that even when we do
 

00:32:02.080 --> 00:32:04.149 align:start position:0%
detect. So much so that even when we do
measure<00:32:02.480><c> their</c><00:32:02.720><c> presence,</c><00:32:03.440><c> it</c><00:32:03.679><c> is</c><00:32:03.840><c> only</c>

00:32:04.149 --> 00:32:04.159 align:start position:0%
measure their presence, it is only
 

00:32:04.159 --> 00:32:06.389 align:start position:0%
measure their presence, it is only
through<00:32:04.399><c> the</c><00:32:04.640><c> impact</c><00:32:05.039><c> they</c><00:32:05.360><c> have</c><00:32:05.600><c> on</c><00:32:06.000><c> other</c>

00:32:06.389 --> 00:32:06.399 align:start position:0%
through the impact they have on other
 

00:32:06.399 --> 00:32:10.070 align:start position:0%
through the impact they have on other
particles.<00:32:07.840><c> If</c><00:32:08.240><c> that</c><00:32:08.559><c> wasn't</c><00:32:08.960><c> spooky</c><00:32:09.360><c> enough,</c>

00:32:10.070 --> 00:32:10.080 align:start position:0%
particles. If that wasn't spooky enough,
 

00:32:10.080 --> 00:32:12.389 align:start position:0%
particles. If that wasn't spooky enough,
nutrinos<00:32:10.880><c> can</c><00:32:11.039><c> also</c><00:32:11.360><c> pass</c><00:32:11.679><c> through</c><00:32:12.000><c> our</c>

00:32:12.389 --> 00:32:12.399 align:start position:0%
nutrinos can also pass through our
 

00:32:12.399 --> 00:32:15.029 align:start position:0%
nutrinos can also pass through our
entire<00:32:13.120><c> planet</c><00:32:13.760><c> without</c><00:32:14.240><c> acknowledging</c><00:32:14.799><c> the</c>

00:32:15.029 --> 00:32:15.039 align:start position:0%
entire planet without acknowledging the
 

00:32:15.039 --> 00:32:17.750 align:start position:0%
entire planet without acknowledging the
existence<00:32:15.519><c> of</c><00:32:15.679><c> a</c><00:32:16.000><c> single</c><00:32:16.320><c> atom</c><00:32:16.720><c> in</c><00:32:16.880><c> the</c><00:32:17.039><c> crust,</c>

00:32:17.750 --> 00:32:17.760 align:start position:0%
existence of a single atom in the crust,
 

00:32:17.760 --> 00:32:20.870 align:start position:0%
existence of a single atom in the crust,
mantle,<00:32:18.559><c> core,</c><00:32:19.200><c> or</c><00:32:19.600><c> any</c><00:32:19.919><c> other</c><00:32:20.399><c> layer</c><00:32:20.559><c> of</c><00:32:20.720><c> the</c>

00:32:20.870 --> 00:32:20.880 align:start position:0%
mantle, core, or any other layer of the
 

00:32:20.880 --> 00:32:23.430 align:start position:0%
mantle, core, or any other layer of the
Earth,<00:32:21.600><c> flying</c><00:32:22.159><c> straight</c><00:32:22.640><c> out</c><00:32:22.880><c> of</c><00:32:23.039><c> the</c><00:32:23.279><c> other</c>

00:32:23.430 --> 00:32:23.440 align:start position:0%
Earth, flying straight out of the other
 

00:32:23.440 --> 00:32:26.149 align:start position:0%
Earth, flying straight out of the other
side<00:32:24.000><c> completely</c><00:32:24.640><c> unnoticed.</c>

00:32:26.149 --> 00:32:26.159 align:start position:0%
side completely unnoticed.
 

00:32:26.159 --> 00:32:28.789 align:start position:0%
side completely unnoticed.
There<00:32:26.399><c> are</c><00:32:26.640><c> trillions</c><00:32:27.120><c> of</c><00:32:27.360><c> nutrinos</c><00:32:28.240><c> surging</c>

00:32:28.789 --> 00:32:28.799 align:start position:0%
There are trillions of nutrinos surging
 

00:32:28.799 --> 00:32:32.470 align:start position:0%
There are trillions of nutrinos surging
through<00:32:29.039><c> you</c><00:32:29.600><c> every</c><00:32:30.000><c> single</c><00:32:30.559><c> second.</c><00:32:31.600><c> And</c><00:32:31.840><c> yet</c>

00:32:32.470 --> 00:32:32.480 align:start position:0%
through you every single second. And yet
 

00:32:32.480 --> 00:32:35.110 align:start position:0%
through you every single second. And yet
over<00:32:32.880><c> your</c><00:32:33.120><c> entire</c><00:32:33.600><c> lifetime</c><00:32:34.480><c> there</c><00:32:34.640><c> is</c><00:32:34.880><c> only</c>

00:32:35.110 --> 00:32:35.120 align:start position:0%
over your entire lifetime there is only
 

00:32:35.120 --> 00:32:38.389 align:start position:0%
over your entire lifetime there is only
a<00:32:35.440><c> 1</c><00:32:35.760><c> in4</c><00:32:36.559><c> chance</c><00:32:37.200><c> that</c><00:32:37.519><c> even</c><00:32:37.840><c> one</c><00:32:38.080><c> of</c><00:32:38.240><c> those</c>

00:32:38.389 --> 00:32:38.399 align:start position:0%
a 1 in4 chance that even one of those
 

00:32:38.399 --> 00:32:40.789 align:start position:0%
a 1 in4 chance that even one of those
nutrinos<00:32:39.039><c> will</c><00:32:39.279><c> interact</c><00:32:39.679><c> with</c><00:32:39.919><c> an</c><00:32:40.080><c> atom</c><00:32:40.480><c> that</c>

00:32:40.789 --> 00:32:40.799 align:start position:0%
nutrinos will interact with an atom that
 

00:32:40.799 --> 00:32:43.430 align:start position:0%
nutrinos will interact with an atom that
belongs<00:32:41.120><c> to</c><00:32:41.279><c> your</c><00:32:41.519><c> body.</c>

00:32:43.430 --> 00:32:43.440 align:start position:0%
belongs to your body.
 

00:32:43.440 --> 00:32:46.149 align:start position:0%
belongs to your body.
Here<00:32:43.919><c> we</c><00:32:44.240><c> find</c><00:32:44.640><c> further</c><00:32:45.120><c> demonstration</c><00:32:45.919><c> of</c>

00:32:46.149 --> 00:32:46.159 align:start position:0%
Here we find further demonstration of
 

00:32:46.159 --> 00:32:49.029 align:start position:0%
Here we find further demonstration of
the<00:32:46.320><c> nutrinos</c><00:32:47.120><c> complete</c><00:32:47.760><c> refusal</c><00:32:48.320><c> to</c><00:32:48.640><c> engage</c>

00:32:49.029 --> 00:32:49.039 align:start position:0%
the nutrinos complete refusal to engage
 

00:32:49.039 --> 00:32:52.070 align:start position:0%
the nutrinos complete refusal to engage
with<00:32:49.279><c> matter</c><00:32:49.679><c> in</c><00:32:49.919><c> the</c><00:32:50.080><c> universe.</c><00:32:51.120><c> Photons</c>

00:32:52.070 --> 00:32:52.080 align:start position:0%
with matter in the universe. Photons
 

00:32:52.080 --> 00:32:54.710 align:start position:0%
with matter in the universe. Photons
created<00:32:52.480><c> in</c><00:32:52.720><c> those</c><00:32:52.960><c> same</c><00:32:53.279><c> nuclear</c><00:32:53.760><c> reactions</c>

00:32:54.710 --> 00:32:54.720 align:start position:0%
created in those same nuclear reactions
 

00:32:54.720 --> 00:32:57.190 align:start position:0%
created in those same nuclear reactions
may<00:32:54.960><c> take</c><00:32:55.440><c> 1</c><00:32:55.760><c> million</c><00:32:56.159><c> years</c><00:32:56.799><c> between</c>

00:32:57.190 --> 00:32:57.200 align:start position:0%
may take 1 million years between
 

00:32:57.200 --> 00:32:59.509 align:start position:0%
may take 1 million years between
bursting<00:32:57.679><c> out</c><00:32:57.840><c> of</c><00:32:58.000><c> the</c><00:32:58.159><c> sun's</c><00:32:58.480><c> center</c><00:32:59.200><c> to</c>

00:32:59.509 --> 00:32:59.519 align:start position:0%
bursting out of the sun's center to
 

00:32:59.519 --> 00:33:02.950 align:start position:0%
bursting out of the sun's center to
leaping<00:33:00.080><c> off</c><00:33:00.320><c> the</c><00:33:00.559><c> surface</c><00:33:01.120><c> into</c><00:33:01.519><c> space.</c><00:33:02.720><c> They</c>

00:33:02.950 --> 00:33:02.960 align:start position:0%
leaping off the surface into space. They
 

00:33:02.960 --> 00:33:05.509 align:start position:0%
leaping off the surface into space. They
are<00:33:03.120><c> constantly</c><00:33:03.679><c> absorbed</c><00:33:04.240><c> and</c><00:33:04.559><c> emitted</c><00:33:05.200><c> in</c>

00:33:05.509 --> 00:33:05.519 align:start position:0%
are constantly absorbed and emitted in
 

00:33:05.519 --> 00:33:08.549 align:start position:0%
are constantly absorbed and emitted in
random<00:33:06.080><c> directions</c><00:33:06.799><c> over</c><00:33:07.200><c> and</c><00:33:07.519><c> over</c><00:33:07.760><c> again</c><00:33:08.320><c> by</c>

00:33:08.549 --> 00:33:08.559 align:start position:0%
random directions over and over again by
 

00:33:08.559 --> 00:33:11.350 align:start position:0%
random directions over and over again by
the<00:33:08.799><c> atoms</c><00:33:09.120><c> in</c><00:33:09.360><c> our</c><00:33:09.600><c> star</c><00:33:10.399><c> resulting</c><00:33:10.880><c> in</c><00:33:11.120><c> a</c>

00:33:11.350 --> 00:33:11.360 align:start position:0%
the atoms in our star resulting in a
 

00:33:11.360 --> 00:33:14.710 align:start position:0%
the atoms in our star resulting in a
long<00:33:11.919><c> meandering</c><00:33:12.640><c> path</c><00:33:12.960><c> to</c><00:33:13.200><c> escape.</c>

00:33:14.710 --> 00:33:14.720 align:start position:0%
long meandering path to escape.
 

00:33:14.720 --> 00:33:17.909 align:start position:0%
long meandering path to escape.
Nutrinos<00:33:15.679><c> instead</c><00:33:16.480><c> zoom</c><00:33:17.120><c> straight</c><00:33:17.519><c> out</c><00:33:17.760><c> of</c>

00:33:17.909 --> 00:33:17.919 align:start position:0%
Nutrinos instead zoom straight out of
 

00:33:17.919 --> 00:33:21.190 align:start position:0%
Nutrinos instead zoom straight out of
the<00:33:18.080><c> sun</c><00:33:18.399><c> in</c><00:33:18.720><c> just</c><00:33:19.279><c> two</c><00:33:19.679><c> seconds,</c><00:33:20.799><c> traveling</c>

00:33:21.190 --> 00:33:21.200 align:start position:0%
the sun in just two seconds, traveling
 

00:33:21.200 --> 00:33:25.110 align:start position:0%
the sun in just two seconds, traveling
at<00:33:21.519><c> almost</c><00:33:21.919><c> the</c><00:33:22.240><c> speed</c><00:33:22.559><c> of</c><00:33:22.799><c> light</c><00:33:23.200><c> itself.</c>

00:33:25.110 --> 00:33:25.120 align:start position:0%
at almost the speed of light itself.
 

00:33:25.120 --> 00:33:27.830 align:start position:0%
at almost the speed of light itself.
As<00:33:25.440><c> far</c><00:33:25.600><c> as</c><00:33:25.840><c> standard</c><00:33:26.320><c> model</c><00:33:26.720><c> particles</c><00:33:27.200><c> go,</c>

00:33:27.830 --> 00:33:27.840 align:start position:0%
As far as standard model particles go,
 

00:33:27.840 --> 00:33:30.630 align:start position:0%
As far as standard model particles go,
nutrinos<00:33:28.640><c> are</c><00:33:28.960><c> certainly</c><00:33:29.440><c> the</c><00:33:29.679><c> more</c><00:33:29.919><c> koi</c><00:33:30.399><c> and</c>

00:33:30.630 --> 00:33:30.640 align:start position:0%
nutrinos are certainly the more koi and
 

00:33:30.640 --> 00:33:33.269 align:start position:0%
nutrinos are certainly the more koi and
antisocial<00:33:31.279><c> of</c><00:33:31.519><c> the</c><00:33:31.679><c> group,</c><00:33:32.240><c> but</c><00:33:32.480><c> on</c><00:33:32.720><c> occasion</c>

00:33:33.269 --> 00:33:33.279 align:start position:0%
antisocial of the group, but on occasion
 

00:33:33.279 --> 00:33:36.230 align:start position:0%
antisocial of the group, but on occasion
they<00:33:33.760><c> do</c><00:33:34.000><c> mingle</c><00:33:34.480><c> with</c><00:33:34.640><c> other</c><00:33:34.960><c> matter</c><00:33:35.760><c> and</c><00:33:36.000><c> in</c>

00:33:36.230 --> 00:33:36.240 align:start position:0%
they do mingle with other matter and in
 

00:33:36.240 --> 00:33:38.630 align:start position:0%
they do mingle with other matter and in
the<00:33:36.399><c> process</c><00:33:36.960><c> can</c><00:33:37.200><c> create</c><00:33:37.519><c> a</c><00:33:37.760><c> drama</c><00:33:38.320><c> of</c>

00:33:38.630 --> 00:33:38.640 align:start position:0%
the process can create a drama of
 

00:33:38.640 --> 00:33:41.190 align:start position:0%
the process can create a drama of
energetic<00:33:39.279><c> particle</c><00:33:39.760><c> events</c><00:33:40.159><c> cascading</c><00:33:40.960><c> out</c>

00:33:41.190 --> 00:33:41.200 align:start position:0%
energetic particle events cascading out
 

00:33:41.200 --> 00:33:44.310 align:start position:0%
energetic particle events cascading out
in<00:33:41.440><c> their</c><00:33:41.600><c> wake.</c><00:33:42.480><c> It</c><00:33:42.720><c> is</c><00:33:42.960><c> this</c><00:33:43.200><c> cascade</c><00:33:44.080><c> Ice</c>

00:33:44.310 --> 00:33:44.320 align:start position:0%
in their wake. It is this cascade Ice
 

00:33:44.320 --> 00:33:47.190 align:start position:0%
in their wake. It is this cascade Ice
Cube<00:33:44.720><c> is</c><00:33:44.960><c> trying</c><00:33:45.120><c> to</c><00:33:45.360><c> observe.</c>

00:33:47.190 --> 00:33:47.200 align:start position:0%
Cube is trying to observe.
 

00:33:47.200 --> 00:33:51.430 align:start position:0%
Cube is trying to observe.
They<00:33:47.519><c> might</c><00:33:47.840><c> seem</c><00:33:48.240><c> strange,</c><00:33:48.880><c> but</c><00:33:49.120><c> the</c><00:33:49.440><c> 5,160</c>

00:33:51.430 --> 00:33:51.440 align:start position:0%
They might seem strange, but the 5,160
 

00:33:51.440 --> 00:33:55.350 align:start position:0%
They might seem strange, but the 5,160
detectors<00:33:52.559><c> or</c><00:33:52.960><c> doms</c><00:33:54.080><c> suspended</c><00:33:54.640><c> down</c><00:33:54.960><c> between</c>

00:33:55.350 --> 00:33:55.360 align:start position:0%
detectors or doms suspended down between
 

00:33:55.360 --> 00:33:58.310 align:start position:0%
detectors or doms suspended down between
1<00:33:55.600><c> and</c><00:33:55.760><c> 1/2</c><00:33:56.159><c> and</c><00:33:56.480><c> 2</c><00:33:56.880><c> 1/2</c><00:33:57.120><c> km</c><00:33:57.679><c> in</c><00:33:57.840><c> the</c><00:33:58.000><c> darkness</c>

00:33:58.310 --> 00:33:58.320 align:start position:0%
1 and 1/2 and 2 1/2 km in the darkness
 

00:33:58.320 --> 00:34:01.029 align:start position:0%
1 and 1/2 and 2 1/2 km in the darkness
of<00:33:58.480><c> the</c><00:33:58.640><c> ice</c><00:33:58.960><c> shelf</c><00:33:59.600><c> are</c><00:34:00.000><c> in</c><00:34:00.240><c> fact</c><00:34:00.720><c> light</c>

00:34:01.029 --> 00:34:01.039 align:start position:0%
of the ice shelf are in fact light
 

00:34:01.039 --> 00:34:04.070 align:start position:0%
of the ice shelf are in fact light
detectors.<00:34:02.480><c> The</c><00:34:02.640><c> sun's</c><00:34:03.039><c> rays</c><00:34:03.360><c> have</c><00:34:03.600><c> of</c><00:34:03.760><c> course</c>

00:34:04.070 --> 00:34:04.080 align:start position:0%
detectors. The sun's rays have of course
 

00:34:04.080 --> 00:34:05.669 align:start position:0%
detectors. The sun's rays have of course
been<00:34:04.320><c> completely</c><00:34:04.720><c> swallowed</c><00:34:05.200><c> up</c><00:34:05.360><c> by</c><00:34:05.519><c> the</c>

00:34:05.669 --> 00:34:05.679 align:start position:0%
been completely swallowed up by the
 

00:34:05.679 --> 00:34:07.509 align:start position:0%
been completely swallowed up by the
thousands<00:34:06.080><c> of</c><00:34:06.240><c> meters</c><00:34:06.559><c> of</c><00:34:06.799><c> compressed</c><00:34:07.200><c> ice</c>

00:34:07.509 --> 00:34:07.519 align:start position:0%
thousands of meters of compressed ice
 

00:34:07.519 --> 00:34:09.510 align:start position:0%
thousands of meters of compressed ice
that<00:34:07.679><c> lie</c><00:34:07.919><c> above.</c><00:34:08.720><c> But</c><00:34:08.879><c> that</c><00:34:09.040><c> doesn't</c><00:34:09.280><c> mean</c>

00:34:09.510 --> 00:34:09.520 align:start position:0%
that lie above. But that doesn't mean
 

00:34:09.520 --> 00:34:12.470 align:start position:0%
that lie above. But that doesn't mean
there<00:34:09.760><c> is</c><00:34:10.000><c> no</c><00:34:10.240><c> light</c><00:34:10.480><c> at</c><00:34:10.720><c> all</c><00:34:11.040><c> down</c><00:34:11.280><c> here.</c>

00:34:12.470 --> 00:34:12.480 align:start position:0%
there is no light at all down here.
 

00:34:12.480 --> 00:34:15.349 align:start position:0%
there is no light at all down here.
Nutrinos<00:34:13.280><c> and</c><00:34:13.760><c> cosmic</c><00:34:14.240><c> rays</c><00:34:14.639><c> can</c><00:34:14.879><c> penetrate</c>

00:34:15.349 --> 00:34:15.359 align:start position:0%
Nutrinos and cosmic rays can penetrate
 

00:34:15.359 --> 00:34:17.270 align:start position:0%
Nutrinos and cosmic rays can penetrate
into<00:34:15.599><c> the</c><00:34:15.760><c> ice</c><00:34:16.079><c> and</c><00:34:16.320><c> when</c><00:34:16.480><c> they</c><00:34:16.720><c> collide</c><00:34:17.119><c> with</c>

00:34:17.270 --> 00:34:17.280 align:start position:0%
into the ice and when they collide with
 

00:34:17.280 --> 00:34:19.829 align:start position:0%
into the ice and when they collide with
the<00:34:17.440><c> atoms</c><00:34:17.839><c> of</c><00:34:18.000><c> frozen</c><00:34:18.480><c> water,</c><00:34:19.200><c> they</c><00:34:19.440><c> cause</c>

00:34:19.829 --> 00:34:19.839 align:start position:0%
the atoms of frozen water, they cause
 

00:34:19.839 --> 00:34:22.950 align:start position:0%
the atoms of frozen water, they cause
particles<00:34:20.560><c> like</c><00:34:20.879><c> muons</c><00:34:21.760><c> to</c><00:34:22.079><c> spring</c><00:34:22.639><c> into</c>

00:34:22.950 --> 00:34:22.960 align:start position:0%
particles like muons to spring into
 

00:34:22.960 --> 00:34:25.829 align:start position:0%
particles like muons to spring into
existence.<00:34:24.320><c> Muons</c><00:34:24.879><c> are</c><00:34:25.040><c> the</c><00:34:25.200><c> key</c><00:34:25.440><c> to</c>

00:34:25.829 --> 00:34:25.839 align:start position:0%
existence. Muons are the key to
 

00:34:25.839 --> 00:34:28.790 align:start position:0%
existence. Muons are the key to
identifying<00:34:26.320><c> a</c><00:34:26.639><c> nutrino</c><00:34:27.359><c> interaction.</c><00:34:28.560><c> As</c>

00:34:28.790 --> 00:34:28.800 align:start position:0%
identifying a nutrino interaction. As
 

00:34:28.800 --> 00:34:31.109 align:start position:0%
identifying a nutrino interaction. As
the<00:34:28.960><c> newly</c><00:34:29.359><c> created</c><00:34:29.760><c> muon</c><00:34:30.399><c> hurdles</c><00:34:30.879><c> through</c>

00:34:31.109 --> 00:34:31.119 align:start position:0%
the newly created muon hurdles through
 

00:34:31.119 --> 00:34:33.909 align:start position:0%
the newly created muon hurdles through
the<00:34:31.359><c> incredibly</c><00:34:32.079><c> clear</c><00:34:32.399><c> and</c><00:34:32.720><c> dense</c><00:34:33.119><c> ice,</c><00:34:33.679><c> it</c>

00:34:33.909 --> 00:34:33.919 align:start position:0%
the incredibly clear and dense ice, it
 

00:34:33.919 --> 00:34:36.550 align:start position:0%
the incredibly clear and dense ice, it
can<00:34:34.079><c> exceed</c><00:34:34.480><c> the</c><00:34:34.720><c> speed</c><00:34:35.119><c> it</c><00:34:35.359><c> takes</c><00:34:35.839><c> light</c><00:34:36.240><c> to</c>

00:34:36.550 --> 00:34:36.560 align:start position:0%
can exceed the speed it takes light to
 

00:34:36.560 --> 00:34:39.270 align:start position:0%
can exceed the speed it takes light to
move<00:34:36.879><c> through</c><00:34:37.119><c> that</c><00:34:37.440><c> same</c><00:34:37.679><c> ice.</c><00:34:38.639><c> Now,</c><00:34:39.040><c> let's</c>

00:34:39.270 --> 00:34:39.280 align:start position:0%
move through that same ice. Now, let's
 

00:34:39.280 --> 00:34:41.510 align:start position:0%
move through that same ice. Now, let's
be<00:34:39.440><c> clear,</c><00:34:40.159><c> nothing</c><00:34:40.480><c> can</c><00:34:40.720><c> move</c><00:34:40.960><c> faster</c><00:34:41.359><c> than</c>

00:34:41.510 --> 00:34:41.520 align:start position:0%
be clear, nothing can move faster than
 

00:34:41.520 --> 00:34:44.310 align:start position:0%
be clear, nothing can move faster than
light<00:34:42.240><c> in</c><00:34:42.480><c> a</c><00:34:42.720><c> vacuum.</c><00:34:43.679><c> But</c><00:34:43.839><c> in</c><00:34:44.079><c> other</c>

00:34:44.310 --> 00:34:44.320 align:start position:0%
light in a vacuum. But in other
 

00:34:44.320 --> 00:34:47.270 align:start position:0%
light in a vacuum. But in other
materials<00:34:45.040><c> such</c><00:34:45.280><c> as</c><00:34:45.520><c> ice,</c><00:34:46.320><c> liquid</c><00:34:46.720><c> water,</c><00:34:47.119><c> and</c>

00:34:47.270 --> 00:34:47.280 align:start position:0%
materials such as ice, liquid water, and
 

00:34:47.280 --> 00:34:50.790 align:start position:0%
materials such as ice, liquid water, and
glass,<00:34:48.320><c> light</c><00:34:48.720><c> can</c><00:34:48.960><c> be</c><00:34:49.200><c> outpaced.</c>

00:34:50.790 --> 00:34:50.800 align:start position:0%
glass, light can be outpaced.
 

00:34:50.800 --> 00:34:53.109 align:start position:0%
glass, light can be outpaced.
This<00:34:51.119><c> isn't</c><00:34:51.440><c> a</c><00:34:51.599><c> violation</c><00:34:52.000><c> of</c><00:34:52.159><c> physics,</c><00:34:52.800><c> but</c>

00:34:53.109 --> 00:34:53.119 align:start position:0%
This isn't a violation of physics, but
 

00:34:53.119 --> 00:34:55.190 align:start position:0%
This isn't a violation of physics, but
rather<00:34:53.440><c> a</c><00:34:53.679><c> consequence</c><00:34:54.159><c> of</c><00:34:54.399><c> light</c><00:34:54.800><c> slowing</c>

00:34:55.190 --> 00:34:55.200 align:start position:0%
rather a consequence of light slowing
 

00:34:55.200 --> 00:34:57.589 align:start position:0%
rather a consequence of light slowing
down<00:34:55.520><c> more</c><00:34:56.000><c> than</c><00:34:56.399><c> other</c><00:34:56.720><c> particles</c><00:34:57.280><c> within</c>

00:34:57.589 --> 00:34:57.599 align:start position:0%
down more than other particles within
 

00:34:57.599 --> 00:35:01.270 align:start position:0%
down more than other particles within
the<00:34:57.760><c> ice.</c><00:34:58.960><c> As</c><00:34:59.280><c> the</c><00:34:59.440><c> muon</c><00:35:00.079><c> races</c><00:35:00.640><c> beyond</c><00:35:01.040><c> its</c>

00:35:01.270 --> 00:35:01.280 align:start position:0%
the ice. As the muon races beyond its
 

00:35:01.280 --> 00:35:03.829 align:start position:0%
the ice. As the muon races beyond its
photon<00:35:01.760><c> counterparts,</c><00:35:02.880><c> it</c><00:35:03.119><c> generates</c><00:35:03.520><c> a</c>

00:35:03.829 --> 00:35:03.839 align:start position:0%
photon counterparts, it generates a
 

00:35:03.839 --> 00:35:06.550 align:start position:0%
photon counterparts, it generates a
shock<00:35:04.160><c> wave</c><00:35:04.480><c> of</c><00:35:04.640><c> blue</c><00:35:04.960><c> light</c><00:35:05.440><c> expanding</c><00:35:06.079><c> in</c><00:35:06.320><c> a</c>

00:35:06.550 --> 00:35:06.560 align:start position:0%
shock wave of blue light expanding in a
 

00:35:06.560 --> 00:35:09.750 align:start position:0%
shock wave of blue light expanding in a
coneshaped<00:35:07.359><c> pattern</c><00:35:07.920><c> out</c><00:35:08.160><c> from</c><00:35:08.400><c> its</c><00:35:08.640><c> path.</c><00:35:09.520><c> An</c>

00:35:09.750 --> 00:35:09.760 align:start position:0%
coneshaped pattern out from its path. An
 

00:35:09.760 --> 00:35:12.390 align:start position:0%
coneshaped pattern out from its path. An
eerie<00:35:10.160><c> phenomenon</c><00:35:10.960><c> known</c><00:35:11.280><c> as</c><00:35:11.680><c> Tankov</c>

00:35:12.390 --> 00:35:12.400 align:start position:0%
eerie phenomenon known as Tankov
 

00:35:12.400 --> 00:35:14.550 align:start position:0%
eerie phenomenon known as Tankov
radiation.

00:35:14.550 --> 00:35:14.560 align:start position:0%
radiation.
 

00:35:14.560 --> 00:35:16.790 align:start position:0%
radiation.
Tranov<00:35:15.200><c> radiation</c><00:35:15.680><c> is</c><00:35:16.000><c> most</c><00:35:16.320><c> commonly</c>

00:35:16.790 --> 00:35:16.800 align:start position:0%
Tranov radiation is most commonly
 

00:35:16.800 --> 00:35:20.150 align:start position:0%
Tranov radiation is most commonly
associated<00:35:17.440><c> with</c><00:35:17.839><c> nuclear</c><00:35:18.320><c> reactors.</c><00:35:19.520><c> eerily</c>

00:35:20.150 --> 00:35:20.160 align:start position:0%
associated with nuclear reactors. eerily
 

00:35:20.160 --> 00:35:21.829 align:start position:0%
associated with nuclear reactors. eerily
emanating<00:35:20.880><c> through</c><00:35:21.119><c> the</c><00:35:21.280><c> water</c><00:35:21.599><c> that</c>

00:35:21.829 --> 00:35:21.839 align:start position:0%
emanating through the water that
 

00:35:21.839 --> 00:35:25.190 align:start position:0%
emanating through the water that
surrounds<00:35:22.320><c> their</c><00:35:22.640><c> cores.</c><00:35:23.839><c> This</c><00:35:24.160><c> blue</c><00:35:24.480><c> hue</c><00:35:24.880><c> in</c>

00:35:25.190 --> 00:35:25.200 align:start position:0%
surrounds their cores. This blue hue in
 

00:35:25.200 --> 00:35:28.230 align:start position:0%
surrounds their cores. This blue hue in
nuclear<00:35:25.680><c> cores</c><00:35:26.320><c> and</c><00:35:26.640><c> strangely</c><00:35:27.440><c> also</c><00:35:27.839><c> down</c><00:35:28.079><c> in</c>

00:35:28.230 --> 00:35:28.240 align:start position:0%
nuclear cores and strangely also down in
 

00:35:28.240 --> 00:35:30.710 align:start position:0%
nuclear cores and strangely also down in
the<00:35:28.400><c> ice</c><00:35:28.720><c> of</c><00:35:28.880><c> the</c><00:35:29.040><c> South</c><00:35:29.359><c> Pole</c><00:35:30.160><c> can</c><00:35:30.400><c> look</c>

00:35:30.710 --> 00:35:30.720 align:start position:0%
the ice of the South Pole can look
 

00:35:30.720 --> 00:35:33.589 align:start position:0%
the ice of the South Pole can look
peaceful<00:35:31.200><c> and</c><00:35:31.520><c> atmospheric,</c><00:35:32.720><c> but</c><00:35:32.960><c> it</c><00:35:33.200><c> is</c><00:35:33.359><c> in</c>

00:35:33.589 --> 00:35:33.599 align:start position:0%
peaceful and atmospheric, but it is in
 

00:35:33.599 --> 00:35:36.069 align:start position:0%
peaceful and atmospheric, but it is in
fact<00:35:33.839><c> the</c><00:35:34.079><c> quantum</c><00:35:34.640><c> equivalent</c><00:35:35.200><c> of</c><00:35:35.359><c> the</c><00:35:35.599><c> sonic</c>

00:35:36.069 --> 00:35:36.079 align:start position:0%
fact the quantum equivalent of the sonic
 

00:35:36.079 --> 00:35:38.150 align:start position:0%
fact the quantum equivalent of the sonic
boom<00:35:36.400><c> that</c><00:35:36.720><c> roars</c><00:35:37.040><c> out</c><00:35:37.200><c> from</c><00:35:37.440><c> a</c><00:35:37.599><c> supersonic</c>

00:35:38.150 --> 00:35:38.160 align:start position:0%
boom that roars out from a supersonic
 

00:35:38.160 --> 00:35:41.109 align:start position:0%
boom that roars out from a supersonic
jet<00:35:38.400><c> plane</c><00:35:38.720><c> flying</c><00:35:39.119><c> overhead.</c>

00:35:41.109 --> 00:35:41.119 align:start position:0%
jet plane flying overhead.
 

00:35:41.119 --> 00:35:43.109 align:start position:0%
jet plane flying overhead.
In<00:35:41.359><c> this</c><00:35:41.599><c> case,</c><00:35:42.079><c> the</c><00:35:42.320><c> plane</c><00:35:42.560><c> moves</c><00:35:42.880><c> through</c>

00:35:43.109 --> 00:35:43.119 align:start position:0%
In this case, the plane moves through
 

00:35:43.119 --> 00:35:45.750 align:start position:0%
In this case, the plane moves through
the<00:35:43.359><c> air</c><00:35:43.680><c> and</c><00:35:44.000><c> pressure</c><00:35:44.480><c> or</c><00:35:44.800><c> sound</c><00:35:45.119><c> waves</c><00:35:45.520><c> are</c>

00:35:45.750 --> 00:35:45.760 align:start position:0%
the air and pressure or sound waves are
 

00:35:45.760 --> 00:35:48.390 align:start position:0%
the air and pressure or sound waves are
pushed<00:35:46.079><c> out</c><00:35:46.240><c> in</c><00:35:46.480><c> all</c><00:35:46.720><c> directions.</c><00:35:48.000><c> With</c><00:35:48.160><c> the</c>

00:35:48.390 --> 00:35:48.400 align:start position:0%
pushed out in all directions. With the
 

00:35:48.400 --> 00:35:50.710 align:start position:0%
pushed out in all directions. With the
jet<00:35:48.800><c> speed</c><00:35:49.200><c> building</c><00:35:49.599><c> up</c><00:35:49.839><c> towards</c><00:35:50.240><c> the</c><00:35:50.480><c> speed</c>

00:35:50.710 --> 00:35:50.720 align:start position:0%
jet speed building up towards the speed
 

00:35:50.720 --> 00:35:52.870 align:start position:0%
jet speed building up towards the speed
of<00:35:50.880><c> sound,</c><00:35:51.440><c> the</c><00:35:51.680><c> waves</c><00:35:52.000><c> in</c><00:35:52.160><c> front</c><00:35:52.480><c> start</c><00:35:52.720><c> to</c>

00:35:52.870 --> 00:35:52.880 align:start position:0%
of sound, the waves in front start to
 

00:35:52.880 --> 00:35:55.589 align:start position:0%
of sound, the waves in front start to
bunch<00:35:53.200><c> up</c><00:35:53.760><c> forming</c><00:35:54.160><c> a</c><00:35:54.400><c> shock</c><00:35:54.800><c> front</c><00:35:55.040><c> of</c><00:35:55.280><c> high</c>

00:35:55.589 --> 00:35:55.599 align:start position:0%
bunch up forming a shock front of high
 

00:35:55.599 --> 00:35:58.230 align:start position:0%
bunch up forming a shock front of high
pressure.<00:35:56.720><c> When</c><00:35:56.960><c> the</c><00:35:57.119><c> plane</c><00:35:57.440><c> exceeds</c><00:35:58.000><c> the</c>

00:35:58.230 --> 00:35:58.240 align:start position:0%
pressure. When the plane exceeds the
 

00:35:58.240 --> 00:36:00.550 align:start position:0%
pressure. When the plane exceeds the
speed<00:35:58.400><c> of</c><00:35:58.640><c> sound,</c><00:35:59.280><c> it</c><00:35:59.599><c> smashes</c><00:36:00.160><c> through</c><00:36:00.400><c> the</c>

00:36:00.550 --> 00:36:00.560 align:start position:0%
speed of sound, it smashes through the
 

00:36:00.560 --> 00:36:02.950 align:start position:0%
speed of sound, it smashes through the
shock<00:36:00.960><c> front,</c><00:36:01.440><c> causing</c><00:36:01.839><c> a</c><00:36:02.079><c> rapid</c><00:36:02.480><c> change</c><00:36:02.800><c> of</c>

00:36:02.950 --> 00:36:02.960 align:start position:0%
shock front, causing a rapid change of
 

00:36:02.960 --> 00:36:06.150 align:start position:0%
shock front, causing a rapid change of
air<00:36:03.200><c> pressure.</c><00:36:04.160><c> This</c><00:36:04.560><c> is</c><00:36:04.720><c> the</c><00:36:04.960><c> sonic</c><00:36:05.359><c> boom.</c>

00:36:06.150 --> 00:36:06.160 align:start position:0%
air pressure. This is the sonic boom.
 

00:36:06.160 --> 00:36:08.230 align:start position:0%
air pressure. This is the sonic boom.
The<00:36:06.400><c> shock</c><00:36:06.800><c> front</c><00:36:07.040><c> then</c><00:36:07.280><c> travels</c><00:36:07.680><c> out</c><00:36:07.839><c> in</c><00:36:08.079><c> a</c>

00:36:08.230 --> 00:36:08.240 align:start position:0%
The shock front then travels out in a
 

00:36:08.240 --> 00:36:10.630 align:start position:0%
The shock front then travels out in a
cone,<00:36:08.960><c> trailing</c><00:36:09.440><c> behind</c><00:36:09.680><c> the</c><00:36:09.920><c> aircraft,</c>

00:36:10.630 --> 00:36:10.640 align:start position:0%
cone, trailing behind the aircraft,
 

00:36:10.640 --> 00:36:12.310 align:start position:0%
cone, trailing behind the aircraft,
which<00:36:10.960><c> observers</c><00:36:11.520><c> will</c><00:36:11.680><c> hear</c><00:36:11.920><c> as</c><00:36:12.160><c> a</c>

00:36:12.310 --> 00:36:12.320 align:start position:0%
which observers will hear as a
 

00:36:12.320 --> 00:36:14.310 align:start position:0%
which observers will hear as a
thunderous<00:36:12.800><c> clap.</c>

00:36:14.310 --> 00:36:14.320 align:start position:0%
thunderous clap.
 

00:36:14.320 --> 00:36:16.790 align:start position:0%
thunderous clap.
In<00:36:14.480><c> the</c><00:36:14.640><c> case</c><00:36:14.800><c> of</c><00:36:14.960><c> the</c><00:36:15.119><c> muon,</c><00:36:15.839><c> the</c><00:36:16.079><c> particle</c><00:36:16.560><c> is</c>

00:36:16.790 --> 00:36:16.800 align:start position:0%
In the case of the muon, the particle is
 

00:36:16.800 --> 00:36:19.430 align:start position:0%
In the case of the muon, the particle is
not<00:36:17.040><c> pushing</c><00:36:17.520><c> air,</c><00:36:18.160><c> but</c><00:36:18.480><c> instead</c><00:36:18.880><c> disturbing</c>

00:36:19.430 --> 00:36:19.440 align:start position:0%
not pushing air, but instead disturbing
 

00:36:19.440 --> 00:36:21.750 align:start position:0%
not pushing air, but instead disturbing
the<00:36:19.680><c> electric</c><00:36:20.160><c> fields</c><00:36:20.480><c> of</c><00:36:20.720><c> atoms</c><00:36:21.119><c> in</c><00:36:21.359><c> the</c><00:36:21.520><c> ice</c>

00:36:21.750 --> 00:36:21.760 align:start position:0%
the electric fields of atoms in the ice
 

00:36:21.760 --> 00:36:23.910 align:start position:0%
the electric fields of atoms in the ice
with<00:36:21.920><c> its</c><00:36:22.160><c> electromagnetic</c><00:36:23.119><c> charge,</c>

00:36:23.910 --> 00:36:23.920 align:start position:0%
with its electromagnetic charge,
 

00:36:23.920 --> 00:36:26.790 align:start position:0%
with its electromagnetic charge,
polarizing<00:36:24.560><c> the</c><00:36:24.800><c> water</c><00:36:25.119><c> molecules.</c><00:36:26.400><c> As</c><00:36:26.640><c> the</c>

00:36:26.790 --> 00:36:26.800 align:start position:0%
polarizing the water molecules. As the
 

00:36:26.800 --> 00:36:29.270 align:start position:0%
polarizing the water molecules. As the
molecules<00:36:27.440><c> depolarize</c><00:36:28.320><c> back</c><00:36:28.560><c> to</c><00:36:28.720><c> their</c><00:36:28.960><c> usual</c>

00:36:29.270 --> 00:36:29.280 align:start position:0%
molecules depolarize back to their usual
 

00:36:29.280 --> 00:36:31.270 align:start position:0%
molecules depolarize back to their usual
state,<00:36:30.000><c> they</c><00:36:30.240><c> release</c><00:36:30.560><c> the</c><00:36:30.720><c> energy</c><00:36:31.040><c> that</c>

00:36:31.270 --> 00:36:31.280 align:start position:0%
state, they release the energy that
 

00:36:31.280 --> 00:36:33.829 align:start position:0%
state, they release the energy that
forced<00:36:31.520><c> them</c><00:36:31.760><c> into</c><00:36:32.000><c> polarization</c><00:36:32.880><c> as</c><00:36:33.280><c> photons</c>

00:36:33.829 --> 00:36:33.839 align:start position:0%
forced them into polarization as photons
 

00:36:33.839 --> 00:36:36.069 align:start position:0%
forced them into polarization as photons
of<00:36:34.079><c> blue</c><00:36:34.400><c> light</c><00:36:34.880><c> traveling</c><00:36:35.359><c> out</c><00:36:35.520><c> in</c><00:36:35.760><c> all</c>

00:36:36.069 --> 00:36:36.079 align:start position:0%
of blue light traveling out in all
 

00:36:36.079 --> 00:36:37.589 align:start position:0%
of blue light traveling out in all
directions.

00:36:37.589 --> 00:36:37.599 align:start position:0%
directions.
 

00:36:37.599 --> 00:36:40.550 align:start position:0%
directions.
This<00:36:37.839><c> is</c><00:36:38.000><c> happening</c><00:36:38.960><c> all</c><00:36:39.359><c> along</c><00:36:39.839><c> the</c><00:36:40.079><c> path</c><00:36:40.400><c> the</c>

00:36:40.550 --> 00:36:40.560 align:start position:0%
This is happening all along the path the
 

00:36:40.560 --> 00:36:43.109 align:start position:0%
This is happening all along the path the
muon<00:36:41.040><c> takes</c><00:36:41.359><c> through</c><00:36:41.599><c> the</c><00:36:41.760><c> ice.</c><00:36:42.880><c> The</c>

00:36:43.109 --> 00:36:43.119 align:start position:0%
muon takes through the ice. The
 

00:36:43.119 --> 00:36:45.670 align:start position:0%
muon takes through the ice. The
traveling<00:36:43.520><c> muon</c><00:36:44.079><c> is</c><00:36:44.320><c> triggering</c><00:36:44.880><c> emission</c><00:36:45.359><c> of</c>

00:36:45.670 --> 00:36:45.680 align:start position:0%
traveling muon is triggering emission of
 

00:36:45.680 --> 00:36:48.069 align:start position:0%
traveling muon is triggering emission of
electromagnetic<00:36:46.560><c> waves</c><00:36:46.960><c> from</c><00:36:47.200><c> the</c><00:36:47.440><c> water</c><00:36:47.760><c> ice</c>

00:36:48.069 --> 00:36:48.079 align:start position:0%
electromagnetic waves from the water ice
 

00:36:48.079 --> 00:36:50.630 align:start position:0%
electromagnetic waves from the water ice
molecules<00:36:48.880><c> which</c><00:36:49.200><c> radiate</c><00:36:49.680><c> out</c><00:36:50.000><c> into</c><00:36:50.320><c> all</c>

00:36:50.630 --> 00:36:50.640 align:start position:0%
molecules which radiate out into all
 

00:36:50.640 --> 00:36:53.349 align:start position:0%
molecules which radiate out into all
directions<00:36:51.599><c> producing</c><00:36:52.000><c> a</c><00:36:52.240><c> cone</c><00:36:52.560><c> of</c><00:36:52.720><c> emission</c>

00:36:53.349 --> 00:36:53.359 align:start position:0%
directions producing a cone of emission
 

00:36:53.359 --> 00:36:56.230 align:start position:0%
directions producing a cone of emission
in<00:36:53.599><c> the</c><00:36:53.839><c> direction</c><00:36:54.160><c> of</c><00:36:54.320><c> the</c><00:36:54.480><c> muon's</c><00:36:55.040><c> motion.</c>

00:36:56.230 --> 00:36:56.240 align:start position:0%
in the direction of the muon's motion.
 

00:36:56.240 --> 00:36:58.470 align:start position:0%
in the direction of the muon's motion.
If<00:36:56.480><c> the</c><00:36:56.640><c> muon</c><00:36:57.119><c> was</c><00:36:57.280><c> traveling</c><00:36:57.839><c> slower</c><00:36:58.240><c> than</c>

00:36:58.470 --> 00:36:58.480 align:start position:0%
If the muon was traveling slower than
 

00:36:58.480 --> 00:37:00.390 align:start position:0%
If the muon was traveling slower than
light<00:36:58.720><c> in</c><00:36:58.880><c> the</c><00:36:59.040><c> ice,</c><00:36:59.680><c> there</c><00:36:59.920><c> would</c><00:37:00.079><c> be</c><00:37:00.240><c> no</c>

00:37:00.390 --> 00:37:00.400 align:start position:0%
light in the ice, there would be no
 

00:37:00.400 --> 00:37:02.710 align:start position:0%
light in the ice, there would be no
wavefront<00:37:01.200><c> and</c><00:37:01.440><c> all</c><00:37:01.680><c> the</c><00:37:01.920><c> expanding</c><00:37:02.400><c> light</c>

00:37:02.710 --> 00:37:02.720 align:start position:0%
wavefront and all the expanding light
 

00:37:02.720 --> 00:37:04.470 align:start position:0%
wavefront and all the expanding light
spheres<00:37:03.119><c> would</c><00:37:03.359><c> destructively</c><00:37:04.079><c> interfere</c>

00:37:04.470 --> 00:37:04.480 align:start position:0%
spheres would destructively interfere
 

00:37:04.480 --> 00:37:06.630 align:start position:0%
spheres would destructively interfere
with<00:37:04.720><c> each</c><00:37:04.880><c> other,</c><00:37:05.440><c> canceling</c><00:37:06.000><c> out</c><00:37:06.400><c> to</c>

00:37:06.630 --> 00:37:06.640 align:start position:0%
with each other, canceling out to
 

00:37:06.640 --> 00:37:09.990 align:start position:0%
with each other, canceling out to
complete<00:37:07.119><c> darkness.</c><00:37:08.320><c> But</c><00:37:08.480><c> since</c><00:37:08.720><c> the</c><00:37:08.960><c> muon</c><00:37:09.520><c> is</c>

00:37:09.990 --> 00:37:10.000 align:start position:0%
complete darkness. But since the muon is
 

00:37:10.000 --> 00:37:12.390 align:start position:0%
complete darkness. But since the muon is
traveling<00:37:10.480><c> faster</c><00:37:10.880><c> than</c><00:37:11.040><c> light,</c><00:37:11.760><c> the</c><00:37:12.000><c> shock</c>

00:37:12.390 --> 00:37:12.400 align:start position:0%
traveling faster than light, the shock
 

00:37:12.400 --> 00:37:14.470 align:start position:0%
traveling faster than light, the shock
front<00:37:12.560><c> of</c><00:37:12.880><c> constructive</c><00:37:13.599><c> waves</c><00:37:14.000><c> in</c><00:37:14.160><c> the</c><00:37:14.320><c> form</c>

00:37:14.470 --> 00:37:14.480 align:start position:0%
front of constructive waves in the form
 

00:37:14.480 --> 00:37:17.750 align:start position:0%
front of constructive waves in the form
of<00:37:14.720><c> blue</c><00:37:14.960><c> light</c><00:37:15.359><c> is</c><00:37:15.599><c> created.</c><00:37:16.960><c> The</c><00:37:17.280><c> thousands</c>

00:37:17.750 --> 00:37:17.760 align:start position:0%
of blue light is created. The thousands
 

00:37:17.760 --> 00:37:20.630 align:start position:0%
of blue light is created. The thousands
of<00:37:18.000><c> digital</c><00:37:18.640><c> optical</c><00:37:19.200><c> modules</c><00:37:19.680><c> of</c><00:37:19.920><c> ice</c><00:37:20.240><c> cube</c>

00:37:20.630 --> 00:37:20.640 align:start position:0%
of digital optical modules of ice cube
 

00:37:20.640 --> 00:37:22.870 align:start position:0%
of digital optical modules of ice cube
are<00:37:20.880><c> primed</c><00:37:21.200><c> to</c><00:37:21.359><c> detect</c><00:37:21.760><c> this</c><00:37:22.079><c> signature</c><00:37:22.560><c> blue</c>

00:37:22.870 --> 00:37:22.880 align:start position:0%
are primed to detect this signature blue
 

00:37:22.880 --> 00:37:25.270 align:start position:0%
are primed to detect this signature blue
light<00:37:23.280><c> flashing</c><00:37:23.760><c> through</c><00:37:23.920><c> the</c><00:37:24.160><c> ice.</c><00:37:24.960><c> The</c>

00:37:25.270 --> 00:37:25.280 align:start position:0%
light flashing through the ice. The
 

00:37:25.280 --> 00:37:27.430 align:start position:0%
light flashing through the ice. The
minuscule<00:37:25.920><c> differences</c><00:37:26.400><c> between</c><00:37:26.800><c> when</c><00:37:27.119><c> one</c>

00:37:27.430 --> 00:37:27.440 align:start position:0%
minuscule differences between when one
 

00:37:27.440 --> 00:37:29.589 align:start position:0%
minuscule differences between when one
DOM<00:37:27.839><c> registers</c><00:37:28.320><c> the</c><00:37:28.480><c> flash</c><00:37:28.960><c> and</c><00:37:29.200><c> when</c><00:37:29.359><c> the</c>

00:37:29.589 --> 00:37:29.599 align:start position:0%
DOM registers the flash and when the
 

00:37:29.599 --> 00:37:31.910 align:start position:0%
DOM registers the flash and when the
neighboring<00:37:30.000><c> doms</c><00:37:30.400><c> detect</c><00:37:30.800><c> it</c><00:37:31.520><c> allow</c>

00:37:31.910 --> 00:37:31.920 align:start position:0%
neighboring doms detect it allow
 

00:37:31.920 --> 00:37:34.310 align:start position:0%
neighboring doms detect it allow
scientists<00:37:32.480><c> to</c><00:37:32.640><c> triangulate</c><00:37:33.280><c> the</c><00:37:33.440><c> nutrino</c>

00:37:34.310 --> 00:37:34.320 align:start position:0%
scientists to triangulate the nutrino
 

00:37:34.320 --> 00:37:36.950 align:start position:0%
scientists to triangulate the nutrino
and<00:37:34.640><c> trace</c><00:37:34.960><c> its</c><00:37:35.200><c> path</c><00:37:35.680><c> back</c><00:37:36.079><c> through</c><00:37:36.240><c> the</c><00:37:36.480><c> ice</c>

00:37:36.950 --> 00:37:36.960 align:start position:0%
and trace its path back through the ice
 

00:37:36.960 --> 00:37:39.589 align:start position:0%
and trace its path back through the ice
and<00:37:37.440><c> ultimately</c><00:37:38.079><c> through</c><00:37:38.480><c> the</c><00:37:38.800><c> universe</c><00:37:39.359><c> to</c>

00:37:39.589 --> 00:37:39.599 align:start position:0%
and ultimately through the universe to
 

00:37:39.599 --> 00:37:41.910 align:start position:0%
and ultimately through the universe to
its<00:37:39.920><c> origin.</c>

00:37:41.910 --> 00:37:41.920 align:start position:0%
its origin.
 

00:37:41.920 --> 00:37:44.950 align:start position:0%
its origin.
These<00:37:42.320><c> orblike</c><00:37:42.960><c> detectors</c><00:37:43.599><c> are</c><00:37:44.000><c> marvelous</c>

00:37:44.950 --> 00:37:44.960 align:start position:0%
These orblike detectors are marvelous
 

00:37:44.960 --> 00:37:47.430 align:start position:0%
These orblike detectors are marvelous
intricate<00:37:45.599><c> devices</c><00:37:46.320><c> designed</c><00:37:46.640><c> to</c><00:37:46.880><c> detect</c><00:37:47.200><c> the</c>

00:37:47.430 --> 00:37:47.440 align:start position:0%
intricate devices designed to detect the
 

00:37:47.440 --> 00:37:50.710 align:start position:0%
intricate devices designed to detect the
faintest<00:37:48.079><c> luminal</c><00:37:48.560><c> hints</c><00:37:48.880><c> in</c><00:37:49.040><c> the</c><00:37:49.359><c> icy</c><00:37:49.680><c> mass.</c>

00:37:50.710 --> 00:37:50.720 align:start position:0%
faintest luminal hints in the icy mass.
 

00:37:50.720 --> 00:37:54.069 align:start position:0%
faintest luminal hints in the icy mass.
Each<00:37:51.040><c> dome</c><00:37:51.440><c> is</c><00:37:51.599><c> encased</c><00:37:52.079><c> in</c><00:37:52.240><c> a</c><00:37:52.560><c> 13in</c><00:37:53.440><c> spherical</c>

00:37:54.069 --> 00:37:54.079 align:start position:0%
Each dome is encased in a 13in spherical
 

00:37:54.079 --> 00:37:56.230 align:start position:0%
Each dome is encased in a 13in spherical
glass<00:37:54.480><c> pressure</c><00:37:54.800><c> case</c><00:37:55.359><c> which</c><00:37:55.599><c> protects</c><00:37:56.000><c> the</c>

00:37:56.230 --> 00:37:56.240 align:start position:0%
glass pressure case which protects the
 

00:37:56.240 --> 00:37:58.390 align:start position:0%
glass pressure case which protects the
electronics<00:37:56.800><c> inside</c><00:37:57.200><c> from</c><00:37:57.440><c> the</c><00:37:57.599><c> extreme</c><00:37:58.079><c> cold</c>

00:37:58.390 --> 00:37:58.400 align:start position:0%
electronics inside from the extreme cold
 

00:37:58.400 --> 00:38:00.950 align:start position:0%
electronics inside from the extreme cold
and<00:37:58.720><c> high</c><00:37:58.960><c> pressure</c><00:37:59.200><c> of</c><00:37:59.359><c> the</c><00:37:59.520><c> Antarctic</c><00:38:00.160><c> ice.</c>

00:38:00.950 --> 00:38:00.960 align:start position:0%
and high pressure of the Antarctic ice.
 

00:38:00.960 --> 00:38:03.829 align:start position:0%
and high pressure of the Antarctic ice.
Inside<00:38:01.760><c> there</c><00:38:01.920><c> is</c><00:38:02.079><c> a</c><00:38:02.320><c> photo</c><00:38:02.720><c> multiplier</c><00:38:03.280><c> tube</c>

00:38:03.829 --> 00:38:03.839 align:start position:0%
Inside there is a photo multiplier tube
 

00:38:03.839 --> 00:38:06.310 align:start position:0%
Inside there is a photo multiplier tube
sensitive<00:38:04.400><c> enough</c><00:38:04.640><c> to</c><00:38:04.880><c> detect</c><00:38:05.280><c> even</c><00:38:05.599><c> a</c><00:38:05.920><c> single</c>

00:38:06.310 --> 00:38:06.320 align:start position:0%
sensitive enough to detect even a single
 

00:38:06.320 --> 00:38:09.270 align:start position:0%
sensitive enough to detect even a single
photon<00:38:07.599><c> along</c><00:38:07.920><c> with</c><00:38:08.320><c> various</c><00:38:08.720><c> components</c>

00:38:09.270 --> 00:38:09.280 align:start position:0%
photon along with various components
 

00:38:09.280 --> 00:38:11.510 align:start position:0%
photon along with various components
that<00:38:09.520><c> amplify</c><00:38:10.000><c> the</c><00:38:10.240><c> signal</c><00:38:10.720><c> and</c><00:38:10.960><c> convert</c><00:38:11.280><c> it</c>

00:38:11.510 --> 00:38:11.520 align:start position:0%
that amplify the signal and convert it
 

00:38:11.520 --> 00:38:13.670 align:start position:0%
that amplify the signal and convert it
into<00:38:11.839><c> digital</c><00:38:12.320><c> data</c><00:38:13.040><c> which</c><00:38:13.280><c> is</c><00:38:13.440><c> then</c>

00:38:13.670 --> 00:38:13.680 align:start position:0%
into digital data which is then
 

00:38:13.680 --> 00:38:15.510 align:start position:0%
into digital data which is then
transmitted<00:38:14.320><c> up</c><00:38:14.480><c> the</c><00:38:14.720><c> cables</c><00:38:15.119><c> to</c><00:38:15.359><c> the</c>

00:38:15.510 --> 00:38:15.520 align:start position:0%
transmitted up the cables to the
 

00:38:15.520 --> 00:38:18.550 align:start position:0%
transmitted up the cables to the
surface.<00:38:16.880><c> And</c><00:38:17.119><c> with</c><00:38:17.359><c> so</c><00:38:17.599><c> many</c><00:38:17.839><c> detectors</c>

00:38:18.550 --> 00:38:18.560 align:start position:0%
surface. And with so many detectors
 

00:38:18.560 --> 00:38:21.109 align:start position:0%
surface. And with so many detectors
making<00:38:18.880><c> up</c><00:38:19.119><c> this</c><00:38:19.359><c> threedimensional</c><00:38:20.320><c> array,</c>

00:38:21.109 --> 00:38:21.119 align:start position:0%
making up this threedimensional array,
 

00:38:21.119 --> 00:38:24.310 align:start position:0%
making up this threedimensional array,
there<00:38:21.359><c> is</c><00:38:21.599><c> a</c><00:38:21.839><c> lot</c><00:38:22.000><c> of</c><00:38:22.160><c> data.</c><00:38:23.119><c> A</c><00:38:23.359><c> whole</c><00:38:23.760><c> terabyte</c>

00:38:24.310 --> 00:38:24.320 align:start position:0%
there is a lot of data. A whole terabyte
 

00:38:24.320 --> 00:38:26.950 align:start position:0%
there is a lot of data. A whole terabyte
of<00:38:24.560><c> measurements</c><00:38:25.119><c> are</c><00:38:25.359><c> captured</c><00:38:25.920><c> every</c><00:38:26.320><c> day</c>

00:38:26.950 --> 00:38:26.960 align:start position:0%
of measurements are captured every day
 

00:38:26.960 --> 00:38:28.950 align:start position:0%
of measurements are captured every day
with<00:38:27.200><c> hundreds</c><00:38:27.599><c> of</c><00:38:27.760><c> gigabytes</c><00:38:28.320><c> of</c><00:38:28.400><c> that</c><00:38:28.720><c> being</c>

00:38:28.950 --> 00:38:28.960 align:start position:0%
with hundreds of gigabytes of that being
 

00:38:28.960 --> 00:38:31.349 align:start position:0%
with hundreds of gigabytes of that being
beamed<00:38:29.359><c> by</c><00:38:29.520><c> satellite</c><00:38:30.240><c> to</c><00:38:30.480><c> scientists</c><00:38:30.960><c> across</c>

00:38:31.349 --> 00:38:31.359 align:start position:0%
beamed by satellite to scientists across
 

00:38:31.359 --> 00:38:33.510 align:start position:0%
beamed by satellite to scientists across
the<00:38:31.520><c> planet</c><00:38:32.000><c> for</c><00:38:32.240><c> them</c><00:38:32.400><c> to</c><00:38:32.560><c> comb</c><00:38:32.960><c> through</c><00:38:33.200><c> in</c>

00:38:33.510 --> 00:38:33.520 align:start position:0%
the planet for them to comb through in
 

00:38:33.520 --> 00:38:36.950 align:start position:0%
the planet for them to comb through in
search<00:38:33.760><c> of</c><00:38:33.920><c> their</c><00:38:34.160><c> ghostly</c><00:38:34.640><c> quantum</c><00:38:35.119><c> target.</c>

00:38:36.950 --> 00:38:36.960 align:start position:0%
search of their ghostly quantum target.
 

00:38:36.960 --> 00:38:39.349 align:start position:0%
search of their ghostly quantum target.
Within<00:38:37.440><c> this</c><00:38:37.599><c> trove</c><00:38:38.000><c> of</c><00:38:38.160><c> data</c><00:38:38.880><c> lie</c><00:38:39.200><c> the</c>

00:38:39.349 --> 00:38:39.359 align:start position:0%
Within this trove of data lie the
 

00:38:39.359 --> 00:38:42.069 align:start position:0%
Within this trove of data lie the
imprints<00:38:39.920><c> of</c><00:38:40.240><c> many</c><00:38:40.720><c> particles</c><00:38:41.359><c> arriving</c><00:38:41.920><c> from</c>

00:38:42.069 --> 00:38:42.079 align:start position:0%
imprints of many particles arriving from
 

00:38:42.079 --> 00:38:45.030 align:start position:0%
imprints of many particles arriving from
beyond<00:38:42.480><c> our</c><00:38:42.800><c> atmosphere.</c><00:38:43.839><c> The</c><00:38:44.079><c> vast</c><00:38:44.480><c> majority</c>

00:38:45.030 --> 00:38:45.040 align:start position:0%
beyond our atmosphere. The vast majority
 

00:38:45.040 --> 00:38:48.870 align:start position:0%
beyond our atmosphere. The vast majority
are<00:38:45.359><c> cosmic</c><00:38:45.839><c> rays.</c><00:38:47.200><c> Ice</c><00:38:47.520><c> Cube</c><00:38:47.760><c> detects</c><00:38:48.320><c> around</c>

00:38:48.870 --> 00:38:48.880 align:start position:0%
are cosmic rays. Ice Cube detects around
 

00:38:48.880 --> 00:38:53.270 align:start position:0%
are cosmic rays. Ice Cube detects around
275<00:38:50.320><c> million</c><00:38:50.800><c> of</c><00:38:50.960><c> them</c><00:38:51.200><c> daily.</c><00:38:52.400><c> Cosmic</c><00:38:52.880><c> rays</c>

00:38:53.270 --> 00:38:53.280 align:start position:0%
275 million of them daily. Cosmic rays
 

00:38:53.280 --> 00:38:55.430 align:start position:0%
275 million of them daily. Cosmic rays
are<00:38:53.520><c> interesting</c><00:38:53.920><c> in</c><00:38:54.160><c> their</c><00:38:54.400><c> own</c><00:38:54.560><c> right,</c><00:38:55.119><c> but</c>

00:38:55.430 --> 00:38:55.440 align:start position:0%
are interesting in their own right, but
 

00:38:55.440 --> 00:38:57.670 align:start position:0%
are interesting in their own right, but
serve<00:38:55.680><c> as</c><00:38:55.920><c> an</c><00:38:56.079><c> obscuring</c><00:38:56.800><c> curtain</c><00:38:57.200><c> of</c><00:38:57.440><c> noise</c>

00:38:57.670 --> 00:38:57.680 align:start position:0%
serve as an obscuring curtain of noise
 

00:38:57.680 --> 00:39:00.390 align:start position:0%
serve as an obscuring curtain of noise
to<00:38:57.920><c> those</c><00:38:58.160><c> seeking</c><00:38:58.640><c> nutrino</c><00:38:59.359><c> interactions,</c>

00:39:00.390 --> 00:39:00.400 align:start position:0%
to those seeking nutrino interactions,
 

00:39:00.400 --> 00:39:02.150 align:start position:0%
to those seeking nutrino interactions,
which<00:39:00.640><c> occur</c><00:39:00.960><c> a</c><00:39:01.200><c> million</c><00:39:01.520><c> times</c><00:39:01.839><c> less</c>

00:39:02.150 --> 00:39:02.160 align:start position:0%
which occur a million times less
 

00:39:02.160 --> 00:39:05.829 align:start position:0%
which occur a million times less
frequently<00:39:02.880><c> with</c><00:39:03.119><c> only</c><00:39:03.440><c> around</c><00:39:04.000><c> 275</c><00:39:05.359><c> detected</c>

00:39:05.829 --> 00:39:05.839 align:start position:0%
frequently with only around 275 detected
 

00:39:05.839 --> 00:39:07.589 align:start position:0%
frequently with only around 275 detected
daily.

00:39:07.589 --> 00:39:07.599 align:start position:0%
daily.
 

00:39:07.599 --> 00:39:10.790 align:start position:0%
daily.
But<00:39:07.839><c> even</c><00:39:08.160><c> with</c><00:39:08.480><c> the</c><00:39:08.960><c> 100,000</c><00:39:10.079><c> nutrino</c>

00:39:10.790 --> 00:39:10.800 align:start position:0%
But even with the 100,000 nutrino
 

00:39:10.800 --> 00:39:12.790 align:start position:0%
But even with the 100,000 nutrino
detections<00:39:11.359><c> that</c><00:39:11.599><c> Ice</c><00:39:11.839><c> Cube</c><00:39:12.160><c> makes</c><00:39:12.480><c> each</c>

00:39:12.790 --> 00:39:12.800 align:start position:0%
detections that Ice Cube makes each
 

00:39:12.800 --> 00:39:15.430 align:start position:0%
detections that Ice Cube makes each
year,<00:39:13.680><c> almost</c><00:39:14.079><c> all</c><00:39:14.320><c> of</c><00:39:14.480><c> them</c><00:39:14.640><c> are</c><00:39:14.880><c> generated</c>

00:39:15.430 --> 00:39:15.440 align:start position:0%
year, almost all of them are generated
 

00:39:15.440 --> 00:39:18.630 align:start position:0%
year, almost all of them are generated
in<00:39:15.760><c> our</c><00:39:16.079><c> own</c><00:39:16.480><c> atmosphere</c><00:39:17.440><c> as</c><00:39:17.760><c> debris</c><00:39:18.320><c> from</c>

00:39:18.630 --> 00:39:18.640 align:start position:0%
in our own atmosphere as debris from
 

00:39:18.640 --> 00:39:21.030 align:start position:0%
in our own atmosphere as debris from
collisions<00:39:19.040><c> of</c><00:39:19.280><c> cosmic</c><00:39:19.680><c> rays</c><00:39:20.160><c> with</c><00:39:20.480><c> atoms</c><00:39:20.880><c> in</c>

00:39:21.030 --> 00:39:21.040 align:start position:0%
collisions of cosmic rays with atoms in
 

00:39:21.040 --> 00:39:23.589 align:start position:0%
collisions of cosmic rays with atoms in
the<00:39:21.200><c> gas</c><00:39:21.520><c> that</c><00:39:21.760><c> surrounds</c><00:39:22.160><c> our</c><00:39:22.400><c> planet</c><00:39:23.280><c> and</c>

00:39:23.589 --> 00:39:23.599 align:start position:0%
the gas that surrounds our planet and
 

00:39:23.599 --> 00:39:26.710 align:start position:0%
the gas that surrounds our planet and
not<00:39:23.839><c> from</c><00:39:24.160><c> cosmic</c><00:39:24.560><c> origins</c><00:39:25.119><c> themselves.</c><00:39:26.480><c> The</c>

00:39:26.710 --> 00:39:26.720 align:start position:0%
not from cosmic origins themselves. The
 

00:39:26.720 --> 00:39:31.190 align:start position:0%
not from cosmic origins themselves. The
key<00:39:26.960><c> word</c><00:39:27.200><c> here</c><00:39:27.680><c> being</c><00:39:28.560><c> almost.</c>

00:39:31.190 --> 00:39:31.200 align:start position:0%
key word here being almost.
 

00:39:31.200 --> 00:39:34.470 align:start position:0%
key word here being almost.
On<00:39:31.440><c> the</c><00:39:31.599><c> 22nd</c><00:39:32.160><c> of</c><00:39:32.320><c> September</c><00:39:32.960><c> 2017,</c><00:39:34.160><c> an</c>

00:39:34.470 --> 00:39:34.480 align:start position:0%
On the 22nd of September 2017, an
 

00:39:34.480 --> 00:39:37.430 align:start position:0%
On the 22nd of September 2017, an
exceptionally<00:39:35.440><c> bright</c><00:39:35.920><c> burst</c><00:39:36.400><c> of</c><00:39:36.640><c> Sharenov</c>

00:39:37.430 --> 00:39:37.440 align:start position:0%
exceptionally bright burst of Sharenov
 

00:39:37.440 --> 00:39:39.910 align:start position:0%
exceptionally bright burst of Sharenov
radiation<00:39:38.240><c> was</c><00:39:38.560><c> registered</c><00:39:39.040><c> by</c><00:39:39.280><c> Ice</c><00:39:39.599><c> Cub's</c>

00:39:39.910 --> 00:39:39.920 align:start position:0%
radiation was registered by Ice Cub's
 

00:39:39.920 --> 00:39:41.829 align:start position:0%
radiation was registered by Ice Cub's
array<00:39:40.160><c> of</c><00:39:40.320><c> detectors.</c>

00:39:41.829 --> 00:39:41.839 align:start position:0%
array of detectors.
 

00:39:41.839 --> 00:39:44.310 align:start position:0%
array of detectors.
Working<00:39:42.240><c> together,</c><00:39:42.960><c> the</c><00:39:43.119><c> doms</c><00:39:43.599><c> used</c><00:39:43.760><c> the</c><00:39:44.000><c> tiny</c>

00:39:44.310 --> 00:39:44.320 align:start position:0%
Working together, the doms used the tiny
 

00:39:44.320 --> 00:39:46.230 align:start position:0%
Working together, the doms used the tiny
time<00:39:44.640><c> differences</c><00:39:45.119><c> between</c><00:39:45.440><c> when</c><00:39:45.680><c> they</c><00:39:45.920><c> each</c>

00:39:46.230 --> 00:39:46.240 align:start position:0%
time differences between when they each
 

00:39:46.240 --> 00:39:48.790 align:start position:0%
time differences between when they each
detected<00:39:46.720><c> the</c><00:39:46.960><c> flash</c><00:39:47.599><c> to</c><00:39:47.839><c> trace</c><00:39:48.240><c> the</c><00:39:48.400><c> path</c><00:39:48.640><c> of</c>

00:39:48.790 --> 00:39:48.800 align:start position:0%
detected the flash to trace the path of
 

00:39:48.800 --> 00:39:51.510 align:start position:0%
detected the flash to trace the path of
the<00:39:48.960><c> muon</c><00:39:49.680><c> and</c><00:39:49.920><c> the</c><00:39:50.160><c> exceptionally</c><00:39:50.960><c> energetic</c>

00:39:51.510 --> 00:39:51.520 align:start position:0%
the muon and the exceptionally energetic
 

00:39:51.520 --> 00:39:53.910 align:start position:0%
the muon and the exceptionally energetic
nutrino<00:39:52.079><c> that</c><00:39:52.240><c> created</c><00:39:52.560><c> it,</c><00:39:53.359><c> all</c><00:39:53.599><c> the</c><00:39:53.760><c> way</c>

00:39:53.910 --> 00:39:53.920 align:start position:0%
nutrino that created it, all the way
 

00:39:53.920 --> 00:39:56.790 align:start position:0%
nutrino that created it, all the way
back<00:39:54.160><c> to</c><00:39:54.400><c> a</c><00:39:54.640><c> powerful</c><00:39:55.440><c> and</c><00:39:55.680><c> mysterious</c><00:39:56.320><c> cosmic</c>

00:39:56.790 --> 00:39:56.800 align:start position:0%
back to a powerful and mysterious cosmic
 

00:39:56.800 --> 00:39:58.390 align:start position:0%
back to a powerful and mysterious cosmic
source<00:39:57.119><c> out</c><00:39:57.359><c> in</c><00:39:57.599><c> the</c><00:39:57.680><c> depths</c><00:39:58.000><c> of</c><00:39:58.160><c> our</c>

00:39:58.390 --> 00:39:58.400 align:start position:0%
source out in the depths of our
 

00:39:58.400 --> 00:40:01.829 align:start position:0%
source out in the depths of our
universe.<00:39:59.520><c> a</c><00:39:59.839><c> blazar,</c><00:40:00.960><c> a</c><00:40:01.200><c> super</c><00:40:01.440><c> massive</c>

00:40:01.829 --> 00:40:01.839 align:start position:0%
universe. a blazar, a super massive
 

00:40:01.839 --> 00:40:03.910 align:start position:0%
universe. a blazar, a super massive
black<00:40:02.079><c> hole</c><00:40:02.400><c> at</c><00:40:02.640><c> the</c><00:40:02.800><c> center</c><00:40:03.119><c> of</c><00:40:03.280><c> a</c><00:40:03.520><c> distant</c>

00:40:03.910 --> 00:40:03.920 align:start position:0%
black hole at the center of a distant
 

00:40:03.920 --> 00:40:06.710 align:start position:0%
black hole at the center of a distant
galaxy,<00:40:04.800><c> hurling</c><00:40:05.440><c> jets</c><00:40:05.839><c> of</c><00:40:06.160><c> particles</c>

00:40:06.710 --> 00:40:06.720 align:start position:0%
galaxy, hurling jets of particles
 

00:40:06.720 --> 00:40:09.270 align:start position:0%
galaxy, hurling jets of particles
towards<00:40:07.200><c> Earth.</c>

00:40:09.270 --> 00:40:09.280 align:start position:0%
towards Earth.
 

00:40:09.280 --> 00:40:12.390 align:start position:0%
towards Earth.
This<00:40:09.599><c> discovery</c><00:40:10.400><c> was</c><00:40:10.880><c> monumental.</c><00:40:12.079><c> It</c><00:40:12.240><c> was</c>

00:40:12.390 --> 00:40:12.400 align:start position:0%
This discovery was monumental. It was
 

00:40:12.400 --> 00:40:14.150 align:start position:0%
This discovery was monumental. It was
not<00:40:12.560><c> the</c><00:40:12.800><c> first</c><00:40:12.960><c> time</c><00:40:13.119><c> that</c><00:40:13.359><c> Ice</c><00:40:13.680><c> Cube</c><00:40:13.920><c> had</c>

00:40:14.150 --> 00:40:14.160 align:start position:0%
not the first time that Ice Cube had
 

00:40:14.160 --> 00:40:17.030 align:start position:0%
not the first time that Ice Cube had
detected<00:40:14.560><c> nutrinos</c><00:40:15.280><c> from</c><00:40:15.520><c> deep,</c><00:40:15.839><c> deep</c><00:40:16.160><c> space.</c>

00:40:17.030 --> 00:40:17.040 align:start position:0%
detected nutrinos from deep, deep space.
 

00:40:17.040 --> 00:40:18.790 align:start position:0%
detected nutrinos from deep, deep space.
But<00:40:17.280><c> this</c><00:40:17.440><c> detection</c><00:40:18.000><c> was</c><00:40:18.160><c> the</c><00:40:18.400><c> first</c><00:40:18.640><c> to</c>

00:40:18.790 --> 00:40:18.800 align:start position:0%
But this detection was the first to
 

00:40:18.800 --> 00:40:21.349 align:start position:0%
But this detection was the first to
trigger<00:40:19.200><c> a</c><00:40:19.520><c> realtime</c><00:40:20.160><c> alert</c><00:40:20.480><c> to</c><00:40:20.720><c> telescopes</c>

00:40:21.349 --> 00:40:21.359 align:start position:0%
trigger a realtime alert to telescopes
 

00:40:21.359 --> 00:40:23.589 align:start position:0%
trigger a realtime alert to telescopes
across<00:40:21.760><c> the</c><00:40:21.920><c> globe,</c><00:40:22.640><c> indicating</c><00:40:23.119><c> that</c><00:40:23.359><c> there</c>

00:40:23.589 --> 00:40:23.599 align:start position:0%
across the globe, indicating that there
 

00:40:23.599 --> 00:40:25.510 align:start position:0%
across the globe, indicating that there
was<00:40:23.760><c> something</c><00:40:24.079><c> significant</c><00:40:24.640><c> to</c><00:40:24.880><c> look</c><00:40:24.960><c> at</c><00:40:25.200><c> in</c>

00:40:25.510 --> 00:40:25.520 align:start position:0%
was something significant to look at in
 

00:40:25.520 --> 00:40:27.349 align:start position:0%
was something significant to look at in
that<00:40:25.760><c> direction.</c>

00:40:27.349 --> 00:40:27.359 align:start position:0%
that direction.
 

00:40:27.359 --> 00:40:30.310 align:start position:0%
that direction.
Ice<00:40:27.680><c> Cube</c><00:40:28.079><c> and</c><00:40:28.400><c> nutrinos</c><00:40:29.440><c> had</c><00:40:29.760><c> entered</c><00:40:30.079><c> the</c>

00:40:30.310 --> 00:40:30.320 align:start position:0%
Ice Cube and nutrinos had entered the
 

00:40:30.320 --> 00:40:32.950 align:start position:0%
Ice Cube and nutrinos had entered the
world<00:40:30.640><c> of</c><00:40:30.960><c> multi-</c><00:40:31.440><c> messenger</c><00:40:32.000><c> astronomy</c>

00:40:32.950 --> 00:40:32.960 align:start position:0%
world of multi- messenger astronomy
 

00:40:32.960 --> 00:40:35.030 align:start position:0%
world of multi- messenger astronomy
where<00:40:33.200><c> the</c><00:40:33.359><c> cosmos</c><00:40:33.839><c> is</c><00:40:34.079><c> studied</c><00:40:34.480><c> through</c><00:40:34.800><c> not</c>

00:40:35.030 --> 00:40:35.040 align:start position:0%
where the cosmos is studied through not
 

00:40:35.040 --> 00:40:37.510 align:start position:0%
where the cosmos is studied through not
just<00:40:35.359><c> light</c><00:40:36.000><c> like</c><00:40:36.240><c> it</c><00:40:36.400><c> has</c><00:40:36.640><c> been</c><00:40:36.800><c> for</c><00:40:37.119><c> most</c><00:40:37.359><c> of</c>

00:40:37.510 --> 00:40:37.520 align:start position:0%
just light like it has been for most of
 

00:40:37.520 --> 00:40:39.750 align:start position:0%
just light like it has been for most of
the<00:40:37.680><c> history</c><00:40:37.920><c> of</c><00:40:38.079><c> astronomy</c><00:40:39.040><c> but</c><00:40:39.280><c> also</c>

00:40:39.750 --> 00:40:39.760 align:start position:0%
the history of astronomy but also
 

00:40:39.760 --> 00:40:43.510 align:start position:0%
the history of astronomy but also
gravitational<00:40:40.480><c> waves,</c><00:40:41.280><c> cosmic</c><00:40:41.760><c> rays</c><00:40:42.560><c> and</c><00:40:42.800><c> now</c>

00:40:43.510 --> 00:40:43.520 align:start position:0%
gravitational waves, cosmic rays and now
 

00:40:43.520 --> 00:40:45.829 align:start position:0%
gravitational waves, cosmic rays and now
nutrinos.

00:40:45.829 --> 00:40:45.839 align:start position:0%
nutrinos.
 

00:40:45.839 --> 00:40:48.390 align:start position:0%
nutrinos.
Nutrinos<00:40:46.560><c> are</c><00:40:46.800><c> a</c><00:40:47.119><c> particularly</c><00:40:47.920><c> useful</c>

00:40:48.390 --> 00:40:48.400 align:start position:0%
Nutrinos are a particularly useful
 

00:40:48.400 --> 00:40:50.950 align:start position:0%
Nutrinos are a particularly useful
window<00:40:48.720><c> for</c><00:40:48.960><c> us</c><00:40:49.119><c> to</c><00:40:49.280><c> look</c><00:40:49.520><c> through</c><00:40:50.160><c> because</c>

00:40:50.950 --> 00:40:50.960 align:start position:0%
window for us to look through because
 

00:40:50.960 --> 00:40:52.950 align:start position:0%
window for us to look through because
like<00:40:51.280><c> gravitational</c><00:40:51.839><c> waves,</c><00:40:52.480><c> they</c><00:40:52.800><c> can</c>

00:40:52.950 --> 00:40:52.960 align:start position:0%
like gravitational waves, they can
 

00:40:52.960 --> 00:40:55.510 align:start position:0%
like gravitational waves, they can
arrive<00:40:53.280><c> at</c><00:40:53.520><c> us</c><00:40:54.079><c> before</c><00:40:54.400><c> the</c><00:40:54.720><c> light</c><00:40:55.040><c> from</c><00:40:55.280><c> a</c>

00:40:55.510 --> 00:40:55.520 align:start position:0%
arrive at us before the light from a
 

00:40:55.520 --> 00:40:57.910 align:start position:0%
arrive at us before the light from a
major<00:40:55.760><c> astronomical</c><00:40:56.560><c> event</c><00:40:56.880><c> does.</c><00:40:57.680><c> Because</c>

00:40:57.910 --> 00:40:57.920 align:start position:0%
major astronomical event does. Because
 

00:40:57.920 --> 00:40:59.750 align:start position:0%
major astronomical event does. Because
of<00:40:58.160><c> their</c><00:40:58.400><c> ghostly</c><00:40:58.880><c> nature</c><00:40:59.119><c> that</c><00:40:59.359><c> I</c><00:40:59.520><c> talked</c>

00:40:59.750 --> 00:40:59.760 align:start position:0%
of their ghostly nature that I talked
 

00:40:59.760 --> 00:41:02.390 align:start position:0%
of their ghostly nature that I talked
about<00:41:00.000><c> before,</c><00:41:00.720><c> nutrinos</c><00:41:01.440><c> take</c><00:41:01.680><c> a</c><00:41:02.000><c> very</c>

00:41:02.390 --> 00:41:02.400 align:start position:0%
about before, nutrinos take a very
 

00:41:02.400 --> 00:41:05.030 align:start position:0%
about before, nutrinos take a very
direct<00:41:02.880><c> path</c><00:41:03.200><c> to</c><00:41:03.359><c> our</c><00:41:03.599><c> detector.</c><00:41:04.640><c> Whereas</c>

00:41:05.030 --> 00:41:05.040 align:start position:0%
direct path to our detector. Whereas
 

00:41:05.040 --> 00:41:07.990 align:start position:0%
direct path to our detector. Whereas
light<00:41:05.520><c> faces</c><00:41:06.000><c> many</c><00:41:06.319><c> obstacles</c><00:41:06.960><c> like</c><00:41:07.280><c> dust</c><00:41:07.680><c> and</c>

00:41:07.990 --> 00:41:08.000 align:start position:0%
light faces many obstacles like dust and
 

00:41:08.000 --> 00:41:10.150 align:start position:0%
light faces many obstacles like dust and
magnetic<00:41:08.480><c> fields</c><00:41:08.960><c> that</c><00:41:09.280><c> interfere</c><00:41:09.680><c> with</c><00:41:09.839><c> its</c>

00:41:10.150 --> 00:41:10.160 align:start position:0%
magnetic fields that interfere with its
 

00:41:10.160 --> 00:41:12.870 align:start position:0%
magnetic fields that interfere with its
journey<00:41:10.400><c> and</c><00:41:10.720><c> slow</c><00:41:10.960><c> it</c><00:41:11.200><c> down.</c><00:41:12.079><c> Ice</c><00:41:12.400><c> Cube</c><00:41:12.720><c> is</c>

00:41:12.870 --> 00:41:12.880 align:start position:0%
journey and slow it down. Ice Cube is
 

00:41:12.880 --> 00:41:15.270 align:start position:0%
journey and slow it down. Ice Cube is
now<00:41:13.200><c> fully</c><00:41:13.680><c> integrated</c><00:41:14.319><c> into</c><00:41:14.560><c> a</c><00:41:14.800><c> planetary</c>

00:41:15.270 --> 00:41:15.280 align:start position:0%
now fully integrated into a planetary
 

00:41:15.280 --> 00:41:17.910 align:start position:0%
now fully integrated into a planetary
network<00:41:15.680><c> of</c><00:41:16.000><c> observatories,</c><00:41:17.280><c> constantly</c>

00:41:17.910 --> 00:41:17.920 align:start position:0%
network of observatories, constantly
 

00:41:17.920 --> 00:41:19.990 align:start position:0%
network of observatories, constantly
scouring<00:41:18.400><c> the</c><00:41:18.560><c> skies</c><00:41:18.960><c> for</c><00:41:19.200><c> signs</c><00:41:19.520><c> of</c><00:41:19.680><c> high</c>

00:41:19.990 --> 00:41:20.000 align:start position:0%
scouring the skies for signs of high
 

00:41:20.000 --> 00:41:22.630 align:start position:0%
scouring the skies for signs of high
energy<00:41:20.400><c> events,</c><00:41:21.119><c> ready</c><00:41:21.440><c> to</c><00:41:21.599><c> inform</c><00:41:22.240><c> radio</c>

00:41:22.630 --> 00:41:22.640 align:start position:0%
energy events, ready to inform radio
 

00:41:22.640 --> 00:41:25.109 align:start position:0%
energy events, ready to inform radio
dishes,<00:41:23.440><c> mirrors,</c><00:41:23.788><c> [music]</c><00:41:24.000><c> and</c><00:41:24.319><c> lenses</c>

00:41:25.109 --> 00:41:25.119 align:start position:0%
dishes, mirrors, [music] and lenses
 

00:41:25.119 --> 00:41:27.670 align:start position:0%
dishes, mirrors, [music] and lenses
precisely<00:41:25.680><c> where</c><00:41:26.000><c> to</c><00:41:26.160><c> point</c><00:41:26.400><c> to</c><00:41:26.640><c> see</c><00:41:26.960><c> rare</c><00:41:27.359><c> and</c>

00:41:27.670 --> 00:41:27.680 align:start position:0%
precisely where to point to see rare and
 

00:41:27.680 --> 00:41:29.589 align:start position:0%
precisely where to point to see rare and
transient<00:41:28.240><c> phenomena</c><00:41:28.880><c> that</c><00:41:29.119><c> we</c><00:41:29.359><c> would</c>

00:41:29.589 --> 00:41:29.599 align:start position:0%
transient phenomena that we would
 

00:41:29.599 --> 00:41:32.950 align:start position:0%
transient phenomena that we would
otherwise<00:41:30.160><c> miss</c><00:41:30.480><c> completely.</c>

00:41:32.950 --> 00:41:32.960 align:start position:0%
otherwise miss completely.
 

00:41:32.960 --> 00:41:35.670 align:start position:0%
otherwise miss completely.
Ice<00:41:33.280><c> Cube</c><00:41:33.599><c> is</c><00:41:33.839><c> the</c><00:41:34.079><c> noble</c><00:41:34.560><c> watchman,</c><00:41:35.280><c> sounding</c>

00:41:35.670 --> 00:41:35.680 align:start position:0%
Ice Cube is the noble watchman, sounding
 

00:41:35.680 --> 00:41:38.230 align:start position:0%
Ice Cube is the noble watchman, sounding
the<00:41:35.920><c> alarm</c><00:41:36.240><c> to</c><00:41:36.480><c> rally</c><00:41:36.800><c> an</c><00:41:37.119><c> army</c><00:41:37.359><c> of</c><00:41:37.599><c> telescopic</c>

00:41:38.230 --> 00:41:38.240 align:start position:0%
the alarm to rally an army of telescopic
 

00:41:38.240 --> 00:41:40.710 align:start position:0%
the alarm to rally an army of telescopic
troops<00:41:38.640><c> across</c><00:41:39.040><c> the</c><00:41:39.280><c> globe,</c><00:41:40.000><c> commanding</c><00:41:40.480><c> them</c>

00:41:40.710 --> 00:41:40.720 align:start position:0%
troops across the globe, commanding them
 

00:41:40.720 --> 00:41:43.190 align:start position:0%
troops across the globe, commanding them
where<00:41:41.040><c> to</c><00:41:41.280><c> aim</c><00:41:41.599><c> to</c><00:41:41.760><c> catch</c><00:41:42.079><c> sight</c><00:41:42.319><c> of</c><00:41:42.640><c> raging</c>

00:41:43.190 --> 00:41:43.200 align:start position:0%
where to aim to catch sight of raging
 

00:41:43.200 --> 00:41:46.069 align:start position:0%
where to aim to catch sight of raging
cosmic<00:41:43.680><c> fires.</c><00:41:44.480><c> And</c><00:41:44.640><c> even</c><00:41:44.880><c> further</c><00:41:45.200><c> to</c><00:41:45.440><c> that,</c>

00:41:46.069 --> 00:41:46.079 align:start position:0%
cosmic fires. And even further to that,
 

00:41:46.079 --> 00:41:48.390 align:start position:0%
cosmic fires. And even further to that,
Ice<00:41:46.319><c> Cube</c><00:41:46.560><c> can</c><00:41:46.720><c> give</c><00:41:46.880><c> us</c><00:41:47.040><c> a</c><00:41:47.280><c> unique</c><00:41:47.760><c> view</c><00:41:48.079><c> into</c>

00:41:48.390 --> 00:41:48.400 align:start position:0%
Ice Cube can give us a unique view into
 

00:41:48.400 --> 00:41:50.790 align:start position:0%
Ice Cube can give us a unique view into
the<00:41:48.560><c> heart</c><00:41:48.880><c> of</c><00:41:49.040><c> these</c><00:41:49.359><c> phenomena.</c><00:41:50.480><c> Because</c>

00:41:50.790 --> 00:41:50.800 align:start position:0%
the heart of these phenomena. Because
 

00:41:50.800 --> 00:41:53.589 align:start position:0%
the heart of these phenomena. Because
again,<00:41:51.520><c> unlike</c><00:41:52.000><c> photons,</c><00:41:52.880><c> nutrinos</c><00:41:53.264><c> [music]</c>

00:41:53.589 --> 00:41:53.599 align:start position:0%
again, unlike photons, nutrinos [music]
 

00:41:53.599 --> 00:41:56.230 align:start position:0%
again, unlike photons, nutrinos [music]
can<00:41:53.839><c> escape</c><00:41:54.480><c> relatively</c><00:41:55.119><c> unscathed</c><00:41:55.920><c> from</c>

00:41:56.230 --> 00:41:56.240 align:start position:0%
can escape relatively unscathed from
 

00:41:56.240 --> 00:41:58.069 align:start position:0%
can escape relatively unscathed from
high<00:41:56.480><c> energy</c><00:41:56.880><c> environments</c><00:41:57.520><c> such</c><00:41:57.680><c> as</c><00:41:57.839><c> the</c>

00:41:58.069 --> 00:41:58.079 align:start position:0%
high energy environments such as the
 

00:41:58.079 --> 00:42:00.870 align:start position:0%
high energy environments such as the
core<00:41:58.319><c> collapse</c><00:41:58.640><c> of</c><00:41:58.880><c> supernova</c><00:41:59.599><c> explosions</c><00:42:00.560><c> or</c>

00:42:00.870 --> 00:42:00.880 align:start position:0%
core collapse of supernova explosions or
 

00:42:00.880 --> 00:42:03.510 align:start position:0%
core collapse of supernova explosions or
cataclysmic<00:42:01.680><c> mergers</c><00:42:02.160><c> of</c><00:42:02.480><c> unfathomably</c>

00:42:03.510 --> 00:42:03.520 align:start position:0%
cataclysmic mergers of unfathomably
 

00:42:03.520 --> 00:42:06.470 align:start position:0%
cataclysmic mergers of unfathomably
dense<00:42:03.920><c> neutron</c><00:42:04.400><c> stars</c><00:42:05.280><c> or</c><00:42:05.520><c> even</c><00:42:05.760><c> the</c><00:42:06.000><c> searing</c>

00:42:06.470 --> 00:42:06.480 align:start position:0%
dense neutron stars or even the searing
 

00:42:06.480 --> 00:42:09.190 align:start position:0%
dense neutron stars or even the searing
fury<00:42:06.880><c> of</c><00:42:07.119><c> super</c><00:42:07.440><c> massive</c><00:42:07.839><c> black</c><00:42:08.079><c> holes.</c><00:42:08.960><c> Ice</c>

00:42:09.190 --> 00:42:09.200 align:start position:0%
fury of super massive black holes. Ice
 

00:42:09.200 --> 00:42:11.589 align:start position:0%
fury of super massive black holes. Ice
Cube<00:42:09.520><c> can</c><00:42:09.839><c> deliver</c><00:42:10.319><c> new</c><00:42:10.720><c> and</c><00:42:11.119><c> different</c>

00:42:11.589 --> 00:42:11.599 align:start position:0%
Cube can deliver new and different
 

00:42:11.599 --> 00:42:13.750 align:start position:0%
Cube can deliver new and different
information.<00:42:12.720><c> It</c><00:42:12.960><c> can</c><00:42:13.119><c> see</c><00:42:13.359><c> things</c>

00:42:13.750 --> 00:42:13.760 align:start position:0%
information. It can see things
 

00:42:13.760 --> 00:42:16.069 align:start position:0%
information. It can see things
light-based<00:42:14.400><c> telescopes</c><00:42:14.960><c> are</c><00:42:15.119><c> blind</c><00:42:15.440><c> to,</c><00:42:15.920><c> so</c>

00:42:16.069 --> 00:42:16.079 align:start position:0%
light-based telescopes are blind to, so
 

00:42:16.079 --> 00:42:19.349 align:start position:0%
light-based telescopes are blind to, so
to<00:42:16.319><c> speak.</c><00:42:17.440><c> The</c><00:42:17.680><c> nutrinos</c><00:42:18.319><c> it</c><00:42:18.480><c> detects</c><00:42:19.040><c> can</c>

00:42:19.349 --> 00:42:19.359 align:start position:0%
to speak. The nutrinos it detects can
 

00:42:19.359 --> 00:42:21.670 align:start position:0%
to speak. The nutrinos it detects can
hugely<00:42:19.920><c> broaden</c><00:42:20.400><c> our</c><00:42:20.720><c> understanding</c><00:42:21.200><c> of</c><00:42:21.440><c> all</c>

00:42:21.670 --> 00:42:21.680 align:start position:0%
hugely broaden our understanding of all
 

00:42:21.680 --> 00:42:24.790 align:start position:0%
hugely broaden our understanding of all
these<00:42:22.000><c> events</c><00:42:22.720><c> and</c><00:42:23.200><c> of</c><00:42:23.440><c> the</c><00:42:23.680><c> most</c><00:42:24.000><c> fundamental</c>

00:42:24.790 --> 00:42:24.800 align:start position:0%
these events and of the most fundamental
 

00:42:24.800 --> 00:42:27.510 align:start position:0%
these events and of the most fundamental
nature<00:42:25.200><c> of</c><00:42:25.440><c> the</c><00:42:25.680><c> universe.</c><00:42:26.960><c> During</c><00:42:27.280><c> these</c>

00:42:27.510 --> 00:42:27.520 align:start position:0%
nature of the universe. During these
 

00:42:27.520 --> 00:42:30.230 align:start position:0%
nature of the universe. During these
events,<00:42:28.240><c> physics</c><00:42:28.640><c> is</c><00:42:28.800><c> pushed</c><00:42:29.119><c> to</c><00:42:29.280><c> its</c><00:42:29.440><c> limits.</c>

00:42:30.230 --> 00:42:30.240 align:start position:0%
events, physics is pushed to its limits.
 

00:42:30.240 --> 00:42:32.630 align:start position:0%
events, physics is pushed to its limits.
Particles<00:42:30.800><c> are</c><00:42:31.040><c> accelerated</c><00:42:31.680><c> to</c><00:42:32.000><c> speeds</c><00:42:32.319><c> and</c>

00:42:32.630 --> 00:42:32.640 align:start position:0%
Particles are accelerated to speeds and
 

00:42:32.640 --> 00:42:34.790 align:start position:0%
Particles are accelerated to speeds and
energies<00:42:33.280><c> thousands</c><00:42:33.839><c> of</c><00:42:34.000><c> times</c><00:42:34.319><c> greater</c><00:42:34.640><c> than</c>

00:42:34.790 --> 00:42:34.800 align:start position:0%
energies thousands of times greater than
 

00:42:34.800 --> 00:42:36.790 align:start position:0%
energies thousands of times greater than
what<00:42:34.960><c> we</c><00:42:35.200><c> can</c><00:42:35.280><c> achieve</c><00:42:35.680><c> in</c><00:42:36.000><c> our</c><00:42:36.319><c> particle</c>

00:42:36.790 --> 00:42:36.800 align:start position:0%
what we can achieve in our particle
 

00:42:36.800 --> 00:42:39.990 align:start position:0%
what we can achieve in our particle
accelerators<00:42:37.440><c> on</c><00:42:37.599><c> Earth</c><00:42:38.160><c> like</c><00:42:38.400><c> that</c><00:42:38.640><c> of</c><00:42:38.800><c> CERN.</c>

00:42:39.990 --> 00:42:40.000 align:start position:0%
accelerators on Earth like that of CERN.
 

00:42:40.000 --> 00:42:41.910 align:start position:0%
accelerators on Earth like that of CERN.
This<00:42:40.240><c> allows</c><00:42:40.424><c> [music]</c><00:42:40.720><c> physicists</c><00:42:41.359><c> to</c><00:42:41.599><c> test</c>

00:42:41.910 --> 00:42:41.920 align:start position:0%
This allows [music] physicists to test
 

00:42:41.920 --> 00:42:44.309 align:start position:0%
This allows [music] physicists to test
their<00:42:42.160><c> theories</c><00:42:42.960><c> and</c><00:42:43.359><c> use</c><00:42:43.599><c> the</c><00:42:43.839><c> arrival</c><00:42:44.160><c> of</c>

00:42:44.309 --> 00:42:44.319 align:start position:0%
their theories and use the arrival of
 

00:42:44.319 --> 00:42:46.630 align:start position:0%
their theories and use the arrival of
nutrinos<00:42:44.960><c> at</c><00:42:45.119><c> ice</c><00:42:45.440><c> cube</c><00:42:45.839><c> to</c><00:42:46.160><c> make</c><00:42:46.400><c> new</c>

00:42:46.630 --> 00:42:46.640 align:start position:0%
nutrinos at ice cube to make new
 

00:42:46.640 --> 00:42:49.349 align:start position:0%
nutrinos at ice cube to make new
discoveries<00:42:47.839><c> not</c><00:42:48.160><c> only</c><00:42:48.400><c> about</c><00:42:48.640><c> the</c><00:42:48.960><c> behavior</c>

00:42:49.349 --> 00:42:49.359 align:start position:0%
discoveries not only about the behavior
 

00:42:49.359 --> 00:42:51.750 align:start position:0%
discoveries not only about the behavior
and<00:42:49.680><c> properties</c><00:42:50.079><c> of</c><00:42:50.240><c> nutrinos</c><00:42:51.200><c> but</c><00:42:51.440><c> also</c>

00:42:51.750 --> 00:42:51.760 align:start position:0%
and properties of nutrinos but also
 

00:42:51.760 --> 00:42:54.950 align:start position:0%
and properties of nutrinos but also
about<00:42:52.160><c> dark</c><00:42:52.480><c> matter</c><00:42:53.200><c> and</c><00:42:53.760><c> even</c><00:42:54.079><c> about</c><00:42:54.560><c> ice</c>

00:42:54.950 --> 00:42:54.960 align:start position:0%
about dark matter and even about ice
 

00:42:54.960 --> 00:42:56.950 align:start position:0%
about dark matter and even about ice
itself.

00:42:56.950 --> 00:42:56.960 align:start position:0%
itself.
 

00:42:56.960 --> 00:42:59.430 align:start position:0%
itself.
This<00:42:57.200><c> is</c><00:42:57.359><c> why</c><00:42:57.680><c> so</c><00:42:58.000><c> much</c><00:42:58.160><c> effort</c><00:42:58.480><c> was</c><00:42:58.800><c> put</c><00:42:59.119><c> into</c>

00:42:59.430 --> 00:42:59.440 align:start position:0%
This is why so much effort was put into
 

00:42:59.440 --> 00:43:01.829 align:start position:0%
This is why so much effort was put into
building<00:42:59.920><c> such</c><00:43:00.240><c> an</c><00:43:00.480><c> extreme</c><00:43:00.960><c> telescope</c><00:43:01.599><c> as</c>

00:43:01.829 --> 00:43:01.839 align:start position:0%
building such an extreme telescope as
 

00:43:01.839 --> 00:43:04.630 align:start position:0%
building such an extreme telescope as
the<00:43:02.079><c> ice</c><00:43:02.319><c> cube</c><00:43:02.640><c> nutrino</c><00:43:03.280><c> observatory.</c><00:43:04.400><c> An</c>

00:43:04.630 --> 00:43:04.640 align:start position:0%
the ice cube nutrino observatory. An
 

00:43:04.640 --> 00:43:07.030 align:start position:0%
the ice cube nutrino observatory. An
effort<00:43:04.880><c> that</c><00:43:05.040><c> took</c><00:43:05.440><c> seven</c><00:43:05.760><c> years</c><00:43:06.000><c> to</c><00:43:06.240><c> complete</c>

00:43:07.030 --> 00:43:07.040 align:start position:0%
effort that took seven years to complete
 

00:43:07.040 --> 00:43:09.270 align:start position:0%
effort that took seven years to complete
with<00:43:07.280><c> work</c><00:43:07.599><c> pausing</c><00:43:08.160><c> during</c><00:43:08.480><c> the</c><00:43:08.640><c> Antarctic</c>

00:43:09.270 --> 00:43:09.280 align:start position:0%
with work pausing during the Antarctic
 

00:43:09.280 --> 00:43:11.270 align:start position:0%
with work pausing during the Antarctic
winter<00:43:09.680><c> when</c><00:43:10.000><c> planes</c><00:43:10.400><c> are</c><00:43:10.640><c> shut</c><00:43:10.880><c> out</c><00:43:11.119><c> from</c>

00:43:11.270 --> 00:43:11.280 align:start position:0%
winter when planes are shut out from
 

00:43:11.280 --> 00:43:13.030 align:start position:0%
winter when planes are shut out from
Earth's<00:43:11.680><c> most</c><00:43:11.920><c> southerntherly</c><00:43:12.319><c> continent</c><00:43:12.800><c> by</c>

00:43:13.030 --> 00:43:13.040 align:start position:0%
Earth's most southerntherly continent by
 

00:43:13.040 --> 00:43:15.990 align:start position:0%
Earth's most southerntherly continent by
the<00:43:13.280><c> brutal</c><00:43:13.680><c> weather.</c><00:43:14.480><c> Only</c><00:43:14.800><c> able</c><00:43:15.119><c> to</c><00:43:15.359><c> briefly</c>

00:43:15.990 --> 00:43:16.000 align:start position:0%
the brutal weather. Only able to briefly
 

00:43:16.000 --> 00:43:18.230 align:start position:0%
the brutal weather. Only able to briefly
resume<00:43:16.480><c> for</c><00:43:16.720><c> the</c><00:43:16.880><c> summer</c><00:43:17.200><c> months</c><00:43:17.440><c> of</c><00:43:17.760><c> November</c>

00:43:18.230 --> 00:43:18.240 align:start position:0%
resume for the summer months of November
 

00:43:18.240 --> 00:43:21.430 align:start position:0%
resume for the summer months of November
to<00:43:18.560><c> February.</c><00:43:19.760><c> Over</c><00:43:20.160><c> those</c><00:43:20.400><c> seven</c><00:43:20.720><c> years,</c><00:43:21.200><c> the</c>

00:43:21.430 --> 00:43:21.440 align:start position:0%
to February. Over those seven years, the
 

00:43:21.440 --> 00:43:24.870 align:start position:0%
to February. Over those seven years, the
Ice<00:43:21.680><c> Cube</c><00:43:22.000><c> team</c><00:43:22.400><c> drilled</c><00:43:22.960><c> 86</c><00:43:23.680><c> holes</c><00:43:24.400><c> 2</c><00:43:24.640><c> and</c><00:43:24.720><c> a</c>

00:43:24.870 --> 00:43:24.880 align:start position:0%
Ice Cube team drilled 86 holes 2 and a
 

00:43:24.880 --> 00:43:28.790 align:start position:0%
Ice Cube team drilled 86 holes 2 and a
half<00:43:25.200><c> km</c><00:43:25.760><c> deep,</c><00:43:26.400><c> using</c><00:43:26.880><c> 18,000</c><00:43:27.680><c> L</c><00:43:28.000><c> of</c><00:43:28.160><c> fuel</c><00:43:28.480><c> per</c>

00:43:28.790 --> 00:43:28.800 align:start position:0%
half km deep, using 18,000 L of fuel per
 

00:43:28.800 --> 00:43:32.309 align:start position:0%
half km deep, using 18,000 L of fuel per
pole<00:43:29.440><c> and</c><00:43:29.680><c> melting</c><00:43:30.560><c> 750,000</c><00:43:31.515><c> [music]</c>

00:43:32.309 --> 00:43:32.319 align:start position:0%
pole and melting 750,000 [music]
 

00:43:32.319 --> 00:43:35.910 align:start position:0%
pole and melting 750,000 [music]
L<00:43:32.640><c> of</c><00:43:32.800><c> ice</c><00:43:33.119><c> in</c><00:43:33.280><c> the</c><00:43:33.440><c> process.</c><00:43:34.720><c> All</c><00:43:35.040><c> to</c><00:43:35.280><c> have</c><00:43:35.599><c> a</c>

00:43:35.910 --> 00:43:35.920 align:start position:0%
L of ice in the process. All to have a
 

00:43:35.920 --> 00:43:38.309 align:start position:0%
L of ice in the process. All to have a
few<00:43:36.079><c> hundred</c><00:43:36.560><c> scientists</c><00:43:37.119><c> live</c><00:43:37.440><c> and</c><00:43:37.760><c> work</c><00:43:38.079><c> in</c>

00:43:38.309 --> 00:43:38.319 align:start position:0%
few hundred scientists live and work in
 

00:43:38.319 --> 00:43:40.309 align:start position:0%
few hundred scientists live and work in
one<00:43:38.560><c> of</c><00:43:38.640><c> the</c><00:43:38.800><c> most</c><00:43:39.280><c> inhospitable</c>

00:43:40.309 --> 00:43:40.319 align:start position:0%
one of the most inhospitable
 

00:43:40.319 --> 00:43:42.640 align:start position:0%
one of the most inhospitable
environments<00:43:40.960><c> on</c><00:43:41.280><c> our</c><00:43:41.599><c> planet</c><00:43:42.240><c> in</c><00:43:42.560><c> attempt</c>

00:43:42.640 --> 00:43:42.650 align:start position:0%
environments on our planet in attempt
 

00:43:42.650 --> 00:43:45.030 align:start position:0%
environments on our planet in attempt
[music]<00:43:42.880><c> to</c><00:43:43.040><c> understand</c><00:43:43.599><c> the</c><00:43:43.920><c> most</c><00:43:44.319><c> extreme</c>

00:43:45.030 --> 00:43:45.040 align:start position:0%
[music] to understand the most extreme
 

00:43:45.040 --> 00:43:47.750 align:start position:0%
[music] to understand the most extreme
events<00:43:45.359><c> in</c><00:43:45.599><c> our</c><00:43:45.920><c> universe</c><00:43:46.800><c> and</c><00:43:47.040><c> to</c><00:43:47.200><c> capture</c><00:43:47.520><c> a</c>

00:43:47.750 --> 00:43:47.760 align:start position:0%
events in our universe and to capture a
 

00:43:47.760 --> 00:43:50.470 align:start position:0%
events in our universe and to capture a
glimpse<00:43:48.319><c> of</c><00:43:48.560><c> the</c><00:43:48.800><c> most</c><00:43:49.040><c> elusive</c><00:43:49.599><c> particle</c><00:43:50.160><c> in</c>

00:43:50.470 --> 00:43:50.480 align:start position:0%
glimpse of the most elusive particle in
 

00:43:50.480 --> 00:43:52.790 align:start position:0%
glimpse of the most elusive particle in
the<00:43:50.640><c> universe.</c>

00:43:52.790 --> 00:43:52.800 align:start position:0%
the universe.
 

00:43:52.800 --> 00:43:55.349 align:start position:0%
the universe.
Nutrinos<00:43:53.760><c> are</c><00:43:54.079><c> the</c><00:43:54.400><c> phantoms</c><00:43:54.960><c> of</c><00:43:55.119><c> the</c>

00:43:55.349 --> 00:43:55.359 align:start position:0%
Nutrinos are the phantoms of the
 

00:43:55.359 --> 00:43:58.230 align:start position:0%
Nutrinos are the phantoms of the
particle<00:43:55.839><c> kingdom.</c><00:43:56.720><c> It</c><00:43:56.960><c> takes</c><00:43:57.280><c> bold</c><00:43:57.839><c> and</c>

00:43:58.230 --> 00:43:58.240 align:start position:0%
particle kingdom. It takes bold and
 

00:43:58.240 --> 00:44:00.069 align:start position:0%
particle kingdom. It takes bold and
ingenious<00:43:58.720><c> ideas</c><00:43:59.119><c> from</c><00:43:59.520><c> ambitious</c>

00:44:00.069 --> 00:44:00.079 align:start position:0%
ingenious ideas from ambitious
 

00:44:00.079 --> 00:44:03.030 align:start position:0%
ingenious ideas from ambitious
scientists<00:44:00.560><c> to</c><00:44:00.800><c> witness</c><00:44:01.200><c> even</c><00:44:01.440><c> a</c><00:44:01.760><c> single</c><00:44:02.480><c> one</c>

00:44:03.030 --> 00:44:03.040 align:start position:0%
scientists to witness even a single one
 

00:44:03.040 --> 00:44:06.150 align:start position:0%
scientists to witness even a single one
nutrino.<00:44:04.480><c> We</c><00:44:04.800><c> know</c><00:44:04.960><c> so</c><00:44:05.280><c> little</c><00:44:05.599><c> about</c><00:44:05.839><c> them</c>

00:44:06.150 --> 00:44:06.160 align:start position:0%
nutrino. We know so little about them
 

00:44:06.160 --> 00:44:08.150 align:start position:0%
nutrino. We know so little about them
compared<00:44:06.480><c> to</c><00:44:06.640><c> other</c><00:44:06.880><c> particles,</c><00:44:07.680><c> but</c><00:44:07.920><c> they</c>

00:44:08.150 --> 00:44:08.160 align:start position:0%
compared to other particles, but they
 

00:44:08.160 --> 00:44:10.790 align:start position:0%
compared to other particles, but they
are<00:44:08.480><c> just</c><00:44:08.720><c> as</c><00:44:09.040><c> important</c><00:44:09.599><c> in</c><00:44:09.920><c> furthering</c><00:44:10.400><c> our</c>

00:44:10.790 --> 00:44:10.800 align:start position:0%
are just as important in furthering our
 

00:44:10.800 --> 00:44:13.109 align:start position:0%
are just as important in furthering our
understanding<00:44:11.440><c> of</c><00:44:11.680><c> the</c><00:44:12.000><c> fundamental</c><00:44:12.640><c> laws</c><00:44:12.960><c> of</c>

00:44:13.109 --> 00:44:13.119 align:start position:0%
understanding of the fundamental laws of
 

00:44:13.119 --> 00:44:16.470 align:start position:0%
understanding of the fundamental laws of
nature.<00:44:14.160><c> With</c><00:44:14.480><c> each</c><00:44:14.800><c> nutrino</c><00:44:15.440><c> detected,</c><00:44:16.240><c> we</c>

00:44:16.470 --> 00:44:16.480 align:start position:0%
nature. With each nutrino detected, we
 

00:44:16.480 --> 00:44:18.390 align:start position:0%
nature. With each nutrino detected, we
are<00:44:16.640><c> moving</c><00:44:16.960><c> closer</c><00:44:17.359><c> to</c><00:44:17.599><c> comprehending</c><00:44:18.160><c> the</c>

00:44:18.390 --> 00:44:18.400 align:start position:0%
are moving closer to comprehending the
 

00:44:18.400 --> 00:44:20.710 align:start position:0%
are moving closer to comprehending the
universe<00:44:19.040><c> and</c><00:44:19.280><c> the</c><00:44:19.520><c> powerful</c><00:44:20.000><c> forces</c><00:44:20.480><c> that</c>

00:44:20.710 --> 00:44:20.720 align:start position:0%
universe and the powerful forces that
 

00:44:20.720 --> 00:44:23.430 align:start position:0%
universe and the powerful forces that
shaped<00:44:21.040><c> it.</c>

00:44:23.430 --> 00:44:23.440 align:start position:0%
shaped it.
 

00:44:23.440 --> 00:44:26.390 align:start position:0%
shaped it.
Light<00:44:23.839><c> is</c><00:44:24.400><c> so</c><00:44:24.880><c> much</c><00:44:25.200><c> stranger</c><00:44:25.839><c> than</c><00:44:26.000><c> you</c><00:44:26.240><c> might</c>

00:44:26.390 --> 00:44:26.400 align:start position:0%
Light is so much stranger than you might
 

00:44:26.400 --> 00:44:29.829 align:start position:0%
Light is so much stranger than you might
think.<00:44:27.119><c> Sure,</c><00:44:28.079><c> it</c><00:44:28.319><c> may</c><00:44:28.560><c> seem</c><00:44:28.880><c> simple</c><00:44:29.200><c> enough,</c>

00:44:29.829 --> 00:44:29.839 align:start position:0%
think. Sure, it may seem simple enough,
 

00:44:29.839 --> 00:44:31.430 align:start position:0%
think. Sure, it may seem simple enough,
traveling<00:44:30.319><c> around</c><00:44:30.640><c> the</c><00:44:30.880><c> universe,</c>

00:44:31.430 --> 00:44:31.440 align:start position:0%
traveling around the universe,
 

00:44:31.440 --> 00:44:33.190 align:start position:0%
traveling around the universe,
delivering<00:44:31.920><c> energy</c><00:44:32.319><c> from</c><00:44:32.560><c> one</c><00:44:32.800><c> place</c><00:44:33.040><c> to</c>

00:44:33.190 --> 00:44:33.200 align:start position:0%
delivering energy from one place to
 

00:44:33.200 --> 00:44:36.150 align:start position:0%
delivering energy from one place to
another.<00:44:34.079><c> It</c><00:44:34.319><c> helps</c><00:44:34.560><c> us</c><00:44:34.800><c> see.</c><00:44:35.599><c> It</c><00:44:35.839><c> provides</c>

00:44:36.150 --> 00:44:36.160 align:start position:0%
another. It helps us see. It provides
 

00:44:36.160 --> 00:44:38.630 align:start position:0%
another. It helps us see. It provides
life<00:44:36.400><c> to</c><00:44:36.640><c> plants</c><00:44:37.280><c> and</c><00:44:37.520><c> thus</c><00:44:37.760><c> to</c><00:44:38.000><c> our</c><00:44:38.240><c> planet</c>

00:44:38.630 --> 00:44:38.640 align:start position:0%
life to plants and thus to our planet
 

00:44:38.640 --> 00:44:41.670 align:start position:0%
life to plants and thus to our planet
generally.<00:44:39.599><c> It</c><00:44:39.839><c> has</c><00:44:40.000><c> a</c><00:44:40.240><c> reputation</c><00:44:40.800><c> for</c><00:44:41.119><c> being</c>

00:44:41.670 --> 00:44:41.680 align:start position:0%
generally. It has a reputation for being
 

00:44:41.680 --> 00:44:44.950 align:start position:0%
generally. It has a reputation for being
very<00:44:42.160><c> fast.</c><00:44:43.440><c> And</c><00:44:43.599><c> yet,</c><00:44:44.160><c> for</c><00:44:44.400><c> a</c><00:44:44.560><c> source</c><00:44:44.800><c> of</c>

00:44:44.950 --> 00:44:44.960 align:start position:0%
very fast. And yet, for a source of
 

00:44:44.960 --> 00:44:47.270 align:start position:0%
very fast. And yet, for a source of
energy<00:44:45.359><c> that</c><00:44:45.680><c> has</c><00:44:45.920><c> become</c><00:44:46.240><c> synonymous</c><00:44:46.960><c> with</c>

00:44:47.270 --> 00:44:47.280 align:start position:0%
energy that has become synonymous with
 

00:44:47.280 --> 00:44:49.589 align:start position:0%
energy that has become synonymous with
greater<00:44:47.760><c> understanding,</c><00:44:48.960><c> light</c><00:44:49.359><c> is</c>

00:44:49.589 --> 00:44:49.599 align:start position:0%
greater understanding, light is
 

00:44:49.599 --> 00:44:52.550 align:start position:0%
greater understanding, light is
surprisingly<00:44:50.400><c> difficult</c><00:44:50.800><c> to</c><00:44:51.119><c> understand.</c>

00:44:52.550 --> 00:44:52.560 align:start position:0%
surprisingly difficult to understand.
 

00:44:52.560 --> 00:44:54.790 align:start position:0%
surprisingly difficult to understand.
Light<00:44:52.880><c> helps</c><00:44:53.119><c> us</c><00:44:53.359><c> see</c><00:44:53.520><c> other</c><00:44:53.839><c> things</c><00:44:54.160><c> better.</c>

00:44:54.790 --> 00:44:54.800 align:start position:0%
Light helps us see other things better.
 

00:44:54.800 --> 00:44:57.589 align:start position:0%
Light helps us see other things better.
Sure.<00:44:55.680><c> But</c><00:44:55.839><c> when</c><00:44:56.160><c> scientists</c><00:44:56.800><c> tried</c><00:44:57.040><c> to</c><00:44:57.280><c> look</c>

00:44:57.589 --> 00:44:57.599 align:start position:0%
Sure. But when scientists tried to look
 

00:44:57.599 --> 00:45:00.630 align:start position:0%
Sure. But when scientists tried to look
at<00:44:58.000><c> light</c><00:44:58.400><c> itself,</c><00:44:59.520><c> it</c><00:44:59.760><c> was</c><00:45:00.000><c> surprisingly</c>

00:45:00.630 --> 00:45:00.640 align:start position:0%
at light itself, it was surprisingly
 

00:45:00.640 --> 00:45:03.430 align:start position:0%
at light itself, it was surprisingly
difficult.<00:45:01.920><c> No,</c><00:45:02.319><c> I</c><00:45:02.560><c> don't</c><00:45:02.800><c> mean</c><00:45:02.960><c> that</c><00:45:03.200><c> they</c>

00:45:03.430 --> 00:45:03.440 align:start position:0%
difficult. No, I don't mean that they
 

00:45:03.440 --> 00:45:05.750 align:start position:0%
difficult. No, I don't mean that they
started<00:45:03.839><c> staring</c><00:45:04.319><c> into</c><00:45:04.560><c> any</c><00:45:04.800><c> lamps.</c><00:45:05.520><c> Please</c>

00:45:05.750 --> 00:45:05.760 align:start position:0%
started staring into any lamps. Please
 

00:45:05.760 --> 00:45:08.150 align:start position:0%
started staring into any lamps. Please
don't<00:45:05.920><c> do</c><00:45:06.079><c> that</c><00:45:06.240><c> at</c><00:45:06.480><c> home.</c><00:45:07.359><c> But</c><00:45:07.520><c> experiments</c>

00:45:08.150 --> 00:45:08.160 align:start position:0%
don't do that at home. But experiments
 

00:45:08.160 --> 00:45:10.870 align:start position:0%
don't do that at home. But experiments
in<00:45:08.319><c> the</c><00:45:08.480><c> last</c><00:45:08.800><c> 200</c><00:45:09.280><c> years</c><00:45:09.520><c> or</c><00:45:09.760><c> so</c><00:45:10.000><c> have</c><00:45:10.319><c> proven</c>

00:45:10.870 --> 00:45:10.880 align:start position:0%
in the last 200 years or so have proven
 

00:45:10.880 --> 00:45:13.510 align:start position:0%
in the last 200 years or so have proven
that<00:45:11.200><c> what</c><00:45:11.520><c> light</c><00:45:11.839><c> appears</c><00:45:12.319><c> to</c><00:45:12.480><c> be</c><00:45:12.960><c> and</c><00:45:13.200><c> what</c>

00:45:13.510 --> 00:45:13.520 align:start position:0%
that what light appears to be and what
 

00:45:13.520 --> 00:45:16.390 align:start position:0%
that what light appears to be and what
light<00:45:14.000><c> is</c><00:45:14.880><c> are</c><00:45:15.280><c> actually</c><00:45:15.760><c> two</c><00:45:16.079><c> different</c>

00:45:16.390 --> 00:45:16.400 align:start position:0%
light is are actually two different
 

00:45:16.400 --> 00:45:19.750 align:start position:0%
light is are actually two different
things<00:45:17.280><c> for</c><00:45:17.599><c> one</c><00:45:17.839><c> simple</c><00:45:18.240><c> reason.</c><00:45:19.119><c> Annoyingly</c>

00:45:19.750 --> 00:45:19.760 align:start position:0%
things for one simple reason. Annoyingly
 

00:45:19.760 --> 00:45:22.390 align:start position:0%
things for one simple reason. Annoyingly
enough,<00:45:20.560><c> light</c><00:45:20.960><c> behaves</c><00:45:21.440><c> differently</c><00:45:22.079><c> when</c>

00:45:22.390 --> 00:45:22.400 align:start position:0%
enough, light behaves differently when
 

00:45:22.400 --> 00:45:24.710 align:start position:0%
enough, light behaves differently when
you're<00:45:22.720><c> not</c><00:45:23.040><c> looking</c><00:45:23.280><c> at</c><00:45:23.520><c> it</c><00:45:24.000><c> compared</c><00:45:24.480><c> to</c>

00:45:24.710 --> 00:45:24.720 align:start position:0%
you're not looking at it compared to
 

00:45:24.720 --> 00:45:27.990 align:start position:0%
you're not looking at it compared to
when<00:45:24.960><c> you</c><00:45:25.200><c> are.</c><00:45:26.560><c> What</c><00:45:26.880><c> is</c><00:45:27.040><c> the</c><00:45:27.280><c> true</c><00:45:27.520><c> nature</c><00:45:27.839><c> of</c>

00:45:27.990 --> 00:45:28.000 align:start position:0%
when you are. What is the true nature of
 

00:45:28.000 --> 00:45:30.790 align:start position:0%
when you are. What is the true nature of
light?<00:45:28.880><c> Why</c><00:45:29.119><c> is</c><00:45:29.280><c> it</c><00:45:29.520><c> behaving</c><00:45:30.000><c> strangely</c><00:45:30.560><c> when</c>

00:45:30.790 --> 00:45:30.800 align:start position:0%
light? Why is it behaving strangely when
 

00:45:30.800 --> 00:45:33.750 align:start position:0%
light? Why is it behaving strangely when
we're<00:45:31.040><c> not</c><00:45:31.359><c> looking?</c><00:45:32.720><c> And</c><00:45:32.960><c> what</c><00:45:33.200><c> does</c><00:45:33.359><c> it</c><00:45:33.520><c> say</c>

00:45:33.750 --> 00:45:33.760 align:start position:0%
we're not looking? And what does it say
 

00:45:33.760 --> 00:45:37.510 align:start position:0%
we're not looking? And what does it say
about<00:45:34.079><c> how</c><00:45:34.319><c> the</c><00:45:34.560><c> universe</c><00:45:35.040><c> really</c><00:45:35.440><c> works?</c>

00:45:37.510 --> 00:45:37.520 align:start position:0%
about how the universe really works?
 

00:45:37.520 --> 00:45:39.510 align:start position:0%
about how the universe really works?
I'm<00:45:37.760><c> Alex</c><00:45:38.160><c> Mccoan</c><00:45:38.800><c> and</c><00:45:38.960><c> you're</c><00:45:39.200><c> watching</c>

00:45:39.510 --> 00:45:39.520 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
 

00:45:39.520 --> 00:45:41.910 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
Astramm.<00:45:40.319><c> And</c><00:45:40.480><c> in</c><00:45:40.720><c> today's</c><00:45:41.119><c> video,</c><00:45:41.440><c> it's</c><00:45:41.760><c> time</c>

00:45:41.910 --> 00:45:41.920 align:start position:0%
Astramm. And in today's video, it's time
 

00:45:41.920 --> 00:45:44.550 align:start position:0%
Astramm. And in today's video, it's time
we<00:45:42.240><c> try</c><00:45:42.480><c> and</c><00:45:42.720><c> find</c><00:45:42.960><c> out.</c><00:45:43.760><c> Let's</c><00:45:44.079><c> shed</c><00:45:44.319><c> some</c>

00:45:44.550 --> 00:45:44.560 align:start position:0%
we try and find out. Let's shed some
 

00:45:44.560 --> 00:45:48.309 align:start position:0%
we try and find out. Let's shed some
light<00:45:45.119><c> on</c><00:45:45.520><c> light.</c>

00:45:48.309 --> 00:45:48.319 align:start position:0%
light on light.
 

00:45:48.319 --> 00:45:51.030 align:start position:0%
light on light.
Let's<00:45:48.720><c> begin</c><00:45:48.960><c> with</c><00:45:49.119><c> the</c><00:45:49.359><c> basics.</c><00:45:50.400><c> What</c><00:45:50.720><c> is</c>

00:45:51.030 --> 00:45:51.040 align:start position:0%
Let's begin with the basics. What is
 

00:45:51.040 --> 00:45:54.790 align:start position:0%
Let's begin with the basics. What is
light?<00:45:52.079><c> In</c><00:45:52.319><c> the</c><00:45:52.480><c> early</c><00:45:52.880><c> 1700s,</c><00:45:54.000><c> Isaac</c><00:45:54.400><c> Newton</c>

00:45:54.790 --> 00:45:54.800 align:start position:0%
light? In the early 1700s, Isaac Newton
 

00:45:54.800 --> 00:45:56.950 align:start position:0%
light? In the early 1700s, Isaac Newton
theorized<00:45:55.280><c> that</c><00:45:55.520><c> light</c><00:45:55.760><c> was</c><00:45:56.000><c> made</c><00:45:56.160><c> up</c><00:45:56.319><c> of</c><00:45:56.560><c> tiny</c>

00:45:56.950 --> 00:45:56.960 align:start position:0%
theorized that light was made up of tiny
 

00:45:56.960 --> 00:45:58.870 align:start position:0%
theorized that light was made up of tiny
little<00:45:57.280><c> particles</c><00:45:58.000><c> that</c><00:45:58.319><c> he</c><00:45:58.560><c> called</c>

00:45:58.870 --> 00:45:58.880 align:start position:0%
little particles that he called
 

00:45:58.880 --> 00:46:00.550 align:start position:0%
little particles that he called
corpuscals.

00:46:00.550 --> 00:46:00.560 align:start position:0%
corpuscals.
 

00:46:00.560 --> 00:46:04.550 align:start position:0%
corpuscals.
But<00:46:00.880><c> in</c><00:46:01.280><c> 1801,</c><00:46:02.400><c> nearly</c><00:46:02.880><c> 100</c><00:46:03.359><c> years</c><00:46:03.680><c> later,</c><00:46:04.319><c> a</c>

00:46:04.550 --> 00:46:04.560 align:start position:0%
But in 1801, nearly 100 years later, a
 

00:46:04.560 --> 00:46:06.309 align:start position:0%
But in 1801, nearly 100 years later, a
man<00:46:04.800><c> named</c><00:46:05.040><c> Thomas</c><00:46:05.440><c> Young</c><00:46:05.760><c> discovered</c><00:46:06.079><c> that</c>

00:46:06.309 --> 00:46:06.319 align:start position:0%
man named Thomas Young discovered that
 

00:46:06.319 --> 00:46:08.550 align:start position:0%
man named Thomas Young discovered that
light<00:46:06.640><c> must</c><00:46:07.040><c> actually</c><00:46:07.440><c> be</c><00:46:07.680><c> more</c><00:46:07.920><c> wavelike</c>

00:46:08.550 --> 00:46:08.560 align:start position:0%
light must actually be more wavelike
 

00:46:08.560 --> 00:46:11.910 align:start position:0%
light must actually be more wavelike
than<00:46:08.960><c> particle-like.</c><00:46:10.400><c> He</c><00:46:10.640><c> proved</c><00:46:11.040><c> this</c><00:46:11.520><c> using</c>

00:46:11.910 --> 00:46:11.920 align:start position:0%
than particle-like. He proved this using
 

00:46:11.920 --> 00:46:14.069 align:start position:0%
than particle-like. He proved this using
an<00:46:12.160><c> important</c><00:46:12.640><c> method</c><00:46:12.960><c> known</c><00:46:13.280><c> as</c><00:46:13.520><c> the</c><00:46:13.680><c> double</c>

00:46:14.069 --> 00:46:14.079 align:start position:0%
an important method known as the double
 

00:46:14.079 --> 00:46:15.750 align:start position:0%
an important method known as the double
slit<00:46:14.480><c> experiment.</c><00:46:14.611><c> [music]</c>

00:46:15.750 --> 00:46:15.760 align:start position:0%
slit experiment. [music]
 

00:46:15.760 --> 00:46:18.230 align:start position:0%
slit experiment. [music]
He<00:46:16.079><c> set</c><00:46:16.240><c> up</c><00:46:16.400><c> a</c><00:46:16.640><c> source</c><00:46:16.880><c> of</c><00:46:17.040><c> light</c><00:46:17.520><c> and</c><00:46:17.760><c> shone</c><00:46:18.079><c> it</c>

00:46:18.230 --> 00:46:18.240 align:start position:0%
He set up a source of light and shone it
 

00:46:18.240 --> 00:46:21.270 align:start position:0%
He set up a source of light and shone it
through<00:46:18.560><c> two</c><00:46:19.040><c> narrow</c><00:46:19.440><c> slits</c><00:46:19.839><c> onto</c><00:46:20.160><c> a</c><00:46:20.400><c> board.</c>

00:46:21.270 --> 00:46:21.280 align:start position:0%
through two narrow slits onto a board.
 

00:46:21.280 --> 00:46:23.030 align:start position:0%
through two narrow slits onto a board.
Young<00:46:21.599><c> noticed</c><00:46:21.920><c> that</c><00:46:22.160><c> rather</c><00:46:22.480><c> than</c><00:46:22.640><c> getting</c>

00:46:23.030 --> 00:46:23.040 align:start position:0%
Young noticed that rather than getting
 

00:46:23.040 --> 00:46:25.030 align:start position:0%
Young noticed that rather than getting
two<00:46:23.359><c> bands</c><00:46:23.680><c> of</c><00:46:23.839><c> light</c><00:46:24.160><c> on</c><00:46:24.400><c> the</c><00:46:24.560><c> other</c><00:46:24.720><c> side</c><00:46:24.960><c> of</c>

00:46:25.030 --> 00:46:25.040 align:start position:0%
two bands of light on the other side of
 

00:46:25.040 --> 00:46:27.589 align:start position:0%
two bands of light on the other side of
the<00:46:25.280><c> slits,</c><00:46:26.160><c> a</c><00:46:26.480><c> strange</c><00:46:27.040><c> striped</c><00:46:27.060><c> [music]</c>

00:46:27.589 --> 00:46:27.599 align:start position:0%
the slits, a strange striped [music]
 

00:46:27.599 --> 00:46:29.910 align:start position:0%
the slits, a strange striped [music]
pattern<00:46:28.000><c> was</c><00:46:28.240><c> forming.</c>

00:46:29.910 --> 00:46:29.920 align:start position:0%
pattern was forming.
 

00:46:29.920 --> 00:46:31.829 align:start position:0%
pattern was forming.
This<00:46:30.160><c> was</c><00:46:30.319><c> known</c><00:46:30.640><c> as</c><00:46:30.880><c> an</c><00:46:31.119><c> interference</c>

00:46:31.829 --> 00:46:31.839 align:start position:0%
This was known as an interference
 

00:46:31.839 --> 00:46:34.470 align:start position:0%
This was known as an interference
pattern<00:46:32.297><c> [music]</c><00:46:32.560><c> and</c><00:46:32.880><c> was</c><00:46:33.359><c> incontrovertible</c>

00:46:34.470 --> 00:46:34.480 align:start position:0%
pattern [music] and was incontrovertible
 

00:46:34.480 --> 00:46:36.710 align:start position:0%
pattern [music] and was incontrovertible
proof<00:46:34.800><c> that</c><00:46:35.119><c> light</c><00:46:35.359><c> had</c><00:46:35.680><c> been</c><00:46:35.839><c> traveling</c><00:46:36.240><c> as</c><00:46:36.480><c> a</c>

00:46:36.710 --> 00:46:36.720 align:start position:0%
proof that light had been traveling as a
 

00:46:36.720 --> 00:46:40.630 align:start position:0%
proof that light had been traveling as a
wave.<00:46:38.160><c> Why?</c><00:46:39.280><c> Let's</c><00:46:39.520><c> talk</c><00:46:39.680><c> about</c><00:46:39.920><c> waves</c><00:46:40.240><c> for</c><00:46:40.480><c> a</c>

00:46:40.630 --> 00:46:40.640 align:start position:0%
wave. Why? Let's talk about waves for a
 

00:46:40.640 --> 00:46:43.030 align:start position:0%
wave. Why? Let's talk about waves for a
moment.<00:46:41.599><c> When</c><00:46:41.839><c> waves</c><00:46:42.319><c> travel,</c><00:46:42.800><c> they</c>

00:46:43.030 --> 00:46:43.040 align:start position:0%
moment. When waves travel, they
 

00:46:43.040 --> 00:46:45.430 align:start position:0%
moment. When waves travel, they
oscillate<00:46:43.599><c> up</c><00:46:43.839><c> and</c><00:46:44.087><c> [music]</c><00:46:44.160><c> down.</c><00:46:45.040><c> But</c><00:46:45.200><c> when</c>

00:46:45.430 --> 00:46:45.440 align:start position:0%
oscillate up and [music] down. But when
 

00:46:45.440 --> 00:46:47.430 align:start position:0%
oscillate up and [music] down. But when
two<00:46:45.680><c> waves</c><00:46:46.079><c> try</c><00:46:46.319><c> to</c><00:46:46.560><c> oscillate</c><00:46:47.040><c> the</c><00:46:47.200><c> same</c>

00:46:47.430 --> 00:46:47.440 align:start position:0%
two waves try to oscillate the same
 

00:46:47.440 --> 00:46:49.829 align:start position:0%
two waves try to oscillate the same
point<00:46:47.680><c> in</c><00:46:47.920><c> space</c><00:46:48.240><c> at</c><00:46:48.400><c> the</c><00:46:48.560><c> same</c><00:46:48.800><c> time,</c><00:46:49.440><c> you</c><00:46:49.680><c> get</c>

00:46:49.829 --> 00:46:49.839 align:start position:0%
point in space at the same time, you get
 

00:46:49.839 --> 00:46:52.630 align:start position:0%
point in space at the same time, you get
something<00:46:50.240><c> known</c><00:46:50.560><c> as</c><00:46:50.880><c> interference.</c>

00:46:52.630 --> 00:46:52.640 align:start position:0%
something known as interference.
 

00:46:52.640 --> 00:46:54.950 align:start position:0%
something known as interference.
Imagine<00:46:52.960><c> you</c><00:46:53.200><c> had</c><00:46:53.440><c> a</c><00:46:53.599><c> bathtub</c><00:46:54.240><c> with</c><00:46:54.400><c> a</c><00:46:54.640><c> rubber</c>

00:46:54.950 --> 00:46:54.960 align:start position:0%
Imagine you had a bathtub with a rubber
 

00:46:54.960 --> 00:46:57.190 align:start position:0%
Imagine you had a bathtub with a rubber
duck<00:46:55.200><c> sitting</c><00:46:55.520><c> on</c><00:46:55.680><c> the</c><00:46:55.839><c> surface.</c><00:46:56.532><c> [music]</c><00:46:56.880><c> Two</c>

00:46:57.190 --> 00:46:57.200 align:start position:0%
duck sitting on the surface. [music] Two
 

00:46:57.200 --> 00:47:00.150 align:start position:0%
duck sitting on the surface. [music] Two
waves<00:46:57.599><c> reach</c><00:46:57.920><c> the</c><00:46:58.079><c> duck</c><00:46:58.319><c> at</c><00:46:58.560><c> once.</c><00:46:59.440><c> One</c><00:46:59.760><c> wave</c>

00:47:00.150 --> 00:47:00.160 align:start position:0%
waves reach the duck at once. One wave
 

00:47:00.160 --> 00:47:02.470 align:start position:0%
waves reach the duck at once. One wave
tries<00:47:00.400><c> to</c><00:47:00.560><c> raise</c><00:47:00.800><c> the</c><00:47:00.960><c> duck</c><00:47:01.280><c> up</c><00:47:01.680><c> at</c><00:47:01.920><c> the</c><00:47:02.160><c> exact</c>

00:47:02.470 --> 00:47:02.480 align:start position:0%
tries to raise the duck up at the exact
 

00:47:02.480 --> 00:47:04.470 align:start position:0%
tries to raise the duck up at the exact
same<00:47:02.640><c> time</c><00:47:02.960><c> the</c><00:47:03.280><c> other</c><00:47:03.440><c> wave</c><00:47:03.839><c> tries</c><00:47:04.160><c> to</c><00:47:04.240><c> drop</c>

00:47:04.470 --> 00:47:04.480 align:start position:0%
same time the other wave tries to drop
 

00:47:04.480 --> 00:47:07.829 align:start position:0%
same time the other wave tries to drop
it<00:47:04.720><c> down.</c><00:47:05.760><c> What</c><00:47:06.079><c> happens?</c><00:47:07.280><c> Provided</c><00:47:07.680><c> the</c>

00:47:07.829 --> 00:47:07.839 align:start position:0%
it down. What happens? Provided the
 

00:47:07.839 --> 00:47:10.309 align:start position:0%
it down. What happens? Provided the
waves<00:47:08.160><c> are</c><00:47:08.319><c> of</c><00:47:08.560><c> the</c><00:47:08.800><c> same</c><00:47:08.960><c> magnitude</c><00:47:09.760><c> and</c><00:47:10.079><c> are</c>

00:47:10.309 --> 00:47:10.319 align:start position:0%
waves are of the same magnitude and are
 

00:47:10.319 --> 00:47:12.870 align:start position:0%
waves are of the same magnitude and are
perfectly<00:47:10.800><c> out</c><00:47:11.040><c> of</c><00:47:11.200><c> phase,</c><00:47:11.920><c> they</c><00:47:12.240><c> will</c><00:47:12.400><c> cancel</c>

00:47:12.870 --> 00:47:12.880 align:start position:0%
perfectly out of phase, they will cancel
 

00:47:12.880 --> 00:47:14.950 align:start position:0%
perfectly out of phase, they will cancel
each<00:47:13.119><c> other</c><00:47:13.359><c> out</c><00:47:13.839><c> and</c><00:47:14.000><c> the</c><00:47:14.240><c> duck</c><00:47:14.560><c> would</c><00:47:14.800><c> not</c>

00:47:14.950 --> 00:47:14.960 align:start position:0%
each other out and the duck would not
 

00:47:14.960 --> 00:47:17.750 align:start position:0%
each other out and the duck would not
move<00:47:15.200><c> at</c><00:47:15.440><c> all.</c><00:47:16.319><c> This</c><00:47:16.560><c> is</c><00:47:16.720><c> called</c><00:47:17.040><c> destructive</c>

00:47:17.750 --> 00:47:17.760 align:start position:0%
move at all. This is called destructive
 

00:47:17.760 --> 00:47:19.670 align:start position:0%
move at all. This is called destructive
interference.

00:47:19.670 --> 00:47:19.680 align:start position:0%
interference.
 

00:47:19.680 --> 00:47:22.150 align:start position:0%
interference.
Similarly,<00:47:20.640><c> if</c><00:47:20.880><c> the</c><00:47:21.040><c> waves</c><00:47:21.440><c> both</c><00:47:21.760><c> tried</c><00:47:22.000><c> to</c>

00:47:22.150 --> 00:47:22.160 align:start position:0%
Similarly, if the waves both tried to
 

00:47:22.160 --> 00:47:24.470 align:start position:0%
Similarly, if the waves both tried to
raise<00:47:22.400><c> the</c><00:47:22.560><c> duck</c><00:47:22.800><c> up</c><00:47:23.040><c> at</c><00:47:23.200><c> the</c><00:47:23.359><c> same</c><00:47:23.520><c> time,</c><00:47:24.240><c> the</c>

00:47:24.470 --> 00:47:24.480 align:start position:0%
raise the duck up at the same time, the
 

00:47:24.480 --> 00:47:27.430 align:start position:0%
raise the duck up at the same time, the
duck<00:47:24.800><c> would</c><00:47:25.040><c> be</c><00:47:25.200><c> raised</c><00:47:25.680><c> twice</c><00:47:26.000><c> as</c><00:47:26.319><c> high.</c><00:47:27.200><c> This</c>

00:47:27.430 --> 00:47:27.440 align:start position:0%
duck would be raised twice as high. This
 

00:47:27.440 --> 00:47:30.710 align:start position:0%
duck would be raised twice as high. This
is<00:47:27.599><c> known</c><00:47:27.839><c> as</c><00:47:28.160><c> constructive</c><00:47:28.800><c> interference.</c>

00:47:30.710 --> 00:47:30.720 align:start position:0%
is known as constructive interference.
 

00:47:30.720 --> 00:47:32.710 align:start position:0%
is known as constructive interference.
Because<00:47:31.119><c> waves</c><00:47:31.599><c> tend</c><00:47:31.839><c> to</c><00:47:31.902><c> [music]</c><00:47:32.079><c> expand</c><00:47:32.480><c> in</c>

00:47:32.710 --> 00:47:32.720 align:start position:0%
Because waves tend to [music] expand in
 

00:47:32.720 --> 00:47:35.190 align:start position:0%
Because waves tend to [music] expand in
a<00:47:32.880><c> circle,</c><00:47:33.680><c> two</c><00:47:33.920><c> waves</c><00:47:34.400><c> next</c><00:47:34.640><c> to</c><00:47:34.800><c> each</c><00:47:34.960><c> other</c>

00:47:35.190 --> 00:47:35.200 align:start position:0%
a circle, two waves next to each other
 

00:47:35.200 --> 00:47:37.589 align:start position:0%
a circle, two waves next to each other
will<00:47:35.520><c> start</c><00:47:35.760><c> to</c><00:47:36.000><c> both</c><00:47:36.400><c> constructively</c><00:47:37.200><c> and</c>

00:47:37.589 --> 00:47:37.599 align:start position:0%
will start to both constructively and
 

00:47:37.599 --> 00:47:40.230 align:start position:0%
will start to both constructively and
destructively<00:47:38.400><c> interfere</c><00:47:38.880><c> with</c><00:47:39.119><c> each</c><00:47:39.280><c> other.</c>

00:47:40.230 --> 00:47:40.240 align:start position:0%
destructively interfere with each other.
 

00:47:40.240 --> 00:47:43.270 align:start position:0%
destructively interfere with each other.
Here<00:47:40.560><c> are</c><00:47:40.880><c> two</c><00:47:41.119><c> waves</c><00:47:41.520><c> in</c><00:47:41.839><c> water.</c><00:47:42.800><c> See</c><00:47:43.040><c> these</c>

00:47:43.270 --> 00:47:43.280 align:start position:0%
Here are two waves in water. See these
 

00:47:43.280 --> 00:47:45.910 align:start position:0%
Here are two waves in water. See these
lines?<00:47:44.079><c> These</c><00:47:44.480><c> karma</c><00:47:44.880><c> patches</c><00:47:45.359><c> are</c><00:47:45.599><c> where</c><00:47:45.760><c> the</c>

00:47:45.910 --> 00:47:45.920 align:start position:0%
lines? These karma patches are where the
 

00:47:45.920 --> 00:47:48.630 align:start position:0%
lines? These karma patches are where the
waves<00:47:46.240><c> are</c><00:47:46.400><c> canceling</c><00:47:46.800><c> each</c><00:47:47.040><c> other</c><00:47:47.200><c> out.</c><00:47:48.400><c> This</c>

00:47:48.630 --> 00:47:48.640 align:start position:0%
waves are canceling each other out. This
 

00:47:48.640 --> 00:47:50.630 align:start position:0%
waves are canceling each other out. This
is<00:47:48.720><c> the</c><00:47:48.960><c> effect</c><00:47:49.280><c> we</c><00:47:49.599><c> see</c><00:47:49.920><c> with</c><00:47:50.240><c> light</c>

00:47:50.630 --> 00:47:50.640 align:start position:0%
is the effect we see with light
 

00:47:50.640 --> 00:47:53.349 align:start position:0%
is the effect we see with light
traveling<00:47:51.119><c> through</c><00:47:51.359><c> the</c><00:47:51.520><c> two</c><00:47:51.760><c> slits.</c><00:47:52.960><c> As</c><00:47:53.200><c> the</c>

00:47:53.349 --> 00:47:53.359 align:start position:0%
traveling through the two slits. As the
 

00:47:53.359 --> 00:47:55.589 align:start position:0%
traveling through the two slits. As the
light<00:47:53.599><c> from</c><00:47:53.839><c> one</c><00:47:54.079><c> slit</c><00:47:54.560><c> propagates,</c><00:47:55.359><c> it</c>

00:47:55.589 --> 00:47:55.599 align:start position:0%
light from one slit propagates, it
 

00:47:55.599 --> 00:47:57.510 align:start position:0%
light from one slit propagates, it
cancels<00:47:56.000><c> out</c><00:47:56.160><c> the</c><00:47:56.319><c> other</c><00:47:56.560><c> wave</c><00:47:56.800><c> of</c><00:47:56.960><c> light</c><00:47:57.200><c> at</c>

00:47:57.510 --> 00:47:57.520 align:start position:0%
cancels out the other wave of light at
 

00:47:57.520 --> 00:47:59.270 align:start position:0%
cancels out the other wave of light at
certain<00:47:57.839><c> points,</c><00:47:58.640><c> creating</c><00:47:59.040><c> the</c>

00:47:59.270 --> 00:47:59.280 align:start position:0%
certain points, creating the
 

00:47:59.280 --> 00:48:01.349 align:start position:0%
certain points, creating the
interference<00:47:59.839><c> pattern</c><00:48:00.240><c> that</c><00:48:00.560><c> Young</c><00:48:00.960><c> noticed</c>

00:48:01.349 --> 00:48:01.359 align:start position:0%
interference pattern that Young noticed
 

00:48:01.359 --> 00:48:04.069 align:start position:0%
interference pattern that Young noticed
on<00:48:01.599><c> the</c><00:48:01.760><c> board.</c><00:48:02.960><c> So,</c><00:48:03.280><c> the</c><00:48:03.520><c> mystery</c><00:48:03.839><c> was</c>

00:48:04.069 --> 00:48:04.079 align:start position:0%
on the board. So, the mystery was
 

00:48:04.079 --> 00:48:06.630 align:start position:0%
on the board. So, the mystery was
solved.<00:48:04.880><c> Light</c><00:48:05.200><c> was</c><00:48:05.359><c> a</c><00:48:05.520><c> wave</c><00:48:05.920><c> and</c><00:48:06.160><c> not</c><00:48:06.400><c> a</c>

00:48:06.630 --> 00:48:06.640 align:start position:0%
solved. Light was a wave and not a
 

00:48:06.640 --> 00:48:09.670 align:start position:0%
solved. Light was a wave and not a
particle.<00:48:07.760><c> Except</c><00:48:08.560><c> there</c><00:48:08.800><c> is</c><00:48:09.040><c> more</c><00:48:09.280><c> to</c><00:48:09.520><c> this</c>

00:48:09.670 --> 00:48:09.680 align:start position:0%
particle. Except there is more to this
 

00:48:09.680 --> 00:48:11.990 align:start position:0%
particle. Except there is more to this
experiment<00:48:10.160><c> than</c><00:48:10.400><c> meets</c><00:48:10.640><c> the</c><00:48:10.880><c> eye.</c><00:48:11.680><c> Let's</c>

00:48:11.990 --> 00:48:12.000 align:start position:0%
experiment than meets the eye. Let's
 

00:48:12.000 --> 00:48:16.790 align:start position:0%
experiment than meets the eye. Let's
fast<00:48:12.240><c> forward</c><00:48:12.560><c> another</c><00:48:13.119><c> 100</c><00:48:13.599><c> years</c><00:48:14.079><c> to</c><00:48:14.400><c> 1905.</c>

00:48:16.790 --> 00:48:16.800 align:start position:0%
fast forward another 100 years to 1905.
 

00:48:16.800 --> 00:48:18.550 align:start position:0%
fast forward another 100 years to 1905.
Scientists<00:48:17.280><c> around</c><00:48:17.599><c> this</c><00:48:17.839><c> time</c><00:48:18.000><c> had</c><00:48:18.240><c> become</c>

00:48:18.550 --> 00:48:18.560 align:start position:0%
Scientists around this time had become
 

00:48:18.560 --> 00:48:20.309 align:start position:0%
Scientists around this time had become
puzzled<00:48:18.960><c> by</c><00:48:19.200><c> something</c><00:48:19.520><c> known</c><00:48:19.839><c> as</c><00:48:20.000><c> the</c>

00:48:20.309 --> 00:48:20.319 align:start position:0%
puzzled by something known as the
 

00:48:20.319 --> 00:48:23.349 align:start position:0%
puzzled by something known as the
photoelectric<00:48:21.280><c> effect.</c><00:48:22.319><c> It</c><00:48:22.640><c> turned</c><00:48:22.880><c> out</c><00:48:23.040><c> that</c>

00:48:23.349 --> 00:48:23.359 align:start position:0%
photoelectric effect. It turned out that
 

00:48:23.359 --> 00:48:24.950 align:start position:0%
photoelectric effect. It turned out that
when<00:48:23.520><c> you</c><00:48:23.680><c> shone</c><00:48:24.000><c> a</c><00:48:24.160><c> light</c><00:48:24.319><c> on</c><00:48:24.480><c> a</c><00:48:24.640><c> metal</c>

00:48:24.950 --> 00:48:24.960 align:start position:0%
when you shone a light on a metal
 

00:48:24.960 --> 00:48:27.430 align:start position:0%
when you shone a light on a metal
surface,<00:48:25.920><c> electron-like</c><00:48:26.720><c> particles</c><00:48:27.200><c> were</c>

00:48:27.430 --> 00:48:27.440 align:start position:0%
surface, electron-like particles were
 

00:48:27.440 --> 00:48:30.069 align:start position:0%
surface, electron-like particles were
coming<00:48:27.680><c> off</c><00:48:27.920><c> it.</c><00:48:28.880><c> This</c><00:48:29.040><c> was</c><00:48:29.200><c> deduced</c><00:48:29.680><c> to</c><00:48:29.920><c> be</c>

00:48:30.069 --> 00:48:30.079 align:start position:0%
coming off it. This was deduced to be
 

00:48:30.079 --> 00:48:31.829 align:start position:0%
coming off it. This was deduced to be
because<00:48:30.480><c> electrons</c><00:48:31.040><c> in</c><00:48:31.119><c> the</c><00:48:31.280><c> metal</c><00:48:31.599><c> were</c>

00:48:31.829 --> 00:48:31.839 align:start position:0%
because electrons in the metal were
 

00:48:31.839 --> 00:48:33.750 align:start position:0%
because electrons in the metal were
getting<00:48:32.079><c> knocked</c><00:48:32.400><c> off</c><00:48:32.559><c> it</c><00:48:32.800><c> by</c><00:48:33.040><c> the</c><00:48:33.280><c> increased</c>

00:48:33.750 --> 00:48:33.760 align:start position:0%
getting knocked off it by the increased
 

00:48:33.760 --> 00:48:36.790 align:start position:0%
getting knocked off it by the increased
energy<00:48:34.160><c> the</c><00:48:34.400><c> light</c><00:48:34.640><c> was</c><00:48:34.800><c> imparting.</c>

00:48:36.790 --> 00:48:36.800 align:start position:0%
energy the light was imparting.
 

00:48:36.800 --> 00:48:39.430 align:start position:0%
energy the light was imparting.
Imagine<00:48:37.040><c> it</c><00:48:37.280><c> like</c><00:48:37.520><c> a</c><00:48:37.680><c> fruit</c><00:48:38.000><c> on</c><00:48:38.160><c> a</c><00:48:38.319><c> tree.</c><00:48:39.200><c> If</c>

00:48:39.430 --> 00:48:39.440 align:start position:0%
Imagine it like a fruit on a tree. If
 

00:48:39.440 --> 00:48:41.589 align:start position:0%
Imagine it like a fruit on a tree. If
you<00:48:39.680><c> pull</c><00:48:40.000><c> the</c><00:48:40.240><c> fruit</c><00:48:40.480><c> off</c><00:48:40.640><c> the</c><00:48:40.880><c> tree,</c><00:48:41.359><c> you</c>

00:48:41.589 --> 00:48:41.599 align:start position:0%
you pull the fruit off the tree, you
 

00:48:41.599 --> 00:48:44.309 align:start position:0%
you pull the fruit off the tree, you
need<00:48:41.760><c> to</c><00:48:41.920><c> use</c><00:48:42.160><c> a</c><00:48:42.400><c> certain</c><00:48:42.640><c> amount</c><00:48:42.960><c> of</c><00:48:43.119><c> energy.</c>

00:48:44.309 --> 00:48:44.319 align:start position:0%
need to use a certain amount of energy.
 

00:48:44.319 --> 00:48:46.309 align:start position:0%
need to use a certain amount of energy.
Once<00:48:44.640><c> the</c><00:48:44.880><c> energy</c><00:48:45.200><c> is</c><00:48:45.520><c> greater</c><00:48:45.920><c> than</c><00:48:46.079><c> the</c>

00:48:46.309 --> 00:48:46.319 align:start position:0%
Once the energy is greater than the
 

00:48:46.319 --> 00:48:47.750 align:start position:0%
Once the energy is greater than the
strength<00:48:46.640><c> of</c><00:48:46.720><c> the</c><00:48:46.960><c> fruit's</c><00:48:47.280><c> connection</c><00:48:47.599><c> to</c>

00:48:47.750 --> 00:48:47.760 align:start position:0%
strength of the fruit's connection to
 

00:48:47.760 --> 00:48:50.549 align:start position:0%
strength of the fruit's connection to
the<00:48:48.000><c> branch,</c><00:48:48.538><c> [music]</c><00:48:48.559><c> the</c><00:48:48.800><c> fruit</c><00:48:49.119><c> pops</c><00:48:49.520><c> off.</c>

00:48:50.549 --> 00:48:50.559 align:start position:0%
the branch, [music] the fruit pops off.
 

00:48:50.559 --> 00:48:52.309 align:start position:0%
the branch, [music] the fruit pops off.
This<00:48:50.800><c> was</c><00:48:51.040><c> happening</c><00:48:51.440><c> with</c><00:48:51.680><c> the</c><00:48:51.839><c> light</c><00:48:52.079><c> and</c>

00:48:52.309 --> 00:48:52.319 align:start position:0%
This was happening with the light and
 

00:48:52.319 --> 00:48:54.710 align:start position:0%
This was happening with the light and
the<00:48:52.559><c> electrons.</c><00:48:53.520><c> Once</c><00:48:53.760><c> the</c><00:48:54.000><c> light</c><00:48:54.240><c> hit</c><00:48:54.480><c> an</c>

00:48:54.710 --> 00:48:54.720 align:start position:0%
the electrons. Once the light hit an
 

00:48:54.720 --> 00:48:56.470 align:start position:0%
the electrons. Once the light hit an
electron<00:48:55.119><c> and</c><00:48:55.359><c> gave</c><00:48:55.520><c> it</c><00:48:55.760><c> enough</c><00:48:56.000><c> energy</c><00:48:56.319><c> to</c>

00:48:56.470 --> 00:48:56.480 align:start position:0%
electron and gave it enough energy to
 

00:48:56.480 --> 00:48:58.710 align:start position:0%
electron and gave it enough energy to
pass<00:48:56.720><c> the</c><00:48:56.880><c> threshold,</c><00:48:57.760><c> it</c><00:48:58.000><c> broke</c><00:48:58.240><c> free</c><00:48:58.480><c> from</c>

00:48:58.710 --> 00:48:58.720 align:start position:0%
pass the threshold, it broke free from
 

00:48:58.720 --> 00:49:02.069 align:start position:0%
pass the threshold, it broke free from
the<00:48:58.880><c> metal.</c><00:49:00.240><c> However,</c><00:49:01.040><c> what</c><00:49:01.440><c> surprised</c>

00:49:02.069 --> 00:49:02.079 align:start position:0%
the metal. However, what surprised
 

00:49:02.079 --> 00:49:04.549 align:start position:0%
the metal. However, what surprised
scientists<00:49:02.880><c> was</c><00:49:03.119><c> that</c><00:49:03.359><c> if</c><00:49:03.599><c> you</c><00:49:03.839><c> increased</c><00:49:04.319><c> the</c>

00:49:04.549 --> 00:49:04.559 align:start position:0%
scientists was that if you increased the
 

00:49:04.559 --> 00:49:06.630 align:start position:0%
scientists was that if you increased the
intensity<00:49:04.960><c> of</c><00:49:05.119><c> the</c><00:49:05.359><c> light,</c><00:49:05.920><c> they</c><00:49:06.240><c> had</c>

00:49:06.630 --> 00:49:06.640 align:start position:0%
intensity of the light, they had
 

00:49:06.640 --> 00:49:08.549 align:start position:0%
intensity of the light, they had
expected<00:49:07.119><c> the</c><00:49:07.359><c> electrons</c><00:49:07.920><c> to</c><00:49:08.079><c> be</c><00:49:08.160><c> knocked</c>

00:49:08.549 --> 00:49:08.559 align:start position:0%
expected the electrons to be knocked
 

00:49:08.559 --> 00:49:10.390 align:start position:0%
expected the electrons to be knocked
away<00:49:08.880><c> faster.</c>

00:49:10.390 --> 00:49:10.400 align:start position:0%
away faster.
 

00:49:10.400 --> 00:49:12.150 align:start position:0%
away faster.
If<00:49:10.640><c> you</c><00:49:10.800><c> pull</c><00:49:11.040><c> the</c><00:49:11.280><c> fruit</c><00:49:11.520><c> off</c><00:49:11.680><c> the</c><00:49:11.920><c> tree</c>

00:49:12.150 --> 00:49:12.160 align:start position:0%
If you pull the fruit off the tree
 

00:49:12.160 --> 00:49:15.430 align:start position:0%
If you pull the fruit off the tree
harder,<00:49:12.800><c> it</c><00:49:13.040><c> would</c><00:49:13.359><c> come</c><00:49:13.520><c> off</c><00:49:13.760><c> faster.</c><00:49:15.119><c> More</c>

00:49:15.430 --> 00:49:15.440 align:start position:0%
harder, it would come off faster. More
 

00:49:15.440 --> 00:49:17.589 align:start position:0%
harder, it would come off faster. More
energy<00:49:16.000><c> equals</c><00:49:16.400><c> more</c><00:49:16.640><c> departing</c><00:49:17.119><c> kinetic</c>

00:49:17.589 --> 00:49:17.599 align:start position:0%
energy equals more departing kinetic
 

00:49:17.599 --> 00:49:20.230 align:start position:0%
energy equals more departing kinetic
energy.<00:49:18.720><c> However,</c><00:49:19.200><c> this</c><00:49:19.440><c> did</c><00:49:19.599><c> not</c><00:49:19.839><c> appear</c><00:49:20.079><c> to</c>

00:49:20.230 --> 00:49:20.240 align:start position:0%
energy. However, this did not appear to
 

00:49:20.240 --> 00:49:23.270 align:start position:0%
energy. However, this did not appear to
be<00:49:20.400><c> the</c><00:49:20.559><c> case.</c><00:49:21.520><c> Instead,</c><00:49:22.480><c> increasing</c><00:49:23.040><c> the</c>

00:49:23.270 --> 00:49:23.280 align:start position:0%
be the case. Instead, increasing the
 

00:49:23.280 --> 00:49:25.270 align:start position:0%
be the case. Instead, increasing the
frequency<00:49:23.839><c> of</c><00:49:24.000><c> the</c><00:49:24.160><c> light</c><00:49:24.640><c> increased</c><00:49:25.040><c> the</c>

00:49:25.270 --> 00:49:25.280 align:start position:0%
frequency of the light increased the
 

00:49:25.280 --> 00:49:28.069 align:start position:0%
frequency of the light increased the
velocity<00:49:25.760><c> of</c><00:49:25.920><c> the</c><00:49:26.160><c> departing</c><00:49:26.640><c> electrons.</c><00:49:27.839><c> The</c>

00:49:28.069 --> 00:49:28.079 align:start position:0%
velocity of the departing electrons. The
 

00:49:28.079 --> 00:49:30.630 align:start position:0%
velocity of the departing electrons. The
intensity<00:49:28.720><c> of</c><00:49:28.880><c> the</c><00:49:29.119><c> light</c><00:49:29.599><c> didn't</c><00:49:30.000><c> affect</c><00:49:30.400><c> the</c>

00:49:30.630 --> 00:49:30.640 align:start position:0%
intensity of the light didn't affect the
 

00:49:30.640 --> 00:49:33.589 align:start position:0%
intensity of the light didn't affect the
departing<00:49:31.200><c> electrons</c><00:49:31.680><c> velocity</c><00:49:32.240><c> at</c><00:49:32.559><c> all,</c><00:49:33.200><c> but</c>

00:49:33.589 --> 00:49:33.599 align:start position:0%
departing electrons velocity at all, but
 

00:49:33.599 --> 00:49:35.670 align:start position:0%
departing electrons velocity at all, but
did<00:49:33.839><c> affect</c><00:49:34.240><c> the</c><00:49:34.480><c> quantity</c><00:49:34.880><c> of</c><00:49:35.119><c> electrons</c>

00:49:35.670 --> 00:49:35.680 align:start position:0%
did affect the quantity of electrons
 

00:49:35.680 --> 00:49:38.150 align:start position:0%
did affect the quantity of electrons
being<00:49:35.920><c> emitted.</c><00:49:37.119><c> It</c><00:49:37.359><c> was</c><00:49:37.520><c> a</c><00:49:37.760><c> bit</c><00:49:37.920><c> of</c><00:49:38.000><c> a</c>

00:49:38.150 --> 00:49:38.160 align:start position:0%
being emitted. It was a bit of a
 

00:49:38.160 --> 00:49:39.670 align:start position:0%
being emitted. It was a bit of a
puzzler.

00:49:39.670 --> 00:49:39.680 align:start position:0%
puzzler.
 

00:49:39.680 --> 00:49:41.750 align:start position:0%
puzzler.
Albert<00:49:40.079><c> Einstein</c><00:49:40.640><c> was</c><00:49:40.800><c> the</c><00:49:40.960><c> man</c><00:49:41.119><c> who</c><00:49:41.440><c> solved</c>

00:49:41.750 --> 00:49:41.760 align:start position:0%
Albert Einstein was the man who solved
 

00:49:41.760 --> 00:49:44.710 align:start position:0%
Albert Einstein was the man who solved
the<00:49:42.000><c> puzzle.</c><00:49:43.040><c> He</c><00:49:43.280><c> deduced</c><00:49:43.839><c> that</c><00:49:44.160><c> light</c><00:49:44.480><c> must</c>

00:49:44.710 --> 00:49:44.720 align:start position:0%
the puzzle. He deduced that light must
 

00:49:44.720 --> 00:49:46.549 align:start position:0%
the puzzle. He deduced that light must
be<00:49:44.960><c> traveling</c><00:49:45.359><c> in</c><00:49:45.599><c> little</c><00:49:45.920><c> packets</c><00:49:46.400><c> of</c>

00:49:46.549 --> 00:49:46.559 align:start position:0%
be traveling in little packets of
 

00:49:46.559 --> 00:49:48.790 align:start position:0%
be traveling in little packets of
energy.<00:49:47.359><c> So</c><00:49:47.599><c> sending</c><00:49:47.920><c> more</c><00:49:48.079><c> of</c><00:49:48.319><c> them,</c>

00:49:48.790 --> 00:49:48.800 align:start position:0%
energy. So sending more of them,
 

00:49:48.800 --> 00:49:50.870 align:start position:0%
energy. So sending more of them,
increasing<00:49:49.200><c> the</c><00:49:49.440><c> frequency</c><00:49:50.240><c> was</c><00:49:50.480><c> the</c><00:49:50.640><c> only</c>

00:49:50.870 --> 00:49:50.880 align:start position:0%
increasing the frequency was the only
 

00:49:50.880 --> 00:49:52.710 align:start position:0%
increasing the frequency was the only
way<00:49:50.960><c> to</c><00:49:51.280><c> increase</c><00:49:51.520><c> the</c><00:49:51.760><c> energy</c><00:49:52.160><c> going</c><00:49:52.400><c> to</c><00:49:52.559><c> the</c>

00:49:52.710 --> 00:49:52.720 align:start position:0%
way to increase the energy going to the
 

00:49:52.720 --> 00:49:55.109 align:start position:0%
way to increase the energy going to the
electrons.<00:49:53.920><c> He</c><00:49:54.160><c> called</c><00:49:54.319><c> these</c><00:49:54.559><c> packets</c>

00:49:55.109 --> 00:49:55.119 align:start position:0%
electrons. He called these packets
 

00:49:55.119 --> 00:49:57.750 align:start position:0%
electrons. He called these packets
photons<00:49:55.920><c> and</c><00:49:56.160><c> later</c><00:49:56.559><c> earned</c><00:49:56.800><c> a</c><00:49:57.040><c> Nobel</c><00:49:57.520><c> Prize</c>

00:49:57.750 --> 00:49:57.760 align:start position:0%
photons and later earned a Nobel Prize
 

00:49:57.760 --> 00:50:00.870 align:start position:0%
photons and later earned a Nobel Prize
for<00:49:58.000><c> his</c><00:49:58.240><c> work.</c><00:49:59.280><c> Light,</c><00:49:59.760><c> it</c><00:50:00.000><c> seemed,</c><00:50:00.400><c> was</c><00:50:00.720><c> more</c>

00:50:00.870 --> 00:50:00.880 align:start position:0%
for his work. Light, it seemed, was more
 

00:50:00.880 --> 00:50:04.309 align:start position:0%
for his work. Light, it seemed, was more
like<00:50:01.119><c> a</c><00:50:01.359><c> particle</c><00:50:01.839><c> again</c><00:50:02.640><c> or</c><00:50:03.200><c> both</c><00:50:03.520><c> a</c><00:50:03.760><c> wave</c><00:50:04.079><c> and</c>

00:50:04.309 --> 00:50:04.319 align:start position:0%
like a particle again or both a wave and
 

00:50:04.319 --> 00:50:06.710 align:start position:0%
like a particle again or both a wave and
a<00:50:04.480><c> particle</c><00:50:04.800><c> at</c><00:50:05.040><c> once.</c>

00:50:06.710 --> 00:50:06.720 align:start position:0%
a particle at once.
 

00:50:06.720 --> 00:50:08.950 align:start position:0%
a particle at once.
Of<00:50:06.960><c> course,</c><00:50:07.440><c> even</c><00:50:07.760><c> this</c><00:50:08.079><c> is</c><00:50:08.319><c> not</c><00:50:08.559><c> the</c><00:50:08.720><c> full</c>

00:50:08.950 --> 00:50:08.960 align:start position:0%
Of course, even this is not the full
 

00:50:08.960 --> 00:50:11.270 align:start position:0%
Of course, even this is not the full
picture.<00:50:10.000><c> To</c><00:50:10.240><c> be</c><00:50:10.400><c> honest,</c><00:50:10.800><c> we</c><00:50:11.040><c> aren't</c>

00:50:11.270 --> 00:50:11.280 align:start position:0%
picture. To be honest, we aren't
 

00:50:11.280 --> 00:50:12.950 align:start position:0%
picture. To be honest, we aren't
completely<00:50:11.680><c> sure</c><00:50:11.920><c> about</c><00:50:12.160><c> the</c><00:50:12.319><c> full</c><00:50:12.559><c> picture</c>

00:50:12.950 --> 00:50:12.960 align:start position:0%
completely sure about the full picture
 

00:50:12.960 --> 00:50:15.829 align:start position:0%
completely sure about the full picture
even<00:50:13.280><c> now.</c><00:50:14.160><c> Instead,</c><00:50:14.720><c> we</c><00:50:14.960><c> have</c><00:50:15.119><c> more</c><00:50:15.440><c> results</c>

00:50:15.829 --> 00:50:15.839 align:start position:0%
even now. Instead, we have more results
 

00:50:15.839 --> 00:50:18.390 align:start position:0%
even now. Instead, we have more results
that<00:50:16.160><c> are</c><00:50:16.400><c> contradictory.</c><00:50:17.760><c> Let's</c><00:50:18.000><c> go</c><00:50:18.160><c> back</c><00:50:18.319><c> to</c>

00:50:18.390 --> 00:50:18.400 align:start position:0%
that are contradictory. Let's go back to
 

00:50:18.400 --> 00:50:20.950 align:start position:0%
that are contradictory. Let's go back to
the<00:50:18.559><c> double</c><00:50:18.880><c> slit</c><00:50:19.280><c> experiment.</c>

00:50:20.950 --> 00:50:20.960 align:start position:0%
the double slit experiment.
 

00:50:20.960 --> 00:50:22.870 align:start position:0%
the double slit experiment.
Armed<00:50:21.280><c> with</c><00:50:21.440><c> the</c><00:50:21.599><c> knowledge</c><00:50:21.839><c> of</c><00:50:22.000><c> photons,</c>

00:50:22.870 --> 00:50:22.880 align:start position:0%
Armed with the knowledge of photons,
 

00:50:22.880 --> 00:50:25.190 align:start position:0%
Armed with the knowledge of photons,
physicists<00:50:23.599><c> once</c><00:50:23.920><c> again</c><00:50:24.160><c> took</c><00:50:24.480><c> a</c><00:50:24.640><c> look</c><00:50:24.800><c> at</c><00:50:24.960><c> the</c>

00:50:25.190 --> 00:50:25.200 align:start position:0%
physicists once again took a look at the
 

00:50:25.200 --> 00:50:27.910 align:start position:0%
physicists once again took a look at the
double<00:50:25.520><c> slit</c><00:50:25.920><c> experiment.</c><00:50:27.200><c> Experimental</c>

00:50:27.910 --> 00:50:27.920 align:start position:0%
double slit experiment. Experimental
 

00:50:27.920 --> 00:50:29.990 align:start position:0%
double slit experiment. Experimental
techniques<00:50:28.319><c> had</c><00:50:28.640><c> improved</c><00:50:28.960><c> in</c><00:50:29.200><c> the</c><00:50:29.280><c> last</c><00:50:29.599><c> 100</c>

00:50:29.990 --> 00:50:30.000 align:start position:0%
techniques had improved in the last 100
 

00:50:30.000 --> 00:50:32.470 align:start position:0%
techniques had improved in the last 100
years,<00:50:30.400><c> and</c><00:50:30.640><c> it</c><00:50:30.800><c> was</c><00:50:30.960><c> now</c><00:50:31.200><c> possible</c><00:50:31.520><c> to</c><00:50:31.760><c> emit</c><00:50:32.160><c> a</c>

00:50:32.470 --> 00:50:32.480 align:start position:0%
years, and it was now possible to emit a
 

00:50:32.480 --> 00:50:35.589 align:start position:0%
years, and it was now possible to emit a
single<00:50:32.880><c> photon</c><00:50:33.280><c> of</c><00:50:33.520><c> light</c><00:50:33.760><c> at</c><00:50:33.920><c> a</c><00:50:34.160><c> time.</c><00:50:35.200><c> So,</c>

00:50:35.589 --> 00:50:35.599 align:start position:0%
single photon of light at a time. So,
 

00:50:35.599 --> 00:50:37.670 align:start position:0%
single photon of light at a time. So,
the<00:50:35.839><c> double</c><00:50:36.160><c> slit</c><00:50:36.559><c> experiment</c><00:50:37.200><c> was</c><00:50:37.440><c> done</c>

00:50:37.670 --> 00:50:37.680 align:start position:0%
the double slit experiment was done
 

00:50:37.680 --> 00:50:40.710 align:start position:0%
the double slit experiment was done
again.<00:50:38.720><c> This</c><00:50:39.040><c> time</c><00:50:39.440><c> only</c><00:50:39.760><c> a</c><00:50:40.000><c> single</c><00:50:40.240><c> photon</c>

00:50:40.710 --> 00:50:40.720 align:start position:0%
again. This time only a single photon
 

00:50:40.720 --> 00:50:42.549 align:start position:0%
again. This time only a single photon
would<00:50:40.880><c> be</c><00:50:41.040><c> sent</c><00:50:41.200><c> through</c><00:50:41.359><c> the</c><00:50:41.520><c> slit</c><00:50:42.000><c> onto</c><00:50:42.319><c> a</c>

00:50:42.549 --> 00:50:42.559 align:start position:0%
would be sent through the slit onto a
 

00:50:42.559 --> 00:50:45.270 align:start position:0%
would be sent through the slit onto a
detector<00:50:42.960><c> on</c><00:50:43.200><c> the</c><00:50:43.359><c> far</c><00:50:43.599><c> side.</c>

00:50:45.270 --> 00:50:45.280 align:start position:0%
detector on the far side.
 

00:50:45.280 --> 00:50:47.109 align:start position:0%
detector on the far side.
When<00:50:45.599><c> this</c><00:50:45.839><c> was</c><00:50:46.000><c> done,</c><00:50:46.319><c> the</c><00:50:46.559><c> detector</c>

00:50:47.109 --> 00:50:47.119 align:start position:0%
When this was done, the detector
 

00:50:47.119 --> 00:50:49.270 align:start position:0%
When this was done, the detector
registered<00:50:47.599><c> the</c><00:50:47.760><c> arrival</c><00:50:48.160><c> of</c><00:50:48.319><c> the</c><00:50:48.480><c> photon</c><00:50:48.960><c> at</c>

00:50:49.270 --> 00:50:49.280 align:start position:0%
registered the arrival of the photon at
 

00:50:49.280 --> 00:50:52.309 align:start position:0%
registered the arrival of the photon at
just<00:50:49.440><c> a</c><00:50:49.760><c> single</c><00:50:50.079><c> point.</c><00:50:51.119><c> So</c><00:50:51.760><c> light</c><00:50:52.079><c> was</c>

00:50:52.309 --> 00:50:52.319 align:start position:0%
just a single point. So light was
 

00:50:52.319 --> 00:50:55.510 align:start position:0%
just a single point. So light was
behaving<00:50:52.720><c> like</c><00:50:52.960><c> a</c><00:50:53.200><c> particle</c><00:50:53.599><c> again.</c><00:50:54.640><c> But</c><00:50:54.880><c> then</c>

00:50:55.510 --> 00:50:55.520 align:start position:0%
behaving like a particle again. But then
 

00:50:55.520 --> 00:50:57.910 align:start position:0%
behaving like a particle again. But then
why<00:50:55.839><c> had</c><00:50:56.079><c> it</c><00:50:56.319><c> interfered</c><00:50:56.800><c> with</c><00:50:56.960><c> itself</c><00:50:57.440><c> in</c><00:50:57.680><c> the</c>

00:50:57.910 --> 00:50:57.920 align:start position:0%
why had it interfered with itself in the
 

00:50:57.920 --> 00:51:00.390 align:start position:0%
why had it interfered with itself in the
previous<00:50:58.240><c> version</c><00:50:58.559><c> of</c><00:50:58.720><c> the</c><00:50:58.960><c> experiment?</c>

00:51:00.390 --> 00:51:00.400 align:start position:0%
previous version of the experiment?
 

00:51:00.400 --> 00:51:02.710 align:start position:0%
previous version of the experiment?
Scientists<00:51:00.880><c> had</c><00:51:01.119><c> an</c><00:51:01.359><c> idea.</c><00:51:02.240><c> They</c><00:51:02.480><c> sent</c>

00:51:02.710 --> 00:51:02.720 align:start position:0%
Scientists had an idea. They sent
 

00:51:02.720 --> 00:51:05.430 align:start position:0%
Scientists had an idea. They sent
through<00:51:03.119><c> multiple</c><00:51:03.680><c> photons</c><00:51:04.400><c> one</c><00:51:04.640><c> at</c><00:51:04.800><c> a</c><00:51:05.040><c> time</c>

00:51:05.430 --> 00:51:05.440 align:start position:0%
through multiple photons one at a time
 

00:51:05.440 --> 00:51:07.990 align:start position:0%
through multiple photons one at a time
and<00:51:05.680><c> plotted</c><00:51:06.079><c> the</c><00:51:06.240><c> result</c><00:51:06.480><c> on</c><00:51:06.720><c> the</c><00:51:06.880><c> detector.</c>

00:51:07.990 --> 00:51:08.000 align:start position:0%
and plotted the result on the detector.
 

00:51:08.000 --> 00:51:09.910 align:start position:0%
and plotted the result on the detector.
And<00:51:08.240><c> this</c><00:51:08.400><c> is</c><00:51:08.559><c> where</c><00:51:08.720><c> the</c><00:51:08.960><c> result</c><00:51:09.359><c> became</c>

00:51:09.910 --> 00:51:09.920 align:start position:0%
And this is where the result became
 

00:51:09.920 --> 00:51:13.430 align:start position:0%
And this is where the result became
really<00:51:10.319><c> strange.</c><00:51:11.760><c> Once</c><00:51:12.079><c> again,</c><00:51:12.559><c> the</c><00:51:12.880><c> detector</c>

00:51:13.430 --> 00:51:13.440 align:start position:0%
really strange. Once again, the detector
 

00:51:13.440 --> 00:51:15.510 align:start position:0%
really strange. Once again, the detector
started<00:51:13.839><c> seeing</c><00:51:14.079><c> the</c><00:51:14.319><c> photons</c><00:51:14.800><c> arriving</c><00:51:15.280><c> at</c>

00:51:15.510 --> 00:51:15.520 align:start position:0%
started seeing the photons arriving at
 

00:51:15.520 --> 00:51:18.230 align:start position:0%
started seeing the photons arriving at
single<00:51:15.920><c> points</c><00:51:16.480><c> one</c><00:51:16.720><c> at</c><00:51:16.880><c> a</c><00:51:17.119><c> time.</c><00:51:17.920><c> But</c>

00:51:18.230 --> 00:51:18.240 align:start position:0%
single points one at a time. But
 

00:51:18.240 --> 00:51:21.190 align:start position:0%
single points one at a time. But
bafflingly<00:51:19.359><c> the</c><00:51:19.599><c> arriving</c><00:51:20.079><c> photons</c><00:51:20.720><c> started</c>

00:51:21.190 --> 00:51:21.200 align:start position:0%
bafflingly the arriving photons started
 

00:51:21.200 --> 00:51:23.510 align:start position:0%
bafflingly the arriving photons started
creating<00:51:21.680><c> a</c><00:51:21.920><c> pattern.</c>

00:51:23.510 --> 00:51:23.520 align:start position:0%
creating a pattern.
 

00:51:23.520 --> 00:51:26.390 align:start position:0%
creating a pattern.
It<00:51:23.839><c> was</c><00:51:24.079><c> the</c><00:51:24.400><c> interference</c><00:51:25.040><c> pattern.</c><00:51:26.160><c> The</c>

00:51:26.390 --> 00:51:26.400 align:start position:0%
It was the interference pattern. The
 

00:51:26.400 --> 00:51:29.990 align:start position:0%
It was the interference pattern. The
proof<00:51:26.720><c> that</c><00:51:27.040><c> light</c><00:51:27.440><c> behaved</c><00:51:27.839><c> like</c><00:51:28.079><c> a</c><00:51:28.240><c> wave.</c>

00:51:29.990 --> 00:51:30.000 align:start position:0%
proof that light behaved like a wave.
 

00:51:30.000 --> 00:51:32.230 align:start position:0%
proof that light behaved like a wave.
But<00:51:30.240><c> strangely</c><00:51:30.800><c> enough,</c><00:51:31.520><c> this</c><00:51:31.760><c> was</c><00:51:31.920><c> only</c>

00:51:32.230 --> 00:51:32.240 align:start position:0%
But strangely enough, this was only
 

00:51:32.240 --> 00:51:34.309 align:start position:0%
But strangely enough, this was only
occurring<00:51:32.640><c> when</c><00:51:32.880><c> a</c><00:51:33.119><c> single</c><00:51:33.359><c> photon</c><00:51:33.920><c> was</c><00:51:34.079><c> going</c>

00:51:34.309 --> 00:51:34.319 align:start position:0%
occurring when a single photon was going
 

00:51:34.319 --> 00:51:37.750 align:start position:0%
occurring when a single photon was going
through<00:51:34.640><c> at</c><00:51:34.880><c> a</c><00:51:35.040><c> time.</c><00:51:36.079><c> Somehow</c><00:51:36.960><c> the</c><00:51:37.280><c> single</c>

00:51:37.750 --> 00:51:37.760 align:start position:0%
through at a time. Somehow the single
 

00:51:37.760 --> 00:51:40.309 align:start position:0%
through at a time. Somehow the single
photon<00:51:38.640><c> which</c><00:51:38.880><c> was</c><00:51:39.119><c> leaving</c><00:51:39.440><c> the</c><00:51:39.680><c> detector</c>

00:51:40.309 --> 00:51:40.319 align:start position:0%
photon which was leaving the detector
 

00:51:40.319 --> 00:51:42.870 align:start position:0%
photon which was leaving the detector
like<00:51:40.559><c> a</c><00:51:40.800><c> particle</c><00:51:41.520><c> and</c><00:51:41.760><c> was</c><00:51:42.000><c> arriving</c><00:51:42.400><c> at</c><00:51:42.640><c> its</c>

00:51:42.870 --> 00:51:42.880 align:start position:0%
like a particle and was arriving at its
 

00:51:42.880 --> 00:51:45.670 align:start position:0%
like a particle and was arriving at its
destination<00:51:43.520><c> as</c><00:51:43.760><c> a</c><00:51:44.000><c> particle</c><00:51:44.800><c> was</c><00:51:45.040><c> apparently</c>

00:51:45.670 --> 00:51:45.680 align:start position:0%
destination as a particle was apparently
 

00:51:45.680 --> 00:51:48.230 align:start position:0%
destination as a particle was apparently
in<00:51:46.000><c> some</c><00:51:46.240><c> way</c><00:51:46.640><c> traveling</c><00:51:47.119><c> through</c><00:51:47.440><c> both</c><00:51:47.839><c> slits</c>

00:51:48.230 --> 00:51:48.240 align:start position:0%
in some way traveling through both slits
 

00:51:48.240 --> 00:51:51.190 align:start position:0%
in some way traveling through both slits
at<00:51:48.480><c> once</c><00:51:49.520><c> enough</c><00:51:49.920><c> to</c><00:51:50.160><c> then</c><00:51:50.480><c> interfere</c><00:51:51.040><c> with</c>

00:51:51.190 --> 00:51:51.200 align:start position:0%
at once enough to then interfere with
 

00:51:51.200 --> 00:51:55.430 align:start position:0%
at once enough to then interfere with
itself<00:51:51.599><c> on</c><00:51:51.839><c> the</c><00:51:52.000><c> other</c><00:51:52.240><c> side</c><00:51:52.720><c> like</c><00:51:52.880><c> a</c><00:51:53.119><c> wave.</c>

00:51:55.430 --> 00:51:55.440 align:start position:0%
itself on the other side like a wave.
 

00:51:55.440 --> 00:51:57.910 align:start position:0%
itself on the other side like a wave.
If<00:51:55.680><c> light</c><00:51:56.079><c> was</c><00:51:56.240><c> just</c><00:51:56.480><c> a</c><00:51:56.720><c> particle,</c><00:51:57.440><c> then</c><00:51:57.680><c> when</c>

00:51:57.910 --> 00:51:57.920 align:start position:0%
If light was just a particle, then when
 

00:51:57.920 --> 00:51:59.510 align:start position:0%
If light was just a particle, then when
it<00:51:58.079><c> went</c><00:51:58.240><c> through</c><00:51:58.400><c> the</c><00:51:58.559><c> slits,</c><00:51:59.040><c> you</c><00:51:59.280><c> wouldn't</c>

00:51:59.510 --> 00:51:59.520 align:start position:0%
it went through the slits, you wouldn't
 

00:51:59.520 --> 00:52:02.230 align:start position:0%
it went through the slits, you wouldn't
see<00:51:59.760><c> this</c><00:52:00.000><c> pattern.</c><00:52:00.960><c> You</c><00:52:01.200><c> would</c><00:52:01.359><c> only</c><00:52:01.599><c> see</c><00:52:01.920><c> two</c>

00:52:02.230 --> 00:52:02.240 align:start position:0%
see this pattern. You would only see two
 

00:52:02.240 --> 00:52:04.710 align:start position:0%
see this pattern. You would only see two
blobs<00:52:02.640><c> of</c><00:52:02.800><c> light.</c><00:52:03.520><c> one</c><00:52:03.839><c> for</c><00:52:04.079><c> particles</c><00:52:04.480><c> that</c>

00:52:04.710 --> 00:52:04.720 align:start position:0%
blobs of light. one for particles that
 

00:52:04.720 --> 00:52:06.390 align:start position:0%
blobs of light. one for particles that
went<00:52:04.880><c> through</c><00:52:05.040><c> the</c><00:52:05.200><c> slit</c><00:52:05.680><c> and</c><00:52:05.920><c> one</c><00:52:06.160><c> for</c>

00:52:06.390 --> 00:52:06.400 align:start position:0%
went through the slit and one for
 

00:52:06.400 --> 00:52:07.670 align:start position:0%
went through the slit and one for
particles<00:52:06.800><c> that</c><00:52:07.040><c> went</c><00:52:07.200><c> through</c><00:52:07.359><c> the</c><00:52:07.520><c> other</c>

00:52:07.670 --> 00:52:07.680 align:start position:0%
particles that went through the other
 

00:52:07.680 --> 00:52:10.870 align:start position:0%
particles that went through the other
one.<00:52:08.559><c> And</c><00:52:08.720><c> yet</c><00:52:09.440><c> here</c><00:52:09.839><c> was</c><00:52:10.079><c> the</c><00:52:10.319><c> interference</c>

00:52:10.870 --> 00:52:10.880 align:start position:0%
one. And yet here was the interference
 

00:52:10.880 --> 00:52:13.430 align:start position:0%
one. And yet here was the interference
pattern<00:52:11.280><c> with</c><00:52:11.520><c> its</c><00:52:11.920><c> multiple</c><00:52:12.400><c> lines</c><00:52:12.720><c> of</c><00:52:12.960><c> light</c>

00:52:13.430 --> 00:52:13.440 align:start position:0%
pattern with its multiple lines of light
 

00:52:13.440 --> 00:52:15.670 align:start position:0%
pattern with its multiple lines of light
disproving<00:52:14.160><c> that.</c>

00:52:15.670 --> 00:52:15.680 align:start position:0%
disproving that.
 

00:52:15.680 --> 00:52:18.150 align:start position:0%
disproving that.
Scientists<00:52:16.160><c> tried</c><00:52:16.400><c> to</c><00:52:16.559><c> pin</c><00:52:16.880><c> light</c><00:52:17.200><c> down.</c><00:52:17.920><c> They</c>

00:52:18.150 --> 00:52:18.160 align:start position:0%
Scientists tried to pin light down. They
 

00:52:18.160 --> 00:52:19.990 align:start position:0%
Scientists tried to pin light down. They
set<00:52:18.319><c> up</c><00:52:18.480><c> the</c><00:52:18.720><c> experiment,</c><00:52:19.359><c> but</c><00:52:19.680><c> this</c><00:52:19.839><c> time</c>

00:52:19.990 --> 00:52:20.000 align:start position:0%
set up the experiment, but this time
 

00:52:20.000 --> 00:52:22.630 align:start position:0%
set up the experiment, but this time
with<00:52:20.240><c> two</c><00:52:20.480><c> more</c><00:52:20.720><c> detectors</c><00:52:21.280><c> at</c><00:52:21.440><c> the</c><00:52:21.680><c> slit</c><00:52:22.480><c> so</c>

00:52:22.630 --> 00:52:22.640 align:start position:0%
with two more detectors at the slit so
 

00:52:22.640 --> 00:52:24.470 align:start position:0%
with two more detectors at the slit so
that<00:52:22.880><c> scientists</c><00:52:23.359><c> could</c><00:52:23.520><c> observe</c><00:52:24.000><c> whether</c><00:52:24.319><c> it</c>

00:52:24.470 --> 00:52:24.480 align:start position:0%
that scientists could observe whether it
 

00:52:24.480 --> 00:52:26.470 align:start position:0%
that scientists could observe whether it
was<00:52:24.640><c> indeed</c><00:52:25.040><c> passing</c><00:52:25.440><c> through</c><00:52:25.760><c> both</c><00:52:26.079><c> at</c><00:52:26.319><c> the</c>

00:52:26.470 --> 00:52:26.480 align:start position:0%
was indeed passing through both at the
 

00:52:26.480 --> 00:52:30.470 align:start position:0%
was indeed passing through both at the
same<00:52:26.720><c> time.</c><00:52:27.920><c> It</c><00:52:28.240><c> didn't.</c><00:52:29.680><c> But</c><00:52:29.920><c> at</c><00:52:30.079><c> the</c><00:52:30.240><c> same</c>

00:52:30.470 --> 00:52:30.480 align:start position:0%
same time. It didn't. But at the same
 

00:52:30.480 --> 00:52:32.790 align:start position:0%
same time. It didn't. But at the same
time,<00:52:31.119><c> it</c><00:52:31.520><c> stopped</c><00:52:32.079><c> creating</c><00:52:32.559><c> an</c>

00:52:32.790 --> 00:52:32.800 align:start position:0%
time, it stopped creating an
 

00:52:32.800 --> 00:52:35.109 align:start position:0%
time, it stopped creating an
interference<00:52:33.440><c> pattern</c><00:52:33.920><c> on</c><00:52:34.160><c> the</c><00:52:34.400><c> furthermost</c>

00:52:35.109 --> 00:52:35.119 align:start position:0%
interference pattern on the furthermost
 

00:52:35.119 --> 00:52:36.790 align:start position:0%
interference pattern on the furthermost
detector.

00:52:36.790 --> 00:52:36.800 align:start position:0%
detector.
 

00:52:36.800 --> 00:52:39.109 align:start position:0%
detector.
And<00:52:37.040><c> from</c><00:52:37.359><c> this,</c><00:52:38.000><c> scientists</c><00:52:38.559><c> began</c><00:52:38.960><c> to</c>

00:52:39.109 --> 00:52:39.119 align:start position:0%
And from this, scientists began to
 

00:52:39.119 --> 00:52:42.069 align:start position:0%
And from this, scientists began to
realize<00:52:39.599><c> something.</c><00:52:40.720><c> Light</c><00:52:41.119><c> cared</c><00:52:41.680><c> about</c>

00:52:42.069 --> 00:52:42.079 align:start position:0%
realize something. Light cared about
 

00:52:42.079 --> 00:52:44.470 align:start position:0%
realize something. Light cared about
being<00:52:42.559><c> observed.</c>

00:52:44.470 --> 00:52:44.480 align:start position:0%
being observed.
 

00:52:44.480 --> 00:52:47.030 align:start position:0%
being observed.
To<00:52:44.720><c> be</c><00:52:44.880><c> clear,</c><00:52:45.520><c> it</c><00:52:45.760><c> didn't</c><00:52:46.079><c> matter</c><00:52:46.400><c> whether</c><00:52:46.800><c> it</c>

00:52:47.030 --> 00:52:47.040 align:start position:0%
To be clear, it didn't matter whether it
 

00:52:47.040 --> 00:52:49.030 align:start position:0%
To be clear, it didn't matter whether it
was<00:52:47.200><c> observed</c><00:52:47.680><c> by</c><00:52:47.839><c> a</c><00:52:48.000><c> human</c><00:52:48.319><c> eye</c><00:52:48.559><c> or</c><00:52:48.880><c> a</c>

00:52:49.030 --> 00:52:49.040 align:start position:0%
was observed by a human eye or a
 

00:52:49.040 --> 00:52:51.910 align:start position:0%
was observed by a human eye or a
machine.<00:52:50.000><c> The</c><00:52:50.319><c> moment</c><00:52:50.800><c> light</c><00:52:51.119><c> was</c><00:52:51.359><c> interacted</c>

00:52:51.910 --> 00:52:51.920 align:start position:0%
machine. The moment light was interacted
 

00:52:51.920 --> 00:52:54.950 align:start position:0%
machine. The moment light was interacted
with<00:52:52.240><c> in</c><00:52:52.559><c> some</c><00:52:52.800><c> way</c><00:52:53.280><c> by</c><00:52:53.599><c> any</c><00:52:53.920><c> particle,</c><00:52:54.720><c> which</c>

00:52:54.950 --> 00:52:54.960 align:start position:0%
with in some way by any particle, which
 

00:52:54.960 --> 00:52:57.030 align:start position:0%
with in some way by any particle, which
is<00:52:55.119><c> the</c><00:52:55.359><c> only</c><00:52:55.520><c> way</c><00:52:55.599><c> we</c><00:52:55.839><c> can</c><00:52:56.000><c> detect</c><00:52:56.319><c> light.</c>

00:52:57.030 --> 00:52:57.040 align:start position:0%
is the only way we can detect light.
 

00:52:57.040 --> 00:52:59.430 align:start position:0%
is the only way we can detect light.
There's<00:52:57.280><c> no</c><00:52:57.440><c> other</c><00:52:57.599><c> way</c><00:52:57.760><c> to</c><00:52:57.920><c> observe</c><00:52:58.319><c> it.</c><00:52:59.119><c> It</c>

00:52:59.430 --> 00:52:59.440 align:start position:0%
There's no other way to observe it. It
 

00:52:59.440 --> 00:53:01.670 align:start position:0%
There's no other way to observe it. It
started<00:52:59.920><c> behaving</c><00:53:00.480><c> differently</c><00:53:01.119><c> than</c><00:53:01.359><c> if</c><00:53:01.520><c> it</c>

00:53:01.670 --> 00:53:01.680 align:start position:0%
started behaving differently than if it
 

00:53:01.680 --> 00:53:04.470 align:start position:0%
started behaving differently than if it
hadn't<00:53:02.000><c> been</c><00:53:02.240><c> detected</c><00:53:02.800><c> at</c><00:53:03.040><c> all.</c><00:53:03.839><c> It</c><00:53:04.079><c> was</c><00:53:04.240><c> if</c>

00:53:04.470 --> 00:53:04.480 align:start position:0%
hadn't been detected at all. It was if
 

00:53:04.480 --> 00:53:06.630 align:start position:0%
hadn't been detected at all. It was if
light<00:53:04.880><c> was</c><00:53:05.119><c> snapping</c><00:53:05.520><c> into</c><00:53:05.760><c> focus</c><00:53:06.240><c> any</c><00:53:06.480><c> time</c>

00:53:06.630 --> 00:53:06.640 align:start position:0%
light was snapping into focus any time
 

00:53:06.640 --> 00:53:08.790 align:start position:0%
light was snapping into focus any time
the<00:53:06.880><c> universe</c><00:53:07.359><c> asked</c><00:53:07.680><c> it</c><00:53:07.839><c> the</c><00:53:08.079><c> question</c><00:53:08.480><c> of</c>

00:53:08.790 --> 00:53:08.800 align:start position:0%
the universe asked it the question of
 

00:53:08.800 --> 00:53:11.829 align:start position:0%
the universe asked it the question of
where<00:53:09.200><c> exactly</c><00:53:09.680><c> it</c><00:53:10.000><c> was.</c><00:53:11.040><c> When</c><00:53:11.359><c> without</c><00:53:11.680><c> the</c>

00:53:11.829 --> 00:53:11.839 align:start position:0%
where exactly it was. When without the
 

00:53:11.839 --> 00:53:13.910 align:start position:0%
where exactly it was. When without the
scrutiny,<00:53:12.480><c> it</c><00:53:12.640><c> appeared</c><00:53:13.040><c> to</c><00:53:13.200><c> relax</c><00:53:13.599><c> into</c>

00:53:13.910 --> 00:53:13.920 align:start position:0%
scrutiny, it appeared to relax into
 

00:53:13.920 --> 00:53:16.790 align:start position:0%
scrutiny, it appeared to relax into
something<00:53:14.160><c> a</c><00:53:14.480><c> little</c><00:53:14.559><c> more</c><00:53:14.800><c> nebulous.</c>

00:53:16.790 --> 00:53:16.800 align:start position:0%
something a little more nebulous.
 

00:53:16.800 --> 00:53:19.270 align:start position:0%
something a little more nebulous.
Bizarrely<00:53:17.440><c> enough,</c><00:53:18.160><c> this</c><00:53:18.400><c> seems</c><00:53:18.720><c> to</c><00:53:18.880><c> imply</c>

00:53:19.270 --> 00:53:19.280 align:start position:0%
Bizarrely enough, this seems to imply
 

00:53:19.280 --> 00:53:21.990 align:start position:0%
Bizarrely enough, this seems to imply
that<00:53:19.599><c> light</c><00:53:20.160><c> actually</c><00:53:20.640><c> is</c><00:53:20.960><c> more</c><00:53:21.200><c> like</c><00:53:21.440><c> a</c><00:53:21.599><c> wave</c>

00:53:21.990 --> 00:53:22.000 align:start position:0%
that light actually is more like a wave
 

00:53:22.000 --> 00:53:24.950 align:start position:0%
that light actually is more like a wave
of<00:53:22.319><c> probability</c><00:53:23.520><c> rather</c><00:53:23.839><c> than</c><00:53:24.079><c> any</c><00:53:24.400><c> discrete</c>

00:53:24.950 --> 00:53:24.960 align:start position:0%
of probability rather than any discrete
 

00:53:24.960 --> 00:53:27.910 align:start position:0%
of probability rather than any discrete
particle<00:53:25.440><c> or</c><00:53:25.680><c> wave.</c><00:53:26.240><c> Anytime</c><00:53:27.200><c> it</c><00:53:27.440><c> was</c><00:53:27.520><c> asked</c>

00:53:27.910 --> 00:53:27.920 align:start position:0%
particle or wave. Anytime it was asked
 

00:53:27.920 --> 00:53:30.630 align:start position:0%
particle or wave. Anytime it was asked
where<00:53:28.160><c> it</c><00:53:28.400><c> was,</c><00:53:28.960><c> it</c><00:53:29.200><c> confidently</c><00:53:29.839><c> provided</c><00:53:30.319><c> a</c>

00:53:30.630 --> 00:53:30.640 align:start position:0%
where it was, it confidently provided a
 

00:53:30.640 --> 00:53:33.589 align:start position:0%
where it was, it confidently provided a
definitive<00:53:31.200><c> answer.</c><00:53:32.160><c> It</c><00:53:32.559><c> was</c><00:53:32.960><c> at</c><00:53:33.200><c> this</c><00:53:33.440><c> point</c>

00:53:33.589 --> 00:53:33.599 align:start position:0%
definitive answer. It was at this point
 

00:53:33.599 --> 00:53:36.790 align:start position:0%
definitive answer. It was at this point
on<00:53:33.839><c> the</c><00:53:34.000><c> detector.</c><00:53:34.960><c> It</c><00:53:35.280><c> was</c><00:53:35.520><c> not</c><00:53:36.000><c> at</c><00:53:36.319><c> any</c><00:53:36.480><c> other</c>

00:53:36.790 --> 00:53:36.800 align:start position:0%
on the detector. It was not at any other
 

00:53:36.800 --> 00:53:39.589 align:start position:0%
on the detector. It was not at any other
point.<00:53:38.000><c> But</c><00:53:38.240><c> with</c><00:53:38.559><c> no</c><00:53:38.720><c> one</c><00:53:38.880><c> checking</c><00:53:39.280><c> up</c><00:53:39.440><c> on</c>

00:53:39.589 --> 00:53:39.599 align:start position:0%
point. But with no one checking up on
 

00:53:39.599 --> 00:53:41.990 align:start position:0%
point. But with no one checking up on
it,<00:53:40.160><c> light</c><00:53:40.559><c> seems</c><00:53:40.800><c> to</c><00:53:40.960><c> be</c><00:53:41.119><c> traveling</c><00:53:41.440><c> in</c><00:53:41.760><c> all</c>

00:53:41.990 --> 00:53:42.000 align:start position:0%
it, light seems to be traveling in all
 

00:53:42.000 --> 00:53:44.150 align:start position:0%
it, light seems to be traveling in all
directions<00:53:42.400><c> at</c><00:53:42.640><c> once</c><00:53:43.200><c> in</c><00:53:43.440><c> accordance</c><00:53:43.920><c> with</c>

00:53:44.150 --> 00:53:44.160 align:start position:0%
directions at once in accordance with
 

00:53:44.160 --> 00:53:46.790 align:start position:0%
directions at once in accordance with
certain<00:53:44.559><c> probabilities.</c>

00:53:46.790 --> 00:53:46.800 align:start position:0%
certain probabilities.
 

00:53:46.800 --> 00:53:48.710 align:start position:0%
certain probabilities.
If<00:53:47.040><c> you</c><00:53:47.200><c> ran</c><00:53:47.520><c> the</c><00:53:47.760><c> experiment</c><00:53:48.240><c> multiple</c>

00:53:48.710 --> 00:53:48.720 align:start position:0%
If you ran the experiment multiple
 

00:53:48.720 --> 00:53:50.470 align:start position:0%
If you ran the experiment multiple
times,<00:53:49.280><c> you</c><00:53:49.520><c> could</c><00:53:49.680><c> quantify</c><00:53:50.160><c> those</c>

00:53:50.470 --> 00:53:50.480 align:start position:0%
times, you could quantify those
 

00:53:50.480 --> 00:53:52.549 align:start position:0%
times, you could quantify those
probabilities,<00:53:51.440><c> discovering</c><00:53:52.000><c> that</c><00:53:52.240><c> it</c><00:53:52.400><c> was</c>

00:53:52.549 --> 00:53:52.559 align:start position:0%
probabilities, discovering that it was
 

00:53:52.559 --> 00:53:54.390 align:start position:0%
probabilities, discovering that it was
more<00:53:52.800><c> likely</c><00:53:53.040><c> to</c><00:53:53.200><c> be</c><00:53:53.440><c> on</c><00:53:53.599><c> the</c><00:53:53.760><c> bands</c><00:53:54.079><c> of</c><00:53:54.240><c> the</c>

00:53:54.390 --> 00:53:54.400 align:start position:0%
more likely to be on the bands of the
 

00:53:54.400 --> 00:53:56.710 align:start position:0%
more likely to be on the bands of the
interference<00:53:54.960><c> pattern</c><00:53:55.520><c> and</c><00:53:55.839><c> less</c><00:53:56.160><c> likely</c><00:53:56.480><c> to</c>

00:53:56.710 --> 00:53:56.720 align:start position:0%
interference pattern and less likely to
 

00:53:56.720 --> 00:53:59.589 align:start position:0%
interference pattern and less likely to
be<00:53:56.880><c> in</c><00:53:57.119><c> the</c><00:53:57.280><c> gaps.</c><00:53:58.400><c> But</c><00:53:58.640><c> anytime</c><00:53:59.119><c> a</c><00:53:59.359><c> single</c>

00:53:59.589 --> 00:53:59.599 align:start position:0%
be in the gaps. But anytime a single
 

00:53:59.599 --> 00:54:02.309 align:start position:0%
be in the gaps. But anytime a single
photon<00:54:00.000><c> of</c><00:54:00.160><c> light</c><00:54:00.480><c> was</c><00:54:00.720><c> asked,</c><00:54:01.599><c> it</c><00:54:01.839><c> gave</c><00:54:02.079><c> an</c>

00:54:02.309 --> 00:54:02.319 align:start position:0%
photon of light was asked, it gave an
 

00:54:02.319 --> 00:54:05.990 align:start position:0%
photon of light was asked, it gave an
answer<00:54:02.640><c> that</c><00:54:02.880><c> was</c><00:54:03.200><c> 100%</c><00:54:04.160><c> concrete.</c>

00:54:05.990 --> 00:54:06.000 align:start position:0%
answer that was 100% concrete.
 

00:54:06.000 --> 00:54:07.589 align:start position:0%
answer that was 100% concrete.
This<00:54:06.240><c> is</c><00:54:06.480><c> highlighted</c><00:54:06.960><c> through</c><00:54:07.280><c> something</c>

00:54:07.589 --> 00:54:07.599 align:start position:0%
This is highlighted through something
 

00:54:07.599 --> 00:54:11.270 align:start position:0%
This is highlighted through something
known<00:54:07.920><c> as</c><00:54:08.160><c> the</c><00:54:08.480><c> three</c><00:54:08.960><c> polarizer</c><00:54:09.680><c> paradox.</c>

00:54:11.270 --> 00:54:11.280 align:start position:0%
known as the three polarizer paradox.
 

00:54:11.280 --> 00:54:12.950 align:start position:0%
known as the three polarizer paradox.
Consider<00:54:11.680><c> for</c><00:54:11.839><c> a</c><00:54:12.079><c> moment</c><00:54:12.240><c> a</c><00:54:12.559><c> pair</c><00:54:12.720><c> of</c>

00:54:12.950 --> 00:54:12.960 align:start position:0%
Consider for a moment a pair of
 

00:54:12.960 --> 00:54:15.990 align:start position:0%
Consider for a moment a pair of
polarizing<00:54:13.599><c> sunglasses.</c><00:54:14.960><c> Obviously,</c><00:54:15.599><c> these</c>

00:54:15.990 --> 00:54:16.000 align:start position:0%
polarizing sunglasses. Obviously, these
 

00:54:16.000 --> 00:54:17.670 align:start position:0%
polarizing sunglasses. Obviously, these
reduce<00:54:16.319><c> the</c><00:54:16.559><c> amount</c><00:54:16.720><c> of</c><00:54:16.880><c> light</c><00:54:17.040><c> that</c><00:54:17.280><c> can</c><00:54:17.440><c> pass</c>

00:54:17.670 --> 00:54:17.680 align:start position:0%
reduce the amount of light that can pass
 

00:54:17.680 --> 00:54:20.390 align:start position:0%
reduce the amount of light that can pass
through<00:54:17.920><c> them,</c><00:54:18.400><c> usually</c><00:54:18.800><c> by</c><00:54:19.040><c> about</c><00:54:19.359><c> 50%</c>

00:54:20.390 --> 00:54:20.400 align:start position:0%
through them, usually by about 50%
 

00:54:20.400 --> 00:54:22.069 align:start position:0%
through them, usually by about 50%
depending<00:54:20.720><c> on</c><00:54:20.880><c> the</c><00:54:21.040><c> type</c><00:54:21.280><c> of</c><00:54:21.440><c> lens</c><00:54:21.680><c> and</c><00:54:21.920><c> the</c>

00:54:22.069 --> 00:54:22.079 align:start position:0%
depending on the type of lens and the
 

00:54:22.079 --> 00:54:24.710 align:start position:0%
depending on the type of lens and the
wavelength<00:54:22.559><c> of</c><00:54:22.720><c> light.</c><00:54:23.680><c> They</c><00:54:23.920><c> work</c><00:54:24.160><c> by</c><00:54:24.480><c> being</c>

00:54:24.710 --> 00:54:24.720 align:start position:0%
wavelength of light. They work by being
 

00:54:24.720 --> 00:54:27.270 align:start position:0%
wavelength of light. They work by being
formed<00:54:25.040><c> of</c><00:54:25.359><c> thin</c><00:54:25.760><c> chains</c><00:54:26.079><c> of</c><00:54:26.240><c> molecules</c><00:54:26.960><c> that</c>

00:54:27.270 --> 00:54:27.280 align:start position:0%
formed of thin chains of molecules that
 

00:54:27.280 --> 00:54:30.069 align:start position:0%
formed of thin chains of molecules that
run<00:54:27.520><c> lengthways</c><00:54:28.160><c> across</c><00:54:28.480><c> the</c><00:54:28.720><c> lens.</c><00:54:29.760><c> Any</c>

00:54:30.069 --> 00:54:30.079 align:start position:0%
run lengthways across the lens. Any
 

00:54:30.079 --> 00:54:31.750 align:start position:0%
run lengthways across the lens. Any
light<00:54:30.319><c> that</c><00:54:30.559><c> oscillates</c><00:54:31.119><c> in</c><00:54:31.359><c> the</c><00:54:31.520><c> same</c>

00:54:31.750 --> 00:54:31.760 align:start position:0%
light that oscillates in the same
 

00:54:31.760 --> 00:54:34.549 align:start position:0%
light that oscillates in the same
orientation<00:54:32.240><c> as</c><00:54:32.480><c> this</c><00:54:32.720><c> lens</c><00:54:33.119><c> gets</c><00:54:33.359><c> absorbed.</c>

00:54:34.549 --> 00:54:34.559 align:start position:0%
orientation as this lens gets absorbed.
 

00:54:34.559 --> 00:54:36.790 align:start position:0%
orientation as this lens gets absorbed.
Any<00:54:34.880><c> that</c><00:54:35.119><c> is</c><00:54:35.280><c> perpendicular</c><00:54:35.920><c> to</c><00:54:36.079><c> the</c><00:54:36.240><c> chains</c>

00:54:36.790 --> 00:54:36.800 align:start position:0%
Any that is perpendicular to the chains
 

00:54:36.800 --> 00:54:39.589 align:start position:0%
Any that is perpendicular to the chains
can<00:54:37.119><c> pass</c><00:54:37.359><c> through</c><00:54:37.680><c> without</c><00:54:38.079><c> trouble.</c><00:54:39.200><c> The</c>

00:54:39.589 --> 00:54:39.599 align:start position:0%
can pass through without trouble. The
 

00:54:39.599 --> 00:54:41.589 align:start position:0%
can pass through without trouble. The
interesting<00:54:40.079><c> case</c><00:54:40.319><c> occurs</c><00:54:40.800><c> when</c><00:54:41.119><c> a</c><00:54:41.359><c> single</c>

00:54:41.589 --> 00:54:41.599 align:start position:0%
interesting case occurs when a single
 

00:54:41.599 --> 00:54:43.670 align:start position:0%
interesting case occurs when a single
photon<00:54:42.079><c> is</c><00:54:42.240><c> passed</c><00:54:42.559><c> through</c><00:54:42.800><c> an</c><00:54:43.040><c> orientation</c>

00:54:43.670 --> 00:54:43.680 align:start position:0%
photon is passed through an orientation
 

00:54:43.680 --> 00:54:46.309 align:start position:0%
photon is passed through an orientation
that's<00:54:44.079><c> diagonal</c><00:54:44.559><c> to</c><00:54:44.720><c> the</c><00:54:44.880><c> lens.</c><00:54:45.920><c> In</c><00:54:46.160><c> this</c>

00:54:46.309 --> 00:54:46.319 align:start position:0%
that's diagonal to the lens. In this
 

00:54:46.319 --> 00:54:48.710 align:start position:0%
that's diagonal to the lens. In this
case,<00:54:46.880><c> you</c><00:54:47.119><c> don't</c><00:54:47.280><c> get</c><00:54:47.520><c> half</c><00:54:47.760><c> a</c><00:54:48.000><c> photon</c><00:54:48.480><c> going</c>

00:54:48.710 --> 00:54:48.720 align:start position:0%
case, you don't get half a photon going
 

00:54:48.720 --> 00:54:51.109 align:start position:0%
case, you don't get half a photon going
through.<00:54:49.680><c> Apparently,</c><00:54:50.319><c> you</c><00:54:50.559><c> can't</c><00:54:50.800><c> just</c>

00:54:51.109 --> 00:54:51.119 align:start position:0%
through. Apparently, you can't just
 

00:54:51.119 --> 00:54:53.349 align:start position:0%
through. Apparently, you can't just
absorb<00:54:51.599><c> part</c><00:54:51.920><c> of</c><00:54:52.160><c> the</c><00:54:52.319><c> oscillation</c><00:54:52.880><c> that</c><00:54:53.119><c> is</c>

00:54:53.349 --> 00:54:53.359 align:start position:0%
absorb part of the oscillation that is
 

00:54:53.359 --> 00:54:55.190 align:start position:0%
absorb part of the oscillation that is
parallel<00:54:53.760><c> to</c><00:54:53.920><c> the</c><00:54:54.079><c> lines</c><00:54:54.480><c> and</c><00:54:54.720><c> let</c><00:54:54.960><c> through</c>

00:54:55.190 --> 00:54:55.200 align:start position:0%
parallel to the lines and let through
 

00:54:55.200 --> 00:54:57.750 align:start position:0%
parallel to the lines and let through
the<00:54:55.440><c> other</c><00:54:55.599><c> part</c><00:54:55.839><c> that</c><00:54:56.079><c> is</c><00:54:56.240><c> perpendicular.</c>

00:54:57.750 --> 00:54:57.760 align:start position:0%
the other part that is perpendicular.
 

00:54:57.760 --> 00:55:00.309 align:start position:0%
the other part that is perpendicular.
Instead,<00:54:58.240><c> the</c><00:54:58.400><c> photon</c><00:54:59.040><c> snaps</c><00:54:59.760><c> into</c><00:55:00.079><c> either</c>

00:55:00.309 --> 00:55:00.319 align:start position:0%
Instead, the photon snaps into either
 

00:55:00.319 --> 00:55:03.109 align:start position:0%
Instead, the photon snaps into either
the<00:55:00.559><c> one</c><00:55:00.800><c> orientation</c><00:55:01.599><c> or</c><00:55:01.839><c> the</c><00:55:02.079><c> other.</c><00:55:02.880><c> It</c>

00:55:03.109 --> 00:55:03.119 align:start position:0%
the one orientation or the other. It
 

00:55:03.119 --> 00:55:05.750 align:start position:0%
the one orientation or the other. It
either<00:55:03.440><c> is</c><00:55:03.760><c> completely</c><00:55:04.240><c> absorbed</c><00:55:04.960><c> or</c><00:55:05.280><c> passes</c>

00:55:05.750 --> 00:55:05.760 align:start position:0%
either is completely absorbed or passes
 

00:55:05.760 --> 00:55:08.309 align:start position:0%
either is completely absorbed or passes
through<00:55:06.079><c> entirely.</c><00:55:07.119><c> but</c><00:55:07.359><c> now</c><00:55:07.599><c> with</c><00:55:07.839><c> a</c><00:55:08.000><c> new</c>

00:55:08.309 --> 00:55:08.319 align:start position:0%
through entirely. but now with a new
 

00:55:08.319 --> 00:55:10.950 align:start position:0%
through entirely. but now with a new
perpendicular<00:55:09.280><c> polarization</c><00:55:10.240><c> to</c><00:55:10.480><c> match</c><00:55:10.720><c> what</c>

00:55:10.950 --> 00:55:10.960 align:start position:0%
perpendicular polarization to match what
 

00:55:10.960 --> 00:55:13.030 align:start position:0%
perpendicular polarization to match what
it<00:55:11.200><c> would</c><00:55:11.359><c> have</c><00:55:11.520><c> to</c><00:55:11.680><c> have</c><00:55:11.920><c> had</c><00:55:12.480><c> to</c><00:55:12.640><c> have</c><00:55:12.880><c> been</c>

00:55:13.030 --> 00:55:13.040 align:start position:0%
it would have to have had to have been
 

00:55:13.040 --> 00:55:15.990 align:start position:0%
it would have to have had to have been
able<00:55:13.200><c> to</c><00:55:13.359><c> pass</c><00:55:13.599><c> through</c><00:55:13.920><c> easily.</c>

00:55:15.990 --> 00:55:16.000 align:start position:0%
able to pass through easily.
 

00:55:16.000 --> 00:55:18.069 align:start position:0%
able to pass through easily.
How<00:55:16.160><c> do</c><00:55:16.319><c> we</c><00:55:16.480><c> know</c><00:55:16.720><c> that</c><00:55:16.960><c> the</c><00:55:17.119><c> photon</c><00:55:17.680><c> wasn't</c>

00:55:18.069 --> 00:55:18.079 align:start position:0%
How do we know that the photon wasn't
 

00:55:18.079 --> 00:55:21.270 align:start position:0%
How do we know that the photon wasn't
this<00:55:18.400><c> orientation</c><00:55:19.119><c> all</c><00:55:19.359><c> along?</c><00:55:20.559><c> Because</c><00:55:20.960><c> of</c>

00:55:21.270 --> 00:55:21.280 align:start position:0%
this orientation all along? Because of
 

00:55:21.280 --> 00:55:23.270 align:start position:0%
this orientation all along? Because of
what<00:55:21.520><c> happens</c><00:55:21.920><c> when</c><00:55:22.160><c> you</c><00:55:22.319><c> start</c><00:55:22.640><c> adding</c><00:55:22.960><c> more</c>

00:55:23.270 --> 00:55:23.280 align:start position:0%
what happens when you start adding more
 

00:55:23.280 --> 00:55:25.109 align:start position:0%
what happens when you start adding more
lenses

00:55:25.109 --> 00:55:25.119 align:start position:0%
lenses
 

00:55:25.119 --> 00:55:27.270 align:start position:0%
lenses
when<00:55:25.359><c> you</c><00:55:25.599><c> place</c><00:55:25.839><c> a</c><00:55:26.079><c> second</c><00:55:26.400><c> lens</c><00:55:26.720><c> behind</c><00:55:27.040><c> the</c>

00:55:27.270 --> 00:55:27.280 align:start position:0%
when you place a second lens behind the
 

00:55:27.280 --> 00:55:29.109 align:start position:0%
when you place a second lens behind the
first,<00:55:27.839><c> you</c><00:55:28.079><c> can</c><00:55:28.160><c> block</c><00:55:28.480><c> out</c><00:55:28.640><c> the</c><00:55:28.880><c> light</c>

00:55:29.109 --> 00:55:29.119 align:start position:0%
first, you can block out the light
 

00:55:29.119 --> 00:55:31.670 align:start position:0%
first, you can block out the light
entirely,<00:55:30.079><c> provided</c><00:55:30.480><c> the</c><00:55:30.720><c> two</c><00:55:30.960><c> polarizations</c>

00:55:31.670 --> 00:55:31.680 align:start position:0%
entirely, provided the two polarizations
 

00:55:31.680 --> 00:55:34.150 align:start position:0%
entirely, provided the two polarizations
are<00:55:31.920><c> perpendicular</c><00:55:32.640><c> to</c><00:55:32.880><c> each</c><00:55:33.040><c> other.</c><00:55:33.920><c> Let's</c>

00:55:34.150 --> 00:55:34.160 align:start position:0%
are perpendicular to each other. Let's
 

00:55:34.160 --> 00:55:36.549 align:start position:0%
are perpendicular to each other. Let's
say<00:55:34.400><c> we</c><00:55:34.640><c> rotate</c><00:55:35.040><c> the</c><00:55:35.280><c> second</c><00:55:35.520><c> lens</c><00:55:35.839><c> 90°</c>

00:55:36.549 --> 00:55:36.559 align:start position:0%
say we rotate the second lens 90°
 

00:55:36.559 --> 00:55:38.710 align:start position:0%
say we rotate the second lens 90°
compared<00:55:36.880><c> to</c><00:55:37.040><c> the</c><00:55:37.200><c> first</c><00:55:37.440><c> one.</c><00:55:38.240><c> Any</c><00:55:38.559><c> light</c>

00:55:38.710 --> 00:55:38.720 align:start position:0%
compared to the first one. Any light
 

00:55:38.720 --> 00:55:40.870 align:start position:0%
compared to the first one. Any light
that<00:55:38.960><c> gets</c><00:55:39.200><c> through</c><00:55:39.440><c> the</c><00:55:39.680><c> first</c><00:55:39.920><c> lens</c><00:55:40.319><c> has</c><00:55:40.559><c> a</c>

00:55:40.870 --> 00:55:40.880 align:start position:0%
that gets through the first lens has a
 

00:55:40.880 --> 00:55:43.430 align:start position:0%
that gets through the first lens has a
0%<00:55:41.599><c> chance</c><00:55:41.839><c> of</c><00:55:42.079><c> getting</c><00:55:42.319><c> through</c><00:55:42.559><c> the</c><00:55:42.800><c> second,</c>

00:55:43.430 --> 00:55:43.440 align:start position:0%
0% chance of getting through the second,
 

00:55:43.440 --> 00:55:45.190 align:start position:0%
0% chance of getting through the second,
like<00:55:43.680><c> trying</c><00:55:44.000><c> to</c><00:55:44.160><c> post</c><00:55:44.400><c> a</c><00:55:44.640><c> letter</c><00:55:44.880><c> through</c><00:55:45.040><c> a</c>

00:55:45.190 --> 00:55:45.200 align:start position:0%
like trying to post a letter through a
 

00:55:45.200 --> 00:55:49.030 align:start position:0%
like trying to post a letter through a
chainl<00:55:45.760><c> fence.</c><00:55:47.040><c> As</c><00:55:47.200><c> a</c><00:55:47.440><c> result,</c><00:55:48.079><c> we</c><00:55:48.400><c> see</c><00:55:48.640><c> only</c>

00:55:49.030 --> 00:55:49.040 align:start position:0%
chainl fence. As a result, we see only
 

00:55:49.040 --> 00:55:53.270 align:start position:0%
chainl fence. As a result, we see only
black.<00:55:50.480><c> But</c><00:55:51.040><c> add</c><00:55:51.359><c> a</c><00:55:51.599><c> third</c><00:55:51.839><c> lens</c><00:55:52.559><c> and</c><00:55:52.880><c> place</c><00:55:53.040><c> it</c>

00:55:53.270 --> 00:55:53.280 align:start position:0%
black. But add a third lens and place it
 

00:55:53.280 --> 00:55:56.710 align:start position:0%
black. But add a third lens and place it
at<00:55:53.440><c> a</c><00:55:53.680><c> 45°</c><00:55:54.559><c> angle</c><00:55:54.960><c> between</c><00:55:55.280><c> the</c><00:55:55.520><c> other</c><00:55:55.760><c> two.</c>

00:55:56.710 --> 00:55:56.720 align:start position:0%
at a 45° angle between the other two.
 

00:55:56.720 --> 00:55:59.109 align:start position:0%
at a 45° angle between the other two.
And<00:55:56.880><c> bizarrely,</c><00:55:57.839><c> light</c><00:55:58.240><c> starts</c><00:55:58.640><c> making</c><00:55:58.880><c> it</c>

00:55:59.109 --> 00:55:59.119 align:start position:0%
And bizarrely, light starts making it
 

00:55:59.119 --> 00:56:02.390 align:start position:0%
And bizarrely, light starts making it
through<00:55:59.599><c> all</c><00:55:59.920><c> three</c><00:56:00.240><c> lenses.</c><00:56:00.799><c> Again,</c>

00:56:02.390 --> 00:56:02.400 align:start position:0%
through all three lenses. Again,
 

00:56:02.400 --> 00:56:05.030 align:start position:0%
through all three lenses. Again,
this<00:56:02.720><c> may</c><00:56:02.960><c> seem</c><00:56:03.280><c> counterintuitive.</c><00:56:04.640><c> How</c><00:56:04.880><c> does</c>

00:56:05.030 --> 00:56:05.040 align:start position:0%
this may seem counterintuitive. How does
 

00:56:05.040 --> 00:56:07.670 align:start position:0%
this may seem counterintuitive. How does
adding<00:56:05.440><c> more</c><00:56:05.839><c> blockages</c><00:56:07.040><c> increase</c><00:56:07.440><c> the</c>

00:56:07.670 --> 00:56:07.680 align:start position:0%
adding more blockages increase the
 

00:56:07.680 --> 00:56:10.230 align:start position:0%
adding more blockages increase the
amount<00:56:07.920><c> of</c><00:56:08.079><c> light</c><00:56:08.400><c> that</c><00:56:08.640><c> makes</c><00:56:08.880><c> it</c><00:56:09.040><c> through?</c>

00:56:10.230 --> 00:56:10.240 align:start position:0%
amount of light that makes it through?
 

00:56:10.240 --> 00:56:12.309 align:start position:0%
amount of light that makes it through?
But<00:56:10.480><c> this</c><00:56:10.799><c> result</c><00:56:11.200><c> actually</c><00:56:11.520><c> rules</c><00:56:11.920><c> out</c><00:56:12.079><c> the</c>

00:56:12.309 --> 00:56:12.319 align:start position:0%
But this result actually rules out the
 

00:56:12.319 --> 00:56:14.309 align:start position:0%
But this result actually rules out the
possibility<00:56:12.799><c> that</c><00:56:13.040><c> the</c><00:56:13.280><c> light</c><00:56:13.520><c> has</c><00:56:13.760><c> a</c><00:56:14.000><c> fixed</c>

00:56:14.309 --> 00:56:14.319 align:start position:0%
possibility that the light has a fixed
 

00:56:14.319 --> 00:56:17.270 align:start position:0%
possibility that the light has a fixed
orientation.<00:56:15.680><c> It</c><00:56:16.000><c> must</c><00:56:16.319><c> be</c><00:56:16.559><c> snapping</c><00:56:16.960><c> into</c>

00:56:17.270 --> 00:56:17.280 align:start position:0%
orientation. It must be snapping into
 

00:56:17.280 --> 00:56:19.829 align:start position:0%
orientation. It must be snapping into
focus<00:56:17.680><c> at</c><00:56:17.920><c> each</c><00:56:18.160><c> new</c><00:56:18.400><c> lens,</c><00:56:19.200><c> rolling</c><00:56:19.599><c> a</c>

00:56:19.829 --> 00:56:19.839 align:start position:0%
focus at each new lens, rolling a
 

00:56:19.839 --> 00:56:22.069 align:start position:0%
focus at each new lens, rolling a
quantum<00:56:20.240><c> dice</c><00:56:20.640><c> each</c><00:56:20.880><c> time</c><00:56:21.280><c> to</c><00:56:21.520><c> see</c><00:56:21.599><c> if</c><00:56:21.760><c> it</c><00:56:21.920><c> was</c>

00:56:22.069 --> 00:56:22.079 align:start position:0%
quantum dice each time to see if it was
 

00:56:22.079 --> 00:56:25.430 align:start position:0%
quantum dice each time to see if it was
the<00:56:22.240><c> right</c><00:56:22.480><c> orientation</c><00:56:23.119><c> all</c><00:56:23.359><c> along</c><00:56:24.000><c> or</c><00:56:24.319><c> not.</c>

00:56:25.430 --> 00:56:25.440 align:start position:0%
the right orientation all along or not.
 

00:56:25.440 --> 00:56:27.670 align:start position:0%
the right orientation all along or not.
if<00:56:25.680><c> it</c><00:56:25.839><c> makes</c><00:56:26.000><c> it</c><00:56:26.160><c> through</c><00:56:26.319><c> the</c><00:56:26.559><c> first</c><00:56:26.720><c> lens,</c><00:56:27.359><c> a</c>

00:56:27.670 --> 00:56:27.680 align:start position:0%
if it makes it through the first lens, a
 

00:56:27.680 --> 00:56:30.710 align:start position:0%
if it makes it through the first lens, a
50%<00:56:28.319><c> chance</c><00:56:28.960><c> it</c><00:56:29.200><c> only</c><00:56:29.440><c> did</c><00:56:29.680><c> so</c><00:56:29.920><c> because</c><00:56:30.240><c> it</c><00:56:30.480><c> was</c>

00:56:30.710 --> 00:56:30.720 align:start position:0%
50% chance it only did so because it was
 

00:56:30.720 --> 00:56:33.270 align:start position:0%
50% chance it only did so because it was
oriented<00:56:31.520><c> perfectly</c><00:56:32.079><c> perpendicular</c><00:56:32.880><c> to</c><00:56:33.119><c> the</c>

00:56:33.270 --> 00:56:33.280 align:start position:0%
oriented perfectly perpendicular to the
 

00:56:33.280 --> 00:56:35.349 align:start position:0%
oriented perfectly perpendicular to the
lens's<00:56:33.760><c> polarization,</c>

00:56:35.349 --> 00:56:35.359 align:start position:0%
lens's polarization,
 

00:56:35.359 --> 00:56:37.750 align:start position:0%
lens's polarization,
which<00:56:35.599><c> means</c><00:56:35.920><c> once</c><00:56:36.160><c> it</c><00:56:36.400><c> reaches</c><00:56:36.720><c> the</c><00:56:36.960><c> second,</c>

00:56:37.750 --> 00:56:37.760 align:start position:0%
which means once it reaches the second,
 

00:56:37.760 --> 00:56:39.829 align:start position:0%
which means once it reaches the second,
it's<00:56:38.000><c> coming</c><00:56:38.240><c> at</c><00:56:38.480><c> it</c><00:56:38.640><c> from</c><00:56:38.880><c> a</c><00:56:39.040><c> polarization</c>

00:56:39.829 --> 00:56:39.839 align:start position:0%
it's coming at it from a polarization
 

00:56:39.839 --> 00:56:42.390 align:start position:0%
it's coming at it from a polarization
that's<00:56:40.240><c> diagonal.</c><00:56:41.280><c> So</c><00:56:41.520><c> once</c><00:56:41.760><c> again,</c><00:56:42.160><c> there's</c>

00:56:42.390 --> 00:56:42.400 align:start position:0%
that's diagonal. So once again, there's
 

00:56:42.400 --> 00:56:45.430 align:start position:0%
that's diagonal. So once again, there's
a<00:56:42.640><c> 50/50</c><00:56:43.440><c> chance</c><00:56:43.680><c> that</c><00:56:44.000><c> it</c><00:56:44.160><c> makes</c><00:56:44.319><c> it</c><00:56:44.559><c> through.</c>

00:56:45.430 --> 00:56:45.440 align:start position:0%
a 50/50 chance that it makes it through.
 

00:56:45.440 --> 00:56:47.910 align:start position:0%
a 50/50 chance that it makes it through.
It<00:56:45.680><c> rolls</c><00:56:45.920><c> a</c><00:56:46.160><c> quantum</c><00:56:46.480><c> dice</c><00:56:46.799><c> again</c><00:56:47.359><c> and</c><00:56:47.599><c> once</c>

00:56:47.910 --> 00:56:47.920 align:start position:0%
It rolls a quantum dice again and once
 

00:56:47.920 --> 00:56:51.109 align:start position:0%
It rolls a quantum dice again and once
again<00:56:48.240><c> has</c><00:56:48.480><c> a</c><00:56:48.720><c> 50/50</c><00:56:49.440><c> chance</c><00:56:49.680><c> of</c><00:56:49.920><c> proceeding.</c>

00:56:51.109 --> 00:56:51.119 align:start position:0%
again has a 50/50 chance of proceeding.
 

00:56:51.119 --> 00:56:53.270 align:start position:0%
again has a 50/50 chance of proceeding.
If<00:56:51.359><c> it</c><00:56:51.520><c> gets</c><00:56:51.680><c> through</c><00:56:51.920><c> this</c><00:56:52.160><c> hurdle</c><00:56:52.640><c> too,</c><00:56:53.119><c> then</c>

00:56:53.270 --> 00:56:53.280 align:start position:0%
If it gets through this hurdle too, then
 

00:56:53.280 --> 00:56:56.069 align:start position:0%
If it gets through this hurdle too, then
it<00:56:53.520><c> again</c><00:56:53.839><c> snaps</c><00:56:54.240><c> to</c><00:56:54.400><c> the</c><00:56:54.559><c> new</c><00:56:54.720><c> orientation</c><00:56:55.839><c> as</c>

00:56:56.069 --> 00:56:56.079 align:start position:0%
it again snaps to the new orientation as
 

00:56:56.079 --> 00:56:58.309 align:start position:0%
it again snaps to the new orientation as
if<00:56:56.319><c> it</c><00:56:56.559><c> were</c><00:56:56.720><c> that</c><00:56:57.040><c> new</c><00:56:57.280><c> orientation</c><00:56:58.079><c> all</c>

00:56:58.309 --> 00:56:58.319 align:start position:0%
if it were that new orientation all
 

00:56:58.319 --> 00:57:01.670 align:start position:0%
if it were that new orientation all
along,<00:56:59.200><c> which</c><00:56:59.520><c> it</c><00:56:59.839><c> obviously</c><00:57:00.319><c> wasn't.</c><00:57:01.520><c> Which</c>

00:57:01.670 --> 00:57:01.680 align:start position:0%
along, which it obviously wasn't. Which
 

00:57:01.680 --> 00:57:04.230 align:start position:0%
along, which it obviously wasn't. Which
means<00:57:02.319><c> that</c><00:57:02.640><c> now</c><00:57:02.880><c> it's</c><00:57:03.200><c> polarized</c><00:57:03.680><c> diagonally</c>

00:57:04.230 --> 00:57:04.240 align:start position:0%
means that now it's polarized diagonally
 

00:57:04.240 --> 00:57:06.390 align:start position:0%
means that now it's polarized diagonally
relative<00:57:04.640><c> to</c><00:57:04.799><c> the</c><00:57:04.960><c> third</c><00:57:05.200><c> lens,</c><00:57:06.000><c> meaning</c><00:57:06.240><c> that</c>

00:57:06.390 --> 00:57:06.400 align:start position:0%
relative to the third lens, meaning that
 

00:57:06.400 --> 00:57:09.030 align:start position:0%
relative to the third lens, meaning that
it<00:57:06.640><c> now</c><00:57:06.799><c> has</c><00:57:06.960><c> a</c><00:57:07.200><c> final</c><00:57:07.599><c> 50%</c><00:57:08.319><c> chance</c><00:57:08.559><c> of</c><00:57:08.720><c> getting</c>

00:57:09.030 --> 00:57:09.040 align:start position:0%
it now has a final 50% chance of getting
 

00:57:09.040 --> 00:57:12.150 align:start position:0%
it now has a final 50% chance of getting
through.<00:57:10.240><c> Of</c><00:57:10.480><c> course,</c><00:57:10.960><c> some</c><00:57:11.200><c> photons</c><00:57:11.680><c> do</c><00:57:11.920><c> not</c>

00:57:12.150 --> 00:57:12.160 align:start position:0%
through. Of course, some photons do not
 

00:57:12.160 --> 00:57:13.750 align:start position:0%
through. Of course, some photons do not
make<00:57:12.319><c> it</c><00:57:12.480><c> through</c><00:57:12.720><c> all</c><00:57:13.040><c> three</c><00:57:13.280><c> of</c><00:57:13.440><c> these</c>

00:57:13.750 --> 00:57:13.760 align:start position:0%
make it through all three of these
 

00:57:13.760 --> 00:57:16.150 align:start position:0%
make it through all three of these
probabilistic<00:57:14.480><c> gauntlets.</c><00:57:15.520><c> Only</c><00:57:15.839><c> about</c>

00:57:16.150 --> 00:57:16.160 align:start position:0%
probabilistic gauntlets. Only about
 

00:57:16.160 --> 00:57:19.510 align:start position:0%
probabilistic gauntlets. Only about
12.5%<00:57:17.200><c> of</c><00:57:17.359><c> them</c><00:57:17.599><c> make</c><00:57:17.760><c> it.</c><00:57:18.640><c> But</c><00:57:18.880><c> that's</c><00:57:19.280><c> more</c>

00:57:19.510 --> 00:57:19.520 align:start position:0%
12.5% of them make it. But that's more
 

00:57:19.520 --> 00:57:21.910 align:start position:0%
12.5% of them make it. But that's more
than<00:57:19.760><c> 0%</c><00:57:20.799><c> which</c><00:57:21.040><c> is</c><00:57:21.200><c> what</c><00:57:21.440><c> was</c><00:57:21.599><c> happening</c>

00:57:21.910 --> 00:57:21.920 align:start position:0%
than 0% which is what was happening
 

00:57:21.920 --> 00:57:25.510 align:start position:0%
than 0% which is what was happening
previously<00:57:22.400><c> when</c><00:57:22.640><c> you</c><00:57:22.799><c> only</c><00:57:23.040><c> had</c><00:57:23.359><c> two</c><00:57:23.599><c> lenses.</c>

00:57:25.510 --> 00:57:25.520 align:start position:0%
previously when you only had two lenses.
 

00:57:25.520 --> 00:57:27.750 align:start position:0%
previously when you only had two lenses.
Light<00:57:25.920><c> likes</c><00:57:26.319><c> to</c><00:57:26.480><c> behave</c><00:57:26.880><c> in</c><00:57:27.200><c> discrete</c>

00:57:27.750 --> 00:57:27.760 align:start position:0%
Light likes to behave in discrete
 

00:57:27.760 --> 00:57:31.510 align:start position:0%
Light likes to behave in discrete
quantities.<00:57:28.960><c> It</c><00:57:29.200><c> is</c><00:57:29.359><c> quantum.</c><00:57:30.559><c> It</c><00:57:30.880><c> seemingly</c>

00:57:31.510 --> 00:57:31.520 align:start position:0%
quantities. It is quantum. It seemingly
 

00:57:31.520 --> 00:57:34.549 align:start position:0%
quantities. It is quantum. It seemingly
snaps<00:57:31.920><c> to</c><00:57:32.079><c> a</c><00:57:32.240><c> discrete</c><00:57:32.799><c> value</c><00:57:33.119><c> when</c><00:57:33.440><c> observed.</c>

00:57:34.549 --> 00:57:34.559 align:start position:0%
snaps to a discrete value when observed.
 

00:57:34.559 --> 00:57:37.829 align:start position:0%
snaps to a discrete value when observed.
And<00:57:34.880><c> honestly,</c><00:57:35.599><c> we</c><00:57:36.000><c> don't</c><00:57:36.240><c> really</c><00:57:36.480><c> know</c><00:57:36.720><c> why.</c>

00:57:37.829 --> 00:57:37.839 align:start position:0%
And honestly, we don't really know why.
 

00:57:37.839 --> 00:57:40.069 align:start position:0%
And honestly, we don't really know why.
If<00:57:38.079><c> you</c><00:57:38.240><c> think</c><00:57:38.400><c> about</c><00:57:38.559><c> a</c><00:57:38.799><c> wave,</c><00:57:39.359><c> there</c><00:57:39.599><c> is</c><00:57:39.760><c> no</c>

00:57:40.069 --> 00:57:40.079 align:start position:0%
If you think about a wave, there is no
 

00:57:40.079 --> 00:57:42.470 align:start position:0%
If you think about a wave, there is no
reason<00:57:40.559><c> why</c><00:57:40.880><c> you</c><00:57:41.119><c> couldn't</c><00:57:41.440><c> simply</c><00:57:41.920><c> have</c><00:57:42.160><c> half</c>

00:57:42.470 --> 00:57:42.480 align:start position:0%
reason why you couldn't simply have half
 

00:57:42.480 --> 00:57:45.270 align:start position:0%
reason why you couldn't simply have half
a<00:57:42.720><c> wave.</c><00:57:43.680><c> You</c><00:57:43.920><c> could</c><00:57:44.079><c> half</c><00:57:44.319><c> it</c><00:57:44.640><c> again</c><00:57:44.960><c> and</c>

00:57:45.270 --> 00:57:45.280 align:start position:0%
a wave. You could half it again and
 

00:57:45.280 --> 00:57:47.510 align:start position:0%
a wave. You could half it again and
again<00:57:45.760><c> an</c><00:57:46.000><c> infinite</c><00:57:46.480><c> number</c><00:57:46.640><c> of</c><00:57:46.880><c> times</c><00:57:47.280><c> and</c>

00:57:47.510 --> 00:57:47.520 align:start position:0%
again an infinite number of times and
 

00:57:47.520 --> 00:57:48.950 align:start position:0%
again an infinite number of times and
still<00:57:47.760><c> have</c><00:57:47.920><c> an</c><00:57:48.160><c> answer</c><00:57:48.400><c> that</c><00:57:48.720><c> makes</c>

00:57:48.950 --> 00:57:48.960 align:start position:0%
still have an answer that makes
 

00:57:48.960 --> 00:57:51.990 align:start position:0%
still have an answer that makes
mathematical<00:57:49.680><c> sense.</c><00:57:50.799><c> And</c><00:57:50.960><c> yet</c><00:57:51.599><c> it</c><00:57:51.839><c> seems</c>

00:57:51.990 --> 00:57:52.000 align:start position:0%
mathematical sense. And yet it seems
 

00:57:52.000 --> 00:57:54.950 align:start position:0%
mathematical sense. And yet it seems
that<00:57:52.319><c> down</c><00:57:52.640><c> on</c><00:57:52.880><c> a</c><00:57:53.040><c> low</c><00:57:53.359><c> enough</c><00:57:53.760><c> quantum</c><00:57:54.240><c> scale,</c>

00:57:54.950 --> 00:57:54.960 align:start position:0%
that down on a low enough quantum scale,
 

00:57:54.960 --> 00:57:57.030 align:start position:0%
that down on a low enough quantum scale,
you<00:57:55.200><c> can't</c><00:57:55.440><c> half</c><00:57:55.760><c> light</c><00:57:56.160><c> past</c><00:57:56.480><c> a</c><00:57:56.720><c> certain</c>

00:57:57.030 --> 00:57:57.040 align:start position:0%
you can't half light past a certain
 

00:57:57.040 --> 00:58:00.230 align:start position:0%
you can't half light past a certain
point.<00:57:57.839><c> You</c><00:57:58.079><c> can't</c><00:57:58.400><c> have</c><00:57:58.640><c> half</c><00:57:58.880><c> a</c><00:57:59.040><c> photon</c><00:57:59.920><c> or</c>

00:58:00.230 --> 00:58:00.240 align:start position:0%
point. You can't have half a photon or
 

00:58:00.240 --> 00:58:03.109 align:start position:0%
point. You can't have half a photon or
even<00:58:00.720><c> one</c><00:58:00.960><c> and</c><00:58:01.040><c> a</c><00:58:01.119><c> half</c><00:58:01.359><c> photons.</c>

00:58:03.109 --> 00:58:03.119 align:start position:0%
even one and a half photons.
 

00:58:03.119 --> 00:58:05.270 align:start position:0%
even one and a half photons.
And<00:58:03.359><c> if</c><00:58:03.520><c> you</c><00:58:03.680><c> try</c><00:58:03.839><c> to</c><00:58:04.079><c> do</c><00:58:04.240><c> so,</c><00:58:04.559><c> the</c><00:58:04.799><c> photon</c>

00:58:05.270 --> 00:58:05.280 align:start position:0%
And if you try to do so, the photon
 

00:58:05.280 --> 00:58:07.910 align:start position:0%
And if you try to do so, the photon
instead<00:58:05.839><c> snaps</c><00:58:06.240><c> to</c><00:58:06.559><c> one</c><00:58:07.119><c> or</c><00:58:07.359><c> the</c><00:58:07.599><c> other</c>

00:58:07.910 --> 00:58:07.920 align:start position:0%
instead snaps to one or the other
 

00:58:07.920 --> 00:58:10.950 align:start position:0%
instead snaps to one or the other
nearest<00:58:08.400><c> integer</c><00:58:09.200><c> based</c><00:58:09.520><c> on</c><00:58:09.760><c> probabilities,</c>

00:58:10.950 --> 00:58:10.960 align:start position:0%
nearest integer based on probabilities,
 

00:58:10.960 --> 00:58:14.470 align:start position:0%
nearest integer based on probabilities,
but<00:58:11.520><c> only</c><00:58:12.000><c> when</c><00:58:12.319><c> it's</c><00:58:12.480><c> asked.</c><00:58:13.760><c> Otherwise,</c>

00:58:14.470 --> 00:58:14.480 align:start position:0%
but only when it's asked. Otherwise,
 

00:58:14.480 --> 00:58:16.309 align:start position:0%
but only when it's asked. Otherwise,
it's<00:58:14.799><c> quite</c><00:58:15.040><c> content</c><00:58:15.520><c> to</c><00:58:15.839><c> exist</c>

00:58:16.309 --> 00:58:16.319 align:start position:0%
it's quite content to exist
 

00:58:16.319 --> 00:58:18.549 align:start position:0%
it's quite content to exist
probabilistically,<00:58:17.760><c> interfering</c><00:58:18.400><c> with</c>

00:58:18.549 --> 00:58:18.559 align:start position:0%
probabilistically, interfering with
 

00:58:18.559 --> 00:58:21.030 align:start position:0%
probabilistically, interfering with
itself<00:58:18.960><c> like</c><00:58:19.200><c> a</c><00:58:19.359><c> wave</c><00:58:19.599><c> as</c><00:58:19.839><c> it</c><00:58:20.000><c> travels</c><00:58:20.319><c> along</c>

00:58:21.030 --> 00:58:21.040 align:start position:0%
itself like a wave as it travels along
 

00:58:21.040 --> 00:58:23.349 align:start position:0%
itself like a wave as it travels along
before<00:58:21.440><c> jumping</c><00:58:21.760><c> to</c><00:58:21.920><c> an</c><00:58:22.160><c> answer</c><00:58:22.559><c> when</c><00:58:22.960><c> later</c>

00:58:23.349 --> 00:58:23.359 align:start position:0%
before jumping to an answer when later
 

00:58:23.359 --> 00:58:26.789 align:start position:0%
before jumping to an answer when later
asked<00:58:23.839><c> exactly</c><00:58:24.319><c> where</c><00:58:24.480><c> it</c><00:58:24.720><c> is.</c><00:58:26.079><c> What</c><00:58:26.400><c> is</c><00:58:26.559><c> going</c>

00:58:26.789 --> 00:58:26.799 align:start position:0%
asked exactly where it is. What is going
 

00:58:26.799 --> 00:58:29.829 align:start position:0%
asked exactly where it is. What is going
on<00:58:27.040><c> here?</c><00:58:28.160><c> This</c><00:58:28.559><c> is</c><00:58:28.799><c> still</c><00:58:29.040><c> being</c><00:58:29.280><c> theorized</c>

00:58:29.829 --> 00:58:29.839 align:start position:0%
on here? This is still being theorized
 

00:58:29.839 --> 00:58:32.630 align:start position:0%
on here? This is still being theorized
about.<00:58:30.880><c> The</c><00:58:31.200><c> closest</c><00:58:31.680><c> comparison</c><00:58:32.079><c> we</c><00:58:32.319><c> have</c><00:58:32.480><c> to</c>

00:58:32.630 --> 00:58:32.640 align:start position:0%
about. The closest comparison we have to
 

00:58:32.640 --> 00:58:35.430 align:start position:0%
about. The closest comparison we have to
it<00:58:32.880><c> is</c><00:58:33.200><c> something</c><00:58:33.440><c> known</c><00:58:33.760><c> as</c><00:58:34.000><c> harmonics</c><00:58:35.119><c> where</c>

00:58:35.430 --> 00:58:35.440 align:start position:0%
it is something known as harmonics where
 

00:58:35.440 --> 00:58:37.750 align:start position:0%
it is something known as harmonics where
on<00:58:35.599><c> a</c><00:58:35.839><c> bounded</c><00:58:36.319><c> string</c><00:58:36.880><c> only</c><00:58:37.200><c> a</c><00:58:37.440><c> certain</c>

00:58:37.750 --> 00:58:37.760 align:start position:0%
on a bounded string only a certain
 

00:58:37.760 --> 00:58:40.230 align:start position:0%
on a bounded string only a certain
number<00:58:37.920><c> of</c><00:58:38.079><c> waves</c><00:58:38.480><c> can</c><00:58:38.720><c> exist.</c><00:58:39.520><c> On</c><00:58:39.760><c> a</c><00:58:39.920><c> guitar</c>

00:58:40.230 --> 00:58:40.240 align:start position:0%
number of waves can exist. On a guitar
 

00:58:40.240 --> 00:58:42.390 align:start position:0%
number of waves can exist. On a guitar
string<00:58:40.480><c> you</c><00:58:40.720><c> can</c><00:58:40.799><c> have</c><00:58:40.960><c> one</c><00:58:41.200><c> wave</c><00:58:41.520><c> or</c><00:58:41.839><c> two</c><00:58:42.079><c> or</c>

00:58:42.390 --> 00:58:42.400 align:start position:0%
string you can have one wave or two or
 

00:58:42.400 --> 00:58:44.950 align:start position:0%
string you can have one wave or two or
more<00:58:43.040><c> but</c><00:58:43.280><c> never</c><00:58:43.520><c> a</c><00:58:43.760><c> number</c><00:58:44.079><c> that</c><00:58:44.319><c> isn't</c><00:58:44.720><c> a</c>

00:58:44.950 --> 00:58:44.960 align:start position:0%
more but never a number that isn't a
 

00:58:44.960 --> 00:58:47.670 align:start position:0%
more but never a number that isn't a
whole<00:58:45.200><c> number.</c><00:58:46.319><c> It</c><00:58:46.559><c> seems</c><00:58:46.799><c> that</c><00:58:47.040><c> light</c><00:58:47.440><c> works</c>

00:58:47.670 --> 00:58:47.680 align:start position:0%
whole number. It seems that light works
 

00:58:47.680 --> 00:58:50.150 align:start position:0%
whole number. It seems that light works
in<00:58:47.839><c> the</c><00:58:48.079><c> same</c><00:58:48.240><c> way.</c><00:58:49.280><c> Perhaps</c><00:58:49.760><c> something</c>

00:58:50.150 --> 00:58:50.160 align:start position:0%
in the same way. Perhaps something
 

00:58:50.160 --> 00:58:51.990 align:start position:0%
in the same way. Perhaps something
pinches<00:58:50.559><c> the</c><00:58:50.880><c> beginnings</c><00:58:51.280><c> and</c><00:58:51.520><c> the</c><00:58:51.680><c> end</c><00:58:51.839><c> of</c>

00:58:51.990 --> 00:58:52.000 align:start position:0%
pinches the beginnings and the end of
 

00:58:52.000 --> 00:58:54.390 align:start position:0%
pinches the beginnings and the end of
the<00:58:52.160><c> path</c><00:58:52.480><c> light</c><00:58:52.799><c> travels</c><00:58:53.200><c> down.</c><00:58:54.000><c> Although</c>

00:58:54.390 --> 00:58:54.400 align:start position:0%
the path light travels down. Although
 

00:58:54.400 --> 00:58:56.789 align:start position:0%
the path light travels down. Although
what<00:58:54.640><c> this</c><00:58:54.880><c> might</c><00:58:55.040><c> be</c><00:58:55.520><c> and</c><00:58:55.760><c> what</c><00:58:56.079><c> mechanisms</c>

00:58:56.789 --> 00:58:56.799 align:start position:0%
what this might be and what mechanisms
 

00:58:56.799 --> 00:59:00.710 align:start position:0%
what this might be and what mechanisms
drive<00:58:57.119><c> it</c><00:58:57.599><c> are</c><00:58:58.000><c> unknown</c><00:58:58.559><c> as</c><00:58:58.799><c> of</c><00:58:58.960><c> now.</c>

00:59:00.710 --> 00:59:00.720 align:start position:0%
drive it are unknown as of now.
 

00:59:00.720 --> 00:59:03.109 align:start position:0%
drive it are unknown as of now.
Fundamentally<00:59:01.520><c> though,</c><00:59:02.240><c> perhaps</c><00:59:02.720><c> the</c>

00:59:03.109 --> 00:59:03.119 align:start position:0%
Fundamentally though, perhaps the
 

00:59:03.119 --> 00:59:05.750 align:start position:0%
Fundamentally though, perhaps the
craziest<00:59:03.680><c> thing</c><00:59:03.920><c> about</c><00:59:04.319><c> all</c><00:59:04.559><c> of</c><00:59:04.799><c> this</c><00:59:05.200><c> is</c><00:59:05.440><c> that</c>

00:59:05.750 --> 00:59:05.760 align:start position:0%
craziest thing about all of this is that
 

00:59:05.760 --> 00:59:08.870 align:start position:0%
craziest thing about all of this is that
this<00:59:06.160><c> isn't</c><00:59:06.559><c> just</c><00:59:06.799><c> about</c><00:59:07.119><c> light.</c><00:59:08.160><c> Although</c><00:59:08.559><c> we</c>

00:59:08.870 --> 00:59:08.880 align:start position:0%
this isn't just about light. Although we
 

00:59:08.880 --> 00:59:11.109 align:start position:0%
this isn't just about light. Although we
focused<00:59:09.200><c> on</c><00:59:09.359><c> light</c><00:59:09.760><c> behaving</c><00:59:10.160><c> like</c><00:59:10.400><c> a</c><00:59:10.559><c> wave</c>

00:59:11.109 --> 00:59:11.119 align:start position:0%
focused on light behaving like a wave
 

00:59:11.119 --> 00:59:13.750 align:start position:0%
focused on light behaving like a wave
and<00:59:11.520><c> behaving</c><00:59:12.000><c> probabilistically,</c><00:59:13.440><c> all</c>

00:59:13.750 --> 00:59:13.760 align:start position:0%
and behaving probabilistically, all
 

00:59:13.760 --> 00:59:16.390 align:start position:0%
and behaving probabilistically, all
particles<00:59:14.240><c> of</c><00:59:14.480><c> matter</c><00:59:14.799><c> do</c><00:59:14.960><c> the</c><00:59:15.200><c> same.</c><00:59:16.079><c> Light</c>

00:59:16.390 --> 00:59:16.400 align:start position:0%
particles of matter do the same. Light
 

00:59:16.400 --> 00:59:18.390 align:start position:0%
particles of matter do the same. Light
is<00:59:16.559><c> just</c><00:59:16.720><c> another</c><00:59:17.040><c> form</c><00:59:17.280><c> of</c><00:59:17.440><c> energy</c><00:59:18.160><c> and</c>

00:59:18.390 --> 00:59:18.400 align:start position:0%
is just another form of energy and
 

00:59:18.400 --> 00:59:21.190 align:start position:0%
is just another form of energy and
energy<00:59:18.799><c> and</c><00:59:19.119><c> matter</c><00:59:19.520><c> are</c><00:59:19.680><c> linked.</c><00:59:20.720><c> Particles</c>

00:59:21.190 --> 00:59:21.200 align:start position:0%
energy and matter are linked. Particles
 

00:59:21.200 --> 00:59:24.069 align:start position:0%
energy and matter are linked. Particles
of<00:59:21.440><c> matter,</c><00:59:22.400><c> atoms,</c><00:59:23.040><c> and</c><00:59:23.359><c> even</c><00:59:23.599><c> complex</c>

00:59:24.069 --> 00:59:24.079 align:start position:0%
of matter, atoms, and even complex
 

00:59:24.079 --> 00:59:26.390 align:start position:0%
of matter, atoms, and even complex
molecules<00:59:25.119><c> have</c><00:59:25.440><c> been</c><00:59:25.680><c> shown</c><00:59:25.920><c> to</c><00:59:26.160><c> have</c>

00:59:26.390 --> 00:59:26.400 align:start position:0%
molecules have been shown to have
 

00:59:26.400 --> 00:59:27.990 align:start position:0%
molecules have been shown to have
wavelengths.

00:59:27.990 --> 00:59:28.000 align:start position:0%
wavelengths.
 

00:59:28.000 --> 00:59:30.870 align:start position:0%
wavelengths.
Electrons<00:59:28.640><c> are</c><00:59:28.960><c> just</c><00:59:29.200><c> as</c><00:59:29.440><c> quantifiable</c><00:59:30.559><c> and</c>

00:59:30.870 --> 00:59:30.880 align:start position:0%
Electrons are just as quantifiable and
 

00:59:30.880 --> 00:59:32.870 align:start position:0%
Electrons are just as quantifiable and
just<00:59:31.119><c> as</c><00:59:31.359><c> driven</c><00:59:31.680><c> by</c><00:59:31.839><c> probabilities</c><00:59:32.559><c> as</c>

00:59:32.870 --> 00:59:32.880 align:start position:0%
just as driven by probabilities as
 

00:59:32.880 --> 00:59:36.309 align:start position:0%
just as driven by probabilities as
photons<00:59:33.440><c> are.</c><00:59:34.319><c> We</c><00:59:34.640><c> are</c><00:59:34.960><c> apparently</c><00:59:36.000><c> all</c>

00:59:36.309 --> 00:59:36.319 align:start position:0%
photons are. We are apparently all
 

00:59:36.319 --> 00:59:38.549 align:start position:0%
photons are. We are apparently all
driven<00:59:36.720><c> by</c><00:59:36.960><c> probability</c><00:59:37.760><c> if</c><00:59:38.000><c> you</c><00:59:38.160><c> scale</c>

00:59:38.549 --> 00:59:38.559 align:start position:0%
driven by probability if you scale
 

00:59:38.559 --> 00:59:41.349 align:start position:0%
driven by probability if you scale
things<00:59:38.799><c> down</c><00:59:39.119><c> small</c><00:59:39.520><c> enough.</c>

00:59:41.349 --> 00:59:41.359 align:start position:0%
things down small enough.
 

00:59:41.359 --> 00:59:45.270 align:start position:0%
things down small enough.
So<00:59:41.839><c> what</c><00:59:42.160><c> is</c><00:59:42.480><c> everything</c><00:59:43.440><c> truly</c><00:59:43.920><c> made</c><00:59:44.160><c> of?</c>

00:59:45.270 --> 00:59:45.280 align:start position:0%
So what is everything truly made of?
 

00:59:45.280 --> 00:59:47.750 align:start position:0%
So what is everything truly made of?
What<00:59:45.599><c> makes</c><00:59:45.839><c> up</c><00:59:46.160><c> energy</c><00:59:46.559><c> and</c><00:59:46.880><c> matter</c><00:59:47.440><c> that</c>

00:59:47.750 --> 00:59:47.760 align:start position:0%
What makes up energy and matter that
 

00:59:47.760 --> 00:59:50.549 align:start position:0%
What makes up energy and matter that
causes<00:59:48.160><c> it</c><00:59:48.319><c> to</c><00:59:48.480><c> behave</c><00:59:48.880><c> in</c><00:59:49.119><c> the</c><00:59:49.280><c> way</c><00:59:49.359><c> it</c><00:59:49.599><c> does?</c>

00:59:50.549 --> 00:59:50.559 align:start position:0%
causes it to behave in the way it does?
 

00:59:50.559 --> 00:59:52.549 align:start position:0%
causes it to behave in the way it does?
What<00:59:50.880><c> is</c><00:59:51.119><c> going</c><00:59:51.359><c> on</c><00:59:51.680><c> under</c><00:59:52.000><c> the</c><00:59:52.160><c> hood</c><00:59:52.400><c> of</c>

00:59:52.549 --> 00:59:52.559 align:start position:0%
What is going on under the hood of
 

00:59:52.559 --> 00:59:55.510 align:start position:0%
What is going on under the hood of
reality?<00:59:53.760><c> Why</c><00:59:54.079><c> is</c><00:59:54.319><c> the</c><00:59:54.480><c> universe</c><00:59:54.960><c> behaving</c>

00:59:55.510 --> 00:59:55.520 align:start position:0%
reality? Why is the universe behaving
 

00:59:55.520 --> 00:59:57.430 align:start position:0%
reality? Why is the universe behaving
different<00:59:56.000><c> when</c><00:59:56.400><c> looked</c><00:59:56.640><c> at</c><00:59:56.960><c> compared</c><00:59:57.280><c> to</c>

00:59:57.430 --> 00:59:57.440 align:start position:0%
different when looked at compared to
 

00:59:57.440 --> 01:00:00.150 align:start position:0%
different when looked at compared to
when<00:59:57.760><c> not?</c><00:59:58.720><c> And</c><00:59:58.960><c> what</c><00:59:59.200><c> does</c><00:59:59.359><c> it</c><00:59:59.599><c> imply</c><00:59:59.920><c> to</c>

01:00:00.150 --> 01:00:00.160 align:start position:0%
when not? And what does it imply to
 

01:00:00.160 --> 01:00:03.430 align:start position:0%
when not? And what does it imply to
think<01:00:00.640><c> that</c><01:00:01.040><c> even</c><01:00:01.359><c> you</c><01:00:02.000><c> are</c><01:00:02.319><c> on</c><01:00:02.640><c> some</c><01:00:02.880><c> level</c>

01:00:03.430 --> 01:00:03.440 align:start position:0%
think that even you are on some level
 

01:00:03.440 --> 01:00:05.430 align:start position:0%
think that even you are on some level
probabilistic?

01:00:05.430 --> 01:00:05.440 align:start position:0%
probabilistic?
 

01:00:05.440 --> 01:00:08.309 align:start position:0%
probabilistic?
What<01:00:05.680><c> this</c><01:00:06.000><c> all</c><01:00:06.319><c> means</c><01:00:06.640><c> is</c><01:00:06.960><c> anyone's</c><01:00:07.520><c> guess.</c>

01:00:08.309 --> 01:00:08.319 align:start position:0%
What this all means is anyone's guess.
 

01:00:08.319 --> 01:00:10.069 align:start position:0%
What this all means is anyone's guess.
The<01:00:08.559><c> person</c><01:00:08.799><c> who</c><01:00:09.040><c> figures</c><01:00:09.359><c> it</c><01:00:09.520><c> out</c><01:00:09.760><c> will</c><01:00:10.000><c> be</c>

01:00:10.069 --> 01:00:10.079 align:start position:0%
The person who figures it out will be
 

01:00:10.079 --> 01:00:13.109 align:start position:0%
The person who figures it out will be
the<01:00:10.240><c> Einstein</c><01:00:10.799><c> of</c><01:00:11.040><c> our</c><01:00:11.280><c> time.</c><01:00:12.079><c> But</c><01:00:12.319><c> for</c><01:00:12.559><c> now,</c>

01:00:13.109 --> 01:00:13.119 align:start position:0%
the Einstein of our time. But for now,
 

01:00:13.119 --> 01:00:15.109 align:start position:0%
the Einstein of our time. But for now,
all<01:00:13.359><c> we</c><01:00:13.520><c> can</c><01:00:13.680><c> say</c><01:00:14.000><c> is</c><01:00:14.240><c> that</c><01:00:14.400><c> when</c><01:00:14.559><c> it</c><01:00:14.720><c> comes</c><01:00:14.880><c> to</c>

01:00:15.109 --> 01:00:15.119 align:start position:0%
all we can say is that when it comes to
 

01:00:15.119 --> 01:00:17.510 align:start position:0%
all we can say is that when it comes to
reality,<01:00:15.920><c> it</c><01:00:16.160><c> seems</c><01:00:16.480><c> the</c><01:00:16.799><c> universe</c><01:00:17.200><c> is</c>

01:00:17.510 --> 01:00:17.520 align:start position:0%
reality, it seems the universe is
 

01:00:17.520 --> 01:00:20.710 align:start position:0%
reality, it seems the universe is
playing<01:00:17.839><c> dice.</c><01:00:19.200><c> You</c><01:00:19.599><c> and</c><01:00:19.920><c> the</c><01:00:20.160><c> world</c><01:00:20.319><c> around</c>

01:00:20.710 --> 01:00:20.720 align:start position:0%
playing dice. You and the world around
 

01:00:20.720 --> 01:00:23.030 align:start position:0%
playing dice. You and the world around
you<01:00:21.200><c> might</c><01:00:21.440><c> be</c><01:00:21.599><c> a</c><01:00:21.839><c> lot</c><01:00:22.000><c> less</c><01:00:22.240><c> certain</c><01:00:22.559><c> than</c><01:00:22.799><c> you</c>

01:00:23.030 --> 01:00:23.040 align:start position:0%
you might be a lot less certain than you
 

01:00:23.040 --> 01:00:27.349 align:start position:0%
you might be a lot less certain than you
might<01:00:23.200><c> have</c><01:00:23.359><c> thought.</c>

01:00:27.349 --> 01:00:27.359 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:00:27.359 --> 01:00:30.710 align:start position:0%
 
Have<01:00:27.599><c> a</c><01:00:27.839><c> look</c><01:00:28.160><c> around</c><01:00:28.559><c> you.</c><01:00:30.000><c> Everything</c><01:00:30.400><c> you</c>

01:00:30.710 --> 01:00:30.720 align:start position:0%
Have a look around you. Everything you
 

01:00:30.720 --> 01:00:33.510 align:start position:0%
Have a look around you. Everything you
see,<01:00:31.359><c> from</c><01:00:31.520><c> the</c><01:00:31.760><c> skin</c><01:00:32.079><c> of</c><01:00:32.240><c> your</c><01:00:32.480><c> hands</c><01:00:33.119><c> to</c><01:00:33.359><c> the</c>

01:00:33.510 --> 01:00:33.520 align:start position:0%
see, from the skin of your hands to the
 

01:00:33.520 --> 01:00:35.990 align:start position:0%
see, from the skin of your hands to the
screen<01:00:33.839><c> you're</c><01:00:34.160><c> watching</c><01:00:34.400><c> this</c><01:00:34.720><c> video</c><01:00:34.960><c> on,</c><01:00:35.680><c> is</c>

01:00:35.990 --> 01:00:36.000 align:start position:0%
screen you're watching this video on, is
 

01:00:36.000 --> 01:00:38.390 align:start position:0%
screen you're watching this video on, is
a<01:00:36.319><c> different</c><01:00:36.640><c> combination</c><01:00:37.359><c> of</c><01:00:37.599><c> the</c><01:00:37.920><c> same</c>

01:00:38.390 --> 01:00:38.400 align:start position:0%
a different combination of the same
 

01:00:38.400 --> 01:00:41.109 align:start position:0%
a different combination of the same
three<01:00:39.040><c> building</c><01:00:39.440><c> blocks</c><01:00:39.839><c> of</c><01:00:40.079><c> matter.</c>

01:00:41.109 --> 01:00:41.119 align:start position:0%
three building blocks of matter.
 

01:00:41.119 --> 01:00:44.789 align:start position:0%
three building blocks of matter.
Protons,<01:00:42.160><c> neutrons,</c><01:00:42.960><c> and</c><01:00:43.200><c> electrons.</c>

01:00:44.789 --> 01:00:44.799 align:start position:0%
Protons, neutrons, and electrons.
 

01:00:44.799 --> 01:00:47.670 align:start position:0%
Protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Now,<01:00:45.440><c> let's</c><01:00:45.839><c> look</c><01:00:46.079><c> a</c><01:00:46.319><c> little</c><01:00:46.559><c> farther.</c><01:00:47.280><c> say</c><01:00:47.440><c> at</c>

01:00:47.670 --> 01:00:47.680 align:start position:0%
Now, let's look a little farther. say at
 

01:00:47.680 --> 01:00:51.270 align:start position:0%
Now, let's look a little farther. say at
Mars<01:00:48.160><c> or</c><01:00:48.400><c> the</c><01:00:48.559><c> Andromeda</c><01:00:49.200><c> galaxy</c><01:00:50.240><c> or</c><01:00:50.799><c> even</c>

01:00:51.270 --> 01:00:51.280 align:start position:0%
Mars or the Andromeda galaxy or even
 

01:00:51.280 --> 01:00:53.349 align:start position:0%
Mars or the Andromeda galaxy or even
halfway<01:00:52.000><c> across</c><01:00:52.322><c> [music]</c><01:00:52.400><c> the</c><01:00:52.640><c> observable</c>

01:00:53.349 --> 01:00:53.359 align:start position:0%
halfway across [music] the observable
 

01:00:53.359 --> 01:00:57.030 align:start position:0%
halfway across [music] the observable
universe<01:00:54.480><c> and</c><01:00:54.799><c> still</c><01:00:55.599><c> there</c><01:00:55.839><c> is</c><01:00:56.079><c> matter</c><01:00:56.720><c> made</c>

01:00:57.030 --> 01:00:57.040 align:start position:0%
universe and still there is matter made
 

01:00:57.040 --> 01:01:00.789 align:start position:0%
universe and still there is matter made
of<01:00:57.520><c> protons,</c><01:00:58.400><c> neutrons</c><01:00:59.119><c> and</c><01:00:59.359><c> electrons</c><01:01:00.480><c> as</c>

01:01:00.789 --> 01:01:00.799 align:start position:0%
of protons, neutrons and electrons as
 

01:01:00.799 --> 01:01:04.630 align:start position:0%
of protons, neutrons and electrons as
far<01:01:01.280><c> as</c><01:01:01.440><c> the</c><01:01:01.760><c> eye</c><01:01:02.000><c> can</c><01:01:02.240><c> see.</c><01:01:03.680><c> At</c><01:01:04.000><c> first,</c><01:01:04.319><c> this</c>

01:01:04.630 --> 01:01:04.640 align:start position:0%
far as the eye can see. At first, this
 

01:01:04.640 --> 01:01:07.430 align:start position:0%
far as the eye can see. At first, this
might<01:01:04.880><c> not</c><01:01:05.200><c> sound</c><01:01:05.520><c> all</c><01:01:05.839><c> that</c><01:01:06.079><c> surprising,</c><01:01:07.200><c> but</c>

01:01:07.430 --> 01:01:07.440 align:start position:0%
might not sound all that surprising, but
 

01:01:07.440 --> 01:01:10.069 align:start position:0%
might not sound all that surprising, but
for<01:01:07.680><c> once,</c><01:01:08.160><c> the</c><01:01:08.480><c> mystery</c><01:01:08.880><c> here</c><01:01:09.520><c> isn't</c><01:01:09.920><c> that</c>

01:01:10.069 --> 01:01:10.079 align:start position:0%
for once, the mystery here isn't that
 

01:01:10.079 --> 01:01:12.789 align:start position:0%
for once, the mystery here isn't that
we've<01:01:10.400><c> seen</c><01:01:10.640><c> something</c><01:01:10.960><c> we</c><01:01:11.280><c> can't</c><01:01:11.599><c> explain,</c>

01:01:12.789 --> 01:01:12.799 align:start position:0%
we've seen something we can't explain,
 

01:01:12.799 --> 01:01:14.870 align:start position:0%
we've seen something we can't explain,
but<01:01:13.119><c> rather</c><01:01:13.680><c> that</c><01:01:14.000><c> we</c><01:01:14.319><c> haven't</c><01:01:14.559><c> seen</c>

01:01:14.870 --> 01:01:14.880 align:start position:0%
but rather that we haven't seen
 

01:01:14.880 --> 01:01:18.230 align:start position:0%
but rather that we haven't seen
something<01:01:15.280><c> we</c><01:01:15.599><c> were</c><01:01:16.000><c> expecting,</c><01:01:17.280><c> a</c><01:01:17.599><c> universe</c>

01:01:18.230 --> 01:01:18.240 align:start position:0%
something we were expecting, a universe
 

01:01:18.240 --> 01:01:21.990 align:start position:0%
something we were expecting, a universe
just<01:01:18.480><c> as</c><01:01:18.522><c> [music]</c><01:01:18.720><c> full</c><01:01:19.200><c> of</c><01:01:19.520><c> antimatter.</c>

01:01:21.990 --> 01:01:22.000 align:start position:0%
just as [music] full of antimatter.
 

01:01:22.000 --> 01:01:24.150 align:start position:0%
just as [music] full of antimatter.
I'm<01:01:22.319><c> Alex</c><01:01:22.640><c> Mccoan</c><01:01:23.359><c> and</c><01:01:23.599><c> you're</c><01:01:23.839><c> watching</c>

01:01:24.150 --> 01:01:24.160 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
 

01:01:24.160 --> 01:01:27.270 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
Astramm.<01:01:25.200><c> Join</c><01:01:25.520><c> me</c><01:01:25.680><c> today</c><01:01:25.920><c> as</c><01:01:26.240><c> we</c><01:01:26.480><c> explore</c><01:01:26.960><c> the</c>

01:01:27.270 --> 01:01:27.280 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join me today as we explore the
 

01:01:27.280 --> 01:01:30.150 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join me today as we explore the
world<01:01:27.599><c> of</c><01:01:27.920><c> antimatter</c><01:01:29.040><c> and</c><01:01:29.359><c> learn</c><01:01:29.680><c> about</c><01:01:29.920><c> its</c>

01:01:30.150 --> 01:01:30.160 align:start position:0%
world of antimatter and learn about its
 

01:01:30.160 --> 01:01:31.510 align:start position:0%
world of antimatter and learn about its
interactions<01:01:30.312><c> [music]</c><01:01:30.799><c> with</c><01:01:31.200><c> other</c>

01:01:31.510 --> 01:01:31.520 align:start position:0%
interactions [music] with other
 

01:01:31.520 --> 01:01:34.950 align:start position:0%
interactions [music] with other
particles<01:01:32.400><c> and</c><01:01:32.720><c> even</c><01:01:33.040><c> with</c><01:01:33.359><c> gravity.</c><01:01:34.559><c> By</c><01:01:34.799><c> the</c>

01:01:34.950 --> 01:01:34.960 align:start position:0%
particles and even with gravity. By the
 

01:01:34.960 --> 01:01:37.270 align:start position:0%
particles and even with gravity. By the
end<01:01:35.040><c> of</c><01:01:35.200><c> this</c><01:01:35.440><c> video,</c><01:01:36.000><c> you'll</c><01:01:36.400><c> probably</c><01:01:36.880><c> agree</c>

01:01:37.270 --> 01:01:37.280 align:start position:0%
end of this video, you'll probably agree
 

01:01:37.280 --> 01:01:40.390 align:start position:0%
end of this video, you'll probably agree
that<01:01:37.599><c> antimatter</c><01:01:38.400><c> is</c><01:01:38.640><c> a</c><01:01:38.960><c> bit</c><01:01:39.280><c> weird,</c><01:01:40.240><c> but</c>

01:01:40.390 --> 01:01:40.400 align:start position:0%
that antimatter is a bit weird, but
 

01:01:40.400 --> 01:01:42.710 align:start position:0%
that antimatter is a bit weird, but
you'll<01:01:40.720><c> also</c><01:01:41.040><c> see</c><01:01:41.280><c> why</c><01:01:41.520><c> some</c><01:01:41.839><c> physicists</c><01:01:42.400><c> are</c>

01:01:42.710 --> 01:01:42.720 align:start position:0%
you'll also see why some physicists are
 

01:01:42.720 --> 01:01:48.309 align:start position:0%
you'll also see why some physicists are
frustrated<01:01:43.520><c> that</c><01:01:43.839><c> it</c><01:01:44.079><c> isn't</c><01:01:44.400><c> weird</c><01:01:44.799><c> enough.</c>

01:01:48.309 --> 01:01:48.319 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:01:48.319 --> 01:01:50.309 align:start position:0%
 
Let's<01:01:48.720><c> get</c><01:01:48.960><c> one</c><01:01:49.280><c> thing</c><01:01:49.599><c> out</c><01:01:49.760><c> of</c><01:01:49.920><c> the</c><01:01:50.079><c> way</c>

01:01:50.309 --> 01:01:50.319 align:start position:0%
Let's get one thing out of the way
 

01:01:50.319 --> 01:01:52.470 align:start position:0%
Let's get one thing out of the way
first.<01:01:51.119><c> Although</c><01:01:51.440><c> it</c><01:01:51.680><c> might</c><01:01:51.920><c> sound</c><01:01:52.160><c> like</c>

01:01:52.470 --> 01:01:52.480 align:start position:0%
first. Although it might sound like
 

01:01:52.480 --> 01:01:53.910 align:start position:0%
first. Although it might sound like
something<01:01:52.880><c> straight</c><01:01:53.200><c> out</c><01:01:53.440><c> of</c><01:01:53.599><c> science</c>

01:01:53.910 --> 01:01:53.920 align:start position:0%
something straight out of science
 

01:01:53.920 --> 01:01:57.910 align:start position:0%
something straight out of science
fiction,<01:01:54.559><c> antimatter</c><01:01:55.440><c> is</c><01:01:56.079><c> very</c><01:01:56.400><c> real.</c><01:01:57.680><c> It</c>

01:01:57.910 --> 01:01:57.920 align:start position:0%
fiction, antimatter is very real. It
 

01:01:57.920 --> 01:02:00.150 align:start position:0%
fiction, antimatter is very real. It
forms<01:01:58.240><c> a</c><01:01:58.480><c> critical</c><01:01:58.960><c> part</c><01:01:59.200><c> of</c><01:01:59.440><c> the</c><01:01:59.680><c> standard</c>

01:02:00.150 --> 01:02:00.160 align:start position:0%
forms a critical part of the standard
 

01:02:00.160 --> 01:02:02.549 align:start position:0%
forms a critical part of the standard
model<01:02:00.480><c> of</c><01:02:00.720><c> particle</c><01:02:01.200><c> physics.</c><01:02:01.920><c> And</c><01:02:02.160><c> particles</c>

01:02:02.549 --> 01:02:02.559 align:start position:0%
model of particle physics. And particles
 

01:02:02.559 --> 01:02:04.789 align:start position:0%
model of particle physics. And particles
of<01:02:02.799><c> antimatter</c><01:02:03.520><c> have</c><01:02:03.760><c> been</c><01:02:04.000><c> observed</c><01:02:04.480><c> in</c>

01:02:04.789 --> 01:02:04.799 align:start position:0%
of antimatter have been observed in
 

01:02:04.799 --> 01:02:08.549 align:start position:0%
of antimatter have been observed in
experiments<01:02:05.359><c> going</c><01:02:05.680><c> back</c><01:02:06.000><c> nearly</c><01:02:06.400><c> a</c><01:02:06.640><c> century.</c>

01:02:08.549 --> 01:02:08.559 align:start position:0%
experiments going back nearly a century.
 

01:02:08.559 --> 01:02:10.549 align:start position:0%
experiments going back nearly a century.
The<01:02:08.799><c> very</c><01:02:09.119><c> first</c><01:02:09.359><c> detection</c><01:02:09.760><c> of</c><01:02:09.839><c> antimatter</c>

01:02:10.549 --> 01:02:10.559 align:start position:0%
The very first detection of antimatter
 

01:02:10.559 --> 01:02:13.190 align:start position:0%
The very first detection of antimatter
dates<01:02:10.880><c> back</c><01:02:11.040><c> to</c><01:02:11.280><c> a</c><01:02:11.520><c> 1932</c><01:02:12.480><c> experiment</c>

01:02:13.190 --> 01:02:13.200 align:start position:0%
dates back to a 1932 experiment
 

01:02:13.200 --> 01:02:15.497 align:start position:0%
dates back to a 1932 experiment
conducted<01:02:13.680><c> by</c><01:02:14.000><c> Carl</c><01:02:14.400><c> D.</c><01:02:14.640><c> Anderson</c><01:02:15.200><c> at</c><01:02:15.440><c> Caltech</c>

01:02:15.497 --> 01:02:15.507 align:start position:0%
conducted by Carl D. Anderson at Caltech
 

01:02:15.507 --> 01:02:16.390 align:start position:0%
conducted by Carl D. Anderson at Caltech
[music]

01:02:16.390 --> 01:02:16.400 align:start position:0%
[music]
 

01:02:16.400 --> 01:02:18.630 align:start position:0%
[music]
using<01:02:16.799><c> a</c><01:02:17.040><c> cloud</c><01:02:17.359><c> chamber</c><01:02:17.839><c> immersed</c><01:02:18.319><c> in</c><01:02:18.480><c> a</c>

01:02:18.630 --> 01:02:18.640 align:start position:0%
using a cloud chamber immersed in a
 

01:02:18.640 --> 01:02:20.870 align:start position:0%
using a cloud chamber immersed in a
magnetic<01:02:19.119><c> field.</c>

01:02:20.870 --> 01:02:20.880 align:start position:0%
magnetic field.
 

01:02:20.880 --> 01:02:23.510 align:start position:0%
magnetic field.
When<01:02:21.200><c> charged</c><01:02:21.680><c> particles</c><01:02:22.160><c> from</c><01:02:22.480><c> outer</c><01:02:22.880><c> space,</c>

01:02:23.510 --> 01:02:23.520 align:start position:0%
When charged particles from outer space,
 

01:02:23.520 --> 01:02:26.230 align:start position:0%
When charged particles from outer space,
broadly<01:02:24.000><c> called</c><01:02:24.400><c> cosmic</c><01:02:24.880><c> rays,</c><01:02:25.760><c> intercept</c>

01:02:26.230 --> 01:02:26.240 align:start position:0%
broadly called cosmic rays, intercept
 

01:02:26.240 --> 01:02:28.470 align:start position:0%
broadly called cosmic rays, intercept
the<01:02:26.400><c> Earth's</c><01:02:26.799><c> orbit</c><01:02:27.200><c> and</c><01:02:27.520><c> fly</c><01:02:27.920><c> through</c><01:02:28.160><c> this</c>

01:02:28.470 --> 01:02:28.480 align:start position:0%
the Earth's orbit and fly through this
 

01:02:28.480 --> 01:02:31.109 align:start position:0%
the Earth's orbit and fly through this
chamber,<01:02:29.280><c> the</c><01:02:29.520><c> magnetic</c><01:02:30.000><c> field</c><01:02:30.400><c> curves</c><01:02:30.799><c> their</c>

01:02:31.109 --> 01:02:31.119 align:start position:0%
chamber, the magnetic field curves their
 

01:02:31.119 --> 01:02:33.349 align:start position:0%
chamber, the magnetic field curves their
paths<01:02:31.599><c> according</c><01:02:32.079><c> to</c><01:02:32.240><c> the</c><01:02:32.480><c> charge</c><01:02:32.799><c> and</c><01:02:33.119><c> mass</c>

01:02:33.349 --> 01:02:33.359 align:start position:0%
paths according to the charge and mass
 

01:02:33.359 --> 01:02:36.309 align:start position:0%
paths according to the charge and mass
of<01:02:33.599><c> each</c><01:02:33.920><c> particle,</c><01:02:34.960><c> and</c><01:02:35.119><c> the</c><01:02:35.359><c> clouds</c><01:02:35.760><c> show</c><01:02:36.000><c> a</c>

01:02:36.309 --> 01:02:36.319 align:start position:0%
of each particle, and the clouds show a
 

01:02:36.319 --> 01:02:38.150 align:start position:0%
of each particle, and the clouds show a
visible<01:02:36.720><c> imprint</c><01:02:37.200><c> of</c><01:02:37.440><c> their</c><01:02:37.680><c> resulting</c>

01:02:38.150 --> 01:02:38.160 align:start position:0%
visible imprint of their resulting
 

01:02:38.160 --> 01:02:39.750 align:start position:0%
visible imprint of their resulting
trajectories.

01:02:39.750 --> 01:02:39.760 align:start position:0%
trajectories.
 

01:02:39.760 --> 01:02:41.750 align:start position:0%
trajectories.
Anderson<01:02:40.240><c> was</c><01:02:40.480><c> hoping</c><01:02:40.960><c> this</c><01:02:41.280><c> experiment</c>

01:02:41.750 --> 01:02:41.760 align:start position:0%
Anderson was hoping this experiment
 

01:02:41.760 --> 01:02:43.829 align:start position:0%
Anderson was hoping this experiment
would<01:02:42.000><c> help</c><01:02:42.240><c> determine</c><01:02:42.799><c> just</c><01:02:43.119><c> what</c><01:02:43.359><c> kinds</c><01:02:43.680><c> of</c>

01:02:43.829 --> 01:02:43.839 align:start position:0%
would help determine just what kinds of
 

01:02:43.839 --> 01:02:45.750 align:start position:0%
would help determine just what kinds of
particles<01:02:44.400><c> were</c><01:02:44.640><c> streaming</c><01:02:45.119><c> into</c><01:02:45.359><c> the</c><01:02:45.520><c> Earth</c>

01:02:45.750 --> 01:02:45.760 align:start position:0%
particles were streaming into the Earth
 

01:02:45.760 --> 01:02:48.390 align:start position:0%
particles were streaming into the Earth
from<01:02:46.000><c> the</c><01:02:46.240><c> cosmos.</c><01:02:47.200><c> and</c><01:02:47.440><c> he</c><01:02:47.680><c> may</c><01:02:47.920><c> have</c><01:02:48.160><c> found</c>

01:02:48.390 --> 01:02:48.400 align:start position:0%
from the cosmos. and he may have found
 

01:02:48.400 --> 01:02:50.069 align:start position:0%
from the cosmos. and he may have found
just<01:02:48.640><c> a</c><01:02:48.880><c> little</c><01:02:48.960><c> bit</c><01:02:49.119><c> more</c><01:02:49.280><c> than</c><01:02:49.520><c> he</c><01:02:49.680><c> bargained</c>

01:02:50.069 --> 01:02:50.079 align:start position:0%
just a little bit more than he bargained
 

01:02:50.079 --> 01:02:53.190 align:start position:0%
just a little bit more than he bargained
for.<01:02:51.200><c> What</c><01:02:51.440><c> Anderson</c><01:02:52.000><c> saw</c><01:02:52.400><c> was</c><01:02:52.640><c> that</c><01:02:52.880><c> these</c>

01:02:53.190 --> 01:02:53.200 align:start position:0%
for. What Anderson saw was that these
 

01:02:53.200 --> 01:02:56.950 align:start position:0%
for. What Anderson saw was that these
cosmic<01:02:53.680><c> rays</c><01:02:54.240><c> included</c><01:02:54.880><c> both</c><01:02:55.359><c> positively</c><01:02:56.319><c> and</c>

01:02:56.950 --> 01:02:56.960 align:start position:0%
cosmic rays included both positively and
 

01:02:56.960 --> 01:02:59.829 align:start position:0%
cosmic rays included both positively and
negatively<01:02:57.680><c> charged</c><01:02:58.000><c> particles.</c><01:02:59.200><c> The</c><01:02:59.440><c> masses</c>

01:02:59.829 --> 01:02:59.839 align:start position:0%
negatively charged particles. The masses
 

01:02:59.839 --> 01:03:01.510 align:start position:0%
negatively charged particles. The masses
of<01:03:00.000><c> the</c><01:03:00.160><c> negatively</c><01:03:00.720><c> charged</c><01:03:01.040><c> particles</c>

01:03:01.510 --> 01:03:01.520 align:start position:0%
of the negatively charged particles
 

01:03:01.520 --> 01:03:03.670 align:start position:0%
of the negatively charged particles
lined<01:03:01.839><c> up</c><01:03:02.079><c> exactly</c><01:03:02.559><c> with</c><01:03:02.799><c> the</c><01:03:02.960><c> known</c><01:03:03.280><c> mass</c><01:03:03.520><c> of</c>

01:03:03.670 --> 01:03:03.680 align:start position:0%
lined up exactly with the known mass of
 

01:03:03.680 --> 01:03:06.630 align:start position:0%
lined up exactly with the known mass of
an<01:03:03.920><c> electron.</c><01:03:05.040><c> But</c><01:03:05.280><c> some</c><01:03:05.520><c> of</c><01:03:05.680><c> the</c><01:03:05.920><c> positively</c>

01:03:06.630 --> 01:03:06.640 align:start position:0%
an electron. But some of the positively
 

01:03:06.640 --> 01:03:09.349 align:start position:0%
an electron. But some of the positively
charged<01:03:07.040><c> particles</c><01:03:07.760><c> were</c><01:03:08.079><c> far</c><01:03:08.480><c> too</c><01:03:08.799><c> light</c><01:03:09.119><c> to</c>

01:03:09.349 --> 01:03:09.359 align:start position:0%
charged particles were far too light to
 

01:03:09.359 --> 01:03:12.549 align:start position:0%
charged particles were far too light to
be<01:03:09.599><c> protons.</c><01:03:10.960><c> Instead,</c><01:03:11.520><c> they</c><01:03:11.839><c> appear</c><01:03:12.160><c> to</c><01:03:12.400><c> have</c>

01:03:12.549 --> 01:03:12.559 align:start position:0%
be protons. Instead, they appear to have
 

01:03:12.559 --> 01:03:15.349 align:start position:0%
be protons. Instead, they appear to have
the<01:03:12.799><c> mass</c><01:03:13.040><c> of</c><01:03:13.119><c> an</c><01:03:13.359><c> electron</c><01:03:14.319><c> despite</c><01:03:14.960><c> having</c>

01:03:15.349 --> 01:03:15.359 align:start position:0%
the mass of an electron despite having
 

01:03:15.359 --> 01:03:18.470 align:start position:0%
the mass of an electron despite having
the<01:03:15.760><c> opposite</c><01:03:16.160><c> charge.</c><01:03:17.280><c> And</c><01:03:17.440><c> so,</c><01:03:17.920><c> these</c>

01:03:18.470 --> 01:03:18.480 align:start position:0%
the opposite charge. And so, these
 

01:03:18.480 --> 01:03:21.430 align:start position:0%
the opposite charge. And so, these
neverbeforeseen<01:03:19.760><c> particles</c><01:03:20.799><c> came</c><01:03:21.039><c> to</c><01:03:21.280><c> be</c>

01:03:21.430 --> 01:03:21.440 align:start position:0%
neverbeforeseen particles came to be
 

01:03:21.440 --> 01:03:23.829 align:start position:0%
neverbeforeseen particles came to be
known<01:03:21.839><c> as</c><01:03:22.319><c> anti-electrons</c>

01:03:23.829 --> 01:03:23.839 align:start position:0%
known as anti-electrons
 

01:03:23.839 --> 01:03:28.069 align:start position:0%
known as anti-electrons
or<01:03:24.160><c> later</c><01:03:24.799><c> posetrons</c><01:03:25.520><c> for</c><01:03:25.760><c> short.</c><01:03:26.799><c> In</c><01:03:27.039><c> 1936,</c>

01:03:28.069 --> 01:03:28.079 align:start position:0%
or later posetrons for short. In 1936,
 

01:03:28.079 --> 01:03:30.230 align:start position:0%
or later posetrons for short. In 1936,
Anderson<01:03:28.559><c> would</c><01:03:28.799><c> win</c><01:03:28.960><c> the</c><01:03:29.200><c> Nobel</c><01:03:29.599><c> Prize</c><01:03:30.000><c> in</c>

01:03:30.230 --> 01:03:30.240 align:start position:0%
Anderson would win the Nobel Prize in
 

01:03:30.240 --> 01:03:33.190 align:start position:0%
Anderson would win the Nobel Prize in
physics<01:03:30.559><c> for</c><01:03:30.880><c> this</c><01:03:31.039><c> discovery.</c>

01:03:33.190 --> 01:03:33.200 align:start position:0%
physics for this discovery.
 

01:03:33.200 --> 01:03:35.910 align:start position:0%
physics for this discovery.
Meanwhile,<01:03:34.079><c> a</c><01:03:34.400><c> British</c><01:03:34.720><c> physicist</c><01:03:35.359><c> who</c><01:03:35.680><c> was</c>

01:03:35.910 --> 01:03:35.920 align:start position:0%
Meanwhile, a British physicist who was
 

01:03:35.920 --> 01:03:38.710 align:start position:0%
Meanwhile, a British physicist who was
also<01:03:36.160><c> destined</c><01:03:36.559><c> to</c><01:03:36.720><c> win</c><01:03:36.880><c> a</c><01:03:37.039><c> Nobel</c><01:03:38.079><c> had</c><01:03:38.480><c> been</c>

01:03:38.710 --> 01:03:38.720 align:start position:0%
also destined to win a Nobel had been
 

01:03:38.720 --> 01:03:40.710 align:start position:0%
also destined to win a Nobel had been
developing<01:03:39.200><c> a</c><01:03:39.520><c> description</c><01:03:39.920><c> of</c><01:03:40.160><c> electrons</c>

01:03:40.710 --> 01:03:40.720 align:start position:0%
developing a description of electrons
 

01:03:40.720 --> 01:03:42.549 align:start position:0%
developing a description of electrons
that<01:03:40.960><c> would</c><01:03:41.119><c> fit</c><01:03:41.440><c> nicely</c><01:03:41.920><c> within</c><01:03:42.319><c> the</c>

01:03:42.549 --> 01:03:42.559 align:start position:0%
that would fit nicely within the
 

01:03:42.559 --> 01:03:45.430 align:start position:0%
that would fit nicely within the
framework<01:03:42.960><c> of</c><01:03:43.200><c> quantum</c><01:03:43.599><c> field</c><01:03:43.920><c> theory.</c>

01:03:45.430 --> 01:03:45.440 align:start position:0%
framework of quantum field theory.
 

01:03:45.440 --> 01:03:49.829 align:start position:0%
framework of quantum field theory.
His<01:03:45.760><c> name</c><01:03:46.079><c> was</c><01:03:46.400><c> Paul</c><01:03:46.720><c> Durk.</c><01:03:48.079><c> By</c><01:03:48.400><c> 1928,</c><01:03:49.359><c> Durk</c>

01:03:49.829 --> 01:03:49.839 align:start position:0%
His name was Paul Durk. By 1928, Durk
 

01:03:49.839 --> 01:03:51.990 align:start position:0%
His name was Paul Durk. By 1928, Durk
had<01:03:50.079><c> realized</c><01:03:50.480><c> that</c><01:03:50.799><c> in</c><01:03:51.039><c> order</c><01:03:51.200><c> to</c><01:03:51.440><c> describe</c>

01:03:51.990 --> 01:03:52.000 align:start position:0%
had realized that in order to describe
 

01:03:52.000 --> 01:03:54.230 align:start position:0%
had realized that in order to describe
electrons<01:03:52.559><c> as</c><01:03:52.880><c> quantum</c><01:03:53.280><c> fields</c><01:03:53.760><c> in</c><01:03:53.920><c> a</c><01:03:54.079><c> way</c>

01:03:54.230 --> 01:03:54.240 align:start position:0%
electrons as quantum fields in a way
 

01:03:54.240 --> 01:03:55.910 align:start position:0%
electrons as quantum fields in a way
that<01:03:54.400><c> was</c><01:03:54.559><c> physically</c><01:03:55.119><c> consistent</c><01:03:55.680><c> with</c>

01:03:55.910 --> 01:03:55.920 align:start position:0%
that was physically consistent with
 

01:03:55.920 --> 01:03:58.470 align:start position:0%
that was physically consistent with
special<01:03:56.319><c> relativity,</c><01:03:57.520><c> they</c><01:03:57.760><c> had</c><01:03:58.000><c> to</c><01:03:58.079><c> be</c><01:03:58.240><c> part</c>

01:03:58.470 --> 01:03:58.480 align:start position:0%
special relativity, they had to be part
 

01:03:58.480 --> 01:04:01.029 align:start position:0%
special relativity, they had to be part
of<01:03:58.640><c> a</c><01:03:58.880><c> larger</c><01:03:59.280><c> mathematical</c><01:04:00.079><c> structure,</c>

01:04:01.029 --> 01:04:01.039 align:start position:0%
of a larger mathematical structure,
 

01:04:01.039 --> 01:04:03.670 align:start position:0%
of a larger mathematical structure,
later<01:04:01.359><c> known</c><01:04:01.680><c> as</c><01:04:01.920><c> a</c><01:04:02.079><c> Durac</c><01:04:02.640><c> spinner</c><01:04:03.359><c> that</c>

01:04:03.670 --> 01:04:03.680 align:start position:0%
later known as a Durac spinner that
 

01:04:03.680 --> 01:04:06.230 align:start position:0%
later known as a Durac spinner that
inevitably<01:04:04.319><c> gave</c><01:04:04.640><c> rise</c><01:04:04.880><c> to</c><01:04:05.119><c> both</c><01:04:05.440><c> positively</c>

01:04:06.230 --> 01:04:06.240 align:start position:0%
inevitably gave rise to both positively
 

01:04:06.240 --> 01:04:08.630 align:start position:0%
inevitably gave rise to both positively
and<01:04:06.640><c> negatively</c><01:04:07.280><c> charged</c><01:04:07.680><c> versions</c><01:04:08.160><c> of</c><01:04:08.400><c> the</c>

01:04:08.630 --> 01:04:08.640 align:start position:0%
and negatively charged versions of the
 

01:04:08.640 --> 01:04:10.549 align:start position:0%
and negatively charged versions of the
same<01:04:08.880><c> particle.</c>

01:04:10.549 --> 01:04:10.559 align:start position:0%
same particle.
 

01:04:10.559 --> 01:04:12.870 align:start position:0%
same particle.
In<01:04:10.799><c> this</c><01:04:11.039><c> way,</c><01:04:11.280><c> Derek</c><01:04:11.839><c> had</c><01:04:12.079><c> predicted</c><01:04:12.559><c> the</c>

01:04:12.870 --> 01:04:12.880 align:start position:0%
In this way, Derek had predicted the
 

01:04:12.880 --> 01:04:15.270 align:start position:0%
In this way, Derek had predicted the
existence<01:04:13.280><c> of</c><01:04:13.520><c> posetrons</c><01:04:14.400><c> before</c><01:04:14.720><c> Anderson</c>

01:04:15.270 --> 01:04:15.280 align:start position:0%
existence of posetrons before Anderson
 

01:04:15.280 --> 01:04:17.029 align:start position:0%
existence of posetrons before Anderson
had<01:04:15.520><c> even</c><01:04:15.760><c> built</c><01:04:16.000><c> the</c><01:04:16.160><c> cloud</c><01:04:16.480><c> chamber</c><01:04:16.799><c> that</c>

01:04:17.029 --> 01:04:17.039 align:start position:0%
had even built the cloud chamber that
 

01:04:17.039 --> 01:04:20.150 align:start position:0%
had even built the cloud chamber that
would<01:04:17.280><c> detect</c><01:04:17.599><c> them</c><01:04:17.920><c> four</c><01:04:18.319><c> years</c><01:04:18.640><c> later.</c>

01:04:20.150 --> 01:04:20.160 align:start position:0%
would detect them four years later.
 

01:04:20.160 --> 01:04:22.069 align:start position:0%
would detect them four years later.
What's<01:04:20.480><c> even</c><01:04:20.720><c> more</c><01:04:20.960><c> incredible</c><01:04:21.599><c> is</c><01:04:21.760><c> that</c>

01:04:22.069 --> 01:04:22.079 align:start position:0%
What's even more incredible is that
 

01:04:22.079 --> 01:04:24.150 align:start position:0%
What's even more incredible is that
electrons<01:04:22.720><c> aren't</c><01:04:23.039><c> the</c><01:04:23.280><c> only</c><01:04:23.520><c> fundamental</c>

01:04:24.150 --> 01:04:24.160 align:start position:0%
electrons aren't the only fundamental
 

01:04:24.160 --> 01:04:27.109 align:start position:0%
electrons aren't the only fundamental
particle<01:04:24.640><c> to</c><01:04:24.960><c> come</c><01:04:25.200><c> in</c><01:04:25.359><c> a</c><01:04:25.680><c> two</c><01:04:25.920><c> for</c><01:04:26.160><c> one</c><01:04:26.559><c> durk</c>

01:04:27.109 --> 01:04:27.119 align:start position:0%
particle to come in a two for one durk
 

01:04:27.119 --> 01:04:29.910 align:start position:0%
particle to come in a two for one durk
spinner<01:04:27.599><c> package.</c><01:04:28.960><c> Other</c><01:04:29.280><c> particles</c><01:04:29.680><c> of</c>

01:04:29.910 --> 01:04:29.920 align:start position:0%
spinner package. Other particles of
 

01:04:29.920 --> 01:04:31.990 align:start position:0%
spinner package. Other particles of
matter,<01:04:30.480><c> like</c><01:04:30.640><c> the</c><01:04:30.960><c> quarks</c><01:04:31.440><c> that</c><01:04:31.599><c> make</c><01:04:31.839><c> up</c>

01:04:31.990 --> 01:04:32.000 align:start position:0%
matter, like the quarks that make up
 

01:04:32.000 --> 01:04:34.630 align:start position:0%
matter, like the quarks that make up
protons<01:04:32.480><c> and</c><01:04:32.720><c> neutrons,</c><01:04:33.599><c> each</c><01:04:34.000><c> have</c><01:04:34.240><c> their</c>

01:04:34.630 --> 01:04:34.640 align:start position:0%
protons and neutrons, each have their
 

01:04:34.640 --> 01:04:38.309 align:start position:0%
protons and neutrons, each have their
own<01:04:35.359><c> anti-quark</c><01:04:36.319><c> counterparts.</c>

01:04:38.309 --> 01:04:38.319 align:start position:0%
own anti-quark counterparts.
 

01:04:38.319 --> 01:04:40.630 align:start position:0%
own anti-quark counterparts.
These<01:04:38.640><c> anti-quarks</c><01:04:39.520><c> can</c><01:04:39.839><c> come</c><01:04:40.079><c> together</c><01:04:40.400><c> to</c>

01:04:40.630 --> 01:04:40.640 align:start position:0%
These anti-quarks can come together to
 

01:04:40.640 --> 01:04:43.990 align:start position:0%
These anti-quarks can come together to
form<01:04:41.200><c> anti-rotons</c><01:04:42.160><c> and</c><01:04:42.480><c> anti-</c><01:04:42.880><c> neutrons</c>

01:04:43.990 --> 01:04:44.000 align:start position:0%
form anti-rotons and anti- neutrons
 

01:04:44.000 --> 01:04:46.470 align:start position:0%
form anti-rotons and anti- neutrons
which<01:04:44.319><c> can</c><01:04:44.559><c> then</c><01:04:44.960><c> bond</c><01:04:45.359><c> with</c><01:04:45.599><c> posetrons</c><01:04:46.319><c> to</c>

01:04:46.470 --> 01:04:46.480 align:start position:0%
which can then bond with posetrons to
 

01:04:46.480 --> 01:04:50.470 align:start position:0%
which can then bond with posetrons to
form<01:04:46.960><c> anti-atom.</c>

01:04:50.470 --> 01:04:50.480 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:04:50.480 --> 01:04:52.470 align:start position:0%
 
You<01:04:50.799><c> could</c><01:04:51.039><c> make</c><01:04:51.280><c> a</c><01:04:51.520><c> whole</c><01:04:51.839><c> planet</c><01:04:52.240><c> out</c><01:04:52.400><c> of</c>

01:04:52.470 --> 01:04:52.480 align:start position:0%
You could make a whole planet out of
 

01:04:52.480 --> 01:04:55.270 align:start position:0%
You could make a whole planet out of
antimatter<01:04:53.359><c> and</c><01:04:53.599><c> from</c><01:04:53.839><c> the</c><01:04:54.000><c> outside</c><01:04:54.799><c> it</c><01:04:55.039><c> would</c>

01:04:55.270 --> 01:04:55.280 align:start position:0%
antimatter and from the outside it would
 

01:04:55.280 --> 01:04:57.829 align:start position:0%
antimatter and from the outside it would
look<01:04:55.680><c> quite</c><01:04:56.079><c> similar</c><01:04:56.319><c> to</c><01:04:56.559><c> an</c><01:04:56.799><c> ordinary</c><01:04:57.280><c> planet</c>

01:04:57.829 --> 01:04:57.839 align:start position:0%
look quite similar to an ordinary planet
 

01:04:57.839 --> 01:05:00.789 align:start position:0%
look quite similar to an ordinary planet
made<01:04:58.160><c> of</c><01:04:58.480><c> ordinary</c><01:04:59.039><c> matter.</c>

01:05:00.789 --> 01:05:00.799 align:start position:0%
made of ordinary matter.
 

01:05:00.799 --> 01:05:03.349 align:start position:0%
made of ordinary matter.
But<01:05:01.039><c> if</c><01:05:01.359><c> antimatter</c><01:05:02.160><c> were</c><01:05:02.480><c> too</c><01:05:02.880><c> similar</c><01:05:03.200><c> to</c>

01:05:03.349 --> 01:05:03.359 align:start position:0%
But if antimatter were too similar to
 

01:05:03.359 --> 01:05:05.910 align:start position:0%
But if antimatter were too similar to
matter,<01:05:04.160><c> if</c><01:05:04.400><c> the</c><01:05:04.720><c> only</c><01:05:05.200><c> difference</c><01:05:05.599><c> were</c><01:05:05.760><c> the</c>

01:05:05.910 --> 01:05:05.920 align:start position:0%
matter, if the only difference were the
 

01:05:05.920 --> 01:05:08.309 align:start position:0%
matter, if the only difference were the
sign<01:05:06.160><c> of</c><01:05:06.319><c> its</c><01:05:06.559><c> charge,</c><01:05:07.440><c> then</c><01:05:07.680><c> it</c><01:05:07.920><c> would</c><01:05:08.079><c> be</c>

01:05:08.309 --> 01:05:08.319 align:start position:0%
sign of its charge, then it would be
 

01:05:08.319 --> 01:05:10.870 align:start position:0%
sign of its charge, then it would be
impossible<01:05:08.960><c> to</c><01:05:09.200><c> explain</c><01:05:09.680><c> why</c><01:05:10.000><c> our</c><01:05:10.400><c> universe</c>

01:05:10.870 --> 01:05:10.880 align:start position:0%
impossible to explain why our universe
 

01:05:10.880 --> 01:05:13.589 align:start position:0%
impossible to explain why our universe
contains<01:05:11.359><c> so</c><01:05:11.599><c> much</c><01:05:11.760><c> of</c><01:05:11.920><c> one</c><01:05:12.559><c> and</c><01:05:12.799><c> so</c><01:05:13.119><c> little</c><01:05:13.359><c> of</c>

01:05:13.589 --> 01:05:13.599 align:start position:0%
contains so much of one and so little of
 

01:05:13.599 --> 01:05:17.270 align:start position:0%
contains so much of one and so little of
the<01:05:13.760><c> other.</c><01:05:14.880><c> This</c><01:05:15.359><c> cosmic</c><01:05:15.920><c> mystery</c><01:05:16.799><c> known</c><01:05:17.119><c> as</c>

01:05:17.270 --> 01:05:17.280 align:start position:0%
the other. This cosmic mystery known as
 

01:05:17.280 --> 01:05:20.309 align:start position:0%
the other. This cosmic mystery known as
the<01:05:17.599><c> barionic</c><01:05:18.319><c> asymmetry</c><01:05:18.960><c> of</c><01:05:19.119><c> the</c><01:05:19.359><c> universe</c>

01:05:20.309 --> 01:05:20.319 align:start position:0%
the barionic asymmetry of the universe
 

01:05:20.319 --> 01:05:23.029 align:start position:0%
the barionic asymmetry of the universe
sent<01:05:20.559><c> physicists</c><01:05:21.200><c> on</c><01:05:21.440><c> a</c><01:05:21.680><c> decadesl</c><01:05:22.319><c> long</c><01:05:22.640><c> quest</c>

01:05:23.029 --> 01:05:23.039 align:start position:0%
sent physicists on a decadesl long quest
 

01:05:23.039 --> 01:05:25.510 align:start position:0%
sent physicists on a decadesl long quest
to<01:05:23.359><c> try</c><01:05:23.599><c> and</c><01:05:23.839><c> find</c><01:05:24.160><c> as</c><01:05:24.480><c> many</c><01:05:24.799><c> differences</c><01:05:25.280><c> as</c>

01:05:25.510 --> 01:05:25.520 align:start position:0%
to try and find as many differences as
 

01:05:25.520 --> 01:05:27.109 align:start position:0%
to try and find as many differences as
they<01:05:25.760><c> could</c><01:05:26.079><c> between</c><01:05:26.400><c> matter</c><01:05:26.799><c> and</c>

01:05:27.109 --> 01:05:27.119 align:start position:0%
they could between matter and
 

01:05:27.119 --> 01:05:30.630 align:start position:0%
they could between matter and
antimatter.<01:05:28.559><c> That</c><01:05:28.880><c> quest</c><01:05:29.200><c> lives</c><01:05:29.440><c> on</c><01:05:29.760><c> today,</c>

01:05:30.630 --> 01:05:30.640 align:start position:0%
antimatter. That quest lives on today,
 

01:05:30.640 --> 01:05:32.870 align:start position:0%
antimatter. That quest lives on today,
spearheaded<01:05:31.359><c> by</c><01:05:31.680><c> particle</c><01:05:32.160><c> colliders</c><01:05:32.720><c> at</c>

01:05:32.870 --> 01:05:32.880 align:start position:0%
spearheaded by particle colliders at
 

01:05:32.880 --> 01:05:35.750 align:start position:0%
spearheaded by particle colliders at
CERN<01:05:33.680><c> that</c><01:05:33.920><c> are</c><01:05:34.160><c> capable</c><01:05:34.480><c> of</c><01:05:34.720><c> producing,</c>

01:05:35.750 --> 01:05:35.760 align:start position:0%
CERN that are capable of producing,
 

01:05:35.760 --> 01:05:39.029 align:start position:0%
CERN that are capable of producing,
trapping,<01:05:36.640><c> and</c><01:05:37.039><c> studying</c><01:05:37.680><c> both</c><01:05:38.079><c> posetrons</c>

01:05:39.029 --> 01:05:39.039 align:start position:0%
trapping, and studying both posetrons
 

01:05:39.039 --> 01:05:41.510 align:start position:0%
trapping, and studying both posetrons
and<01:05:39.440><c> anti-roton.</c>

01:05:41.510 --> 01:05:41.520 align:start position:0%
and anti-roton.
 

01:05:41.520 --> 01:05:43.349 align:start position:0%
and anti-roton.
But<01:05:42.079><c> before</c><01:05:42.400><c> we</c><01:05:42.640><c> talk</c><01:05:42.880><c> about</c><01:05:43.039><c> these</c>

01:05:43.349 --> 01:05:43.359 align:start position:0%
But before we talk about these
 

01:05:43.359 --> 01:05:45.910 align:start position:0%
But before we talk about these
experiments,<01:05:44.319><c> let's</c><01:05:44.640><c> try</c><01:05:44.880><c> to</c><01:05:45.039><c> summarize</c><01:05:45.599><c> what</c>

01:05:45.910 --> 01:05:45.920 align:start position:0%
experiments, let's try to summarize what
 

01:05:45.920 --> 01:05:48.069 align:start position:0%
experiments, let's try to summarize what
we<01:05:46.160><c> already</c><01:05:46.640><c> know</c><01:05:46.960><c> about</c><01:05:47.200><c> the</c><01:05:47.440><c> properties</c><01:05:47.839><c> of</c>

01:05:48.069 --> 01:05:48.079 align:start position:0%
we already know about the properties of
 

01:05:48.079 --> 01:05:50.470 align:start position:0%
we already know about the properties of
antimatter.

01:05:50.470 --> 01:05:50.480 align:start position:0%
antimatter.
 

01:05:50.480 --> 01:05:52.309 align:start position:0%
antimatter.
When<01:05:50.799><c> studying</c><01:05:51.280><c> antiparticles</c><01:05:52.079><c> in</c>

01:05:52.309 --> 01:05:52.319 align:start position:0%
When studying antiparticles in
 

01:05:52.319 --> 01:05:54.630 align:start position:0%
When studying antiparticles in
isolation,<01:05:53.359><c> experiments</c><01:05:53.920><c> have</c><01:05:54.160><c> confirmed</c>

01:05:54.630 --> 01:05:54.640 align:start position:0%
isolation, experiments have confirmed
 

01:05:54.640 --> 01:05:57.190 align:start position:0%
isolation, experiments have confirmed
with<01:05:55.039><c> ever</c><01:05:55.359><c> greater</c><01:05:55.760><c> precision</c><01:05:56.559><c> that</c><01:05:56.880><c> their</c>

01:05:57.190 --> 01:05:57.200 align:start position:0%
with ever greater precision that their
 

01:05:57.200 --> 01:05:59.670 align:start position:0%
with ever greater precision that their
intrinsic<01:05:57.920><c> properties,</c><01:05:58.880><c> namely</c><01:05:59.359><c> their</c>

01:05:59.670 --> 01:05:59.680 align:start position:0%
intrinsic properties, namely their
 

01:05:59.680 --> 01:06:02.710 align:start position:0%
intrinsic properties, namely their
masses,<01:06:00.720><c> are</c><01:06:01.039><c> exactly</c><01:06:01.440><c> the</c><01:06:01.760><c> same</c><01:06:02.079><c> as</c><01:06:02.400><c> for</c>

01:06:02.710 --> 01:06:02.720 align:start position:0%
masses, are exactly the same as for
 

01:06:02.720 --> 01:06:05.750 align:start position:0%
masses, are exactly the same as for
ordinary<01:06:03.280><c> particles.</c><01:06:04.720><c> And</c><01:06:05.039><c> when</c><01:06:05.280><c> studying</c>

01:06:05.750 --> 01:06:05.760 align:start position:0%
ordinary particles. And when studying
 

01:06:05.760 --> 01:06:07.910 align:start position:0%
ordinary particles. And when studying
how<01:06:06.079><c> antiparticles</c><01:06:07.039><c> are</c><01:06:07.200><c> affected</c><01:06:07.680><c> by</c>

01:06:07.910 --> 01:06:07.920 align:start position:0%
how antiparticles are affected by
 

01:06:07.920 --> 01:06:10.549 align:start position:0%
how antiparticles are affected by
electromagnetic<01:06:08.880><c> forces,</c><01:06:09.760><c> experiments</c><01:06:10.319><c> have</c>

01:06:10.549 --> 01:06:10.559 align:start position:0%
electromagnetic forces, experiments have
 

01:06:10.559 --> 01:06:13.029 align:start position:0%
electromagnetic forces, experiments have
again<01:06:10.960><c> found</c><01:06:11.359><c> that</c><01:06:11.599><c> they</c><01:06:11.839><c> behave</c><01:06:12.319><c> the</c><01:06:12.640><c> same</c>

01:06:13.029 --> 01:06:13.039 align:start position:0%
again found that they behave the same
 

01:06:13.039 --> 01:06:16.309 align:start position:0%
again found that they behave the same
exact<01:06:13.599><c> way</c><01:06:14.000><c> as</c><01:06:14.319><c> ordinary</c><01:06:14.799><c> particles,</c><01:06:15.920><c> except</c>

01:06:16.309 --> 01:06:16.319 align:start position:0%
exact way as ordinary particles, except
 

01:06:16.319 --> 01:06:18.710 align:start position:0%
exact way as ordinary particles, except
with<01:06:16.480><c> the</c><01:06:16.720><c> opposite</c><01:06:17.200><c> electric</c><01:06:17.599><c> charge,</c><01:06:18.480><c> just</c>

01:06:18.710 --> 01:06:18.720 align:start position:0%
with the opposite electric charge, just
 

01:06:18.720 --> 01:06:20.630 align:start position:0%
with the opposite electric charge, just
as<01:06:18.960><c> Anderson</c><01:06:19.440><c> had</c><01:06:19.680><c> observed</c><01:06:20.000><c> in</c><01:06:20.160><c> his</c><01:06:20.400><c> cloud</c>

01:06:20.630 --> 01:06:20.640 align:start position:0%
as Anderson had observed in his cloud
 

01:06:20.640 --> 01:06:24.069 align:start position:0%
as Anderson had observed in his cloud
chamber.<01:06:21.599><c> But</c><01:06:22.079><c> electromagnetism</c><01:06:23.359><c> is</c><01:06:23.680><c> just</c>

01:06:24.069 --> 01:06:24.079 align:start position:0%
chamber. But electromagnetism is just
 

01:06:24.079 --> 01:06:26.549 align:start position:0%
chamber. But electromagnetism is just
one<01:06:24.400><c> of</c><01:06:24.640><c> the</c><01:06:24.880><c> four</c><01:06:25.280><c> fundamental</c><01:06:26.000><c> forces</c><01:06:26.400><c> of</c>

01:06:26.549 --> 01:06:26.559 align:start position:0%
one of the four fundamental forces of
 

01:06:26.559 --> 01:06:29.510 align:start position:0%
one of the four fundamental forces of
nature<01:06:27.359><c> alongside</c><01:06:28.000><c> gravity</c><01:06:28.720><c> and</c><01:06:28.960><c> the</c><01:06:29.119><c> weak</c>

01:06:29.510 --> 01:06:29.520 align:start position:0%
nature alongside gravity and the weak
 

01:06:29.520 --> 01:06:32.710 align:start position:0%
nature alongside gravity and the weak
and<01:06:29.839><c> strong</c><01:06:30.319><c> nuclear</c><01:06:30.799><c> forces.</c>

01:06:32.710 --> 01:06:32.720 align:start position:0%
and strong nuclear forces.
 

01:06:32.720 --> 01:06:34.950 align:start position:0%
and strong nuclear forces.
And<01:06:33.119><c> as</c><01:06:33.520><c> physicists</c><01:06:34.079><c> began</c><01:06:34.400><c> to</c><01:06:34.640><c> better</c>

01:06:34.950 --> 01:06:34.960 align:start position:0%
And as physicists began to better
 

01:06:34.960 --> 01:06:37.349 align:start position:0%
And as physicists began to better
understand<01:06:35.359><c> the</c><01:06:35.599><c> weak</c><01:06:35.920><c> force</c><01:06:36.319><c> in</c><01:06:36.480><c> the</c><01:06:36.640><c> 1950s</c>

01:06:37.349 --> 01:06:37.359 align:start position:0%
understand the weak force in the 1950s
 

01:06:37.359 --> 01:06:40.630 align:start position:0%
understand the weak force in the 1950s
and60s,<01:06:38.559><c> they</c><01:06:38.799><c> realized</c><01:06:39.280><c> that</c><01:06:39.599><c> particles</c><01:06:40.319><c> and</c>

01:06:40.630 --> 01:06:40.640 align:start position:0%
and60s, they realized that particles and
 

01:06:40.640 --> 01:06:43.430 align:start position:0%
and60s, they realized that particles and
antiparticles<01:06:41.920><c> are</c><01:06:42.240><c> actually</c><01:06:42.640><c> affected</c><01:06:43.200><c> by</c>

01:06:43.430 --> 01:06:43.440 align:start position:0%
antiparticles are actually affected by
 

01:06:43.440 --> 01:06:46.710 align:start position:0%
antiparticles are actually affected by
it<01:06:43.839><c> quite</c><01:06:44.160><c> differently.</c>

01:06:46.710 --> 01:06:46.720 align:start position:0%
it quite differently.
 

01:06:46.720 --> 01:06:49.109 align:start position:0%
it quite differently.
The<01:06:46.960><c> first</c><01:06:47.200><c> surprise</c><01:06:47.839><c> was</c><01:06:48.079><c> that</c><01:06:48.559><c> ordinary</c>

01:06:49.109 --> 01:06:49.119 align:start position:0%
The first surprise was that ordinary
 

01:06:49.119 --> 01:06:51.430 align:start position:0%
The first surprise was that ordinary
particles<01:06:49.760><c> could</c><01:06:50.000><c> only</c><01:06:50.240><c> feel</c><01:06:50.480><c> the</c><01:06:50.720><c> weak</c><01:06:51.039><c> force</c>

01:06:51.430 --> 01:06:51.440 align:start position:0%
particles could only feel the weak force
 

01:06:51.440 --> 01:06:53.829 align:start position:0%
particles could only feel the weak force
if<01:06:51.760><c> they</c><01:06:52.000><c> were</c><01:06:52.319><c> left-handed</c><01:06:53.599><c> and</c>

01:06:53.829 --> 01:06:53.839 align:start position:0%
if they were left-handed and
 

01:06:53.839 --> 01:06:56.069 align:start position:0%
if they were left-handed and
antiparticles<01:06:54.720><c> could</c><01:06:54.960><c> only</c><01:06:55.200><c> feel</c><01:06:55.440><c> it</c><01:06:55.599><c> if</c><01:06:55.839><c> they</c>

01:06:56.069 --> 01:06:56.079 align:start position:0%
antiparticles could only feel it if they
 

01:06:56.079 --> 01:06:57.990 align:start position:0%
antiparticles could only feel it if they
were<01:06:56.319><c> right-handed.</c>

01:06:57.990 --> 01:06:58.000 align:start position:0%
were right-handed.
 

01:06:58.000 --> 01:07:02.309 align:start position:0%
were right-handed.
The<01:06:58.319><c> concept</c><01:06:58.720><c> of</c><01:06:59.200><c> handedness</c><01:07:00.400><c> or</c><01:07:00.960><c> kirality</c><01:07:02.000><c> is</c>

01:07:02.309 --> 01:07:02.319 align:start position:0%
The concept of handedness or kirality is
 

01:07:02.319 --> 01:07:04.870 align:start position:0%
The concept of handedness or kirality is
subtle<01:07:02.960><c> and</c><01:07:03.359><c> difficult</c><01:07:03.839><c> to</c><01:07:04.079><c> conceptualize</c>

01:07:04.870 --> 01:07:04.880 align:start position:0%
subtle and difficult to conceptualize
 

01:07:04.880 --> 01:07:07.510 align:start position:0%
subtle and difficult to conceptualize
for<01:07:05.119><c> particles</c><01:07:05.599><c> with</c><01:07:05.839><c> mass.</c><01:07:06.720><c> But</c><01:07:06.960><c> a</c><01:07:07.200><c> loose</c>

01:07:07.510 --> 01:07:07.520 align:start position:0%
for particles with mass. But a loose
 

01:07:07.520 --> 01:07:09.510 align:start position:0%
for particles with mass. But a loose
analogy<01:07:08.000><c> can</c><01:07:08.160><c> be</c><01:07:08.319><c> drawn</c><01:07:08.640><c> with</c><01:07:08.799><c> a</c><01:07:09.039><c> particle's</c>

01:07:09.510 --> 01:07:09.520 align:start position:0%
analogy can be drawn with a particle's
 

01:07:09.520 --> 01:07:11.829 align:start position:0%
analogy can be drawn with a particle's
helicity<01:07:10.480><c> which</c><01:07:10.799><c> describes</c><01:07:11.280><c> whether</c><01:07:11.599><c> a</c>

01:07:11.829 --> 01:07:11.839 align:start position:0%
helicity which describes whether a
 

01:07:11.839 --> 01:07:14.789 align:start position:0%
helicity which describes whether a
particle<01:07:12.240><c> is</c><01:07:12.559><c> spin</c><01:07:12.880><c> up</c><01:07:13.359><c> or</c><01:07:13.680><c> spin</c><01:07:14.079><c> down</c><01:07:14.400><c> along</c>

01:07:14.789 --> 01:07:14.799 align:start position:0%
particle is spin up or spin down along
 

01:07:14.799 --> 01:07:16.710 align:start position:0%
particle is spin up or spin down along
its<01:07:15.039><c> direction</c><01:07:15.440><c> of</c><01:07:15.599><c> motion.</c><01:07:16.240><c> In</c><01:07:16.480><c> this</c>

01:07:16.710 --> 01:07:16.720 align:start position:0%
its direction of motion. In this
 

01:07:16.720 --> 01:07:18.870 align:start position:0%
its direction of motion. In this
analogy,<01:07:17.280><c> a</c><01:07:17.520><c> spin</c><01:07:17.760><c> up</c><01:07:18.000><c> particle</c><01:07:18.400><c> is</c><01:07:18.640><c> called</c>

01:07:18.870 --> 01:07:18.880 align:start position:0%
analogy, a spin up particle is called
 

01:07:18.880 --> 01:07:21.510 align:start position:0%
analogy, a spin up particle is called
right-handed<01:07:19.839><c> while</c><01:07:20.079><c> a</c><01:07:20.319><c> spin</c><01:07:20.720><c> down</c><01:07:20.960><c> particle</c>

01:07:21.510 --> 01:07:21.520 align:start position:0%
right-handed while a spin down particle
 

01:07:21.520 --> 01:07:24.470 align:start position:0%
right-handed while a spin down particle
is<01:07:21.760><c> called</c><01:07:22.079><c> left-handed.</c>

01:07:24.470 --> 01:07:24.480 align:start position:0%
is called left-handed.
 

01:07:24.480 --> 01:07:27.829 align:start position:0%
is called left-handed.
The<01:07:24.799><c> second</c><01:07:25.440><c> and</c><01:07:25.839><c> even</c><01:07:26.240><c> crazier</c><01:07:26.799><c> surprise</c><01:07:27.599><c> was</c>

01:07:27.829 --> 01:07:27.839 align:start position:0%
The second and even crazier surprise was
 

01:07:27.839 --> 01:07:30.390 align:start position:0%
The second and even crazier surprise was
that<01:07:28.240><c> right-handed</c><01:07:29.119><c> antiparticles</c>

01:07:30.390 --> 01:07:30.400 align:start position:0%
that right-handed antiparticles
 

01:07:30.400 --> 01:07:32.470 align:start position:0%
that right-handed antiparticles
experienced<01:07:31.039><c> a</c><01:07:31.359><c> different</c><01:07:31.760><c> strength</c><01:07:32.160><c> of</c><01:07:32.400><c> the</c>

01:07:32.470 --> 01:07:32.480 align:start position:0%
experienced a different strength of the
 

01:07:32.480 --> 01:07:35.670 align:start position:0%
experienced a different strength of the
weak<01:07:32.799><c> force</c><01:07:33.520><c> as</c><01:07:33.839><c> compared</c><01:07:34.240><c> to</c><01:07:34.720><c> left-handed</c>

01:07:35.670 --> 01:07:35.680 align:start position:0%
weak force as compared to left-handed
 

01:07:35.680 --> 01:07:37.750 align:start position:0%
weak force as compared to left-handed
ordinary<01:07:36.240><c> particles.</c>

01:07:37.750 --> 01:07:37.760 align:start position:0%
ordinary particles.
 

01:07:37.760 --> 01:07:40.069 align:start position:0%
ordinary particles.
In<01:07:38.079><c> practice,</c><01:07:38.640><c> this</c><01:07:38.880><c> means</c><01:07:39.200><c> that</c><01:07:39.359><c> the</c><01:07:39.599><c> quantum</c>

01:07:40.069 --> 01:07:40.079 align:start position:0%
In practice, this means that the quantum
 

01:07:40.079 --> 01:07:42.470 align:start position:0%
In practice, this means that the quantum
probabilities<01:07:40.720><c> for</c><01:07:40.960><c> radioactive</c><01:07:41.760><c> decay</c><01:07:42.240><c> in</c>

01:07:42.470 --> 01:07:42.480 align:start position:0%
probabilities for radioactive decay in
 

01:07:42.480 --> 01:07:45.029 align:start position:0%
probabilities for radioactive decay in
ordinary<01:07:43.039><c> nuclei</c><01:07:43.839><c> are</c><01:07:44.079><c> somewhat</c><01:07:44.559><c> different</c>

01:07:45.029 --> 01:07:45.039 align:start position:0%
ordinary nuclei are somewhat different
 

01:07:45.039 --> 01:07:47.430 align:start position:0%
ordinary nuclei are somewhat different
from<01:07:45.280><c> the</c><01:07:45.520><c> probabilities</c><01:07:46.319><c> of</c><01:07:46.559><c> the</c><01:07:46.799><c> analogous</c>

01:07:47.430 --> 01:07:47.440 align:start position:0%
from the probabilities of the analogous
 

01:07:47.440 --> 01:07:50.789 align:start position:0%
from the probabilities of the analogous
decay<01:07:47.839><c> processes</c><01:07:48.559><c> in</c><01:07:48.880><c> anti-uclei.</c>

01:07:50.789 --> 01:07:50.799 align:start position:0%
decay processes in anti-uclei.
 

01:07:50.799 --> 01:07:53.190 align:start position:0%
decay processes in anti-uclei.
This<01:07:51.280><c> fundamental</c><01:07:52.079><c> asymmetry</c><01:07:52.799><c> between</c>

01:07:53.190 --> 01:07:53.200 align:start position:0%
This fundamental asymmetry between
 

01:07:53.200 --> 01:07:55.589 align:start position:0%
This fundamental asymmetry between
particles<01:07:53.680><c> and</c><01:07:54.000><c> antiparticles</c><01:07:55.039><c> was</c><01:07:55.359><c> first</c>

01:07:55.589 --> 01:07:55.599 align:start position:0%
particles and antiparticles was first
 

01:07:55.599 --> 01:07:58.549 align:start position:0%
particles and antiparticles was first
observed<01:07:56.000><c> in</c><01:07:56.240><c> a</c><01:07:56.480><c> 1963</c><01:07:57.440><c> experiment</c><01:07:58.079><c> run</c><01:07:58.319><c> by</c>

01:07:58.549 --> 01:07:58.559 align:start position:0%
observed in a 1963 experiment run by
 

01:07:58.559 --> 01:08:01.029 align:start position:0%
observed in a 1963 experiment run by
James<01:07:58.960><c> Cronin</c><01:07:59.440><c> and</c><01:07:59.680><c> Val</c><01:08:00.000><c> Fitch</c><01:08:00.400><c> of</c><01:08:00.559><c> Princeton</c>

01:08:01.029 --> 01:08:01.039 align:start position:0%
James Cronin and Val Fitch of Princeton
 

01:08:01.039 --> 01:08:03.510 align:start position:0%
James Cronin and Val Fitch of Princeton
University<01:08:02.000><c> who</c><01:08:02.240><c> would</c><01:08:02.480><c> be</c><01:08:02.640><c> awarded</c><01:08:03.200><c> yet</c>

01:08:03.510 --> 01:08:03.520 align:start position:0%
University who would be awarded yet
 

01:08:03.520 --> 01:08:06.870 align:start position:0%
University who would be awarded yet
another<01:08:03.920><c> Nobel</c><01:08:04.400><c> Prize</c><01:08:04.640><c> for</c><01:08:04.880><c> their</c><01:08:05.039><c> discovery.</c>

01:08:06.870 --> 01:08:06.880 align:start position:0%
another Nobel Prize for their discovery.
 

01:08:06.880 --> 01:08:09.190 align:start position:0%
another Nobel Prize for their discovery.
When<01:08:07.200><c> this</c><01:08:07.440><c> asymmetry</c><01:08:08.160><c> was</c><01:08:08.400><c> discovered,</c>

01:08:09.190 --> 01:08:09.200 align:start position:0%
When this asymmetry was discovered,
 

01:08:09.200 --> 01:08:11.029 align:start position:0%
When this asymmetry was discovered,
there<01:08:09.440><c> was</c><01:08:09.680><c> some</c><01:08:10.000><c> hope</c><01:08:10.480><c> that</c><01:08:10.720><c> it</c><01:08:10.880><c> would</c>

01:08:11.029 --> 01:08:11.039 align:start position:0%
there was some hope that it would
 

01:08:11.039 --> 01:08:13.270 align:start position:0%
there was some hope that it would
explain<01:08:11.440><c> the</c><01:08:11.680><c> barionic</c><01:08:12.319><c> asymmetry</c><01:08:12.960><c> of</c><01:08:13.119><c> the</c>

01:08:13.270 --> 01:08:13.280 align:start position:0%
explain the barionic asymmetry of the
 

01:08:13.280 --> 01:08:15.670 align:start position:0%
explain the barionic asymmetry of the
universe.<01:08:14.319><c> Perhaps</c><01:08:14.720><c> these</c><01:08:15.039><c> differences</c><01:08:15.520><c> in</c>

01:08:15.670 --> 01:08:15.680 align:start position:0%
universe. Perhaps these differences in
 

01:08:15.680 --> 01:08:17.669 align:start position:0%
universe. Perhaps these differences in
the<01:08:15.839><c> weak</c><01:08:16.080><c> force</c><01:08:16.480><c> were</c><01:08:16.719><c> responsible</c><01:08:17.279><c> for</c><01:08:17.440><c> the</c>

01:08:17.669 --> 01:08:17.679 align:start position:0%
the weak force were responsible for the
 

01:08:17.679 --> 01:08:20.229 align:start position:0%
the weak force were responsible for the
abundance<01:08:18.080><c> of</c><01:08:18.319><c> matter</c><01:08:19.040><c> and</c><01:08:19.440><c> utter</c><01:08:19.759><c> lack</c><01:08:20.080><c> of</c>

01:08:20.229 --> 01:08:20.239 align:start position:0%
abundance of matter and utter lack of
 

01:08:20.239 --> 01:08:23.269 align:start position:0%
abundance of matter and utter lack of
antimatter<01:08:20.960><c> around</c><01:08:21.279><c> us.</c><01:08:22.400><c> But</c><01:08:22.560><c> the</c><01:08:22.799><c> maths</c>

01:08:23.269 --> 01:08:23.279 align:start position:0%
antimatter around us. But the maths
 

01:08:23.279 --> 01:08:25.990 align:start position:0%
antimatter around us. But the maths
didn't<01:08:23.600><c> quite</c><01:08:23.920><c> work</c><01:08:24.159><c> out.</c><01:08:25.279><c> There</c><01:08:25.520><c> simply</c>

01:08:25.990 --> 01:08:26.000 align:start position:0%
didn't quite work out. There simply
 

01:08:26.000 --> 01:08:27.829 align:start position:0%
didn't quite work out. There simply
wasn't<01:08:26.480><c> enough</c><01:08:26.799><c> of</c><01:08:26.960><c> a</c><01:08:27.199><c> difference</c><01:08:27.520><c> between</c>

01:08:27.829 --> 01:08:27.839 align:start position:0%
wasn't enough of a difference between
 

01:08:27.839 --> 01:08:29.669 align:start position:0%
wasn't enough of a difference between
the<01:08:28.000><c> strength</c><01:08:28.239><c> of</c><01:08:28.400><c> the</c><01:08:28.560><c> weak</c><01:08:28.799><c> force</c><01:08:29.120><c> acting</c><01:08:29.440><c> on</c>

01:08:29.669 --> 01:08:29.679 align:start position:0%
the strength of the weak force acting on
 

01:08:29.679 --> 01:08:33.189 align:start position:0%
the strength of the weak force acting on
particles<01:08:30.560><c> versus</c><01:08:30.960><c> antiparticles.</c>

01:08:33.189 --> 01:08:33.199 align:start position:0%
particles versus antiparticles.
 

01:08:33.199 --> 01:08:35.590 align:start position:0%
particles versus antiparticles.
That<01:08:33.520><c> was</c><01:08:33.759><c> when</c><01:08:34.159><c> physicists</c><01:08:34.799><c> began</c><01:08:35.120><c> to</c><01:08:35.359><c> turn</c>

01:08:35.590 --> 01:08:35.600 align:start position:0%
That was when physicists began to turn
 

01:08:35.600 --> 01:08:37.910 align:start position:0%
That was when physicists began to turn
their<01:08:35.839><c> attention</c><01:08:36.239><c> to</c><01:08:36.560><c> the</c><01:08:36.880><c> strong</c><01:08:37.440><c> nuclear</c>

01:08:37.910 --> 01:08:37.920 align:start position:0%
their attention to the strong nuclear
 

01:08:37.920 --> 01:08:39.910 align:start position:0%
their attention to the strong nuclear
force.

01:08:39.910 --> 01:08:39.920 align:start position:0%
force.
 

01:08:39.920 --> 01:08:42.309 align:start position:0%
force.
Theoretical<01:08:40.560><c> models</c><01:08:40.960><c> predicted</c><01:08:41.359><c> that</c><01:08:42.080><c> just</c>

01:08:42.309 --> 01:08:42.319 align:start position:0%
Theoretical models predicted that just
 

01:08:42.319 --> 01:08:44.630 align:start position:0%
Theoretical models predicted that just
like<01:08:42.560><c> in</c><01:08:42.799><c> the</c><01:08:42.960><c> weak</c><01:08:43.359><c> interaction,</c><01:08:44.400><c> there</c>

01:08:44.630 --> 01:08:44.640 align:start position:0%
like in the weak interaction, there
 

01:08:44.640 --> 01:08:46.709 align:start position:0%
like in the weak interaction, there
should<01:08:44.960><c> be</c><01:08:45.199><c> some</c><01:08:45.600><c> differences</c><01:08:46.080><c> in</c><01:08:46.400><c> how</c>

01:08:46.709 --> 01:08:46.719 align:start position:0%
should be some differences in how
 

01:08:46.719 --> 01:08:48.870 align:start position:0%
should be some differences in how
left-handed<01:08:47.279><c> particles</c><01:08:47.920><c> and</c><01:08:48.239><c> right-handed</c>

01:08:48.870 --> 01:08:48.880 align:start position:0%
left-handed particles and right-handed
 

01:08:48.880 --> 01:08:52.789 align:start position:0%
left-handed particles and right-handed
particles<01:08:49.759><c> feel</c><01:08:50.080><c> the</c><01:08:50.400><c> strong</c><01:08:50.799><c> force.</c>

01:08:52.789 --> 01:08:52.799 align:start position:0%
particles feel the strong force.
 

01:08:52.799 --> 01:08:57.269 align:start position:0%
particles feel the strong force.
But<01:08:53.279><c> antimatter</c><01:08:54.480><c> just</c><01:08:55.040><c> keeps</c><01:08:55.520><c> surprising</c><01:08:56.080><c> us.</c>

01:08:57.269 --> 01:08:57.279 align:start position:0%
But antimatter just keeps surprising us.
 

01:08:57.279 --> 01:08:59.269 align:start position:0%
But antimatter just keeps surprising us.
Every<01:08:57.679><c> experiment</c><01:08:58.239><c> to</c><01:08:58.480><c> date</c><01:08:58.640><c> suggests</c><01:08:59.120><c> that</c>

01:08:59.269 --> 01:08:59.279 align:start position:0%
Every experiment to date suggests that
 

01:08:59.279 --> 01:09:01.829 align:start position:0%
Every experiment to date suggests that
the<01:08:59.520><c> strong</c><01:08:59.839><c> force</c><01:09:00.400><c> treats</c><01:09:00.799><c> particles</c><01:09:01.440><c> and</c>

01:09:01.829 --> 01:09:01.839 align:start position:0%
the strong force treats particles and
 

01:09:01.839 --> 01:09:05.430 align:start position:0%
the strong force treats particles and
antiparticles<01:09:03.120><c> just</c><01:09:03.600><c> the</c><01:09:03.920><c> same.</c>

01:09:05.430 --> 01:09:05.440 align:start position:0%
antiparticles just the same.
 

01:09:05.440 --> 01:09:07.749 align:start position:0%
antiparticles just the same.
This<01:09:05.839><c> brings</c><01:09:06.159><c> us</c><01:09:06.319><c> to</c><01:09:06.560><c> the</c><01:09:06.719><c> last</c><01:09:07.040><c> of</c><01:09:07.279><c> the</c><01:09:07.440><c> four</c>

01:09:07.749 --> 01:09:07.759 align:start position:0%
This brings us to the last of the four
 

01:09:07.759 --> 01:09:09.990 align:start position:0%
This brings us to the last of the four
fundamental<01:09:08.400><c> forces</c><01:09:09.040><c> and</c><01:09:09.279><c> the</c><01:09:09.440><c> subject</c><01:09:09.759><c> of</c>

01:09:09.990 --> 01:09:10.000 align:start position:0%
fundamental forces and the subject of
 

01:09:10.000 --> 01:09:12.789 align:start position:0%
fundamental forces and the subject of
today's<01:09:10.480><c> ongoing</c><01:09:11.040><c> experiments</c><01:09:11.600><c> at</c><01:09:11.759><c> CERN.</c>

01:09:12.789 --> 01:09:12.799 align:start position:0%
today's ongoing experiments at CERN.
 

01:09:12.799 --> 01:09:14.630 align:start position:0%
today's ongoing experiments at CERN.
Gravity.

01:09:14.630 --> 01:09:14.640 align:start position:0%
Gravity.
 

01:09:14.640 --> 01:09:16.789 align:start position:0%
Gravity.
To<01:09:14.880><c> be</c><01:09:15.040><c> honest,</c><01:09:15.520><c> suggesting</c><01:09:16.000><c> that</c><01:09:16.319><c> gravity</c>

01:09:16.789 --> 01:09:16.799 align:start position:0%
To be honest, suggesting that gravity
 

01:09:16.799 --> 01:09:18.709 align:start position:0%
To be honest, suggesting that gravity
might<01:09:17.040><c> treat</c><01:09:17.359><c> matter</c><01:09:17.679><c> and</c><01:09:18.000><c> antimatter</c>

01:09:18.709 --> 01:09:18.719 align:start position:0%
might treat matter and antimatter
 

01:09:18.719 --> 01:09:21.349 align:start position:0%
might treat matter and antimatter
differently<01:09:19.359><c> is</c><01:09:19.679><c> kind</c><01:09:19.839><c> of</c><01:09:19.920><c> a</c><01:09:20.159><c> long</c><01:09:20.400><c> shot.</c>

01:09:21.349 --> 01:09:21.359 align:start position:0%
differently is kind of a long shot.
 

01:09:21.359 --> 01:09:23.189 align:start position:0%
differently is kind of a long shot.
Think<01:09:21.600><c> back</c><01:09:21.839><c> to</c><01:09:22.000><c> the</c><01:09:22.239><c> popular</c><01:09:22.640><c> legend</c><01:09:23.040><c> of</c>

01:09:23.189 --> 01:09:23.199 align:start position:0%
Think back to the popular legend of
 

01:09:23.199 --> 01:09:25.189 align:start position:0%
Think back to the popular legend of
Galileo<01:09:23.920><c> tossing</c><01:09:24.319><c> stones</c><01:09:24.719><c> of</c><01:09:24.960><c> different</c>

01:09:25.189 --> 01:09:25.199 align:start position:0%
Galileo tossing stones of different
 

01:09:25.199 --> 01:09:27.030 align:start position:0%
Galileo tossing stones of different
sizes<01:09:25.600><c> of</c><01:09:25.839><c> materials</c><01:09:26.319><c> from</c><01:09:26.480><c> the</c><01:09:26.640><c> Tower</c><01:09:26.960><c> of</c>

01:09:27.030 --> 01:09:27.040 align:start position:0%
sizes of materials from the Tower of
 

01:09:27.040 --> 01:09:29.749 align:start position:0%
sizes of materials from the Tower of
Pisa.<01:09:27.920><c> They</c><01:09:28.159><c> all</c><01:09:28.319><c> fell</c><01:09:28.640><c> at</c><01:09:28.799><c> the</c><01:09:28.960><c> same</c><01:09:29.120><c> rate</c>

01:09:29.749 --> 01:09:29.759 align:start position:0%
Pisa. They all fell at the same rate
 

01:09:29.759 --> 01:09:31.510 align:start position:0%
Pisa. They all fell at the same rate
because<01:09:30.000><c> the</c><01:09:30.319><c> gravitational</c><01:09:30.960><c> acceleration</c>

01:09:31.510 --> 01:09:31.520 align:start position:0%
because the gravitational acceleration
 

01:09:31.520 --> 01:09:35.590 align:start position:0%
because the gravitational acceleration
on<01:09:31.759><c> Earth</c><01:09:32.080><c> is</c><01:09:32.480><c> 9.8</c><01:09:33.120><c> 8</c><01:09:33.279><c> m/s</c><01:09:34.080><c> squared</c><01:09:35.040><c> regardless</c>

01:09:35.590 --> 01:09:35.600 align:start position:0%
on Earth is 9.8 8 m/s squared regardless
 

01:09:35.600 --> 01:09:38.630 align:start position:0%
on Earth is 9.8 8 m/s squared regardless
of<01:09:35.759><c> which</c><01:09:36.080><c> object</c><01:09:36.400><c> is</c><01:09:36.640><c> falling.</c><01:09:38.000><c> Of</c><01:09:38.239><c> course,</c>

01:09:38.630 --> 01:09:38.640 align:start position:0%
of which object is falling. Of course,
 

01:09:38.640 --> 01:09:40.870 align:start position:0%
of which object is falling. Of course,
the<01:09:38.960><c> experiment</c><01:09:39.520><c> works</c><01:09:39.839><c> even</c><01:09:40.159><c> better</c><01:09:40.400><c> in</c><01:09:40.640><c> a</c>

01:09:40.870 --> 01:09:40.880 align:start position:0%
the experiment works even better in a
 

01:09:40.880 --> 01:09:43.430 align:start position:0%
the experiment works even better in a
vacuum<01:09:41.279><c> chamber</c><01:09:42.080><c> where</c><01:09:42.400><c> air</c><01:09:42.799><c> resistance</c><01:09:43.199><c> is</c>

01:09:43.430 --> 01:09:43.440 align:start position:0%
vacuum chamber where air resistance is
 

01:09:43.440 --> 01:09:46.390 align:start position:0%
vacuum chamber where air resistance is
taken<01:09:43.759><c> out</c><01:09:44.000><c> of</c><01:09:44.159><c> the</c><01:09:44.400><c> equation.</c><01:09:45.759><c> Newton</c>

01:09:46.390 --> 01:09:46.400 align:start position:0%
taken out of the equation. Newton
 

01:09:46.400 --> 01:09:48.870 align:start position:0%
taken out of the equation. Newton
expanded<01:09:46.960><c> on</c><01:09:47.120><c> this</c><01:09:47.359><c> idea</c><01:09:47.839><c> and</c><01:09:48.159><c> showed</c><01:09:48.480><c> in</c><01:09:48.719><c> the</c>

01:09:48.870 --> 01:09:48.880 align:start position:0%
expanded on this idea and showed in the
 

01:09:48.880 --> 01:09:51.110 align:start position:0%
expanded on this idea and showed in the
17th<01:09:49.359><c> century</c><01:09:49.920><c> that</c><01:09:50.159><c> your</c><01:09:50.400><c> gravitational</c>

01:09:51.110 --> 01:09:51.120 align:start position:0%
17th century that your gravitational
 

01:09:51.120 --> 01:09:54.229 align:start position:0%
17th century that your gravitational
acceleration<01:09:52.000><c> anywhere</c><01:09:52.560><c> in</c><01:09:52.880><c> space</c><01:09:53.679><c> depends</c>

01:09:54.229 --> 01:09:54.239 align:start position:0%
acceleration anywhere in space depends
 

01:09:54.239 --> 01:09:56.310 align:start position:0%
acceleration anywhere in space depends
only<01:09:54.560><c> on</c><01:09:54.719><c> the</c><01:09:54.960><c> mass</c><01:09:55.199><c> of</c><01:09:55.360><c> the</c><01:09:55.520><c> object</c><01:09:56.000><c> pulling</c>

01:09:56.310 --> 01:09:56.320 align:start position:0%
only on the mass of the object pulling
 

01:09:56.320 --> 01:09:59.030 align:start position:0%
only on the mass of the object pulling
you<01:09:56.719><c> and</c><01:09:57.040><c> your</c><01:09:57.280><c> distance</c><01:09:57.600><c> from</c><01:09:57.840><c> it.</c><01:09:58.480><c> but</c><01:09:58.800><c> not</c>

01:09:59.030 --> 01:09:59.040 align:start position:0%
you and your distance from it. but not
 

01:09:59.040 --> 01:10:01.830 align:start position:0%
you and your distance from it. but not
on<01:09:59.360><c> any</c><01:09:59.600><c> of</c><01:09:59.840><c> your</c><01:10:00.080><c> personal</c><01:10:00.560><c> properties,</c><01:10:01.600><c> not</c>

01:10:01.830 --> 01:10:01.840 align:start position:0%
on any of your personal properties, not
 

01:10:01.840 --> 01:10:04.630 align:start position:0%
on any of your personal properties, not
even<01:10:02.400><c> your</c><01:10:02.800><c> own</c><01:10:03.120><c> mass.</c>

01:10:04.630 --> 01:10:04.640 align:start position:0%
even your own mass.
 

01:10:04.640 --> 01:10:07.030 align:start position:0%
even your own mass.
This<01:10:05.040><c> famous</c><01:10:05.600><c> result</c><01:10:06.400><c> known</c><01:10:06.640><c> as</c><01:10:06.800><c> the</c>

01:10:07.030 --> 01:10:07.040 align:start position:0%
This famous result known as the
 

01:10:07.040 --> 01:10:09.270 align:start position:0%
This famous result known as the
equivalence<01:10:07.679><c> principle</c><01:10:08.400><c> is</c><01:10:08.640><c> the</c><01:10:08.880><c> foundation</c>

01:10:09.270 --> 01:10:09.280 align:start position:0%
equivalence principle is the foundation
 

01:10:09.280 --> 01:10:11.030 align:start position:0%
equivalence principle is the foundation
of<01:10:09.520><c> Einstein's</c><01:10:10.159><c> theory</c><01:10:10.480><c> of</c><01:10:10.640><c> general</c>

01:10:11.030 --> 01:10:11.040 align:start position:0%
of Einstein's theory of general
 

01:10:11.040 --> 01:10:13.590 align:start position:0%
of Einstein's theory of general
relativity,<01:10:12.080><c> our</c><01:10:12.400><c> most</c><01:10:12.719><c> accurate</c><01:10:13.199><c> and</c>

01:10:13.590 --> 01:10:13.600 align:start position:0%
relativity, our most accurate and
 

01:10:13.600 --> 01:10:16.928 align:start position:0%
relativity, our most accurate and
successful<01:10:14.239><c> model</c><01:10:14.560><c> of</c><01:10:14.719><c> gravity</c><01:10:15.199><c> to</c><01:10:15.440><c> date.</c>

01:10:16.928 --> 01:10:16.938 align:start position:0%
successful model of gravity to date.
 

01:10:16.938 --> 01:10:17.350 align:start position:0%
successful model of gravity to date.
&gt;&gt; [music]

01:10:17.350 --> 01:10:17.360 align:start position:0%
&gt;&gt; [music]
 

01:10:17.360 --> 01:10:20.229 align:start position:0%
&gt;&gt; [music]
&gt;&gt; With<01:10:17.600><c> that</c><01:10:17.840><c> in</c><01:10:18.080><c> mind,</c><01:10:18.960><c> physics</c><01:10:19.360><c> is</c><01:10:19.679><c> still</c><01:10:19.920><c> an</c>

01:10:20.229 --> 01:10:20.239 align:start position:0%
&gt;&gt; With that in mind, physics is still an
 

01:10:20.239 --> 01:10:23.030 align:start position:0%
&gt;&gt; With that in mind, physics is still an
experimental<01:10:21.120><c> science</c><01:10:21.520><c> at</c><01:10:21.679><c> its</c><01:10:21.920><c> core,</c><01:10:22.640><c> and</c><01:10:22.800><c> we</c>

01:10:23.030 --> 01:10:23.040 align:start position:0%
experimental science at its core, and we
 

01:10:23.040 --> 01:10:25.270 align:start position:0%
experimental science at its core, and we
can't<01:10:23.280><c> know</c><01:10:23.440><c> for</c><01:10:23.760><c> sure</c><01:10:24.000><c> whether</c><01:10:24.560><c> matter</c><01:10:24.960><c> and</c>

01:10:25.270 --> 01:10:25.280 align:start position:0%
can't know for sure whether matter and
 

01:10:25.280 --> 01:10:28.070 align:start position:0%
can't know for sure whether matter and
antimatter<01:10:26.000><c> obey</c><01:10:26.400><c> the</c><01:10:26.560><c> same</c><01:10:26.800><c> laws</c><01:10:27.120><c> of</c><01:10:27.280><c> gravity</c>

01:10:28.070 --> 01:10:28.080 align:start position:0%
antimatter obey the same laws of gravity
 

01:10:28.080 --> 01:10:30.550 align:start position:0%
antimatter obey the same laws of gravity
unless<01:10:28.400><c> we</c><01:10:28.560><c> check</c><01:10:28.800><c> for</c><01:10:28.960><c> ourselves.</c><01:10:30.320><c> The</c>

01:10:30.550 --> 01:10:30.560 align:start position:0%
unless we check for ourselves. The
 

01:10:30.560 --> 01:10:32.790 align:start position:0%
unless we check for ourselves. The
physicists<01:10:31.040><c> at</c><01:10:31.199><c> CERN</c><01:10:31.679><c> set</c><01:10:31.840><c> out</c><01:10:32.080><c> to</c><01:10:32.320><c> do</c><01:10:32.480><c> just</c>

01:10:32.790 --> 01:10:32.800 align:start position:0%
physicists at CERN set out to do just
 

01:10:32.800 --> 01:10:35.830 align:start position:0%
physicists at CERN set out to do just
that.<01:10:33.679><c> Motivated</c><01:10:34.320><c> not</c><01:10:34.640><c> only</c><01:10:34.880><c> by</c><01:10:35.040><c> the</c><01:10:35.280><c> barionic</c>

01:10:35.830 --> 01:10:35.840 align:start position:0%
that. Motivated not only by the barionic
 

01:10:35.840 --> 01:10:38.709 align:start position:0%
that. Motivated not only by the barionic
asymmetry<01:10:36.400><c> of</c><01:10:36.560><c> the</c><01:10:36.719><c> universe,</c><01:10:37.520><c> but</c><01:10:37.840><c> also</c><01:10:38.159><c> by</c><01:10:38.480><c> a</c>

01:10:38.709 --> 01:10:38.719 align:start position:0%
asymmetry of the universe, but also by a
 

01:10:38.719 --> 01:10:41.430 align:start position:0%
asymmetry of the universe, but also by a
few<01:10:39.199><c> speculative</c><01:10:39.920><c> papers</c><01:10:40.640><c> suggesting</c><01:10:41.199><c> that</c>

01:10:41.430 --> 01:10:41.440 align:start position:0%
few speculative papers suggesting that
 

01:10:41.440 --> 01:10:43.430 align:start position:0%
few speculative papers suggesting that
the<01:10:41.679><c> cosmological</c><01:10:42.480><c> properties</c><01:10:42.880><c> of</c><01:10:43.120><c> dark</c>

01:10:43.430 --> 01:10:43.440 align:start position:0%
the cosmological properties of dark
 

01:10:43.440 --> 01:10:45.830 align:start position:0%
the cosmological properties of dark
matter<01:10:43.760><c> and</c><01:10:44.000><c> dark</c><01:10:44.320><c> energy</c><01:10:45.120><c> could</c><01:10:45.360><c> be</c><01:10:45.600><c> more</c>

01:10:45.830 --> 01:10:45.840 align:start position:0%
matter and dark energy could be more
 

01:10:45.840 --> 01:10:48.709 align:start position:0%
matter and dark energy could be more
easily<01:10:46.320><c> explained</c><01:10:47.120><c> if</c><01:10:47.520><c> antimatter</c><01:10:48.320><c> were</c><01:10:48.560><c> to</c>

01:10:48.709 --> 01:10:48.719 align:start position:0%
easily explained if antimatter were to
 

01:10:48.719 --> 01:10:52.390 align:start position:0%
easily explained if antimatter were to
have<01:10:49.040><c> a</c><01:10:49.360><c> negative</c><01:10:50.159><c> gravitational</c><01:10:50.960><c> charge.</c><01:10:52.080><c> Or</c>

01:10:52.390 --> 01:10:52.400 align:start position:0%
have a negative gravitational charge. Or
 

01:10:52.400 --> 01:10:55.350 align:start position:0%
have a negative gravitational charge. Or
to<01:10:52.640><c> put</c><01:10:52.800><c> it</c><01:10:53.040><c> simply,</c><01:10:53.840><c> if</c><01:10:54.080><c> antimatter</c><01:10:54.880><c> were</c><01:10:55.120><c> to</c>

01:10:55.350 --> 01:10:55.360 align:start position:0%
to put it simply, if antimatter were to
 

01:10:55.360 --> 01:10:59.030 align:start position:0%
to put it simply, if antimatter were to
fall<01:10:55.760><c> up</c><01:10:56.560><c> rather</c><01:10:56.960><c> than</c><01:10:57.280><c> down.</c>

01:10:59.030 --> 01:10:59.040 align:start position:0%
fall up rather than down.
 

01:10:59.040 --> 01:11:01.510 align:start position:0%
fall up rather than down.
There<01:10:59.360><c> are</c><01:10:59.760><c> several</c><01:11:00.239><c> ongoing</c><01:11:00.800><c> experiments</c><01:11:01.360><c> at</c>

01:11:01.510 --> 01:11:01.520 align:start position:0%
There are several ongoing experiments at
 

01:11:01.520 --> 01:11:03.189 align:start position:0%
There are several ongoing experiments at
CERN<01:11:02.000><c> testing</c><01:11:02.320><c> the</c><01:11:02.640><c> gravitational</c>

01:11:03.189 --> 01:11:03.199 align:start position:0%
CERN testing the gravitational
 

01:11:03.199 --> 01:11:05.590 align:start position:0%
CERN testing the gravitational
properties<01:11:03.520><c> of</c><01:11:03.760><c> antimatter</c><01:11:04.800><c> including</c>

01:11:05.590 --> 01:11:05.600 align:start position:0%
properties of antimatter including
 

01:11:05.600 --> 01:11:09.510 align:start position:0%
properties of antimatter including
Aegis,<01:11:06.719><c> GBAR</c><01:11:07.679><c> and</c><01:11:08.000><c> alpha.</c>

01:11:09.510 --> 01:11:09.520 align:start position:0%
Aegis, GBAR and alpha.
 

01:11:09.520 --> 01:11:11.830 align:start position:0%
Aegis, GBAR and alpha.
Today<01:11:09.840><c> we</c><01:11:10.080><c> will</c><01:11:10.320><c> focus</c><01:11:10.719><c> specifically</c><01:11:11.360><c> on</c><01:11:11.600><c> a</c>

01:11:11.830 --> 01:11:11.840 align:start position:0%
Today we will focus specifically on a
 

01:11:11.840 --> 01:11:13.830 align:start position:0%
Today we will focus specifically on a
key<01:11:12.080><c> experiment</c><01:11:12.640><c> coming</c><01:11:12.960><c> out</c><01:11:13.120><c> of</c><01:11:13.280><c> the</c><01:11:13.440><c> alpha</c>

01:11:13.830 --> 01:11:13.840 align:start position:0%
key experiment coming out of the alpha
 

01:11:13.840 --> 01:11:15.590 align:start position:0%
key experiment coming out of the alpha
group<01:11:14.159><c> that</c><01:11:14.400><c> was</c><01:11:14.560><c> published</c><01:11:14.880><c> in</c><01:11:15.040><c> the</c><01:11:15.199><c> journal</c>

01:11:15.590 --> 01:11:15.600 align:start position:0%
group that was published in the journal
 

01:11:15.600 --> 01:11:18.310 align:start position:0%
group that was published in the journal
Nature<01:11:16.000><c> this</c><01:11:16.320><c> past</c><01:11:16.560><c> September.</c>

01:11:18.310 --> 01:11:18.320 align:start position:0%
Nature this past September.
 

01:11:18.320 --> 01:11:20.790 align:start position:0%
Nature this past September.
After<01:11:18.800><c> decades</c><01:11:19.280><c> of</c><01:11:19.520><c> assumptions,</c><01:11:20.560><c> this</c>

01:11:20.790 --> 01:11:20.800 align:start position:0%
After decades of assumptions, this
 

01:11:20.800 --> 01:11:23.270 align:start position:0%
After decades of assumptions, this
experiment<01:11:21.360><c> has</c><01:11:21.600><c> brought</c><01:11:21.840><c> us</c><01:11:22.239><c> realworld</c><01:11:22.880><c> data</c>

01:11:23.270 --> 01:11:23.280 align:start position:0%
experiment has brought us realworld data
 

01:11:23.280 --> 01:11:25.350 align:start position:0%
experiment has brought us realworld data
on<01:11:23.520><c> the</c><01:11:23.760><c> gravitational</c><01:11:24.400><c> acceleration</c><01:11:25.040><c> of</c>

01:11:25.350 --> 01:11:25.360 align:start position:0%
on the gravitational acceleration of
 

01:11:25.360 --> 01:11:28.550 align:start position:0%
on the gravitational acceleration of
antimatter<01:11:26.159><c> on</c><01:11:26.400><c> Earth's</c><01:11:26.800><c> surface.</c><01:11:28.159><c> But</c>

01:11:28.550 --> 01:11:28.560 align:start position:0%
antimatter on Earth's surface. But
 

01:11:28.560 --> 01:11:31.030 align:start position:0%
antimatter on Earth's surface. But
before<01:11:28.960><c> we</c><01:11:29.199><c> show</c><01:11:29.360><c> you</c><01:11:29.520><c> the</c><01:11:29.760><c> results,</c><01:11:30.719><c> let's</c>

01:11:31.030 --> 01:11:31.040 align:start position:0%
before we show you the results, let's
 

01:11:31.040 --> 01:11:33.510 align:start position:0%
before we show you the results, let's
take<01:11:31.199><c> a</c><01:11:31.440><c> moment</c><01:11:31.600><c> to</c><01:11:31.920><c> appreciate</c><01:11:32.800><c> just</c><01:11:33.120><c> how</c>

01:11:33.510 --> 01:11:33.520 align:start position:0%
take a moment to appreciate just how
 

01:11:33.520 --> 01:11:36.310 align:start position:0%
take a moment to appreciate just how
intricately<01:11:34.239><c> this</c><01:11:34.640><c> experiment</c><01:11:35.199><c> was</c><01:11:35.520><c> designed</c>

01:11:36.310 --> 01:11:36.320 align:start position:0%
intricately this experiment was designed
 

01:11:36.320 --> 01:11:38.630 align:start position:0%
intricately this experiment was designed
in<01:11:36.560><c> order</c><01:11:36.800><c> to</c><01:11:37.040><c> isolate</c><01:11:37.760><c> and</c><01:11:38.000><c> measure</c><01:11:38.400><c> the</c>

01:11:38.630 --> 01:11:38.640 align:start position:0%
in order to isolate and measure the
 

01:11:38.640 --> 01:11:41.110 align:start position:0%
in order to isolate and measure the
effects<01:11:38.960><c> of</c><01:11:39.199><c> gravity.</c>

01:11:41.110 --> 01:11:41.120 align:start position:0%
effects of gravity.
 

01:11:41.120 --> 01:11:43.189 align:start position:0%
effects of gravity.
The<01:11:41.360><c> first</c><01:11:41.600><c> step</c><01:11:41.760><c> in</c><01:11:42.000><c> the</c><01:11:42.159><c> experiment</c><01:11:42.719><c> is</c><01:11:42.960><c> to</c>

01:11:43.189 --> 01:11:43.199 align:start position:0%
The first step in the experiment is to
 

01:11:43.199 --> 01:11:45.990 align:start position:0%
The first step in the experiment is to
secure<01:11:43.760><c> a</c><01:11:44.080><c> beam</c><01:11:44.480><c> of</c><01:11:44.880><c> several</c><01:11:45.600><c> million</c>

01:11:45.990 --> 01:11:46.000 align:start position:0%
secure a beam of several million
 

01:11:46.000 --> 01:11:48.870 align:start position:0%
secure a beam of several million
posetrons<01:11:46.800><c> per</c><01:11:47.120><c> second</c><01:11:47.840><c> emitted</c><01:11:48.400><c> from</c><01:11:48.640><c> a</c>

01:11:48.870 --> 01:11:48.880 align:start position:0%
posetrons per second emitted from a
 

01:11:48.880 --> 01:11:52.229 align:start position:0%
posetrons per second emitted from a
radioactive<01:11:49.679><c> isotope</c><01:11:50.239><c> of</c><01:11:50.480><c> sodium.</c>

01:11:52.229 --> 01:11:52.239 align:start position:0%
radioactive isotope of sodium.
 

01:11:52.239 --> 01:11:54.790 align:start position:0%
radioactive isotope of sodium.
Most<01:11:52.560><c> of</c><01:11:52.719><c> these</c><01:11:53.040><c> posetrons</c><01:11:53.840><c> end</c><01:11:54.000><c> up</c><01:11:54.320><c> colliding</c>

01:11:54.790 --> 01:11:54.800 align:start position:0%
Most of these posetrons end up colliding
 

01:11:54.800 --> 01:11:57.030 align:start position:0%
Most of these posetrons end up colliding
with<01:11:55.040><c> ordinary</c><01:11:55.600><c> matter</c><01:11:55.840><c> in</c><01:11:56.080><c> the</c><01:11:56.239><c> experiment</c>

01:11:57.030 --> 01:11:57.040 align:start position:0%
with ordinary matter in the experiment
 

01:11:57.040 --> 01:11:59.590 align:start position:0%
with ordinary matter in the experiment
causing<01:11:57.600><c> miniature</c><01:11:58.159><c> explosions</c><01:11:59.120><c> in</c><01:11:59.360><c> which</c>

01:11:59.590 --> 01:11:59.600 align:start position:0%
causing miniature explosions in which
 

01:11:59.600 --> 01:12:01.990 align:start position:0%
causing miniature explosions in which
posetrons<01:12:00.239><c> and</c><01:12:00.480><c> electrons</c><01:12:01.120><c> annihilate</c><01:12:01.840><c> each</c>

01:12:01.990 --> 01:12:02.000 align:start position:0%
posetrons and electrons annihilate each
 

01:12:02.000 --> 01:12:04.149 align:start position:0%
posetrons and electrons annihilate each
other<01:12:02.320><c> and</c><01:12:02.640><c> release</c><01:12:02.960><c> a</c><01:12:03.280><c> small</c><01:12:03.600><c> burst</c><01:12:04.000><c> of</c>

01:12:04.149 --> 01:12:04.159 align:start position:0%
other and release a small burst of
 

01:12:04.159 --> 01:12:07.189 align:start position:0%
other and release a small burst of
energy<01:12:04.560><c> in</c><01:12:04.719><c> the</c><01:12:04.880><c> form</c><01:12:05.120><c> of</c><01:12:05.280><c> light.</c><01:12:06.480><c> But</c><01:12:06.640><c> a</c><01:12:06.960><c> small</c>

01:12:07.189 --> 01:12:07.199 align:start position:0%
energy in the form of light. But a small
 

01:12:07.199 --> 01:12:09.350 align:start position:0%
energy in the form of light. But a small
fraction<01:12:07.520><c> of</c><01:12:07.600><c> the</c><01:12:07.760><c> posetrons</c><01:12:08.480><c> survive</c><01:12:09.120><c> as</c>

01:12:09.350 --> 01:12:09.360 align:start position:0%
fraction of the posetrons survive as
 

01:12:09.360 --> 01:12:11.510 align:start position:0%
fraction of the posetrons survive as
they<01:12:09.600><c> are</c><01:12:09.760><c> guided</c><01:12:10.320><c> through</c><01:12:10.560><c> the</c><01:12:10.880><c> experimental</c>

01:12:11.510 --> 01:12:11.520 align:start position:0%
they are guided through the experimental
 

01:12:11.520 --> 01:12:14.470 align:start position:0%
they are guided through the experimental
apparatus<01:12:12.719><c> where</c><01:12:12.960><c> they</c><01:12:13.199><c> are</c><01:12:13.360><c> cooled</c><01:12:13.760><c> by</c><01:12:14.080><c> low</c>

01:12:14.470 --> 01:12:14.480 align:start position:0%
apparatus where they are cooled by low
 

01:12:14.480 --> 01:12:17.189 align:start position:0%
apparatus where they are cooled by low
pressure<01:12:14.880><c> gases</c><01:12:15.679><c> and</c><01:12:16.000><c> trapped</c><01:12:16.400><c> by</c><01:12:16.719><c> electric</c>

01:12:17.189 --> 01:12:17.199 align:start position:0%
pressure gases and trapped by electric
 

01:12:17.199 --> 01:12:20.470 align:start position:0%
pressure gases and trapped by electric
and<01:12:17.440><c> magnetic</c><01:12:17.920><c> fields.</c><01:12:19.360><c> But</c><01:12:19.679><c> observing</c><01:12:20.239><c> the</c>

01:12:20.470 --> 01:12:20.480 align:start position:0%
and magnetic fields. But observing the
 

01:12:20.480 --> 01:12:23.030 align:start position:0%
and magnetic fields. But observing the
effects<01:12:20.880><c> of</c><01:12:21.120><c> gravity</c><01:12:21.600><c> on</c><01:12:21.760><c> these</c><01:12:22.080><c> posetrons</c>

01:12:23.030 --> 01:12:23.040 align:start position:0%
effects of gravity on these posetrons
 

01:12:23.040 --> 01:12:25.669 align:start position:0%
effects of gravity on these posetrons
would<01:12:23.360><c> be</c><01:12:23.520><c> nearly</c><01:12:24.000><c> impossible.</c><01:12:25.040><c> Their</c><01:12:25.280><c> masses</c>

01:12:25.669 --> 01:12:25.679 align:start position:0%
would be nearly impossible. Their masses
 

01:12:25.679 --> 01:12:28.149 align:start position:0%
would be nearly impossible. Their masses
are<01:12:25.920><c> so</c><01:12:26.159><c> small</c><01:12:26.880><c> that</c><01:12:27.120><c> the</c><01:12:27.280><c> tiny</c><01:12:27.679><c> force</c><01:12:27.920><c> of</c>

01:12:28.149 --> 01:12:28.159 align:start position:0%
are so small that the tiny force of
 

01:12:28.159 --> 01:12:30.470 align:start position:0%
are so small that the tiny force of
gravity<01:12:28.560><c> felt</c><01:12:28.960><c> by</c><01:12:29.199><c> each</c><01:12:29.520><c> particle</c><01:12:30.159><c> is</c>

01:12:30.470 --> 01:12:30.480 align:start position:0%
gravity felt by each particle is
 

01:12:30.480 --> 01:12:32.390 align:start position:0%
gravity felt by each particle is
overshadowed<01:12:31.120><c> by</c><01:12:31.360><c> even</c><01:12:31.600><c> the</c><01:12:31.840><c> smallest</c>

01:12:32.390 --> 01:12:32.400 align:start position:0%
overshadowed by even the smallest
 

01:12:32.400 --> 01:12:34.070 align:start position:0%
overshadowed by even the smallest
fluctuations<01:12:33.120><c> in</c><01:12:33.360><c> the</c><01:12:33.520><c> surrounding</c>

01:12:34.070 --> 01:12:34.080 align:start position:0%
fluctuations in the surrounding
 

01:12:34.080 --> 01:12:36.390 align:start position:0%
fluctuations in the surrounding
electromagnetic<01:12:34.960><c> fields.</c>

01:12:36.390 --> 01:12:36.400 align:start position:0%
electromagnetic fields.
 

01:12:36.400 --> 01:12:38.870 align:start position:0%
electromagnetic fields.
That's<01:12:36.719><c> why</c><01:12:37.199><c> this</c><01:12:37.600><c> collection</c><01:12:37.840><c> of</c><01:12:38.080><c> posetrons</c>

01:12:38.870 --> 01:12:38.880 align:start position:0%
That's why this collection of posetrons
 

01:12:38.880 --> 01:12:41.350 align:start position:0%
That's why this collection of posetrons
is<01:12:39.199><c> merged</c><01:12:39.600><c> with</c><01:12:39.840><c> a</c><01:12:40.080><c> separate</c><01:12:40.560><c> container</c><01:12:41.040><c> of</c>

01:12:41.350 --> 01:12:41.360 align:start position:0%
is merged with a separate container of
 

01:12:41.360 --> 01:12:44.550 align:start position:0%
is merged with a separate container of
anti-roton<01:12:42.719><c> where</c><01:12:42.960><c> they</c><01:12:43.199><c> bond</c><01:12:43.760><c> and</c><01:12:44.080><c> form</c>

01:12:44.550 --> 01:12:44.560 align:start position:0%
anti-roton where they bond and form
 

01:12:44.560 --> 01:12:47.270 align:start position:0%
anti-roton where they bond and form
neutral<01:12:45.120><c> anti-hydrogen</c><01:12:46.080><c> atoms</c><01:12:46.800><c> that</c><01:12:47.040><c> are</c>

01:12:47.270 --> 01:12:47.280 align:start position:0%
neutral anti-hydrogen atoms that are
 

01:12:47.280 --> 01:12:49.030 align:start position:0%
neutral anti-hydrogen atoms that are
much<01:12:47.520><c> less</c><01:12:47.760><c> responsive</c><01:12:48.320><c> to</c><01:12:48.560><c> stray</c>

01:12:49.030 --> 01:12:49.040 align:start position:0%
much less responsive to stray
 

01:12:49.040 --> 01:12:51.990 align:start position:0%
much less responsive to stray
electromagnetic<01:12:49.920><c> fields.</c><01:12:51.280><c> And</c><01:12:51.600><c> where</c><01:12:51.840><c> did</c>

01:12:51.990 --> 01:12:52.000 align:start position:0%
electromagnetic fields. And where did
 

01:12:52.000 --> 01:12:54.950 align:start position:0%
electromagnetic fields. And where did
the<01:12:52.159><c> anti-rotons</c><01:12:53.040><c> come</c><01:12:53.199><c> from?</c><01:12:54.159><c> Suffice</c><01:12:54.560><c> it</c><01:12:54.800><c> to</c>

01:12:54.950 --> 01:12:54.960 align:start position:0%
the anti-rotons come from? Suffice it to
 

01:12:54.960 --> 01:12:57.030 align:start position:0%
the anti-rotons come from? Suffice it to
say<01:12:55.120><c> that</c><01:12:55.360><c> they</c><01:12:55.600><c> were</c><01:12:55.840><c> produced</c><01:12:56.239><c> by</c><01:12:56.480><c> firing</c>

01:12:57.030 --> 01:12:57.040 align:start position:0%
say that they were produced by firing
 

01:12:57.040 --> 01:13:00.310 align:start position:0%
say that they were produced by firing
ordinary<01:12:57.600><c> protons</c><01:12:58.159><c> into</c><01:12:58.560><c> a</c><01:12:58.800><c> block</c><01:12:59.120><c> of</c><01:12:59.360><c> metal</c>

01:13:00.310 --> 01:13:00.320 align:start position:0%
ordinary protons into a block of metal
 

01:13:00.320 --> 01:13:04.470 align:start position:0%
ordinary protons into a block of metal
really,<01:13:01.040><c> really</c><01:13:01.600><c> fast.</c><01:13:02.800><c> Yes,</c><01:13:03.520><c> physics</c><01:13:04.080><c> is</c>

01:13:04.470 --> 01:13:04.480 align:start position:0%
really, really fast. Yes, physics is
 

01:13:04.480 --> 01:13:07.110 align:start position:0%
really, really fast. Yes, physics is
awesome<01:13:04.880><c> like</c><01:13:05.120><c> that.</c>

01:13:07.110 --> 01:13:07.120 align:start position:0%
awesome like that.
 

01:13:07.120 --> 01:13:09.270 align:start position:0%
awesome like that.
Once<01:13:07.440><c> the</c><01:13:07.679><c> anti-hydrogen</c><01:13:08.719><c> atoms</c><01:13:09.120><c> are</c>

01:13:09.270 --> 01:13:09.280 align:start position:0%
Once the anti-hydrogen atoms are
 

01:13:09.280 --> 01:13:12.390 align:start position:0%
Once the anti-hydrogen atoms are
created,<01:13:10.080><c> they</c><01:13:10.400><c> behave</c><01:13:10.800><c> like</c><01:13:11.199><c> tiny</c><01:13:11.920><c> weak</c>

01:13:12.390 --> 01:13:12.400 align:start position:0%
created, they behave like tiny weak
 

01:13:12.400 --> 01:13:14.550 align:start position:0%
created, they behave like tiny weak
magnets<01:13:12.960><c> that</c><01:13:13.280><c> can</c><01:13:13.440><c> remain</c><01:13:13.760><c> trapped</c><01:13:14.159><c> by</c>

01:13:14.550 --> 01:13:14.560 align:start position:0%
magnets that can remain trapped by
 

01:13:14.560 --> 01:13:16.709 align:start position:0%
magnets that can remain trapped by
complicated<01:13:15.199><c> arrangements</c><01:13:15.840><c> of</c><01:13:16.080><c> external</c>

01:13:16.709 --> 01:13:16.719 align:start position:0%
complicated arrangements of external
 

01:13:16.719 --> 01:13:20.149 align:start position:0%
complicated arrangements of external
magnetic<01:13:17.199><c> fields.</c><01:13:18.640><c> Now,</c><01:13:19.280><c> this</c><01:13:19.600><c> magnetic</c>

01:13:20.149 --> 01:13:20.159 align:start position:0%
magnetic fields. Now, this magnetic
 

01:13:20.159 --> 01:13:22.149 align:start position:0%
magnetic fields. Now, this magnetic
interaction<01:13:20.640><c> is</c><01:13:20.880><c> weak</c><01:13:21.199><c> enough</c><01:13:21.440><c> that</c><01:13:21.760><c> it</c><01:13:22.000><c> no</c>

01:13:22.149 --> 01:13:22.159 align:start position:0%
interaction is weak enough that it no
 

01:13:22.159 --> 01:13:23.830 align:start position:0%
interaction is weak enough that it no
longer<01:13:22.480><c> overwhelms</c><01:13:23.040><c> the</c><01:13:23.199><c> gravitational</c>

01:13:23.830 --> 01:13:23.840 align:start position:0%
longer overwhelms the gravitational
 

01:13:23.840 --> 01:13:26.470 align:start position:0%
longer overwhelms the gravitational
effects<01:13:24.159><c> that</c><01:13:24.320><c> we</c><01:13:24.560><c> are</c><01:13:24.719><c> trying</c><01:13:24.960><c> to</c><01:13:25.120><c> measure.</c>

01:13:26.470 --> 01:13:26.480 align:start position:0%
effects that we are trying to measure.
 

01:13:26.480 --> 01:13:27.910 align:start position:0%
effects that we are trying to measure.
The<01:13:26.719><c> chamber</c><01:13:27.199><c> containing</c><01:13:27.600><c> these</c>

01:13:27.910 --> 01:13:27.920 align:start position:0%
The chamber containing these
 

01:13:27.920 --> 01:13:31.270 align:start position:0%
The chamber containing these
anti-hydrogen<01:13:28.800><c> atoms</c><01:13:29.360><c> is</c><01:13:29.679><c> nearly</c><01:13:30.000><c> a</c><01:13:30.159><c> vacuum.</c>

01:13:31.270 --> 01:13:31.280 align:start position:0%
anti-hydrogen atoms is nearly a vacuum.
 

01:13:31.280 --> 01:13:34.870 align:start position:0%
anti-hydrogen atoms is nearly a vacuum.
There<01:13:31.600><c> are</c><01:13:31.920><c> just</c><01:13:32.320><c> about</c><01:13:33.120><c> 200,000</c><01:13:34.320><c> atoms</c><01:13:34.640><c> of</c>

01:13:34.870 --> 01:13:34.880 align:start position:0%
There are just about 200,000 atoms of
 

01:13:34.880 --> 01:13:38.229 align:start position:0%
There are just about 200,000 atoms of
ordinary<01:13:35.360><c> gas</c><01:13:35.679><c> per</c><01:13:36.000><c> cm</c><01:13:37.440><c> compared</c><01:13:37.840><c> to</c><01:13:38.000><c> a</c>

01:13:38.229 --> 01:13:38.239 align:start position:0%
ordinary gas per cm compared to a
 

01:13:38.239 --> 01:13:41.350 align:start position:0%
ordinary gas per cm compared to a
typical<01:13:38.719><c> atmospheric</c><01:13:39.520><c> density</c><01:13:40.320><c> of</c><01:13:40.640><c> 20</c>

01:13:41.350 --> 01:13:41.360 align:start position:0%
typical atmospheric density of 20
 

01:13:41.360 --> 01:13:44.870 align:start position:0%
typical atmospheric density of 20
quintilion<01:13:42.400><c> atoms</c><01:13:42.880><c> per</c><01:13:43.120><c> cubic</c><01:13:43.520><c> cm.</c><01:13:44.560><c> Under</c>

01:13:44.870 --> 01:13:44.880 align:start position:0%
quintilion atoms per cubic cm. Under
 

01:13:44.880 --> 01:13:46.630 align:start position:0%
quintilion atoms per cubic cm. Under
these<01:13:45.199><c> conditions,</c><01:13:46.000><c> the</c><01:13:46.239><c> trapped</c>

01:13:46.630 --> 01:13:46.640 align:start position:0%
these conditions, the trapped
 

01:13:46.640 --> 01:13:49.350 align:start position:0%
these conditions, the trapped
anti-hydrogen<01:13:47.520><c> atoms</c><01:13:48.159><c> almost</c><01:13:48.560><c> never</c><01:13:48.960><c> collide</c>

01:13:49.350 --> 01:13:49.360 align:start position:0%
anti-hydrogen atoms almost never collide
 

01:13:49.360 --> 01:13:51.350 align:start position:0%
anti-hydrogen atoms almost never collide
or<01:13:49.600><c> annihilate</c><01:13:50.159><c> with</c><01:13:50.400><c> atoms</c><01:13:50.719><c> of</c><01:13:50.880><c> ordinary</c>

01:13:51.350 --> 01:13:51.360 align:start position:0%
or annihilate with atoms of ordinary
 

01:13:51.360 --> 01:13:54.390 align:start position:0%
or annihilate with atoms of ordinary
matter.<01:13:52.320><c> Instead,</c><01:13:53.040><c> they</c><01:13:53.280><c> can</c><01:13:53.600><c> more</c><01:13:53.840><c> or</c><01:13:54.080><c> less</c>

01:13:54.390 --> 01:13:54.400 align:start position:0%
matter. Instead, they can more or less
 

01:13:54.400 --> 01:13:56.310 align:start position:0%
matter. Instead, they can more or less
just<01:13:54.719><c> float</c><01:13:55.120><c> around</c><01:13:55.360><c> the</c><01:13:55.600><c> chamber</c><01:13:56.000><c> for</c>

01:13:56.310 --> 01:13:56.320 align:start position:0%
just float around the chamber for
 

01:13:56.320 --> 01:13:58.390 align:start position:0%
just float around the chamber for
minutes<01:13:56.719><c> or</c><01:13:56.960><c> longer.</c>

01:13:58.390 --> 01:13:58.400 align:start position:0%
minutes or longer.
 

01:13:58.400 --> 01:14:00.870 align:start position:0%
minutes or longer.
But<01:13:58.960><c> as</c><01:13:59.280><c> the</c><01:13:59.440><c> magnetic</c><01:13:59.920><c> fields</c><01:14:00.320><c> used</c><01:14:00.640><c> to</c>

01:14:00.870 --> 01:14:00.880 align:start position:0%
But as the magnetic fields used to
 

01:14:00.880 --> 01:14:03.110 align:start position:0%
But as the magnetic fields used to
vertically<01:14:01.440><c> trap</c><01:14:01.679><c> the</c><01:14:01.840><c> antihydrogen</c><01:14:02.719><c> atoms</c>

01:14:03.110 --> 01:14:03.120 align:start position:0%
vertically trap the antihydrogen atoms
 

01:14:03.120 --> 01:14:05.750 align:start position:0%
vertically trap the antihydrogen atoms
are<01:14:03.360><c> weakened,</c><01:14:04.400><c> this</c><01:14:04.640><c> random</c><01:14:05.120><c> floating</c>

01:14:05.750 --> 01:14:05.760 align:start position:0%
are weakened, this random floating
 

01:14:05.760 --> 01:14:07.990 align:start position:0%
are weakened, this random floating
eventually<01:14:06.400><c> allows</c><01:14:06.800><c> the</c><01:14:07.040><c> anti-hydrogen</c>

01:14:07.990 --> 01:14:08.000 align:start position:0%
eventually allows the anti-hydrogen
 

01:14:08.000 --> 01:14:10.709 align:start position:0%
eventually allows the anti-hydrogen
atoms<01:14:08.719><c> to</c><01:14:08.960><c> escape</c><01:14:09.440><c> through</c><01:14:09.679><c> either</c><01:14:10.000><c> the</c><01:14:10.239><c> top</c>

01:14:10.709 --> 01:14:10.719 align:start position:0%
atoms to escape through either the top
 

01:14:10.719 --> 01:14:12.950 align:start position:0%
atoms to escape through either the top
or<01:14:10.960><c> the</c><01:14:11.120><c> bottom</c><01:14:11.440><c> of</c><01:14:11.600><c> the</c><01:14:11.760><c> chamber</c><01:14:12.400><c> where</c><01:14:12.640><c> they</c>

01:14:12.950 --> 01:14:12.960 align:start position:0%
or the bottom of the chamber where they
 

01:14:12.960 --> 01:14:15.110 align:start position:0%
or the bottom of the chamber where they
can<01:14:13.040><c> collide</c><01:14:13.440><c> with</c><01:14:13.600><c> a</c><01:14:13.840><c> wall</c><01:14:14.000><c> of</c><01:14:14.159><c> apparatus,</c>

01:14:15.110 --> 01:14:15.120 align:start position:0%
can collide with a wall of apparatus,
 

01:14:15.120 --> 01:14:17.750 align:start position:0%
can collide with a wall of apparatus,
annihilate<01:14:15.760><c> with</c><01:14:16.000><c> some</c><01:14:16.239><c> ordinary</c><01:14:16.800><c> atoms,</c><01:14:17.520><c> and</c>

01:14:17.750 --> 01:14:17.760 align:start position:0%
annihilate with some ordinary atoms, and
 

01:14:17.760 --> 01:14:20.709 align:start position:0%
annihilate with some ordinary atoms, and
release<01:14:18.080><c> a</c><01:14:18.400><c> small</c><01:14:18.640><c> burst</c><01:14:18.960><c> of</c><01:14:19.199><c> light.</c><01:14:20.320><c> In</c><01:14:20.560><c> the</c>

01:14:20.709 --> 01:14:20.719 align:start position:0%
release a small burst of light. In the
 

01:14:20.719 --> 01:14:23.110 align:start position:0%
release a small burst of light. In the
alpha<01:14:21.120><c> experiment,</c><01:14:21.920><c> this</c><01:14:22.239><c> happens</c><01:14:22.640><c> over</c><01:14:22.880><c> the</c>

01:14:23.110 --> 01:14:23.120 align:start position:0%
alpha experiment, this happens over the
 

01:14:23.120 --> 01:14:26.390 align:start position:0%
alpha experiment, this happens over the
course<01:14:23.360><c> of</c><01:14:23.600><c> about</c><01:14:24.000><c> 20</c><01:14:24.480><c> seconds.</c>

01:14:26.390 --> 01:14:26.400 align:start position:0%
course of about 20 seconds.
 

01:14:26.400 --> 01:14:28.470 align:start position:0%
course of about 20 seconds.
The<01:14:26.560><c> theory</c><01:14:26.960><c> behind</c><01:14:27.199><c> the</c><01:14:27.440><c> experiment</c><01:14:28.000><c> is</c><01:14:28.239><c> that</c>

01:14:28.470 --> 01:14:28.480 align:start position:0%
The theory behind the experiment is that
 

01:14:28.480 --> 01:14:30.950 align:start position:0%
The theory behind the experiment is that
if<01:14:28.800><c> gravity</c><01:14:29.520><c> really</c><01:14:29.920><c> pulls</c><01:14:30.239><c> antimatter</c>

01:14:30.950 --> 01:14:30.960 align:start position:0%
if gravity really pulls antimatter
 

01:14:30.960 --> 01:14:33.430 align:start position:0%
if gravity really pulls antimatter
downwards,<01:14:31.840><c> more</c><01:14:32.159><c> of</c><01:14:32.320><c> the</c><01:14:32.480><c> anti-hydrogen</c>

01:14:33.430 --> 01:14:33.440 align:start position:0%
downwards, more of the anti-hydrogen
 

01:14:33.440 --> 01:14:35.910 align:start position:0%
downwards, more of the anti-hydrogen
atoms<01:14:33.920><c> escape</c><01:14:34.320><c> through</c><01:14:34.560><c> the</c><01:14:34.880><c> bottom</c><01:14:35.520><c> than</c><01:14:35.760><c> the</c>

01:14:35.910 --> 01:14:35.920 align:start position:0%
atoms escape through the bottom than the
 

01:14:35.920 --> 01:14:38.229 align:start position:0%
atoms escape through the bottom than the
top.<01:14:36.800><c> The</c><01:14:37.040><c> stronger</c><01:14:37.440><c> the</c><01:14:37.600><c> gravitational</c>

01:14:38.229 --> 01:14:38.239 align:start position:0%
top. The stronger the gravitational
 

01:14:38.239 --> 01:14:40.470 align:start position:0%
top. The stronger the gravitational
force,<01:14:38.880><c> the</c><01:14:39.120><c> more</c><01:14:39.280><c> atoms</c><01:14:39.679><c> escape</c><01:14:40.159><c> through</c><01:14:40.320><c> the</c>

01:14:40.470 --> 01:14:40.480 align:start position:0%
force, the more atoms escape through the
 

01:14:40.480 --> 01:14:41.910 align:start position:0%
force, the more atoms escape through the
bottom.

01:14:41.910 --> 01:14:41.920 align:start position:0%
bottom.
 

01:14:41.920 --> 01:14:44.070 align:start position:0%
bottom.
The<01:14:42.159><c> simulations</c><01:14:42.719><c> the</c><01:14:42.960><c> alpha</c><01:14:43.280><c> team</c><01:14:43.520><c> ran</c>

01:14:44.070 --> 01:14:44.080 align:start position:0%
The simulations the alpha team ran
 

01:14:44.080 --> 01:14:46.149 align:start position:0%
The simulations the alpha team ran
showed<01:14:44.480><c> that</c><01:14:44.800><c> under</c><01:14:45.120><c> normal</c><01:14:45.520><c> gravitational</c>

01:14:46.149 --> 01:14:46.159 align:start position:0%
showed that under normal gravitational
 

01:14:46.159 --> 01:14:49.830 align:start position:0%
showed that under normal gravitational
attraction<01:14:47.199><c> about</c><01:14:47.600><c> 85%</c><01:14:48.640><c> of</c><01:14:48.800><c> the</c><01:14:48.960><c> antihydrogen</c>

01:14:49.830 --> 01:14:49.840 align:start position:0%
attraction about 85% of the antihydrogen
 

01:14:49.840 --> 01:14:52.630 align:start position:0%
attraction about 85% of the antihydrogen
atoms<01:14:50.560><c> should</c><01:14:50.880><c> escape</c><01:14:51.280><c> through</c><01:14:51.520><c> the</c><01:14:51.760><c> bottom.</c>

01:14:52.630 --> 01:14:52.640 align:start position:0%
atoms should escape through the bottom.
 

01:14:52.640 --> 01:14:55.030 align:start position:0%
atoms should escape through the bottom.
Whereas<01:14:53.199><c> only</c><01:14:53.600><c> 20%</c><01:14:54.080><c> of</c><01:14:54.239><c> them</c><01:14:54.480><c> would</c><01:14:54.640><c> escape</c>

01:14:55.030 --> 01:14:55.040 align:start position:0%
Whereas only 20% of them would escape
 

01:14:55.040 --> 01:14:57.030 align:start position:0%
Whereas only 20% of them would escape
through<01:14:55.199><c> the</c><01:14:55.360><c> bottom</c><01:14:55.840><c> if</c><01:14:56.239><c> gravity</c><01:14:56.719><c> pulled</c>

01:14:57.030 --> 01:14:57.040 align:start position:0%
through the bottom if gravity pulled
 

01:14:57.040 --> 01:14:59.590 align:start position:0%
through the bottom if gravity pulled
antimatter<01:14:57.679><c> upwards.</c>

01:14:59.590 --> 01:14:59.600 align:start position:0%
antimatter upwards.
 

01:14:59.600 --> 01:15:01.990 align:start position:0%
antimatter upwards.
If<01:14:59.840><c> there</c><01:15:00.080><c> were</c><01:15:00.400><c> no</c><01:15:00.719><c> gravitational</c><01:15:01.360><c> force</c><01:15:01.760><c> at</c>

01:15:01.990 --> 01:15:02.000 align:start position:0%
If there were no gravitational force at
 

01:15:02.000 --> 01:15:04.709 align:start position:0%
If there were no gravitational force at
all,<01:15:02.560><c> the</c><01:15:02.800><c> simulation</c><01:15:03.440><c> showed</c><01:15:03.760><c> a</c><01:15:04.080><c> more</c><01:15:04.320><c> even</c>

01:15:04.709 --> 01:15:04.719 align:start position:0%
all, the simulation showed a more even
 

01:15:04.719 --> 01:15:07.110 align:start position:0%
all, the simulation showed a more even
distribution<01:15:05.199><c> of</c><01:15:05.520><c> 55%</c><01:15:06.320><c> escape</c><01:15:06.719><c> through</c><01:15:06.960><c> the</c>

01:15:07.110 --> 01:15:07.120 align:start position:0%
distribution of 55% escape through the
 

01:15:07.120 --> 01:15:10.229 align:start position:0%
distribution of 55% escape through the
bottom,<01:15:07.920><c> probably</c><01:15:08.560><c> only</c><01:15:08.880><c> differing</c><01:15:09.280><c> from</c><01:15:09.600><c> 50%</c>

01:15:10.229 --> 01:15:10.239 align:start position:0%
bottom, probably only differing from 50%
 

01:15:10.239 --> 01:15:12.390 align:start position:0%
bottom, probably only differing from 50%
due<01:15:10.400><c> to</c><01:15:10.640><c> asymmetries</c><01:15:11.440><c> in</c><01:15:11.600><c> the</c><01:15:11.760><c> experimental</c>

01:15:12.390 --> 01:15:12.400 align:start position:0%
due to asymmetries in the experimental
 

01:15:12.400 --> 01:15:14.550 align:start position:0%
due to asymmetries in the experimental
apparatus<01:15:12.960><c> itself.</c>

01:15:14.550 --> 01:15:14.560 align:start position:0%
apparatus itself.
 

01:15:14.560 --> 01:15:18.950 align:start position:0%
apparatus itself.
What<01:15:15.040><c> did</c><01:15:15.520><c> the</c><01:15:15.920><c> actual</c><01:15:16.400><c> experiment</c><01:15:17.040><c> find?</c>

01:15:18.950 --> 01:15:18.960 align:start position:0%
What did the actual experiment find?
 

01:15:18.960 --> 01:15:23.510 align:start position:0%
What did the actual experiment find?
Well,<01:15:19.679><c> roughly</c><01:15:20.480><c> 75%</c><01:15:21.600><c> of</c><01:15:21.920><c> antihydrogen</c><01:15:22.800><c> atoms</c>

01:15:23.510 --> 01:15:23.520 align:start position:0%
Well, roughly 75% of antihydrogen atoms
 

01:15:23.520 --> 01:15:25.350 align:start position:0%
Well, roughly 75% of antihydrogen atoms
escape<01:15:24.080><c> through</c><01:15:24.400><c> the</c><01:15:24.640><c> bottom</c><01:15:24.960><c> of</c><01:15:25.199><c> the</c>

01:15:25.350 --> 01:15:25.360 align:start position:0%
escape through the bottom of the
 

01:15:25.360 --> 01:15:28.070 align:start position:0%
escape through the bottom of the
chamber,<01:15:26.320><c> showing</c><01:15:26.640><c> a</c><01:15:26.880><c> clear</c><01:15:27.199><c> preference</c><01:15:27.760><c> for</c>

01:15:28.070 --> 01:15:28.080 align:start position:0%
chamber, showing a clear preference for
 

01:15:28.080 --> 01:15:31.669 align:start position:0%
chamber, showing a clear preference for
downward<01:15:28.719><c> pulling</c><01:15:29.120><c> gravity.</c>

01:15:31.669 --> 01:15:31.679 align:start position:0%
downward pulling gravity.
 

01:15:31.679 --> 01:15:34.390 align:start position:0%
downward pulling gravity.
As<01:15:32.159><c> any</c><01:15:32.560><c> thorough</c><01:15:33.040><c> scientist</c><01:15:33.520><c> would,</c><01:15:34.159><c> the</c>

01:15:34.390 --> 01:15:34.400 align:start position:0%
As any thorough scientist would, the
 

01:15:34.400 --> 01:15:36.390 align:start position:0%
As any thorough scientist would, the
Alpha<01:15:34.800><c> team</c><01:15:35.040><c> repeated</c><01:15:35.520><c> this</c><01:15:35.760><c> experiment</c><01:15:36.159><c> to</c>

01:15:36.390 --> 01:15:36.400 align:start position:0%
Alpha team repeated this experiment to
 

01:15:36.400 --> 01:15:38.310 align:start position:0%
Alpha team repeated this experiment to
collect<01:15:36.640><c> a</c><01:15:36.880><c> variety</c><01:15:37.280><c> of</c><01:15:37.440><c> data</c><01:15:37.760><c> points</c><01:15:38.080><c> that</c>

01:15:38.310 --> 01:15:38.320 align:start position:0%
collect a variety of data points that
 

01:15:38.320 --> 01:15:40.950 align:start position:0%
collect a variety of data points that
could<01:15:38.480><c> tell</c><01:15:38.719><c> a</c><01:15:38.960><c> more</c><01:15:39.199><c> complete</c><01:15:39.600><c> story.</c><01:15:40.640><c> They</c>

01:15:40.950 --> 01:15:40.960 align:start position:0%
could tell a more complete story. They
 

01:15:40.960 --> 01:15:42.950 align:start position:0%
could tell a more complete story. They
redid<01:15:41.360><c> the</c><01:15:41.520><c> procedure</c><01:15:41.920><c> under</c><01:15:42.239><c> various</c><01:15:42.640><c> levels</c>

01:15:42.950 --> 01:15:42.960 align:start position:0%
redid the procedure under various levels
 

01:15:42.960 --> 01:15:45.270 align:start position:0%
redid the procedure under various levels
of<01:15:43.120><c> magnetic</c><01:15:43.600><c> field</c><01:15:43.920><c> bias</c><01:15:44.560><c> which</c><01:15:44.800><c> applied</c>

01:15:45.270 --> 01:15:45.280 align:start position:0%
of magnetic field bias which applied
 

01:15:45.280 --> 01:15:47.270 align:start position:0%
of magnetic field bias which applied
external<01:15:45.760><c> upward</c><01:15:46.159><c> or</c><01:15:46.400><c> downward</c><01:15:46.800><c> magnetic</c>

01:15:47.270 --> 01:15:47.280 align:start position:0%
external upward or downward magnetic
 

01:15:47.280 --> 01:15:50.149 align:start position:0%
external upward or downward magnetic
forces<01:15:47.600><c> on</c><01:15:47.760><c> the</c><01:15:47.920><c> anti-hydrogen</c><01:15:48.719><c> atoms.</c><01:15:49.920><c> On</c>

01:15:50.149 --> 01:15:50.159 align:start position:0%
forces on the anti-hydrogen atoms. On
 

01:15:50.159 --> 01:15:53.830 align:start position:0%
forces on the anti-hydrogen atoms. On
this<01:15:50.400><c> graph,</c><01:15:50.960><c> a</c><01:15:51.199><c> bias</c><01:15:51.600><c> of</c><01:15:51.920><c> minus1g</c><01:15:53.360><c> means</c><01:15:53.600><c> that</c>

01:15:53.830 --> 01:15:53.840 align:start position:0%
this graph, a bias of minus1g means that
 

01:15:53.840 --> 01:15:55.910 align:start position:0%
this graph, a bias of minus1g means that
enough<01:15:54.159><c> magnetic</c><01:15:54.640><c> force</c><01:15:54.960><c> is</c><01:15:55.199><c> applied</c><01:15:55.600><c> to</c>

01:15:55.910 --> 01:15:55.920 align:start position:0%
enough magnetic force is applied to
 

01:15:55.920 --> 01:15:58.390 align:start position:0%
enough magnetic force is applied to
counteract<01:15:56.480><c> normal</c><01:15:56.880><c> gravity</c><01:15:57.679><c> while</c><01:15:57.920><c> a</c><01:15:58.080><c> bias</c>

01:15:58.390 --> 01:15:58.400 align:start position:0%
counteract normal gravity while a bias
 

01:15:58.400 --> 01:16:01.270 align:start position:0%
counteract normal gravity while a bias
of<01:15:58.640><c> plus</c><01:15:58.960><c> 1g</c><01:15:59.520><c> means</c><01:15:59.840><c> that</c><01:16:00.000><c> an</c><01:16:00.320><c> extra</c><01:16:00.800><c> g</c><01:16:01.040><c> of</c>

01:16:01.270 --> 01:16:01.280 align:start position:0%
of plus 1g means that an extra g of
 

01:16:01.280 --> 01:16:03.350 align:start position:0%
of plus 1g means that an extra g of
magnetic<01:16:01.760><c> force</c><01:16:02.000><c> is</c><01:16:02.239><c> applied</c><01:16:02.719><c> to</c><01:16:02.960><c> push</c><01:16:03.199><c> the</c>

01:16:03.350 --> 01:16:03.360 align:start position:0%
magnetic force is applied to push the
 

01:16:03.360 --> 01:16:06.950 align:start position:0%
magnetic force is applied to push the
anti-hydrogen<01:16:04.159><c> atoms</c><01:16:04.640><c> downward</c><01:16:05.199><c> and</c><01:16:05.440><c> so</c><01:16:05.600><c> on.</c>

01:16:06.950 --> 01:16:06.960 align:start position:0%
anti-hydrogen atoms downward and so on.
 

01:16:06.960 --> 01:16:08.630 align:start position:0%
anti-hydrogen atoms downward and so on.
The<01:16:07.199><c> team</c><01:16:07.440><c> made</c><01:16:07.760><c> predictions</c><01:16:08.320><c> through</c>

01:16:08.630 --> 01:16:08.640 align:start position:0%
The team made predictions through
 

01:16:08.640 --> 01:16:11.350 align:start position:0%
The team made predictions through
simulations<01:16:09.360><c> for</c><01:16:09.600><c> each</c><01:16:09.840><c> bias</c><01:16:10.800><c> and</c><01:16:11.040><c> for</c>

01:16:11.350 --> 01:16:11.360 align:start position:0%
simulations for each bias and for
 

01:16:11.360 --> 01:16:12.950 align:start position:0%
simulations for each bias and for
various<01:16:11.840><c> possible</c><01:16:12.320><c> gravitational</c>

01:16:12.950 --> 01:16:12.960 align:start position:0%
various possible gravitational
 

01:16:12.960 --> 01:16:15.669 align:start position:0%
various possible gravitational
interactions<01:16:13.920><c> which</c><01:16:14.239><c> produce</c><01:16:14.640><c> the</c><01:16:14.960><c> orange,</c>

01:16:15.669 --> 01:16:15.679 align:start position:0%
interactions which produce the orange,
 

01:16:15.679 --> 01:16:19.189 align:start position:0%
interactions which produce the orange,
green,<01:16:16.159><c> and</c><01:16:16.480><c> purple</c><01:16:16.800><c> curves</c><01:16:17.280><c> shown</c><01:16:17.679><c> here.</c>

01:16:19.189 --> 01:16:19.199 align:start position:0%
green, and purple curves shown here.
 

01:16:19.199 --> 01:16:21.830 align:start position:0%
green, and purple curves shown here.
As<01:16:19.440><c> you</c><01:16:19.600><c> can</c><01:16:19.840><c> see,</c><01:16:20.480><c> the</c><01:16:20.800><c> experimental</c><01:16:21.520><c> data</c>

01:16:21.830 --> 01:16:21.840 align:start position:0%
As you can see, the experimental data
 

01:16:21.840 --> 01:16:24.630 align:start position:0%
As you can see, the experimental data
points<01:16:22.239><c> shown</c><01:16:22.480><c> in</c><01:16:22.719><c> blue</c><01:16:23.520><c> best</c><01:16:23.920><c> match</c><01:16:24.320><c> the</c>

01:16:24.630 --> 01:16:24.640 align:start position:0%
points shown in blue best match the
 

01:16:24.640 --> 01:16:27.510 align:start position:0%
points shown in blue best match the
orange<01:16:25.040><c> curve</c><01:16:25.840><c> which</c><01:16:26.080><c> represents</c><01:16:26.640><c> the</c><01:16:27.120><c> normal</c>

01:16:27.510 --> 01:16:27.520 align:start position:0%
orange curve which represents the normal
 

01:16:27.520 --> 01:16:29.510 align:start position:0%
orange curve which represents the normal
simulation<01:16:28.400><c> where</c><01:16:28.719><c> gravity</c><01:16:29.199><c> pulls</c>

01:16:29.510 --> 01:16:29.520 align:start position:0%
simulation where gravity pulls
 

01:16:29.520 --> 01:16:32.310 align:start position:0%
simulation where gravity pulls
antimatter<01:16:30.159><c> downwards.</c><01:16:31.600><c> But</c><01:16:31.840><c> because</c><01:16:32.080><c> the</c>

01:16:32.310 --> 01:16:32.320 align:start position:0%
antimatter downwards. But because the
 

01:16:32.320 --> 01:16:35.110 align:start position:0%
antimatter downwards. But because the
data<01:16:32.640><c> falls</c><01:16:32.960><c> just</c><01:16:33.199><c> a</c><01:16:33.360><c> bit</c><01:16:33.600><c> below</c><01:16:34.000><c> this</c><01:16:34.320><c> curve,</c>

01:16:35.110 --> 01:16:35.120 align:start position:0%
data falls just a bit below this curve,
 

01:16:35.120 --> 01:16:37.430 align:start position:0%
data falls just a bit below this curve,
the<01:16:35.360><c> best</c><01:16:35.679><c> fit</c><01:16:36.080><c> gravitational</c><01:16:36.719><c> acceleration</c>

01:16:37.430 --> 01:16:37.440 align:start position:0%
the best fit gravitational acceleration
 

01:16:37.440 --> 01:16:41.270 align:start position:0%
the best fit gravitational acceleration
was<01:16:37.760><c> only</c><01:16:38.159><c> 0.75g.</c>

01:16:41.270 --> 01:16:41.280 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:16:41.280 --> 01:16:44.149 align:start position:0%
 
3/4<01:16:42.000><c> of</c><01:16:42.239><c> the</c><01:16:42.400><c> strength</c><01:16:42.719><c> of</c><01:16:42.960><c> gravity</c><01:16:43.520><c> acting</c><01:16:43.920><c> on</c>

01:16:44.149 --> 01:16:44.159 align:start position:0%
3/4 of the strength of gravity acting on
 

01:16:44.159 --> 01:16:47.270 align:start position:0%
3/4 of the strength of gravity acting on
ordinary<01:16:44.640><c> matter.</c><01:16:46.080><c> Does</c><01:16:46.320><c> this</c><01:16:46.640><c> mean</c><01:16:46.880><c> that</c>

01:16:47.270 --> 01:16:47.280 align:start position:0%
ordinary matter. Does this mean that
 

01:16:47.280 --> 01:16:49.830 align:start position:0%
ordinary matter. Does this mean that
gravity<01:16:47.840><c> affects</c><01:16:48.400><c> matter</c><01:16:48.880><c> and</c><01:16:49.120><c> antimatter</c>

01:16:49.830 --> 01:16:49.840 align:start position:0%
gravity affects matter and antimatter
 

01:16:49.840 --> 01:16:53.030 align:start position:0%
gravity affects matter and antimatter
particles<01:16:50.400><c> differently?</c><01:16:51.040><c> After</c><01:16:51.280><c> all,</c>

01:16:53.030 --> 01:16:53.040 align:start position:0%
particles differently? After all,
 

01:16:53.040 --> 01:16:55.510 align:start position:0%
particles differently? After all,
not<01:16:53.520><c> necessarily.</c>

01:16:55.510 --> 01:16:55.520 align:start position:0%
not necessarily.
 

01:16:55.520 --> 01:16:58.229 align:start position:0%
not necessarily.
Let's<01:16:55.840><c> have</c><01:16:55.920><c> a</c><01:16:56.080><c> look</c><01:16:56.239><c> at</c><01:16:56.480><c> the</c><01:16:56.880><c> error</c><01:16:57.199><c> bars.</c>

01:16:58.229 --> 01:16:58.239 align:start position:0%
Let's have a look at the error bars.
 

01:16:58.239 --> 01:17:00.229 align:start position:0%
Let's have a look at the error bars.
They<01:16:58.480><c> indicate</c><01:16:58.880><c> that</c><01:16:59.120><c> there</c><01:16:59.360><c> are</c><01:16:59.600><c> two</c><01:16:59.920><c> major</c>

01:17:00.229 --> 01:17:00.239 align:start position:0%
They indicate that there are two major
 

01:17:00.239 --> 01:17:02.630 align:start position:0%
They indicate that there are two major
forces<01:17:00.640><c> of</c><01:17:00.800><c> uncertainty</c><01:17:01.360><c> in</c><01:17:01.520><c> the</c><01:17:01.679><c> results,</c>

01:17:02.630 --> 01:17:02.640 align:start position:0%
forces of uncertainty in the results,
 

01:17:02.640 --> 01:17:04.870 align:start position:0%
forces of uncertainty in the results,
including<01:17:03.199><c> an</c><01:17:03.520><c> uncertainty</c><01:17:04.080><c> in</c><01:17:04.320><c> the</c><01:17:04.480><c> applied</c>

01:17:04.870 --> 01:17:04.880 align:start position:0%
including an uncertainty in the applied
 

01:17:04.880 --> 01:17:08.070 align:start position:0%
including an uncertainty in the applied
bias,<01:17:05.760><c> possible</c><01:17:06.560><c> errors</c><01:17:06.800><c> in</c><01:17:07.040><c> alignment,</c><01:17:07.840><c> and</c>

01:17:08.070 --> 01:17:08.080 align:start position:0%
bias, possible errors in alignment, and
 

01:17:08.080 --> 01:17:10.149 align:start position:0%
bias, possible errors in alignment, and
other<01:17:08.480><c> systematic</c><01:17:09.199><c> and</c><01:17:09.520><c> statistical</c>

01:17:10.149 --> 01:17:10.159 align:start position:0%
other systematic and statistical
 

01:17:10.159 --> 01:17:12.310 align:start position:0%
other systematic and statistical
uncertainties.

01:17:12.310 --> 01:17:12.320 align:start position:0%
uncertainties.
 

01:17:12.320 --> 01:17:14.790 align:start position:0%
uncertainties.
When<01:17:12.719><c> accounting</c><01:17:13.120><c> for</c><01:17:13.360><c> these</c><01:17:13.600><c> uncertainties,</c>

01:17:14.790 --> 01:17:14.800 align:start position:0%
When accounting for these uncertainties,
 

01:17:14.800 --> 01:17:17.590 align:start position:0%
When accounting for these uncertainties,
the<01:17:15.120><c> best</c><01:17:15.520><c> fit</c><01:17:15.920><c> gravitational</c><01:17:16.640><c> acceleration</c>

01:17:17.590 --> 01:17:17.600 align:start position:0%
the best fit gravitational acceleration
 

01:17:17.600 --> 01:17:21.430 align:start position:0%
the best fit gravitational acceleration
is<01:17:17.920><c> actually</c><01:17:18.400><c> reported</c><01:17:19.199><c> as</c><01:17:19.600><c> 0.75g</c>

01:17:21.430 --> 01:17:21.440 align:start position:0%
is actually reported as 0.75g
 

01:17:21.440 --> 01:17:24.229 align:start position:0%
is actually reported as 0.75g
plus<01:17:21.679><c> or</c><01:17:22.000><c> minus</c><01:17:22.719><c> 0.13g</c>

01:17:24.229 --> 01:17:24.239 align:start position:0%
plus or minus 0.13g
 

01:17:24.239 --> 01:17:27.830 align:start position:0%
plus or minus 0.13g
plus<01:17:24.480><c> or</c><01:17:24.719><c> minus</c><01:17:25.040><c> 1.6g.</c><01:17:25.600><c> 6g.</c>

01:17:27.830 --> 01:17:27.840 align:start position:0%
plus or minus 1.6g. 6g.
 

01:17:27.840 --> 01:17:29.990 align:start position:0%
plus or minus 1.6g. 6g.
This<01:17:28.080><c> means</c><01:17:28.320><c> that</c><01:17:28.560><c> a</c><01:17:28.800><c> full</c><01:17:29.120><c> 1g</c><01:17:29.840><c> of</c>

01:17:29.990 --> 01:17:30.000 align:start position:0%
This means that a full 1g of
 

01:17:30.000 --> 01:17:32.550 align:start position:0%
This means that a full 1g of
gravitational<01:17:30.640><c> acceleration</c><01:17:31.600><c> is</c><01:17:32.000><c> still</c>

01:17:32.550 --> 01:17:32.560 align:start position:0%
gravitational acceleration is still
 

01:17:32.560 --> 01:17:34.390 align:start position:0%
gravitational acceleration is still
fairly<01:17:33.040><c> consistent</c><01:17:33.600><c> with</c><01:17:33.840><c> the</c><01:17:34.000><c> collected</c>

01:17:34.390 --> 01:17:34.400 align:start position:0%
fairly consistent with the collected
 

01:17:34.400 --> 01:17:37.750 align:start position:0%
fairly consistent with the collected
data.<01:17:35.760><c> Future</c><01:17:36.239><c> experiments</c><01:17:36.800><c> will</c><01:17:37.120><c> be</c><01:17:37.280><c> able</c><01:17:37.520><c> to</c>

01:17:37.750 --> 01:17:37.760 align:start position:0%
data. Future experiments will be able to
 

01:17:37.760 --> 01:17:40.310 align:start position:0%
data. Future experiments will be able to
determine<01:17:38.320><c> more</c><01:17:38.560><c> precisely</c><01:17:39.360><c> how</c><01:17:39.760><c> strongly</c>

01:17:40.310 --> 01:17:40.320 align:start position:0%
determine more precisely how strongly
 

01:17:40.320 --> 01:17:43.750 align:start position:0%
determine more precisely how strongly
gravity<01:17:40.800><c> acts</c><01:17:41.120><c> on</c><01:17:41.280><c> antimatter,</c><01:17:42.719><c> but</c><01:17:43.280><c> we</c><01:17:43.600><c> can</c>

01:17:43.750 --> 01:17:43.760 align:start position:0%
gravity acts on antimatter, but we can
 

01:17:43.760 --> 01:17:45.910 align:start position:0%
gravity acts on antimatter, but we can
already<01:17:44.159><c> rule</c><01:17:44.480><c> out</c><01:17:44.800><c> speculative</c><01:17:45.440><c> theories</c>

01:17:45.910 --> 01:17:45.920 align:start position:0%
already rule out speculative theories
 

01:17:45.920 --> 01:17:48.229 align:start position:0%
already rule out speculative theories
that<01:17:46.159><c> rely</c><01:17:46.560><c> on</c><01:17:46.800><c> antimatter</c><01:17:47.440><c> falling</c><01:17:47.840><c> up</c>

01:17:48.229 --> 01:17:48.239 align:start position:0%
that rely on antimatter falling up
 

01:17:48.239 --> 01:17:50.709 align:start position:0%
that rely on antimatter falling up
instead<01:17:48.640><c> of</c><01:17:48.800><c> down.</c>

01:17:50.709 --> 01:17:50.719 align:start position:0%
instead of down.
 

01:17:50.719 --> 01:17:53.030 align:start position:0%
instead of down.
In<01:17:50.859><c> [music]</c><01:17:50.880><c> the</c><01:17:51.120><c> end,</c><01:17:51.679><c> despite</c><01:17:52.320><c> how</c><01:17:52.640><c> weird</c>

01:17:53.030 --> 01:17:53.040 align:start position:0%
In [music] the end, despite how weird
 

01:17:53.040 --> 01:17:55.270 align:start position:0%
In [music] the end, despite how weird
and<01:17:53.360><c> backwards</c><01:17:54.000><c> the</c><01:17:54.239><c> world</c><01:17:54.400><c> of</c><01:17:54.560><c> antimatter</c>

01:17:55.270 --> 01:17:55.280 align:start position:0%
and backwards the world of antimatter
 

01:17:55.280 --> 01:17:58.390 align:start position:0%
and backwards the world of antimatter
is,<01:17:56.080><c> it</c><01:17:56.320><c> seems</c><01:17:56.560><c> that</c><01:17:56.880><c> only</c><01:17:57.120><c> the</c><01:17:57.360><c> weak</c><01:17:57.760><c> force</c>

01:17:58.390 --> 01:17:58.400 align:start position:0%
is, it seems that only the weak force
 

01:17:58.400 --> 01:18:00.070 align:start position:0%
is, it seems that only the weak force
actually<01:17:58.800><c> applies</c><01:17:59.360><c> differently</c><01:17:59.760><c> to</c>

01:18:00.070 --> 01:18:00.080 align:start position:0%
actually applies differently to
 

01:18:00.080 --> 01:18:02.630 align:start position:0%
actually applies differently to
particles<01:18:00.640><c> and</c><01:18:00.880><c> antiparticles.</c>

01:18:02.630 --> 01:18:02.640 align:start position:0%
particles and antiparticles.
 

01:18:02.640 --> 01:18:05.189 align:start position:0%
particles and antiparticles.
But<01:18:02.960><c> explaining</c><01:18:03.600><c> the</c><01:18:03.840><c> barionic</c><01:18:04.480><c> asymmetry</c><01:18:05.040><c> of</c>

01:18:05.189 --> 01:18:05.199 align:start position:0%
But explaining the barionic asymmetry of
 

01:18:05.199 --> 01:18:07.830 align:start position:0%
But explaining the barionic asymmetry of
the<01:18:05.360><c> universe</c><01:18:05.920><c> would</c><01:18:06.239><c> require</c><01:18:06.960><c> much</c><01:18:07.440><c> more</c>

01:18:07.830 --> 01:18:07.840 align:start position:0%
the universe would require much more
 

01:18:07.840 --> 01:18:11.110 align:start position:0%
the universe would require much more
drastic<01:18:08.400><c> differences</c><01:18:08.960><c> between</c><01:18:09.280><c> the</c><01:18:09.600><c> two.</c><01:18:10.640><c> So,</c>

01:18:11.110 --> 01:18:11.120 align:start position:0%
drastic differences between the two. So,
 

01:18:11.120 --> 01:18:14.149 align:start position:0%
drastic differences between the two. So,
scientists<01:18:11.760><c> aren't</c><01:18:12.080><c> done</c><01:18:12.320><c> looking</c><01:18:12.640><c> for</c><01:18:12.880><c> them.</c>

01:18:14.149 --> 01:18:14.159 align:start position:0%
scientists aren't done looking for them.
 

01:18:14.159 --> 01:18:16.630 align:start position:0%
scientists aren't done looking for them.
Could<01:18:14.480><c> there</c><01:18:14.719><c> be</c><01:18:15.120><c> new</c><01:18:15.360><c> forces</c><01:18:15.920><c> and</c><01:18:16.159><c> particles</c>

01:18:16.630 --> 01:18:16.640 align:start position:0%
Could there be new forces and particles
 

01:18:16.640 --> 01:18:18.790 align:start position:0%
Could there be new forces and particles
that<01:18:16.960><c> interact</c><01:18:17.520><c> even</c><01:18:17.840><c> more</c><01:18:18.080><c> weirdly</c><01:18:18.560><c> with</c>

01:18:18.790 --> 01:18:18.800 align:start position:0%
that interact even more weirdly with
 

01:18:18.800 --> 01:18:21.669 align:start position:0%
that interact even more weirdly with
antimatter?<01:18:20.239><c> or</c><01:18:20.560><c> would</c><01:18:20.880><c> you</c><01:18:21.040><c> be</c><01:18:21.199><c> willing</c><01:18:21.520><c> to</c>

01:18:21.669 --> 01:18:21.679 align:start position:0%
antimatter? or would you be willing to
 

01:18:21.679 --> 01:18:24.070 align:start position:0%
antimatter? or would you be willing to
accept<01:18:22.239><c> that</c><01:18:22.640><c> having</c><01:18:22.960><c> so</c><01:18:23.280><c> much</c><01:18:23.440><c> more</c><01:18:23.679><c> matter</c>

01:18:24.070 --> 01:18:24.080 align:start position:0%
accept that having so much more matter
 

01:18:24.080 --> 01:18:26.470 align:start position:0%
accept that having so much more matter
than<01:18:24.400><c> antimatter</c><01:18:25.040><c> around</c><01:18:25.360><c> us</c><01:18:25.760><c> is</c><01:18:26.000><c> a</c><01:18:26.239><c> mere</c>

01:18:26.470 --> 01:18:26.480 align:start position:0%
than antimatter around us is a mere
 

01:18:26.480 --> 01:18:29.830 align:start position:0%
than antimatter around us is a mere
coincidence?<01:18:27.840><c> In</c><01:18:28.080><c> any</c><01:18:28.320><c> case,</c><01:18:28.880><c> let</c><01:18:29.120><c> us</c><01:18:29.360><c> know</c><01:18:29.600><c> if</c>

01:18:29.830 --> 01:18:29.840 align:start position:0%
coincidence? In any case, let us know if
 

01:18:29.840 --> 01:18:30.950 align:start position:0%
coincidence? In any case, let us know if
you've<01:18:30.080><c> learned</c><01:18:30.320><c> something</c><01:18:30.560><c> new</c><01:18:30.719><c> about</c>

01:18:30.950 --> 01:18:30.960 align:start position:0%
you've learned something new about
 

01:18:30.960 --> 01:18:33.110 align:start position:0%
you've learned something new about
antimatter<01:18:31.600><c> from</c><01:18:31.760><c> watching</c><01:18:32.080><c> this</c><01:18:32.239><c> video</c><01:18:32.880><c> and</c>

01:18:33.110 --> 01:18:33.120 align:start position:0%
antimatter from watching this video and
 

01:18:33.120 --> 01:18:34.790 align:start position:0%
antimatter from watching this video and
whether<01:18:33.440><c> this</c><01:18:33.600><c> is</c><01:18:33.760><c> a</c><01:18:33.920><c> topic</c><01:18:34.239><c> you'd</c><01:18:34.560><c> like</c><01:18:34.640><c> to</c>

01:18:34.790 --> 01:18:34.800 align:start position:0%
whether this is a topic you'd like to
 

01:18:34.800 --> 01:18:37.669 align:start position:0%
whether this is a topic you'd like to
hear<01:18:34.960><c> more</c><01:18:35.199><c> on.</c>

01:18:37.669 --> 01:18:37.679 align:start position:0%
hear more on.
 

01:18:37.679 --> 01:18:39.830 align:start position:0%
hear more on.
I'm<01:18:37.920><c> happy</c><01:18:38.159><c> to</c><01:18:38.320><c> announce</c><01:18:38.719><c> we</c><01:18:38.960><c> have</c><01:18:39.120><c> a</c><01:18:39.440><c> weekly</c>

01:18:39.830 --> 01:18:39.840 align:start position:0%
I'm happy to announce we have a weekly
 

01:18:39.840 --> 01:18:41.830 align:start position:0%
I'm happy to announce we have a weekly
newsletter<01:18:40.400><c> to</c><01:18:40.640><c> keep</c><01:18:40.880><c> up</c><01:18:41.120><c> with</c><01:18:41.360><c> all</c><01:18:41.600><c> the</c>

01:18:41.830 --> 01:18:41.840 align:start position:0%
newsletter to keep up with all the
 

01:18:41.840 --> 01:18:43.990 align:start position:0%
newsletter to keep up with all the
discoveries<01:18:42.320><c> in</c><01:18:42.560><c> our</c><01:18:42.719><c> cosmos.</c><01:18:43.600><c> And</c><01:18:43.760><c> our</c>

01:18:43.990 --> 01:18:44.000 align:start position:0%
discoveries in our cosmos. And our
 

01:18:44.000 --> 01:18:45.910 align:start position:0%
discoveries in our cosmos. And our
designer,<01:18:44.400><c> Peter,</c><01:18:45.120><c> has</c><01:18:45.360><c> made</c><01:18:45.520><c> the</c><01:18:45.760><c> most</c>

01:18:45.910 --> 01:18:45.920 align:start position:0%
designer, Peter, has made the most
 

01:18:45.920 --> 01:18:48.229 align:start position:0%
designer, Peter, has made the most
beautiful<01:18:46.400><c> email</c><01:18:46.719><c> you'll</c><01:18:47.040><c> ever</c><01:18:47.280><c> receive.</c>

01:18:48.229 --> 01:18:48.239 align:start position:0%
beautiful email you'll ever receive.
 

01:18:48.239 --> 01:18:50.630 align:start position:0%
beautiful email you'll ever receive.
Sign<01:18:48.480><c> up</c><01:18:48.719><c> with</c><01:18:48.960><c> the</c><01:18:49.120><c> link</c><01:18:49.360><c> down</c><01:18:49.600><c> below.</c><01:18:50.400><c> It's</c>

01:18:50.630 --> 01:18:50.640 align:start position:0%
Sign up with the link down below. It's
 

01:18:50.640 --> 01:18:52.470 align:start position:0%
Sign up with the link down below. It's
the<01:18:50.880><c> best</c><01:18:51.040><c> way</c><01:18:51.199><c> to</c><01:18:51.360><c> stay</c><01:18:51.600><c> connected</c><01:18:52.000><c> between</c>

01:18:52.470 --> 01:18:52.480 align:start position:0%
the best way to stay connected between
 

01:18:52.480 --> 01:18:55.430 align:start position:0%
the best way to stay connected between
videos.<01:18:53.440><c> Short,</c><01:18:54.000><c> focused</c><01:18:54.400><c> updates</c><01:18:54.880><c> on</c><01:18:55.120><c> what's</c>

01:18:55.430 --> 01:18:55.440 align:start position:0%
videos. Short, focused updates on what's
 

01:18:55.440 --> 01:18:58.070 align:start position:0%
videos. Short, focused updates on what's
new<01:18:55.679><c> and</c><01:18:56.000><c> fascinating</c><01:18:56.560><c> in</c><01:18:56.800><c> space</c><01:18:57.120><c> each</c><01:18:57.360><c> week.</c>

01:18:58.070 --> 01:18:58.080 align:start position:0%
new and fascinating in space each week.
 

01:18:58.080 --> 01:19:01.270 align:start position:0%
new and fascinating in space each week.
No<01:18:58.320><c> spam,</c><01:18:58.960><c> no</c><01:18:59.199><c> filler,</c><01:18:59.920><c> just</c><01:19:00.159><c> the</c><01:19:00.400><c> good</c><01:19:00.560><c> stuff.</c>

01:19:01.270 --> 01:19:01.280 align:start position:0%
No spam, no filler, just the good stuff.
 

01:19:01.280 --> 01:19:03.750 align:start position:0%
No spam, no filler, just the good stuff.
You'll<01:19:01.600><c> get</c><01:19:01.760><c> the</c><01:19:01.920><c> latest</c><01:19:02.239><c> news,</c><01:19:02.880><c> visuals,</c><01:19:03.520><c> and</c>

01:19:03.750 --> 01:19:03.760 align:start position:0%
You'll get the latest news, visuals, and
 

01:19:03.760 --> 01:19:05.669 align:start position:0%
You'll get the latest news, visuals, and
insights<01:19:04.320><c> delivered</c><01:19:04.800><c> straight</c><01:19:05.199><c> into</c><01:19:05.520><c> your</c>

01:19:05.669 --> 01:19:05.679 align:start position:0%
insights delivered straight into your
 

01:19:05.679 --> 01:19:08.390 align:start position:0%
insights delivered straight into your
inbox.<01:19:06.640><c> If</c><01:19:06.880><c> you</c><01:19:07.040><c> enjoy</c><01:19:07.360><c> Astramm</c><01:19:07.840><c> videos,</c>

01:19:08.390 --> 01:19:08.400 align:start position:0%
inbox. If you enjoy Astramm videos,
 

01:19:08.400 --> 01:19:10.630 align:start position:0%
inbox. If you enjoy Astramm videos,
you'll<01:19:08.719><c> love</c><01:19:09.040><c> this.</c><01:19:09.679><c> Join</c><01:19:09.840><c> the</c><01:19:10.080><c> newsletter</c>

01:19:10.630 --> 01:19:10.640 align:start position:0%
you'll love this. Join the newsletter
 

01:19:10.640 --> 01:19:14.640 align:start position:0%
you'll love this. Join the newsletter
and<01:19:10.960><c> stay</c><01:19:11.199><c> curious</c><01:19:11.600><c> with</c><01:19:11.840><c> us.</c>