WEBVTT
Kind: captions
Language: en

00:00:00.160 --> 00:00:02.790 align:start position:0%
 
From<00:00:00.560><c> Earth,</c><00:00:01.199><c> the</c><00:00:01.439><c> night</c><00:00:01.680><c> sky</c><00:00:02.159><c> appears</c>

00:00:02.790 --> 00:00:02.800 align:start position:0%
From Earth, the night sky appears
 

00:00:02.800 --> 00:00:06.630 align:start position:0%
From Earth, the night sky appears
ethereal,<00:00:03.919><c> peaceful.</c><00:00:05.200><c> It's</c><00:00:05.520><c> so</c><00:00:05.920><c> far</c><00:00:06.240><c> removed</c>

00:00:06.630 --> 00:00:06.640 align:start position:0%
ethereal, peaceful. It's so far removed
 

00:00:06.640 --> 00:00:09.110 align:start position:0%
ethereal, peaceful. It's so far removed
from<00:00:07.040><c> human</c><00:00:07.359><c> civilization.</c><00:00:08.559><c> You'd</c><00:00:08.880><c> be</c>

00:00:09.110 --> 00:00:09.120 align:start position:0%
from human civilization. You'd be
 

00:00:09.120 --> 00:00:11.270 align:start position:0%
from human civilization. You'd be
forgiven<00:00:09.519><c> for</c><00:00:09.840><c> thinking</c><00:00:10.320><c> we're</c><00:00:10.639><c> immune</c><00:00:11.040><c> to</c>

00:00:11.270 --> 00:00:11.280 align:start position:0%
forgiven for thinking we're immune to
 

00:00:11.280 --> 00:00:14.070 align:start position:0%
forgiven for thinking we're immune to
anything<00:00:11.599><c> going</c><00:00:11.840><c> on</c><00:00:12.080><c> up</c><00:00:12.320><c> there.</c><00:00:13.440><c> But</c><00:00:13.759><c> that</c>

00:00:14.070 --> 00:00:14.080 align:start position:0%
anything going on up there. But that
 

00:00:14.080 --> 00:00:16.310 align:start position:0%
anything going on up there. But that
couldn't<00:00:14.400><c> be</c><00:00:14.559><c> further</c><00:00:14.880><c> from</c><00:00:15.040><c> the</c><00:00:15.280><c> truth.</c><00:00:16.080><c> We</c>

00:00:16.310 --> 00:00:16.320 align:start position:0%
couldn't be further from the truth. We
 

00:00:16.320 --> 00:00:19.189 align:start position:0%
couldn't be further from the truth. We
are<00:00:16.720><c> under</c><00:00:17.039><c> attack.</c><00:00:18.000><c> Cosmic</c><00:00:18.480><c> rays</c><00:00:18.960><c> are</c>

00:00:19.189 --> 00:00:19.199 align:start position:0%
are under attack. Cosmic rays are
 

00:00:19.199 --> 00:00:22.550 align:start position:0%
are under attack. Cosmic rays are
bombarding<00:00:20.000><c> us</c><00:00:20.320><c> from</c><00:00:20.720><c> every</c><00:00:21.119><c> direction.</c><00:00:22.080><c> tiny</c>

00:00:22.550 --> 00:00:22.560 align:start position:0%
bombarding us from every direction. tiny
 

00:00:22.560 --> 00:00:24.470 align:start position:0%
bombarding us from every direction. tiny
particles<00:00:23.119><c> that</c><00:00:23.359><c> collide</c><00:00:23.680><c> with</c><00:00:23.920><c> our</c><00:00:24.080><c> planet's</c>

00:00:24.470 --> 00:00:24.480 align:start position:0%
particles that collide with our planet's
 

00:00:24.480 --> 00:00:26.950 align:start position:0%
particles that collide with our planet's
atmosphere,<00:00:25.359><c> setting</c><00:00:25.680><c> off</c><00:00:25.920><c> a</c><00:00:26.160><c> chain</c><00:00:26.480><c> reaction</c>

00:00:26.950 --> 00:00:26.960 align:start position:0%
atmosphere, setting off a chain reaction
 

00:00:26.960 --> 00:00:29.189 align:start position:0%
atmosphere, setting off a chain reaction
of<00:00:27.359><c> ionization</c><00:00:28.240><c> that</c><00:00:28.480><c> can</c><00:00:28.640><c> render</c><00:00:28.960><c> our</c>

00:00:29.189 --> 00:00:29.199 align:start position:0%
of ionization that can render our
 

00:00:29.199 --> 00:00:31.029 align:start position:0%
of ionization that can render our
satellites<00:00:29.760><c> and</c><00:00:30.080><c> other</c><00:00:30.400><c> electronic</c>

00:00:31.029 --> 00:00:31.039 align:start position:0%
satellites and other electronic
 

00:00:31.039 --> 00:00:35.110 align:start position:0%
satellites and other electronic
machinery<00:00:32.000><c> useless.</c><00:00:33.440><c> But</c><00:00:34.000><c> where</c><00:00:34.399><c> do</c><00:00:34.800><c> they</c>

00:00:35.110 --> 00:00:35.120 align:start position:0%
machinery useless. But where do they
 

00:00:35.120 --> 00:00:37.910 align:start position:0%
machinery useless. But where do they
come<00:00:35.280><c> from?</c><00:00:36.480><c> For</c><00:00:36.719><c> hundreds</c><00:00:37.120><c> of</c><00:00:37.280><c> years,</c>

00:00:37.910 --> 00:00:37.920 align:start position:0%
come from? For hundreds of years,
 

00:00:37.920 --> 00:00:40.470 align:start position:0%
come from? For hundreds of years,
astrophysicists<00:00:38.879><c> have</c><00:00:39.120><c> searched</c><00:00:39.520><c> in</c><00:00:39.760><c> vain</c><00:00:40.239><c> to</c>

00:00:40.470 --> 00:00:40.480 align:start position:0%
astrophysicists have searched in vain to
 

00:00:40.480 --> 00:00:42.229 align:start position:0%
astrophysicists have searched in vain to
find<00:00:40.640><c> the</c><00:00:40.879><c> origin</c><00:00:41.200><c> of</c><00:00:41.360><c> these</c><00:00:41.760><c> elusive</c>

00:00:42.229 --> 00:00:42.239 align:start position:0%
find the origin of these elusive
 

00:00:42.239 --> 00:00:45.270 align:start position:0%
find the origin of these elusive
attackers<00:00:42.800><c> with</c><00:00:43.120><c> little</c><00:00:43.600><c> success.</c><00:00:44.719><c> Even</c><00:00:44.960><c> the</c>

00:00:45.270 --> 00:00:45.280 align:start position:0%
attackers with little success. Even the
 

00:00:45.280 --> 00:00:47.270 align:start position:0%
attackers with little success. Even the
type<00:00:45.600><c> of</c><00:00:45.920><c> source</c><00:00:46.399><c> has</c><00:00:46.640><c> evaded</c><00:00:47.120><c> their</c>

00:00:47.270 --> 00:00:47.280 align:start position:0%
type of source has evaded their
 

00:00:47.280 --> 00:00:51.430 align:start position:0%
type of source has evaded their
searches.<00:00:48.559><c> But</c><00:00:48.800><c> now,</c><00:00:49.600><c> thanks</c><00:00:49.920><c> to</c><00:00:50.160><c> a</c><00:00:50.559><c> whole</c><00:00:50.960><c> new</c>

00:00:51.430 --> 00:00:51.440 align:start position:0%
searches. But now, thanks to a whole new
 

00:00:51.440 --> 00:00:53.830 align:start position:0%
searches. But now, thanks to a whole new
field<00:00:51.680><c> of</c><00:00:51.920><c> research,</c><00:00:52.879><c> we're</c><00:00:53.280><c> starting</c><00:00:53.600><c> to</c>

00:00:53.830 --> 00:00:53.840 align:start position:0%
field of research, we're starting to
 

00:00:53.840 --> 00:00:57.029 align:start position:0%
field of research, we're starting to
find<00:00:54.239><c> answers.</c><00:00:55.440><c> Not</c><00:00:55.680><c> only</c><00:00:56.000><c> do</c><00:00:56.160><c> we</c><00:00:56.399><c> now</c><00:00:56.800><c> know</c>

00:00:57.029 --> 00:00:57.039 align:start position:0%
find answers. Not only do we now know
 

00:00:57.039 --> 00:00:59.590 align:start position:0%
find answers. Not only do we now know
what<00:00:57.280><c> to</c><00:00:57.520><c> look</c><00:00:57.680><c> for,</c><00:00:58.399><c> but</c><00:00:58.559><c> they</c><00:00:58.800><c> are</c><00:00:58.960><c> proving</c>

00:00:59.590 --> 00:00:59.600 align:start position:0%
what to look for, but they are proving
 

00:00:59.600 --> 00:01:03.430 align:start position:0%
what to look for, but they are proving
more<00:01:00.000><c> powerful</c><00:01:00.800><c> than</c><00:01:01.039><c> we</c><00:01:01.359><c> ever</c><00:01:01.760><c> imagined.</c>

00:01:03.430 --> 00:01:03.440 align:start position:0%
more powerful than we ever imagined.
 

00:01:03.440 --> 00:01:06.630 align:start position:0%
more powerful than we ever imagined.
What<00:01:03.840><c> in</c><00:01:04.320><c> the</c><00:01:04.559><c> cosmos</c><00:01:05.439><c> is</c><00:01:05.760><c> possibly</c><00:01:06.320><c> capable</c>

00:01:06.630 --> 00:01:06.640 align:start position:0%
What in the cosmos is possibly capable
 

00:01:06.640 --> 00:01:09.420 align:start position:0%
What in the cosmos is possibly capable
of<00:01:06.960><c> producing</c><00:01:07.680><c> a</c><00:01:07.920><c> quadrillion</c><00:01:09.200><c> electron</c>

00:01:09.420 --> 00:01:09.430 align:start position:0%
of producing a quadrillion electron
 

00:01:09.430 --> 00:01:12.950 align:start position:0%
of producing a quadrillion electron
[music]<00:01:09.760><c> volts</c><00:01:10.240><c> of</c><00:01:10.479><c> energy?</c><00:01:11.520><c> I'm</c><00:01:11.840><c> Alex</c><00:01:12.159><c> Mccoan</c>

00:01:12.950 --> 00:01:12.960 align:start position:0%
[music] volts of energy? I'm Alex Mccoan
 

00:01:12.960 --> 00:01:15.190 align:start position:0%
[music] volts of energy? I'm Alex Mccoan
and<00:01:13.119><c> you're</c><00:01:13.360><c> watching</c><00:01:13.600><c> Astramm.</c><00:01:14.479><c> Join</c><00:01:14.799><c> me</c><00:01:14.960><c> as</c>

00:01:15.190 --> 00:01:15.200 align:start position:0%
and you're watching Astramm. Join me as
 

00:01:15.200 --> 00:01:17.990 align:start position:0%
and you're watching Astramm. Join me as
we<00:01:15.439><c> follow</c><00:01:15.680><c> the</c><00:01:16.000><c> trail</c><00:01:16.400><c> of</c><00:01:16.640><c> cosmic</c><00:01:17.119><c> rays,</c>

00:01:17.990 --> 00:01:18.000 align:start position:0%
we follow the trail of cosmic rays,
 

00:01:18.000 --> 00:01:19.830 align:start position:0%
we follow the trail of cosmic rays,
leading<00:01:18.400><c> us</c><00:01:18.640><c> right</c><00:01:18.960><c> to</c><00:01:19.200><c> the</c><00:01:19.360><c> limits</c><00:01:19.680><c> of</c>

00:01:19.830 --> 00:01:19.840 align:start position:0%
leading us right to the limits of
 

00:01:19.840 --> 00:01:22.390 align:start position:0%
leading us right to the limits of
physics<00:01:20.320><c> as</c><00:01:20.640><c> we</c><00:01:20.799><c> know</c><00:01:20.960><c> it.</c><00:01:21.680><c> We'll</c><00:01:22.000><c> see</c><00:01:22.159><c> how</c>

00:01:22.390 --> 00:01:22.400 align:start position:0%
physics as we know it. We'll see how
 

00:01:22.400 --> 00:01:24.149 align:start position:0%
physics as we know it. We'll see how
scientists<00:01:22.880><c> detect</c><00:01:23.200><c> the</c><00:01:23.439><c> highest</c><00:01:23.759><c> energy</c>

00:01:24.149 --> 00:01:24.159 align:start position:0%
scientists detect the highest energy
 

00:01:24.159 --> 00:01:27.109 align:start position:0%
scientists detect the highest energy
particles<00:01:24.720><c> in</c><00:01:24.960><c> the</c><00:01:25.200><c> universe</c><00:01:26.080><c> and</c><00:01:26.320><c> meet</c><00:01:26.640><c> a</c><00:01:26.880><c> new</c>

00:01:27.109 --> 00:01:27.119 align:start position:0%
particles in the universe and meet a new
 

00:01:27.119 --> 00:01:29.910 align:start position:0%
particles in the universe and meet a new
class<00:01:27.600><c> of</c><00:01:27.920><c> astronomical</c><00:01:28.720><c> objects</c><00:01:29.200><c> whose</c>

00:01:29.910 --> 00:01:29.920 align:start position:0%
class of astronomical objects whose
 

00:01:29.920 --> 00:01:33.429 align:start position:0%
class of astronomical objects whose
extreme<00:01:30.560><c> behavior</c><00:01:31.600><c> until</c><00:01:32.000><c> recently</c><00:01:33.119><c> seemed</c>

00:01:33.429 --> 00:01:33.439 align:start position:0%
extreme behavior until recently seemed
 

00:01:33.439 --> 00:01:37.830 align:start position:0%
extreme behavior until recently seemed
like<00:01:33.680><c> the</c><00:01:33.840><c> stuff</c><00:01:34.400><c> of</c><00:01:34.720><c> science</c><00:01:35.119><c> fiction.</c>

00:01:37.830 --> 00:01:37.840 align:start position:0%
like the stuff of science fiction.
 

00:01:37.840 --> 00:01:41.429 align:start position:0%
like the stuff of science fiction.
The<00:01:38.079><c> Milky</c><00:01:38.400><c> Way</c><00:01:38.960><c> is</c><00:01:39.439><c> full</c><00:01:39.759><c> of</c><00:01:40.000><c> energy,</c><00:01:40.799><c> but</c><00:01:41.119><c> our</c>

00:01:41.429 --> 00:01:41.439 align:start position:0%
The Milky Way is full of energy, but our
 

00:01:41.439 --> 00:01:44.149 align:start position:0%
The Milky Way is full of energy, but our
eyes<00:01:41.759><c> can</c><00:01:42.000><c> only</c><00:01:42.320><c> detect</c><00:01:42.799><c> a</c><00:01:43.200><c> tiny</c><00:01:43.600><c> fraction</c><00:01:43.920><c> of</c>

00:01:44.149 --> 00:01:44.159 align:start position:0%
eyes can only detect a tiny fraction of
 

00:01:44.159 --> 00:01:46.469 align:start position:0%
eyes can only detect a tiny fraction of
it.<00:01:44.960><c> Beyond</c><00:01:45.280><c> the</c><00:01:45.439><c> spectrum</c><00:01:45.840><c> of</c><00:01:46.079><c> visible</c>

00:01:46.469 --> 00:01:46.479 align:start position:0%
it. Beyond the spectrum of visible
 

00:01:46.479 --> 00:01:48.630 align:start position:0%
it. Beyond the spectrum of visible
light,<00:01:47.040><c> charged</c><00:01:47.439><c> particles</c><00:01:47.920><c> can</c><00:01:48.159><c> give</c><00:01:48.320><c> off</c>

00:01:48.630 --> 00:01:48.640 align:start position:0%
light, charged particles can give off
 

00:01:48.640 --> 00:01:50.630 align:start position:0%
light, charged particles can give off
higher<00:01:49.040><c> energy</c><00:01:49.360><c> radiation</c><00:01:49.920><c> in</c><00:01:50.079><c> the</c><00:01:50.240><c> form</c><00:01:50.399><c> of</c>

00:01:50.630 --> 00:01:50.640 align:start position:0%
higher energy radiation in the form of
 

00:01:50.640 --> 00:01:53.749 align:start position:0%
higher energy radiation in the form of
X-rays<00:01:51.200><c> and</c><00:01:51.439><c> gamma</c><00:01:51.840><c> rays,</c><00:01:52.560><c> creating</c><00:01:53.040><c> a</c><00:01:53.439><c> mess</c>

00:01:53.749 --> 00:01:53.759 align:start position:0%
X-rays and gamma rays, creating a mess
 

00:01:53.759 --> 00:01:55.429 align:start position:0%
X-rays and gamma rays, creating a mess
of<00:01:54.000><c> energetic</c><00:01:54.640><c> fingerprints</c><00:01:55.281><c> [music]</c>

00:01:55.429 --> 00:01:55.439 align:start position:0%
of energetic fingerprints [music]
 

00:01:55.439 --> 00:01:57.510 align:start position:0%
of energetic fingerprints [music]
throughout<00:01:56.000><c> space.</c>

00:01:57.510 --> 00:01:57.520 align:start position:0%
throughout space.
 

00:01:57.520 --> 00:01:59.270 align:start position:0%
throughout space.
Astronomers<00:01:58.159><c> can</c><00:01:58.320><c> forensically</c><00:01:58.880><c> decode</c>

00:01:59.270 --> 00:01:59.280 align:start position:0%
Astronomers can forensically decode
 

00:01:59.280 --> 00:02:01.510 align:start position:0%
Astronomers can forensically decode
these<00:01:59.680><c> cosmic</c><00:02:00.159><c> clues</c><00:02:00.719><c> to</c><00:02:00.960><c> understand</c><00:02:01.280><c> the</c>

00:02:01.510 --> 00:02:01.520 align:start position:0%
these cosmic clues to understand the
 

00:02:01.520 --> 00:02:04.469 align:start position:0%
these cosmic clues to understand the
flow<00:02:01.759><c> of</c><00:02:02.000><c> energy</c><00:02:02.479><c> through</c><00:02:02.799><c> our</c><00:02:03.119><c> galaxy.</c><00:02:04.240><c> But</c>

00:02:04.469 --> 00:02:04.479 align:start position:0%
flow of energy through our galaxy. But
 

00:02:04.479 --> 00:02:07.030 align:start position:0%
flow of energy through our galaxy. But
among<00:02:04.799><c> these</c><00:02:05.119><c> charged</c><00:02:05.520><c> particles,</c><00:02:06.479><c> there</c><00:02:06.719><c> is</c>

00:02:07.030 --> 00:02:07.040 align:start position:0%
among these charged particles, there is
 

00:02:07.040 --> 00:02:10.150 align:start position:0%
among these charged particles, there is
one<00:02:07.360><c> group</c><00:02:07.680><c> in</c><00:02:08.000><c> particular</c><00:02:08.800><c> that</c><00:02:09.200><c> remains</c>

00:02:10.150 --> 00:02:10.160 align:start position:0%
one group in particular that remains
 

00:02:10.160 --> 00:02:12.390 align:start position:0%
one group in particular that remains
clouded<00:02:10.640><c> in</c><00:02:10.879><c> mystery.</c>

00:02:12.390 --> 00:02:12.400 align:start position:0%
clouded in mystery.
 

00:02:12.400 --> 00:02:15.190 align:start position:0%
clouded in mystery.
Back<00:02:12.640><c> in</c><00:02:12.879><c> 1912,</c><00:02:13.840><c> the</c><00:02:14.080><c> Austrian</c><00:02:14.560><c> physicist</c>

00:02:15.190 --> 00:02:15.200 align:start position:0%
Back in 1912, the Austrian physicist
 

00:02:15.200 --> 00:02:18.070 align:start position:0%
Back in 1912, the Austrian physicist
Victor<00:02:15.599><c> Hess</c><00:02:16.160><c> made</c><00:02:16.400><c> a</c><00:02:16.800><c> historic</c><00:02:17.440><c> air</c><00:02:17.680><c> balloon</c>

00:02:18.070 --> 00:02:18.080 align:start position:0%
Victor Hess made a historic air balloon
 

00:02:18.080 --> 00:02:21.830 align:start position:0%
Victor Hess made a historic air balloon
ascent<00:02:18.720><c> up</c><00:02:18.879><c> to</c><00:02:19.120><c> 5,300</c><00:02:20.480><c> m</c><00:02:21.280><c> where</c><00:02:21.440><c> he</c><00:02:21.680><c> could</c>

00:02:21.830 --> 00:02:21.840 align:start position:0%
ascent up to 5,300 m where he could
 

00:02:21.840 --> 00:02:23.670 align:start position:0%
ascent up to 5,300 m where he could
measure<00:02:22.080><c> the</c><00:02:22.319><c> rate</c><00:02:22.560><c> of</c><00:02:22.879><c> ionization</c><00:02:23.360><c> in</c><00:02:23.599><c> the</c>

00:02:23.670 --> 00:02:23.680 align:start position:0%
measure the rate of ionization in the
 

00:02:23.680 --> 00:02:26.630 align:start position:0%
measure the rate of ionization in the
upper<00:02:23.920><c> atmosphere,</c><00:02:24.959><c> or</c><00:02:25.280><c> how</c><00:02:25.599><c> quickly</c><00:02:26.160><c> atoms</c>

00:02:26.630 --> 00:02:26.640 align:start position:0%
upper atmosphere, or how quickly atoms
 

00:02:26.640 --> 00:02:29.510 align:start position:0%
upper atmosphere, or how quickly atoms
and<00:02:26.959><c> molecules</c><00:02:27.599><c> are</c><00:02:27.760><c> becoming</c><00:02:28.160><c> charged.</c><00:02:29.200><c> He</c>

00:02:29.510 --> 00:02:29.520 align:start position:0%
and molecules are becoming charged. He
 

00:02:29.520 --> 00:02:31.670 align:start position:0%
and molecules are becoming charged. He
expected<00:02:29.920><c> to</c><00:02:30.160><c> find</c><00:02:30.400><c> that</c><00:02:30.640><c> it</c><00:02:30.959><c> decreased</c><00:02:31.440><c> at</c>

00:02:31.670 --> 00:02:31.680 align:start position:0%
expected to find that it decreased at
 

00:02:31.680 --> 00:02:33.750 align:start position:0%
expected to find that it decreased at
higher<00:02:32.000><c> altitudes,</c><00:02:33.040><c> confirming</c><00:02:33.519><c> the</c>

00:02:33.750 --> 00:02:33.760 align:start position:0%
higher altitudes, confirming the
 

00:02:33.760 --> 00:02:35.830 align:start position:0%
higher altitudes, confirming the
prevailing<00:02:34.239><c> theories</c><00:02:34.640><c> at</c><00:02:34.879><c> the</c><00:02:35.040><c> time.</c>

00:02:35.830 --> 00:02:35.840 align:start position:0%
prevailing theories at the time.
 

00:02:35.840 --> 00:02:38.390 align:start position:0%
prevailing theories at the time.
However,<00:02:36.319><c> this</c><00:02:36.640><c> was</c><00:02:36.879><c> not</c><00:02:37.040><c> to</c><00:02:37.280><c> be.</c>

00:02:38.390 --> 00:02:38.400 align:start position:0%
However, this was not to be.
 

00:02:38.400 --> 00:02:41.509 align:start position:0%
However, this was not to be.
Unexpectedly,<00:02:39.840><c> Hess</c><00:02:40.239><c> recorded</c><00:02:40.720><c> a</c><00:02:40.959><c> rate</c><00:02:41.200><c> of</c>

00:02:41.509 --> 00:02:41.519 align:start position:0%
Unexpectedly, Hess recorded a rate of
 

00:02:41.519 --> 00:02:43.990 align:start position:0%
Unexpectedly, Hess recorded a rate of
ionization<00:02:42.080><c> that</c><00:02:42.319><c> reached</c><00:02:43.040><c> three</c><00:02:43.440><c> times</c>

00:02:43.990 --> 00:02:44.000 align:start position:0%
ionization that reached three times
 

00:02:44.000 --> 00:02:46.710 align:start position:0%
ionization that reached three times
higher<00:02:44.480><c> than</c><00:02:44.720><c> at</c><00:02:44.959><c> sea</c><00:02:45.200><c> level.</c><00:02:46.080><c> This</c><00:02:46.319><c> led</c><00:02:46.560><c> to</c>

00:02:46.710 --> 00:02:46.720 align:start position:0%
higher than at sea level. This led to
 

00:02:46.720 --> 00:02:48.630 align:start position:0%
higher than at sea level. This led to
the<00:02:46.959><c> realization</c><00:02:47.440><c> that</c><00:02:47.760><c> the</c><00:02:48.080><c> ionizing</c>

00:02:48.630 --> 00:02:48.640 align:start position:0%
the realization that the ionizing
 

00:02:48.640 --> 00:02:51.430 align:start position:0%
the realization that the ionizing
radiation<00:02:49.280><c> he</c><00:02:49.519><c> had</c><00:02:49.840><c> dedicated</c><00:02:50.480><c> his</c><00:02:50.800><c> career</c><00:02:51.200><c> to</c>

00:02:51.430 --> 00:02:51.440 align:start position:0%
radiation he had dedicated his career to
 

00:02:51.440 --> 00:02:54.470 align:start position:0%
radiation he had dedicated his career to
studying<00:02:52.400><c> came</c><00:02:52.640><c> not</c><00:02:52.879><c> from</c><00:02:53.120><c> Earth,</c><00:02:53.920><c> but</c><00:02:54.160><c> from</c>

00:02:54.470 --> 00:02:54.480 align:start position:0%
studying came not from Earth, but from
 

00:02:54.480 --> 00:02:59.589 align:start position:0%
studying came not from Earth, but from
space.<00:02:55.760><c> He</c><00:02:56.160><c> had</c><00:02:56.400><c> discovered</c><00:02:57.280><c> cosmic</c><00:02:57.760><c> rays</c><00:02:59.120><c> and</c>

00:02:59.589 --> 00:02:59.599 align:start position:0%
space. He had discovered cosmic rays and
 

00:02:59.599 --> 00:03:02.630 align:start position:0%
space. He had discovered cosmic rays and
they<00:02:59.920><c> did</c><00:03:00.160><c> not</c><00:03:00.400><c> come</c><00:03:00.640><c> in</c><00:03:00.879><c> peace.</c><00:03:02.000><c> Earth</c><00:03:02.400><c> is</c>

00:03:02.630 --> 00:03:02.640 align:start position:0%
they did not come in peace. Earth is
 

00:03:02.640 --> 00:03:06.390 align:start position:0%
they did not come in peace. Earth is
under<00:03:03.120><c> constant</c><00:03:03.840><c> barrage</c><00:03:04.400><c> from</c><00:03:04.720><c> them.</c><00:03:06.080><c> These</c>

00:03:06.390 --> 00:03:06.400 align:start position:0%
under constant barrage from them. These
 

00:03:06.400 --> 00:03:09.750 align:start position:0%
under constant barrage from them. These
high<00:03:06.720><c> energy</c><00:03:07.120><c> particles,</c><00:03:08.080><c> mostly</c><00:03:08.800><c> protons,</c>

00:03:09.750 --> 00:03:09.760 align:start position:0%
high energy particles, mostly protons,
 

00:03:09.760 --> 00:03:12.790 align:start position:0%
high energy particles, mostly protons,
travel<00:03:10.159><c> at</c><00:03:10.400><c> nearly</c><00:03:10.879><c> the</c><00:03:11.120><c> speed</c><00:03:11.440><c> of</c><00:03:11.760><c> light</c><00:03:12.480><c> and</c>

00:03:12.790 --> 00:03:12.800 align:start position:0%
travel at nearly the speed of light and
 

00:03:12.800 --> 00:03:14.790 align:start position:0%
travel at nearly the speed of light and
collide<00:03:13.120><c> with</c><00:03:13.360><c> our</c><00:03:13.680><c> planet's</c><00:03:14.000><c> atmosphere,</c>

00:03:14.790 --> 00:03:14.800 align:start position:0%
collide with our planet's atmosphere,
 

00:03:14.800 --> 00:03:17.270 align:start position:0%
collide with our planet's atmosphere,
sending<00:03:15.200><c> a</c><00:03:15.519><c> shower</c><00:03:15.920><c> of</c><00:03:16.159><c> secondary</c><00:03:16.720><c> particles</c>

00:03:17.270 --> 00:03:17.280 align:start position:0%
sending a shower of secondary particles
 

00:03:17.280 --> 00:03:20.309 align:start position:0%
sending a shower of secondary particles
down<00:03:17.599><c> onto</c><00:03:17.920><c> its</c><00:03:18.159><c> surface.</c><00:03:19.360><c> These</c><00:03:19.599><c> attacks</c><00:03:20.080><c> can</c>

00:03:20.309 --> 00:03:20.319 align:start position:0%
down onto its surface. These attacks can
 

00:03:20.319 --> 00:03:22.790 align:start position:0%
down onto its surface. These attacks can
do<00:03:20.560><c> some</c><00:03:20.800><c> serious</c><00:03:21.280><c> damage.</c><00:03:22.080><c> The</c><00:03:22.319><c> secondary</c>

00:03:22.790 --> 00:03:22.800 align:start position:0%
do some serious damage. The secondary
 

00:03:22.800 --> 00:03:25.430 align:start position:0%
do some serious damage. The secondary
particles<00:03:23.360><c> produced</c><00:03:23.680><c> in</c><00:03:23.920><c> cosmic</c><00:03:24.400><c> ray</c><00:03:24.720><c> showers</c>

00:03:25.430 --> 00:03:25.440 align:start position:0%
particles produced in cosmic ray showers
 

00:03:25.440 --> 00:03:28.949 align:start position:0%
particles produced in cosmic ray showers
the<00:03:25.680><c> likes</c><00:03:25.920><c> of</c><00:03:26.319><c> muons,</c><00:03:27.200><c> neutrons,</c><00:03:28.000><c> electrons,</c>

00:03:28.949 --> 00:03:28.959 align:start position:0%
the likes of muons, neutrons, electrons,
 

00:03:28.959 --> 00:03:31.910 align:start position:0%
the likes of muons, neutrons, electrons,
posetrons<00:03:29.680><c> and</c><00:03:29.920><c> gamma</c><00:03:30.319><c> rays</c><00:03:31.120><c> can</c><00:03:31.440><c> interact</c>

00:03:31.910 --> 00:03:31.920 align:start position:0%
posetrons and gamma rays can interact
 

00:03:31.920 --> 00:03:34.630 align:start position:0%
posetrons and gamma rays can interact
with<00:03:32.319><c> living</c><00:03:32.640><c> organisms</c><00:03:33.680><c> contributing</c><00:03:34.319><c> to</c>

00:03:34.630 --> 00:03:34.640 align:start position:0%
with living organisms contributing to
 

00:03:34.640 --> 00:03:37.750 align:start position:0%
with living organisms contributing to
genetic<00:03:35.120><c> mutations</c><00:03:35.760><c> and</c><00:03:36.159><c> radiation</c><00:03:36.799><c> damage.</c>

00:03:37.750 --> 00:03:37.760 align:start position:0%
genetic mutations and radiation damage.
 

00:03:37.760 --> 00:03:39.670 align:start position:0%
genetic mutations and radiation damage.
And<00:03:37.920><c> when</c><00:03:38.159><c> cosmic</c><00:03:38.640><c> rays</c><00:03:38.959><c> interact</c><00:03:39.360><c> with</c>

00:03:39.670 --> 00:03:39.680 align:start position:0%
And when cosmic rays interact with
 

00:03:39.680 --> 00:03:41.589 align:start position:0%
And when cosmic rays interact with
satellites<00:03:40.319><c> or</c><00:03:40.720><c> other</c><00:03:41.040><c> orbiting</c>

00:03:41.589 --> 00:03:41.599 align:start position:0%
satellites or other orbiting
 

00:03:41.599 --> 00:03:44.309 align:start position:0%
satellites or other orbiting
electronics,<00:03:42.799><c> they</c><00:03:43.040><c> can</c><00:03:43.200><c> trigger</c><00:03:43.519><c> a</c><00:03:43.680><c> bout</c><00:03:44.000><c> of</c>

00:03:44.309 --> 00:03:44.319 align:start position:0%
electronics, they can trigger a bout of
 

00:03:44.319 --> 00:03:46.390 align:start position:0%
electronics, they can trigger a bout of
ionization<00:03:44.959><c> that</c><00:03:45.200><c> can</c><00:03:45.440><c> cause</c><00:03:45.680><c> the</c><00:03:46.000><c> circuits</c>

00:03:46.390 --> 00:03:46.400 align:start position:0%
ionization that can cause the circuits
 

00:03:46.400 --> 00:03:48.710 align:start position:0%
ionization that can cause the circuits
to<00:03:46.640><c> degrade</c><00:03:47.360><c> or</c><00:03:47.680><c> even</c><00:03:48.080><c> fail</c>

00:03:48.710 --> 00:03:48.720 align:start position:0%
to degrade or even fail
 

00:03:48.720 --> 00:03:50.550 align:start position:0%
to degrade or even fail
catastrophically.

00:03:50.550 --> 00:03:50.560 align:start position:0%
catastrophically.
 

00:03:50.560 --> 00:03:52.550 align:start position:0%
catastrophically.
And<00:03:50.799><c> they</c><00:03:51.040><c> are</c><00:03:51.200><c> not</c><00:03:51.440><c> only</c><00:03:51.680><c> a</c><00:03:51.840><c> nuisance</c><00:03:52.239><c> to</c><00:03:52.400><c> our</c>

00:03:52.550 --> 00:03:52.560 align:start position:0%
And they are not only a nuisance to our
 

00:03:52.560 --> 00:03:55.030 align:start position:0%
And they are not only a nuisance to our
best<00:03:52.799><c> space</c><00:03:53.120><c> equipment.</c><00:03:54.159><c> Cosmic</c><00:03:54.560><c> rays</c><00:03:54.879><c> have</c>

00:03:55.030 --> 00:03:55.040 align:start position:0%
best space equipment. Cosmic rays have
 

00:03:55.040 --> 00:03:58.070 align:start position:0%
best space equipment. Cosmic rays have
meddled<00:03:55.440><c> with</c><00:03:55.680><c> our</c><00:03:56.000><c> best</c><00:03:56.480><c> scientists,</c><00:03:57.200><c> too.</c>

00:03:58.070 --> 00:03:58.080 align:start position:0%
meddled with our best scientists, too.
 

00:03:58.080 --> 00:04:00.949 align:start position:0%
meddled with our best scientists, too.
For<00:03:58.319><c> more</c><00:03:58.560><c> than</c><00:03:58.959><c> 100</c><00:03:59.439><c> years,</c><00:04:00.000><c> the</c><00:04:00.319><c> question</c><00:04:00.640><c> of</c>

00:04:00.949 --> 00:04:00.959 align:start position:0%
For more than 100 years, the question of
 

00:04:00.959 --> 00:04:03.670 align:start position:0%
For more than 100 years, the question of
where<00:04:01.519><c> cosmic</c><00:04:01.920><c> rays</c><00:04:02.319><c> come</c><00:04:02.480><c> from</c><00:04:02.959><c> has</c><00:04:03.280><c> been</c><00:04:03.439><c> one</c>

00:04:03.670 --> 00:04:03.680 align:start position:0%
where cosmic rays come from has been one
 

00:04:03.680 --> 00:04:05.910 align:start position:0%
where cosmic rays come from has been one
of<00:04:03.760><c> the</c><00:04:03.920><c> major</c><00:04:04.319><c> unsolved</c><00:04:04.879><c> mysteries</c><00:04:05.360><c> in</c><00:04:05.599><c> high</c>

00:04:05.910 --> 00:04:05.920 align:start position:0%
of the major unsolved mysteries in high
 

00:04:05.920 --> 00:04:08.070 align:start position:0%
of the major unsolved mysteries in high
energy<00:04:06.239><c> astrophysics.</c><00:04:07.439><c> Their</c><00:04:07.680><c> physical</c>

00:04:08.070 --> 00:04:08.080 align:start position:0%
energy astrophysics. Their physical
 

00:04:08.080 --> 00:04:09.910 align:start position:0%
energy astrophysics. Their physical
properties<00:04:08.560><c> make</c><00:04:08.799><c> them</c><00:04:09.040><c> almost</c><00:04:09.360><c> impossible</c>

00:04:09.910 --> 00:04:09.920 align:start position:0%
properties make them almost impossible
 

00:04:09.920 --> 00:04:12.470 align:start position:0%
properties make them almost impossible
to<00:04:10.159><c> track.</c><00:04:10.879><c> Magnetic</c><00:04:11.439><c> fields</c><00:04:11.840><c> bend</c><00:04:12.239><c> their</c>

00:04:12.470 --> 00:04:12.480 align:start position:0%
to track. Magnetic fields bend their
 

00:04:12.480 --> 00:04:14.789 align:start position:0%
to track. Magnetic fields bend their
path<00:04:12.799><c> before</c><00:04:13.040><c> we</c><00:04:13.280><c> can</c><00:04:13.439><c> locate</c><00:04:13.760><c> their</c><00:04:14.080><c> origin,</c>

00:04:14.789 --> 00:04:14.799 align:start position:0%
path before we can locate their origin,
 

00:04:14.799 --> 00:04:16.710 align:start position:0%
path before we can locate their origin,
and<00:04:15.040><c> they</c><00:04:15.280><c> break</c><00:04:15.519><c> down</c><00:04:15.760><c> into</c><00:04:16.000><c> a</c><00:04:16.239><c> shower</c><00:04:16.560><c> of</c>

00:04:16.710 --> 00:04:16.720 align:start position:0%
and they break down into a shower of
 

00:04:16.720 --> 00:04:18.870 align:start position:0%
and they break down into a shower of
particles<00:04:17.519><c> before</c><00:04:17.840><c> we</c><00:04:18.079><c> can</c><00:04:18.160><c> learn</c><00:04:18.479><c> their</c>

00:04:18.870 --> 00:04:18.880 align:start position:0%
particles before we can learn their
 

00:04:18.880 --> 00:04:20.150 align:start position:0%
particles before we can learn their
identity.

00:04:20.150 --> 00:04:20.160 align:start position:0%
identity.
 

00:04:20.160 --> 00:04:22.550 align:start position:0%
identity.
These<00:04:20.560><c> challenges</c><00:04:21.040><c> are</c><00:04:21.359><c> laid</c><00:04:21.680><c> bare</c><00:04:22.240><c> when</c>

00:04:22.550 --> 00:04:22.560 align:start position:0%
These challenges are laid bare when
 

00:04:22.560 --> 00:04:24.950 align:start position:0%
These challenges are laid bare when
scientists<00:04:23.120><c> try</c><00:04:23.360><c> to</c><00:04:23.520><c> measure</c><00:04:23.840><c> the</c><00:04:24.080><c> cosmic</c><00:04:24.560><c> ray</c>

00:04:24.950 --> 00:04:24.960 align:start position:0%
scientists try to measure the cosmic ray
 

00:04:24.960 --> 00:04:27.590 align:start position:0%
scientists try to measure the cosmic ray
spectrum.<00:04:26.080><c> If</c><00:04:26.320><c> you</c><00:04:26.479><c> plot</c><00:04:26.880><c> the</c><00:04:27.120><c> number</c><00:04:27.360><c> of</c>

00:04:27.590 --> 00:04:27.600 align:start position:0%
spectrum. If you plot the number of
 

00:04:27.600 --> 00:04:29.830 align:start position:0%
spectrum. If you plot the number of
incoming<00:04:28.240><c> high</c><00:04:28.560><c> energy</c><00:04:28.960><c> particles</c><00:04:29.440><c> as</c><00:04:29.600><c> a</c>

00:04:29.830 --> 00:04:29.840 align:start position:0%
incoming high energy particles as a
 

00:04:29.840 --> 00:04:32.310 align:start position:0%
incoming high energy particles as a
function<00:04:30.080><c> of</c><00:04:30.240><c> their</c><00:04:30.479><c> energy,</c><00:04:31.360><c> you</c><00:04:31.600><c> notice</c><00:04:32.000><c> a</c>

00:04:32.310 --> 00:04:32.320 align:start position:0%
function of their energy, you notice a
 

00:04:32.320 --> 00:04:35.189 align:start position:0%
function of their energy, you notice a
distinct<00:04:33.120><c> steepening</c><00:04:33.680><c> point</c><00:04:34.240><c> known</c><00:04:34.720><c> as</c><00:04:34.960><c> the</c>

00:04:35.189 --> 00:04:35.199 align:start position:0%
distinct steepening point known as the
 

00:04:35.199 --> 00:04:38.710 align:start position:0%
distinct steepening point known as the
knee<00:04:36.000><c> beyond</c><00:04:36.400><c> which</c><00:04:36.960><c> the</c><00:04:37.440><c> really</c><00:04:37.919><c> high</c><00:04:38.240><c> energy</c>

00:04:38.710 --> 00:04:38.720 align:start position:0%
knee beyond which the really high energy
 

00:04:38.720 --> 00:04:42.950 align:start position:0%
knee beyond which the really high energy
cosmic<00:04:39.120><c> rays</c><00:04:39.840><c> above</c><00:04:40.320><c> four</c><00:04:41.040><c> pa</c><00:04:41.759><c> electron</c><00:04:42.320><c> volts</c>

00:04:42.950 --> 00:04:42.960 align:start position:0%
cosmic rays above four pa electron volts
 

00:04:42.960 --> 00:04:46.150 align:start position:0%
cosmic rays above four pa electron volts
are<00:04:43.199><c> much</c><00:04:43.520><c> less</c><00:04:43.840><c> common.</c><00:04:45.120><c> At</c><00:04:45.360><c> first,</c><00:04:45.840><c> some</c>

00:04:46.150 --> 00:04:46.160 align:start position:0%
are much less common. At first, some
 

00:04:46.160 --> 00:04:48.710 align:start position:0%
are much less common. At first, some
scientists<00:04:46.639><c> assumed</c><00:04:47.120><c> that</c><00:04:47.360><c> this</c><00:04:47.680><c> knee</c><00:04:48.400><c> must</c>

00:04:48.710 --> 00:04:48.720 align:start position:0%
scientists assumed that this knee must
 

00:04:48.720 --> 00:04:50.790 align:start position:0%
scientists assumed that this knee must
mark<00:04:48.960><c> the</c><00:04:49.199><c> boundary</c><00:04:49.600><c> between</c><00:04:50.000><c> cosmic</c><00:04:50.400><c> rays</c>

00:04:50.790 --> 00:04:50.800 align:start position:0%
mark the boundary between cosmic rays
 

00:04:50.800 --> 00:04:53.350 align:start position:0%
mark the boundary between cosmic rays
coming<00:04:51.120><c> from</c><00:04:51.360><c> inside</c><00:04:51.759><c> our</c><00:04:52.080><c> Milky</c><00:04:52.479><c> Way</c><00:04:53.120><c> and</c>

00:04:53.350 --> 00:04:53.360 align:start position:0%
coming from inside our Milky Way and
 

00:04:53.360 --> 00:04:56.629 align:start position:0%
coming from inside our Milky Way and
those<00:04:53.680><c> coming</c><00:04:53.919><c> from</c><00:04:54.160><c> beyond.</c><00:04:55.360><c> Others</c><00:04:56.240><c> simply</c>

00:04:56.629 --> 00:04:56.639 align:start position:0%
those coming from beyond. Others simply
 

00:04:56.639 --> 00:04:59.350 align:start position:0%
those coming from beyond. Others simply
didn't<00:04:56.880><c> know.</c><00:04:57.840><c> But</c><00:04:58.080><c> just</c><00:04:58.320><c> as</c><00:04:58.639><c> scientists</c><00:04:59.120><c> were</c>

00:04:59.350 --> 00:04:59.360 align:start position:0%
didn't know. But just as scientists were
 

00:04:59.360 --> 00:05:02.550 align:start position:0%
didn't know. But just as scientists were
about<00:04:59.680><c> to</c><00:04:59.919><c> accept</c><00:05:00.400><c> defeat,</c><00:05:01.600><c> one</c><00:05:01.840><c> observatory</c>

00:05:02.550 --> 00:05:02.560 align:start position:0%
about to accept defeat, one observatory
 

00:05:02.560 --> 00:05:05.270 align:start position:0%
about to accept defeat, one observatory
stepped<00:05:02.880><c> in</c><00:05:03.440><c> to</c><00:05:03.840><c> revolutionize</c><00:05:04.720><c> the</c><00:05:04.960><c> search</c>

00:05:05.270 --> 00:05:05.280 align:start position:0%
stepped in to revolutionize the search
 

00:05:05.280 --> 00:05:08.070 align:start position:0%
stepped in to revolutionize the search
for<00:05:05.520><c> these</c><00:05:05.759><c> sneaky</c><00:05:06.320><c> interlopers.</c>

00:05:08.070 --> 00:05:08.080 align:start position:0%
for these sneaky interlopers.
 

00:05:08.080 --> 00:05:10.629 align:start position:0%
for these sneaky interlopers.
The<00:05:08.400><c> large</c><00:05:08.880><c> high</c><00:05:09.280><c> alitude</c><00:05:10.000><c> air</c><00:05:10.240><c> shower</c>

00:05:10.629 --> 00:05:10.639 align:start position:0%
The large high alitude air shower
 

00:05:10.639 --> 00:05:13.430 align:start position:0%
The large high alitude air shower
observatory<00:05:11.680><c> is</c><00:05:11.919><c> a</c><00:05:12.160><c> groundbased</c><00:05:12.800><c> observatory</c>

00:05:13.430 --> 00:05:13.440 align:start position:0%
observatory is a groundbased observatory
 

00:05:13.440 --> 00:05:17.430 align:start position:0%
observatory is a groundbased observatory
located<00:05:14.000><c> nearly</c><00:05:14.479><c> 4,500</c><00:05:15.919><c> m</c><00:05:16.320><c> above</c><00:05:16.720><c> sea</c><00:05:17.039><c> level</c>

00:05:17.430 --> 00:05:17.440 align:start position:0%
located nearly 4,500 m above sea level
 

00:05:17.440 --> 00:05:20.150 align:start position:0%
located nearly 4,500 m above sea level
in<00:05:17.680><c> the</c><00:05:17.840><c> mountains</c><00:05:18.320><c> of</c><00:05:18.800><c> Sichuan</c><00:05:19.520><c> province,</c>

00:05:20.150 --> 00:05:20.160 align:start position:0%
in the mountains of Sichuan province,
 

00:05:20.160 --> 00:05:24.390 align:start position:0%
in the mountains of Sichuan province,
China.<00:05:21.360><c> It</c><00:05:21.600><c> has</c><00:05:22.080><c> one</c><00:05:22.479><c> main</c><00:05:22.800><c> objective</c><00:05:23.840><c> to</c><00:05:24.080><c> find</c>

00:05:24.390 --> 00:05:24.400 align:start position:0%
China. It has one main objective to find
 

00:05:24.400 --> 00:05:26.870 align:start position:0%
China. It has one main objective to find
the<00:05:24.800><c> highest</c><00:05:25.199><c> energy</c><00:05:25.680><c> particles</c><00:05:26.320><c> in</c><00:05:26.639><c> the</c>

00:05:26.870 --> 00:05:26.880 align:start position:0%
the highest energy particles in the
 

00:05:26.880 --> 00:05:29.350 align:start position:0%
the highest energy particles in the
universe.<00:05:28.080><c> The</c><00:05:28.320><c> chief</c><00:05:28.560><c> scientist</c><00:05:29.039><c> on</c><00:05:29.199><c> this</c>

00:05:29.350 --> 00:05:29.360 align:start position:0%
universe. The chief scientist on this
 

00:05:29.360 --> 00:05:32.469 align:start position:0%
universe. The chief scientist on this
mission<00:05:29.680><c> is</c><00:05:30.080><c> Professor</c><00:05:30.639><c> Ten</c><00:05:31.120><c> Cao</c><00:05:31.919><c> who</c><00:05:32.160><c> gave</c>

00:05:32.469 --> 00:05:32.479 align:start position:0%
mission is Professor Ten Cao who gave
 

00:05:32.479 --> 00:05:34.629 align:start position:0%
mission is Professor Ten Cao who gave
Astramm<00:05:32.960><c> an</c><00:05:33.120><c> exclusive</c><00:05:33.600><c> interview</c><00:05:34.080><c> about</c>

00:05:34.629 --> 00:05:34.639 align:start position:0%
Astramm an exclusive interview about
 

00:05:34.639 --> 00:05:38.070 align:start position:0%
Astramm an exclusive interview about
Lasso's<00:05:35.360><c> work.</c><00:05:36.400><c> He</c><00:05:36.720><c> said</c><00:05:37.280><c> to</c><00:05:37.600><c> make</c><00:05:37.840><c> good</c>

00:05:38.070 --> 00:05:38.080 align:start position:0%
Lasso's work. He said to make good
 

00:05:38.080 --> 00:05:39.830 align:start position:0%
Lasso's work. He said to make good
measurements<00:05:38.479><c> for</c><00:05:38.639><c> the</c><00:05:38.800><c> knee</c><00:05:39.120><c> of</c><00:05:39.280><c> the</c><00:05:39.440><c> cosmic</c>

00:05:39.830 --> 00:05:39.840 align:start position:0%
measurements for the knee of the cosmic
 

00:05:39.840 --> 00:05:43.189 align:start position:0%
measurements for the knee of the cosmic
ray<00:05:40.080><c> spectrum,</c><00:05:40.880><c> you</c><00:05:41.199><c> need</c><00:05:41.600><c> two</c><00:05:42.000><c> things.</c><00:05:42.960><c> The</c>

00:05:43.189 --> 00:05:43.199 align:start position:0%
ray spectrum, you need two things. The
 

00:05:43.199 --> 00:05:45.909 align:start position:0%
ray spectrum, you need two things. The
detector<00:05:43.840><c> must</c><00:05:44.080><c> be</c><00:05:44.240><c> big</c><00:05:44.479><c> enough</c><00:05:45.120><c> and</c><00:05:45.360><c> it</c><00:05:45.600><c> must</c>

00:05:45.909 --> 00:05:45.919 align:start position:0%
detector must be big enough and it must
 

00:05:45.919 --> 00:05:47.830 align:start position:0%
detector must be big enough and it must
be<00:05:46.080><c> able</c><00:05:46.320><c> to</c><00:05:46.639><c> identify</c><00:05:47.039><c> the</c><00:05:47.360><c> original</c>

00:05:47.830 --> 00:05:47.840 align:start position:0%
be able to identify the original
 

00:05:47.840 --> 00:05:51.110 align:start position:0%
be able to identify the original
particle<00:05:48.400><c> from</c><00:05:48.639><c> the</c><00:05:48.960><c> air</c><00:05:49.280><c> shower</c><00:05:49.600><c> it</c><00:05:49.919><c> creates.</c>

00:05:51.110 --> 00:05:51.120 align:start position:0%
particle from the air shower it creates.
 

00:05:51.120 --> 00:05:53.350 align:start position:0%
particle from the air shower it creates.
Cosmic<00:05:51.520><c> rays</c><00:05:51.919><c> become</c><00:05:52.320><c> more</c><00:05:52.560><c> rare</c><00:05:52.880><c> the</c><00:05:53.120><c> higher</c>

00:05:53.350 --> 00:05:53.360 align:start position:0%
Cosmic rays become more rare the higher
 

00:05:53.360 --> 00:05:55.749 align:start position:0%
Cosmic rays become more rare the higher
the<00:05:53.600><c> energy.</c><00:05:54.560><c> For</c><00:05:54.800><c> the</c><00:05:54.960><c> highest</c><00:05:55.360><c> energy</c>

00:05:55.749 --> 00:05:55.759 align:start position:0%
the energy. For the highest energy
 

00:05:55.759 --> 00:05:58.390 align:start position:0%
the energy. For the highest energy
particles,<00:05:56.639><c> less</c><00:05:56.960><c> than</c><00:05:57.360><c> one</c><00:05:57.759><c> per</c><00:05:58.000><c> square</c>

00:05:58.390 --> 00:05:58.400 align:start position:0%
particles, less than one per square
 

00:05:58.400 --> 00:06:01.510 align:start position:0%
particles, less than one per square
kilometer<00:05:59.120><c> per</c><00:05:59.440><c> century</c><00:06:00.400><c> is</c><00:06:00.720><c> expected</c><00:06:01.120><c> to</c><00:06:01.280><c> hit</c>

00:06:01.510 --> 00:06:01.520 align:start position:0%
kilometer per century is expected to hit
 

00:06:01.520 --> 00:06:04.710 align:start position:0%
kilometer per century is expected to hit
Earth.<00:06:02.880><c> To</c><00:06:03.199><c> combat</c><00:06:03.520><c> this</c><00:06:03.680><c> issue,</c><00:06:04.319><c> you</c><00:06:04.560><c> need</c>

00:06:04.710 --> 00:06:04.720 align:start position:0%
Earth. To combat this issue, you need
 

00:06:04.720 --> 00:06:07.430 align:start position:0%
Earth. To combat this issue, you need
detectors<00:06:05.440><c> spanning</c><00:06:05.919><c> a</c><00:06:06.240><c> whole</c><00:06:06.639><c> lot</c><00:06:06.960><c> more</c><00:06:07.280><c> than</c>

00:06:07.430 --> 00:06:07.440 align:start position:0%
detectors spanning a whole lot more than
 

00:06:07.440 --> 00:06:10.390 align:start position:0%
detectors spanning a whole lot more than
a<00:06:07.680><c> square</c><00:06:07.919><c> kilometer,</c><00:06:08.880><c> which</c><00:06:09.120><c> is</c><00:06:09.280><c> why</c><00:06:09.520><c> lasso</c>

00:06:10.390 --> 00:06:10.400 align:start position:0%
a square kilometer, which is why lasso
 

00:06:10.400 --> 00:06:14.469 align:start position:0%
a square kilometer, which is why lasso
covers<00:06:10.720><c> an</c><00:06:10.960><c> area</c><00:06:11.360><c> the</c><00:06:11.600><c> size</c><00:06:11.919><c> of</c><00:06:13.360><c> 190</c><00:06:14.000><c> football</c>

00:06:14.469 --> 00:06:14.479 align:start position:0%
covers an area the size of 190 football
 

00:06:14.479 --> 00:06:17.110 align:start position:0%
covers an area the size of 190 football
fields.<00:06:15.520><c> As</c><00:06:15.759><c> for</c><00:06:16.319><c> identifying</c><00:06:16.800><c> the</c>

00:06:17.110 --> 00:06:17.120 align:start position:0%
fields. As for identifying the
 

00:06:17.120 --> 00:06:19.430 align:start position:0%
fields. As for identifying the
particles,<00:06:18.000><c> I</c><00:06:18.319><c> mentioned</c><00:06:18.639><c> that</c><00:06:18.800><c> the</c><00:06:19.039><c> cosmic</c>

00:06:19.430 --> 00:06:19.440 align:start position:0%
particles, I mentioned that the cosmic
 

00:06:19.440 --> 00:06:21.510 align:start position:0%
particles, I mentioned that the cosmic
rays<00:06:19.840><c> produce</c><00:06:20.160><c> a</c><00:06:20.400><c> shower</c><00:06:20.800><c> of</c><00:06:21.039><c> secondary</c>

00:06:21.510 --> 00:06:21.520 align:start position:0%
rays produce a shower of secondary
 

00:06:21.520 --> 00:06:23.029 align:start position:0%
rays produce a shower of secondary
particles<00:06:22.000><c> when</c><00:06:22.240><c> they</c><00:06:22.400><c> collide</c><00:06:22.720><c> with</c><00:06:22.880><c> the</c>

00:06:23.029 --> 00:06:23.039 align:start position:0%
particles when they collide with the
 

00:06:23.039 --> 00:06:25.749 align:start position:0%
particles when they collide with the
atmosphere.<00:06:24.080><c> And</c><00:06:24.319><c> this</c><00:06:24.639><c> is</c><00:06:24.800><c> what</c><00:06:25.199><c> scientists</c>

00:06:25.749 --> 00:06:25.759 align:start position:0%
atmosphere. And this is what scientists
 

00:06:25.759 --> 00:06:28.710 align:start position:0%
atmosphere. And this is what scientists
use.<00:06:26.960><c> They</c><00:06:27.199><c> must</c><00:06:27.680><c> essentially</c><00:06:28.240><c> piece</c><00:06:28.479><c> the</c>

00:06:28.710 --> 00:06:28.720 align:start position:0%
use. They must essentially piece the
 

00:06:28.720 --> 00:06:30.550 align:start position:0%
use. They must essentially piece the
debris<00:06:29.120><c> together</c><00:06:29.440><c> to</c><00:06:29.680><c> work</c><00:06:29.840><c> out</c><00:06:30.000><c> whether</c><00:06:30.319><c> the</c>

00:06:30.550 --> 00:06:30.560 align:start position:0%
debris together to work out whether the
 

00:06:30.560 --> 00:06:33.350 align:start position:0%
debris together to work out whether the
original<00:06:30.960><c> particle</c><00:06:31.440><c> was</c><00:06:31.600><c> a</c><00:06:31.840><c> proton,</c><00:06:32.720><c> a</c><00:06:32.880><c> helium</c>

00:06:33.350 --> 00:06:33.360 align:start position:0%
original particle was a proton, a helium
 

00:06:33.360 --> 00:06:36.550 align:start position:0%
original particle was a proton, a helium
nucleus,<00:06:34.240><c> or</c><00:06:34.639><c> something</c><00:06:35.039><c> heavier.</c><00:06:36.000><c> This</c><00:06:36.160><c> is</c><00:06:36.319><c> a</c>

00:06:36.550 --> 00:06:36.560 align:start position:0%
nucleus, or something heavier. This is a
 

00:06:36.560 --> 00:06:38.710 align:start position:0%
nucleus, or something heavier. This is a
tricky<00:06:36.960><c> process</c><00:06:37.600><c> as</c><00:06:37.840><c> you</c><00:06:38.080><c> need</c><00:06:38.160><c> to</c><00:06:38.319><c> make</c><00:06:38.560><c> sure</c>

00:06:38.710 --> 00:06:38.720 align:start position:0%
tricky process as you need to make sure
 

00:06:38.720 --> 00:06:41.749 align:start position:0%
tricky process as you need to make sure
you<00:06:39.120><c> catch</c><00:06:39.440><c> all</c><00:06:39.680><c> the</c><00:06:39.840><c> fallout.</c><00:06:40.800><c> But</c><00:06:40.960><c> Lasso</c><00:06:41.520><c> is</c>

00:06:41.749 --> 00:06:41.759 align:start position:0%
you catch all the fallout. But Lasso is
 

00:06:41.759 --> 00:06:43.430 align:start position:0%
you catch all the fallout. But Lasso is
one<00:06:41.919><c> of</c><00:06:42.000><c> the</c><00:06:42.240><c> most</c><00:06:42.639><c> welle</c><00:06:43.120><c> equipped</c>

00:06:43.430 --> 00:06:43.440 align:start position:0%
one of the most welle equipped
 

00:06:43.440 --> 00:06:45.749 align:start position:0%
one of the most welle equipped
observatories<00:06:44.160><c> to</c><00:06:44.400><c> tackle</c><00:06:44.639><c> the</c><00:06:44.880><c> challenge.</c>

00:06:45.749 --> 00:06:45.759 align:start position:0%
observatories to tackle the challenge.
 

00:06:45.759 --> 00:06:47.749 align:start position:0%
observatories to tackle the challenge.
It<00:06:46.000><c> has</c><00:06:46.160><c> at</c><00:06:46.240><c> least</c><00:06:46.720><c> three</c><00:06:47.120><c> types</c><00:06:47.520><c> of</c>

00:06:47.749 --> 00:06:47.759 align:start position:0%
It has at least three types of
 

00:06:47.759 --> 00:06:50.710 align:start position:0%
It has at least three types of
interconnected<00:06:48.479><c> detectors</c><00:06:49.199><c> in</c><00:06:49.520><c> an</c><00:06:49.680><c> array</c><00:06:50.479><c> to</c>

00:06:50.710 --> 00:06:50.720 align:start position:0%
interconnected detectors in an array to
 

00:06:50.720 --> 00:06:53.110 align:start position:0%
interconnected detectors in an array to
capture<00:06:51.039><c> the</c><00:06:51.280><c> shower</c><00:06:51.759><c> and</c><00:06:52.000><c> then</c><00:06:52.400><c> identify</c><00:06:52.800><c> the</c>

00:06:53.110 --> 00:06:53.120 align:start position:0%
capture the shower and then identify the
 

00:06:53.120 --> 00:06:56.390 align:start position:0%
capture the shower and then identify the
original<00:06:53.520><c> cosmic</c><00:06:54.080><c> ray</c><00:06:54.400><c> particle.</c><00:06:55.840><c> This</c>

00:06:56.390 --> 00:06:56.400 align:start position:0%
original cosmic ray particle. This
 

00:06:56.400 --> 00:06:59.189 align:start position:0%
original cosmic ray particle. This
unparalleled<00:06:57.360><c> ability</c><00:06:58.160><c> pretty</c><00:06:58.479><c> quickly</c><00:06:58.960><c> led</c>

00:06:59.189 --> 00:06:59.199 align:start position:0%
unparalleled ability pretty quickly led
 

00:06:59.199 --> 00:07:02.070 align:start position:0%
unparalleled ability pretty quickly led
to<00:06:59.360><c> the</c><00:06:59.520><c> team's</c><00:07:00.000><c> first</c><00:07:00.400><c> big</c><00:07:00.800><c> discovery.</c>

00:07:02.070 --> 00:07:02.080 align:start position:0%
to the team's first big discovery.
 

00:07:02.080 --> 00:07:04.469 align:start position:0%
to the team's first big discovery.
Professor<00:07:02.479><c> Cow</c><00:07:02.960><c> said,</c><00:07:03.280><c> "At</c><00:07:03.680><c> the</c><00:07:03.919><c> time,</c><00:07:04.160><c> we</c>

00:07:04.469 --> 00:07:04.479 align:start position:0%
Professor Cow said, "At the time, we
 

00:07:04.479 --> 00:07:07.430 align:start position:0%
Professor Cow said, "At the time, we
only<00:07:04.800><c> had</c><00:07:05.120><c> around</c><00:07:05.599><c> half</c><00:07:05.919><c> of</c><00:07:06.080><c> Lasso</c><00:07:06.560><c> built.</c><00:07:07.199><c> We</c>

00:07:07.430 --> 00:07:07.440 align:start position:0%
only had around half of Lasso built. We
 

00:07:07.440 --> 00:07:09.589 align:start position:0%
only had around half of Lasso built. We
put<00:07:07.599><c> it</c><00:07:07.759><c> into</c><00:07:08.000><c> operation</c><00:07:08.479><c> for</c><00:07:08.720><c> around</c><00:07:09.120><c> half</c><00:07:09.360><c> a</c>

00:07:09.589 --> 00:07:09.599 align:start position:0%
put it into operation for around half a
 

00:07:09.599 --> 00:07:12.309 align:start position:0%
put it into operation for around half a
year<00:07:10.160><c> and</c><00:07:10.479><c> suddenly</c><00:07:11.039><c> found</c><00:07:11.360><c> that</c><00:07:11.520><c> there</c><00:07:11.759><c> were</c>

00:07:12.309 --> 00:07:12.319 align:start position:0%
year and suddenly found that there were
 

00:07:12.319 --> 00:07:16.469 align:start position:0%
year and suddenly found that there were
so<00:07:12.800><c> many</c><00:07:13.199><c> gamma</c><00:07:13.520><c> rays.</c><00:07:14.639><c> By</c><00:07:14.960><c> 2021,</c><00:07:15.759><c> Lasso</c><00:07:16.240><c> had</c>

00:07:16.469 --> 00:07:16.479 align:start position:0%
so many gamma rays. By 2021, Lasso had
 

00:07:16.479 --> 00:07:18.950 align:start position:0%
so many gamma rays. By 2021, Lasso had
detected<00:07:16.880><c> gammaray</c><00:07:17.440><c> photons</c><00:07:18.080><c> with</c><00:07:18.400><c> energies</c>

00:07:18.950 --> 00:07:18.960 align:start position:0%
detected gammaray photons with energies
 

00:07:18.960 --> 00:07:23.029 align:start position:0%
detected gammaray photons with energies
exceeding<00:07:20.000><c> one</c><00:07:20.400><c> pa</c><00:07:20.960><c> electron</c><00:07:21.440><c> volt</c><00:07:22.080><c> or</c><00:07:22.639><c> one</c>

00:07:23.029 --> 00:07:23.039 align:start position:0%
exceeding one pa electron volt or one
 

00:07:23.039 --> 00:07:26.469 align:start position:0%
exceeding one pa electron volt or one
quadrillion<00:07:23.919><c> electron</c><00:07:24.400><c> volts.</c><00:07:25.120><c> and</c><00:07:25.440><c> one</c><00:07:26.160><c> at</c>

00:07:26.469 --> 00:07:26.479 align:start position:0%
quadrillion electron volts. and one at
 

00:07:26.479 --> 00:07:29.589 align:start position:0%
quadrillion electron volts. and one at
1.4<00:07:27.440><c> quadrillion</c><00:07:28.080><c> electron</c><00:07:28.560><c> volts,</c><00:07:29.280><c> making</c>

00:07:29.589 --> 00:07:29.599 align:start position:0%
1.4 quadrillion electron volts, making
 

00:07:29.599 --> 00:07:32.390 align:start position:0%
1.4 quadrillion electron volts, making
it<00:07:29.759><c> the</c><00:07:30.080><c> highest</c><00:07:30.560><c> energy</c><00:07:31.039><c> photon</c><00:07:31.919><c> ever</c>

00:07:32.390 --> 00:07:32.400 align:start position:0%
it the highest energy photon ever
 

00:07:32.400 --> 00:07:36.390 align:start position:0%
it the highest energy photon ever
observed.<00:07:33.520><c> For</c><00:07:33.840><c> context,</c><00:07:34.639><c> that's</c><00:07:34.880><c> nearly</c><00:07:36.080><c> 150</c>

00:07:36.390 --> 00:07:36.400 align:start position:0%
observed. For context, that's nearly 150
 

00:07:36.400 --> 00:07:38.629 align:start position:0%
observed. For context, that's nearly 150
times<00:07:36.800><c> more</c><00:07:37.039><c> energy</c><00:07:37.599><c> than</c><00:07:37.840><c> the</c><00:07:38.080><c> fastest</c>

00:07:38.629 --> 00:07:38.639 align:start position:0%
times more energy than the fastest
 

00:07:38.639 --> 00:07:41.029 align:start position:0%
times more energy than the fastest
protons<00:07:39.280><c> accelerated</c><00:07:39.840><c> by</c><00:07:40.080><c> the</c><00:07:40.240><c> Large</c><00:07:40.479><c> Hadron</c>

00:07:41.029 --> 00:07:41.039 align:start position:0%
protons accelerated by the Large Hadron
 

00:07:41.039 --> 00:07:43.749 align:start position:0%
protons accelerated by the Large Hadron
Collider.<00:07:42.319><c> Now,</c><00:07:42.720><c> the</c><00:07:42.960><c> laws</c><00:07:43.199><c> of</c><00:07:43.360><c> energy</c>

00:07:43.749 --> 00:07:43.759 align:start position:0%
Collider. Now, the laws of energy
 

00:07:43.759 --> 00:07:46.309 align:start position:0%
Collider. Now, the laws of energy
conservation<00:07:44.319><c> tell</c><00:07:44.479><c> us</c><00:07:44.720><c> that</c><00:07:45.039><c> paelron</c><00:07:45.919><c> fault</c>

00:07:46.309 --> 00:07:46.319 align:start position:0%
conservation tell us that paelron fault
 

00:07:46.319 --> 00:07:48.870 align:start position:0%
conservation tell us that paelron fault
particles<00:07:47.280><c> don't</c><00:07:47.680><c> just</c><00:07:47.919><c> appear</c><00:07:48.479><c> out</c><00:07:48.720><c> of</c>

00:07:48.870 --> 00:07:48.880 align:start position:0%
particles don't just appear out of
 

00:07:48.880 --> 00:07:51.909 align:start position:0%
particles don't just appear out of
nowhere.<00:07:49.759><c> That</c><00:07:50.080><c> colossal</c><00:07:50.800><c> amount</c><00:07:51.120><c> of</c><00:07:51.360><c> energy</c>

00:07:51.909 --> 00:07:51.919 align:start position:0%
nowhere. That colossal amount of energy
 

00:07:51.919 --> 00:07:53.909 align:start position:0%
nowhere. That colossal amount of energy
has<00:07:52.240><c> to</c><00:07:52.400><c> be</c><00:07:52.560><c> transferred</c><00:07:52.960><c> to</c><00:07:53.120><c> the</c><00:07:53.280><c> particles</c>

00:07:53.909 --> 00:07:53.919 align:start position:0%
has to be transferred to the particles
 

00:07:53.919 --> 00:07:56.629 align:start position:0%
has to be transferred to the particles
from<00:07:54.240><c> a</c><00:07:54.560><c> source.</c><00:07:55.759><c> Scientists</c><00:07:56.240><c> had</c><00:07:56.479><c> been</c>

00:07:56.629 --> 00:07:56.639 align:start position:0%
from a source. Scientists had been
 

00:07:56.639 --> 00:07:58.390 align:start position:0%
from a source. Scientists had been
theorizing<00:07:57.199><c> about</c><00:07:57.520><c> such</c><00:07:57.680><c> a</c><00:07:57.919><c> source</c><00:07:58.160><c> for</c>

00:07:58.390 --> 00:07:58.400 align:start position:0%
theorizing about such a source for
 

00:07:58.400 --> 00:08:01.430 align:start position:0%
theorizing about such a source for
decades.<00:07:59.360><c> But</c><00:07:59.520><c> Lasso's</c><00:08:00.240><c> finding</c><00:08:00.800><c> proved</c><00:08:01.120><c> its</c>

00:08:01.430 --> 00:08:01.440 align:start position:0%
decades. But Lasso's finding proved its
 

00:08:01.440 --> 00:08:05.189 align:start position:0%
decades. But Lasso's finding proved its
existence<00:08:02.240><c> once</c><00:08:02.879><c> and</c><00:08:03.280><c> for</c><00:08:03.599><c> all.</c><00:08:04.639><c> The</c>

00:08:05.189 --> 00:08:05.199 align:start position:0%
existence once and for all. The
 

00:08:05.199 --> 00:08:07.029 align:start position:0%
existence once and for all. The
pevatron.

00:08:07.029 --> 00:08:07.039 align:start position:0%
pevatron.
 

00:08:07.039 --> 00:08:09.909 align:start position:0%
pevatron.
Pevveratrons<00:08:07.919><c> are</c><00:08:08.400><c> any</c><00:08:08.800><c> source</c><00:08:09.199><c> capable</c><00:08:09.680><c> of</c>

00:08:09.909 --> 00:08:09.919 align:start position:0%
Pevveratrons are any source capable of
 

00:08:09.919 --> 00:08:12.390 align:start position:0%
Pevveratrons are any source capable of
accelerating<00:08:10.639><c> particles</c><00:08:11.120><c> to</c><00:08:11.360><c> a</c><00:08:11.599><c> paelectron</c>

00:08:12.390 --> 00:08:12.400 align:start position:0%
accelerating particles to a paelectron
 

00:08:12.400 --> 00:08:15.110 align:start position:0%
accelerating particles to a paelectron
vault<00:08:12.639><c> of</c><00:08:12.800><c> energy.</c><00:08:13.680><c> And</c><00:08:13.919><c> their</c><00:08:14.160><c> existence</c>

00:08:15.110 --> 00:08:15.120 align:start position:0%
vault of energy. And their existence
 

00:08:15.120 --> 00:08:17.189 align:start position:0%
vault of energy. And their existence
promised<00:08:15.520><c> to</c><00:08:15.759><c> revolutionize</c><00:08:16.560><c> the</c><00:08:16.800><c> hunt</c><00:08:17.039><c> for</c>

00:08:17.189 --> 00:08:17.199 align:start position:0%
promised to revolutionize the hunt for
 

00:08:17.199 --> 00:08:21.270 align:start position:0%
promised to revolutionize the hunt for
cosmic<00:08:17.599><c> rays.</c><00:08:18.800><c> But</c><00:08:19.120><c> how</c><00:08:19.520><c> do</c><00:08:19.759><c> we</c><00:08:20.000><c> find</c><00:08:20.240><c> them?</c>

00:08:21.270 --> 00:08:21.280 align:start position:0%
cosmic rays. But how do we find them?
 

00:08:21.280 --> 00:08:24.150 align:start position:0%
cosmic rays. But how do we find them?
Luckily,<00:08:22.000><c> Lassa</c><00:08:22.560><c> wasn't</c><00:08:22.960><c> finished.</c><00:08:23.840><c> Gamma</c>

00:08:24.150 --> 00:08:24.160 align:start position:0%
Luckily, Lassa wasn't finished. Gamma
 

00:08:24.160 --> 00:08:26.550 align:start position:0%
Luckily, Lassa wasn't finished. Gamma
rays<00:08:24.479><c> are</c><00:08:24.639><c> useful</c><00:08:25.039><c> because</c><00:08:25.440><c> they</c><00:08:25.759><c> are</c><00:08:26.080><c> neutral</c>

00:08:26.550 --> 00:08:26.560 align:start position:0%
rays are useful because they are neutral
 

00:08:26.560 --> 00:08:28.629 align:start position:0%
rays are useful because they are neutral
in<00:08:26.800><c> terms</c><00:08:26.960><c> of</c><00:08:27.120><c> their</c><00:08:27.360><c> charge,</c><00:08:28.080><c> so</c><00:08:28.240><c> they</c><00:08:28.479><c> can</c>

00:08:28.629 --> 00:08:28.639 align:start position:0%
in terms of their charge, so they can
 

00:08:28.639 --> 00:08:30.150 align:start position:0%
in terms of their charge, so they can
travel<00:08:28.879><c> in</c><00:08:29.120><c> straight</c><00:08:29.360><c> lines</c><00:08:29.680><c> throughout</c><00:08:30.000><c> the</c>

00:08:30.150 --> 00:08:30.160 align:start position:0%
travel in straight lines throughout the
 

00:08:30.160 --> 00:08:32.469 align:start position:0%
travel in straight lines throughout the
universe<00:08:30.639><c> without</c><00:08:31.039><c> being</c><00:08:31.360><c> bent</c><00:08:31.680><c> by</c><00:08:32.000><c> magnetic</c>

00:08:32.469 --> 00:08:32.479 align:start position:0%
universe without being bent by magnetic
 

00:08:32.479 --> 00:08:35.269 align:start position:0%
universe without being bent by magnetic
fields.<00:08:33.519><c> This</c><00:08:33.839><c> added</c><00:08:34.159><c> a</c><00:08:34.479><c> new</c><00:08:34.719><c> dimension</c><00:08:35.120><c> to</c>

00:08:35.269 --> 00:08:35.279 align:start position:0%
fields. This added a new dimension to
 

00:08:35.279 --> 00:08:37.909 align:start position:0%
fields. This added a new dimension to
Lasso's<00:08:35.919><c> work.</c><00:08:36.640><c> It</c><00:08:36.880><c> could</c><00:08:37.039><c> trace</c><00:08:37.440><c> back</c><00:08:37.680><c> to</c>

00:08:37.909 --> 00:08:37.919 align:start position:0%
Lasso's work. It could trace back to
 

00:08:37.919 --> 00:08:40.550 align:start position:0%
Lasso's work. It could trace back to
where<00:08:38.080><c> the</c><00:08:38.320><c> gamma</c><00:08:38.640><c> rays</c><00:08:39.039><c> had</c><00:08:39.200><c> come</c><00:08:39.440><c> from.</c>

00:08:40.550 --> 00:08:40.560 align:start position:0%
where the gamma rays had come from.
 

00:08:40.560 --> 00:08:42.949 align:start position:0%
where the gamma rays had come from.
Mapping<00:08:41.039><c> these</c><00:08:41.279><c> traces</c><00:08:41.760><c> across</c><00:08:42.080><c> the</c><00:08:42.320><c> sky,</c>

00:08:42.949 --> 00:08:42.959 align:start position:0%
Mapping these traces across the sky,
 

00:08:42.959 --> 00:08:45.030 align:start position:0%
Mapping these traces across the sky,
scientists<00:08:43.599><c> identified</c><00:08:44.159><c> 12</c><00:08:44.560><c> distinct</c>

00:08:45.030 --> 00:08:45.040 align:start position:0%
scientists identified 12 distinct
 

00:08:45.040 --> 00:08:47.670 align:start position:0%
scientists identified 12 distinct
sources<00:08:45.600><c> capable</c><00:08:46.000><c> of</c><00:08:46.160><c> producing</c><00:08:46.959><c> ultra</c><00:08:47.279><c> high</c>

00:08:47.670 --> 00:08:47.680 align:start position:0%
sources capable of producing ultra high
 

00:08:47.680 --> 00:08:50.070 align:start position:0%
sources capable of producing ultra high
energy<00:08:48.080><c> gamma</c><00:08:48.399><c> rays,</c><00:08:49.120><c> several</c><00:08:49.440><c> of</c><00:08:49.680><c> which</c>

00:08:50.070 --> 00:08:50.080 align:start position:0%
energy gamma rays, several of which
 

00:08:50.080 --> 00:08:52.310 align:start position:0%
energy gamma rays, several of which
showed<00:08:50.480><c> signs</c><00:08:50.800><c> of</c><00:08:51.040><c> accelerating</c><00:08:51.680><c> particles</c>

00:08:52.310 --> 00:08:52.320 align:start position:0%
showed signs of accelerating particles
 

00:08:52.320 --> 00:08:55.350 align:start position:0%
showed signs of accelerating particles
to<00:08:52.480><c> a</c><00:08:52.720><c> quadrillion</c><00:08:53.519><c> electron</c><00:08:54.000><c> volts.</c><00:08:55.120><c> There</c>

00:08:55.350 --> 00:08:55.360 align:start position:0%
to a quadrillion electron volts. There
 

00:08:55.360 --> 00:08:57.990 align:start position:0%
to a quadrillion electron volts. There
was<00:08:55.600><c> a</c><00:08:55.760><c> catch,</c><00:08:56.160><c> though.</c><00:08:56.959><c> Lasso</c><00:08:57.519><c> may</c><00:08:57.680><c> have</c>

00:08:57.990 --> 00:08:58.000 align:start position:0%
was a catch, though. Lasso may have
 

00:08:58.000 --> 00:08:59.670 align:start position:0%
was a catch, though. Lasso may have
identified<00:08:58.399><c> the</c><00:08:58.800><c> general</c><00:08:59.200><c> direction</c><00:08:59.519><c> of</c>

00:08:59.670 --> 00:08:59.680 align:start position:0%
identified the general direction of
 

00:08:59.680 --> 00:09:01.990 align:start position:0%
identified the general direction of
these<00:08:59.920><c> gammaray</c><00:09:00.399><c> sources,</c><00:09:01.279><c> but</c><00:09:01.519><c> scientists</c>

00:09:01.990 --> 00:09:02.000 align:start position:0%
these gammaray sources, but scientists
 

00:09:02.000 --> 00:09:05.829 align:start position:0%
these gammaray sources, but scientists
had<00:09:02.480><c> no</c><00:09:02.720><c> idea</c><00:09:03.200><c> how</c><00:09:03.440><c> far</c><00:09:03.760><c> away</c><00:09:04.000><c> they</c><00:09:04.240><c> were.</c><00:09:05.440><c> 12</c>

00:09:05.829 --> 00:09:05.839 align:start position:0%
had no idea how far away they were. 12
 

00:09:05.839 --> 00:09:07.990 align:start position:0%
had no idea how far away they were. 12
lines<00:09:06.160><c> of</c><00:09:06.320><c> sight</c><00:09:06.720><c> stretching</c><00:09:07.200><c> out</c><00:09:07.440><c> endlessly</c>

00:09:07.990 --> 00:09:08.000 align:start position:0%
lines of sight stretching out endlessly
 

00:09:08.000 --> 00:09:10.710 align:start position:0%
lines of sight stretching out endlessly
into<00:09:08.320><c> space</c><00:09:08.880><c> isn't</c><00:09:09.360><c> exactly</c><00:09:09.760><c> a</c><00:09:10.080><c> narrow</c><00:09:10.399><c> search</c>

00:09:10.710 --> 00:09:10.720 align:start position:0%
into space isn't exactly a narrow search
 

00:09:10.720 --> 00:09:13.509 align:start position:0%
into space isn't exactly a narrow search
field.<00:09:11.760><c> Except</c><00:09:12.480><c> scientists</c><00:09:12.959><c> knew</c><00:09:13.279><c> something</c>

00:09:13.509 --> 00:09:13.519 align:start position:0%
field. Except scientists knew something
 

00:09:13.519 --> 00:09:15.269 align:start position:0%
field. Except scientists knew something
else<00:09:13.680><c> about</c><00:09:13.920><c> these</c><00:09:14.160><c> gamma</c><00:09:14.480><c> rays</c><00:09:14.800><c> that</c><00:09:15.040><c> would</c>

00:09:15.269 --> 00:09:15.279 align:start position:0%
else about these gamma rays that would
 

00:09:15.279 --> 00:09:18.150 align:start position:0%
else about these gamma rays that would
tighten<00:09:15.680><c> the</c><00:09:15.920><c> net.</c><00:09:17.200><c> The</c><00:09:17.519><c> universe</c><00:09:17.839><c> has</c><00:09:18.000><c> been</c>

00:09:18.150 --> 00:09:18.160 align:start position:0%
tighten the net. The universe has been
 

00:09:18.160 --> 00:09:20.021 align:start position:0%
tighten the net. The universe has been
full<00:09:18.320><c> of</c><00:09:18.480><c> photons</c><00:09:18.880><c> since</c><00:09:19.200><c> the</c><00:09:19.440><c> big</c><00:09:19.600><c> bang.</c>

00:09:20.021 --> 00:09:20.031 align:start position:0%
full of photons since the big bang.
 

00:09:20.031 --> 00:09:22.389 align:start position:0%
full of photons since the big bang.
[music]<00:09:20.320><c> And</c><00:09:20.480><c> these</c><00:09:20.720><c> photons</c><00:09:21.200><c> are</c><00:09:21.600><c> very</c><00:09:22.000><c> cold</c>

00:09:22.389 --> 00:09:22.399 align:start position:0%
[music] And these photons are very cold
 

00:09:22.399 --> 00:09:25.509 align:start position:0%
[music] And these photons are very cold
with<00:09:22.720><c> low</c><00:09:23.040><c> energies.</c><00:09:24.080><c> Gamma</c><00:09:24.480><c> rays</c><00:09:24.800><c> at</c><00:09:25.200><c> ultra</c>

00:09:25.509 --> 00:09:25.519 align:start position:0%
with low energies. Gamma rays at ultra
 

00:09:25.519 --> 00:09:27.829 align:start position:0%
with low energies. Gamma rays at ultra
high<00:09:25.839><c> energies</c><00:09:26.399><c> are</c><00:09:26.640><c> very</c><00:09:26.959><c> likely</c><00:09:27.279><c> to</c><00:09:27.519><c> collide</c>

00:09:27.829 --> 00:09:27.839 align:start position:0%
high energies are very likely to collide
 

00:09:27.839 --> 00:09:29.829 align:start position:0%
high energies are very likely to collide
with<00:09:28.000><c> these</c><00:09:28.320><c> background</c><00:09:28.800><c> photons.</c><00:09:29.519><c> And</c><00:09:29.680><c> when</c>

00:09:29.829 --> 00:09:29.839 align:start position:0%
with these background photons. And when
 

00:09:29.839 --> 00:09:32.630 align:start position:0%
with these background photons. And when
they<00:09:30.080><c> do,</c><00:09:30.640><c> they</c><00:09:30.880><c> vanish.</c>

00:09:32.630 --> 00:09:32.640 align:start position:0%
they do, they vanish.
 

00:09:32.640 --> 00:09:34.790 align:start position:0%
they do, they vanish.
This<00:09:32.880><c> means</c><00:09:33.120><c> that</c><00:09:33.279><c> gamma</c><00:09:33.680><c> rays</c><00:09:34.000><c> simply</c><00:09:34.480><c> can't</c>

00:09:34.790 --> 00:09:34.800 align:start position:0%
This means that gamma rays simply can't
 

00:09:34.800 --> 00:09:38.310 align:start position:0%
This means that gamma rays simply can't
travel<00:09:35.120><c> vast</c><00:09:35.519><c> distances</c><00:09:36.000><c> through</c><00:09:36.399><c> space.</c><00:09:37.440><c> So</c>

00:09:38.310 --> 00:09:38.320 align:start position:0%
travel vast distances through space. So
 

00:09:38.320 --> 00:09:40.790 align:start position:0%
travel vast distances through space. So
if<00:09:38.560><c> lasso</c><00:09:39.200><c> was</c><00:09:39.519><c> detecting</c><00:09:40.000><c> them</c><00:09:40.240><c> here</c><00:09:40.560><c> on</c>

00:09:40.790 --> 00:09:40.800 align:start position:0%
if lasso was detecting them here on
 

00:09:40.800 --> 00:09:42.870 align:start position:0%
if lasso was detecting them here on
Earth,<00:09:41.600><c> then</c><00:09:41.839><c> they</c><00:09:42.000><c> couldn't</c><00:09:42.320><c> have</c><00:09:42.480><c> traveled</c>

00:09:42.870 --> 00:09:42.880 align:start position:0%
Earth, then they couldn't have traveled
 

00:09:42.880 --> 00:09:46.150 align:start position:0%
Earth, then they couldn't have traveled
very<00:09:43.279><c> far.</c><00:09:44.240><c> In</c><00:09:44.399><c> fact,</c><00:09:44.640><c> there</c><00:09:44.880><c> is</c><00:09:45.120><c> no</c><00:09:45.440><c> way</c><00:09:45.839><c> that</c>

00:09:46.150 --> 00:09:46.160 align:start position:0%
very far. In fact, there is no way that
 

00:09:46.160 --> 00:09:48.710 align:start position:0%
very far. In fact, there is no way that
these<00:09:46.560><c> 12</c><00:09:46.959><c> high</c><00:09:47.279><c> energy</c><00:09:47.600><c> sources</c><00:09:48.160><c> could</c><00:09:48.399><c> be</c>

00:09:48.710 --> 00:09:48.720 align:start position:0%
these 12 high energy sources could be
 

00:09:48.720 --> 00:09:52.070 align:start position:0%
these 12 high energy sources could be
extra<00:09:49.200><c> galactic.</c><00:09:50.320><c> They</c><00:09:50.640><c> must</c><00:09:50.880><c> be</c><00:09:51.120><c> inside</c><00:09:51.600><c> our</c>

00:09:52.070 --> 00:09:52.080 align:start position:0%
extra galactic. They must be inside our
 

00:09:52.080 --> 00:09:53.829 align:start position:0%
extra galactic. They must be inside our
Milky<00:09:52.480><c> Way.</c>

00:09:53.829 --> 00:09:53.839 align:start position:0%
Milky Way.
 

00:09:53.839 --> 00:09:55.750 align:start position:0%
Milky Way.
Not<00:09:54.160><c> only</c><00:09:54.399><c> did</c><00:09:54.640><c> this</c><00:09:54.880><c> tell</c><00:09:55.120><c> scientists</c><00:09:55.600><c> that</c>

00:09:55.750 --> 00:09:55.760 align:start position:0%
Not only did this tell scientists that
 

00:09:55.760 --> 00:09:57.910 align:start position:0%
Not only did this tell scientists that
the<00:09:56.000><c> knee,</c><00:09:56.480><c> the</c><00:09:56.720><c> bend</c><00:09:56.959><c> in</c><00:09:57.120><c> the</c><00:09:57.200><c> graph</c><00:09:57.440><c> we</c><00:09:57.680><c> saw</c>

00:09:57.910 --> 00:09:57.920 align:start position:0%
the knee, the bend in the graph we saw
 

00:09:57.920 --> 00:10:00.150 align:start position:0%
the knee, the bend in the graph we saw
earlier,<00:09:58.640><c> had</c><00:09:59.040><c> nothing</c><00:09:59.279><c> to</c><00:09:59.440><c> do</c><00:09:59.600><c> with</c><00:09:59.760><c> cosmic</c>

00:10:00.150 --> 00:10:00.160 align:start position:0%
earlier, had nothing to do with cosmic
 

00:10:00.160 --> 00:10:02.470 align:start position:0%
earlier, had nothing to do with cosmic
rays<00:10:00.560><c> coming</c><00:10:00.720><c> from</c><00:10:00.959><c> outside</c><00:10:01.279><c> the</c><00:10:01.440><c> Milky</c><00:10:01.839><c> Way,</c>

00:10:02.470 --> 00:10:02.480 align:start position:0%
rays coming from outside the Milky Way,
 

00:10:02.480 --> 00:10:04.790 align:start position:0%
rays coming from outside the Milky Way,
but<00:10:02.640><c> it</c><00:10:02.959><c> brought</c><00:10:03.200><c> the</c><00:10:03.440><c> search</c><00:10:03.680><c> for</c><00:10:03.920><c> them</c><00:10:04.399><c> much</c>

00:10:04.790 --> 00:10:04.800 align:start position:0%
but it brought the search for them much
 

00:10:04.800 --> 00:10:10.389 align:start position:0%
but it brought the search for them much
closer<00:10:05.200><c> to</c><00:10:05.360><c> home.</c><00:10:06.240><c> The</c><00:10:06.480><c> race</c><00:10:07.040><c> was</c><00:10:07.279><c> on.</c>

00:10:10.389 --> 00:10:10.399 align:start position:0%
 
 

00:10:10.399 --> 00:10:12.230 align:start position:0%
 
Now,<00:10:10.880><c> before</c><00:10:11.200><c> Lassa's</c><00:10:11.760><c> work,</c>

00:10:12.230 --> 00:10:12.240 align:start position:0%
Now, before Lassa's work,
 

00:10:12.240 --> 00:10:14.389 align:start position:0%
Now, before Lassa's work,
astrophysicists<00:10:13.200><c> had</c><00:10:13.440><c> developed</c><00:10:13.920><c> theories</c>

00:10:14.389 --> 00:10:14.399 align:start position:0%
astrophysicists had developed theories
 

00:10:14.399 --> 00:10:16.352 align:start position:0%
astrophysicists had developed theories
about<00:10:14.720><c> the</c><00:10:14.959><c> production</c><00:10:15.279><c> of</c><00:10:15.519><c> cosmic</c><00:10:15.920><c> rays</c>

00:10:16.352 --> 00:10:16.362 align:start position:0%
about the production of cosmic rays
 

00:10:16.362 --> 00:10:18.550 align:start position:0%
about the production of cosmic rays
[music]<00:10:16.720><c> and</c><00:10:17.120><c> which</c><00:10:17.440><c> type</c><00:10:17.680><c> of</c><00:10:17.839><c> source</c><00:10:18.320><c> could</c>

00:10:18.550 --> 00:10:18.560 align:start position:0%
[music] and which type of source could
 

00:10:18.560 --> 00:10:21.590 align:start position:0%
[music] and which type of source could
be<00:10:18.720><c> responsible.</c><00:10:19.920><c> After</c><00:10:20.240><c> all,</c><00:10:20.640><c> space</c><00:10:21.040><c> is</c><00:10:21.279><c> a</c>

00:10:21.590 --> 00:10:21.600 align:start position:0%
be responsible. After all, space is a
 

00:10:21.600 --> 00:10:23.910 align:start position:0%
be responsible. After all, space is a
weird<00:10:21.920><c> and</c><00:10:22.240><c> wonderful</c><00:10:22.720><c> place,</c><00:10:23.440><c> home</c><00:10:23.680><c> to</c>

00:10:23.910 --> 00:10:23.920 align:start position:0%
weird and wonderful place, home to
 

00:10:23.920 --> 00:10:26.069 align:start position:0%
weird and wonderful place, home to
several<00:10:24.399><c> unusual</c><00:10:24.959><c> objects</c><00:10:25.519><c> displaying</c>

00:10:26.069 --> 00:10:26.079 align:start position:0%
several unusual objects displaying
 

00:10:26.079 --> 00:10:28.630 align:start position:0%
several unusual objects displaying
extreme<00:10:26.640><c> behavior.</c><00:10:27.839><c> But</c><00:10:28.079><c> which</c><00:10:28.320><c> of</c><00:10:28.399><c> these</c>

00:10:28.630 --> 00:10:28.640 align:start position:0%
extreme behavior. But which of these
 

00:10:28.640 --> 00:10:30.790 align:start position:0%
extreme behavior. But which of these
oddities<00:10:29.120><c> were</c><00:10:29.440><c> capable</c><00:10:29.760><c> of</c><00:10:30.000><c> producing</c><00:10:30.480><c> the</c>

00:10:30.790 --> 00:10:30.800 align:start position:0%
oddities were capable of producing the
 

00:10:30.800 --> 00:10:34.710 align:start position:0%
oddities were capable of producing the
highest<00:10:31.279><c> energy</c><00:10:31.760><c> particles?</c><00:10:32.800><c> And</c><00:10:33.279><c> how?</c><00:10:34.480><c> For</c>

00:10:34.710 --> 00:10:34.720 align:start position:0%
highest energy particles? And how? For
 

00:10:34.720 --> 00:10:37.509 align:start position:0%
highest energy particles? And how? For
the<00:10:34.880><c> past</c><00:10:35.120><c> 70</c><00:10:35.440><c> years,</c><00:10:36.079><c> a</c><00:10:36.399><c> popular</c><00:10:36.800><c> idea</c><00:10:37.279><c> was</c>

00:10:37.509 --> 00:10:37.519 align:start position:0%
the past 70 years, a popular idea was
 

00:10:37.519 --> 00:10:39.829 align:start position:0%
the past 70 years, a popular idea was
that<00:10:38.000><c> supernova</c><00:10:38.720><c> remnants</c><00:10:39.287><c> [music]</c><00:10:39.360><c> played</c><00:10:39.680><c> a</c>

00:10:39.829 --> 00:10:39.839 align:start position:0%
that supernova remnants [music] played a
 

00:10:39.839 --> 00:10:42.710 align:start position:0%
that supernova remnants [music] played a
key<00:10:40.079><c> role</c><00:10:40.320><c> in</c><00:10:40.560><c> producing</c><00:10:41.040><c> cosmic</c><00:10:41.440><c> rays.</c><00:10:42.320><c> They</c>

00:10:42.710 --> 00:10:42.720 align:start position:0%
key role in producing cosmic rays. They
 

00:10:42.720 --> 00:10:45.269 align:start position:0%
key role in producing cosmic rays. They
certainly<00:10:43.200><c> have</c><00:10:43.440><c> enough</c><00:10:43.760><c> energy</c><00:10:44.079><c> for</c><00:10:44.320><c> it.</c><00:10:45.040><c> In</c>

00:10:45.269 --> 00:10:45.279 align:start position:0%
certainly have enough energy for it. In
 

00:10:45.279 --> 00:10:47.670 align:start position:0%
certainly have enough energy for it. In
fact,<00:10:45.760><c> calculations</c><00:10:46.480><c> show</c><00:10:47.040><c> that</c><00:10:47.279><c> if</c><00:10:47.440><c> they</c>

00:10:47.670 --> 00:10:47.680 align:start position:0%
fact, calculations show that if they
 

00:10:47.680 --> 00:10:50.230 align:start position:0%
fact, calculations show that if they
converted<00:10:48.160><c> just</c><00:10:48.560><c> 10</c><00:10:48.800><c> to</c><00:10:49.200><c> 20%</c><00:10:49.839><c> of</c><00:10:50.000><c> their</c>

00:10:50.230 --> 00:10:50.240 align:start position:0%
converted just 10 to 20% of their
 

00:10:50.240 --> 00:10:52.310 align:start position:0%
converted just 10 to 20% of their
kinetic<00:10:50.720><c> energy</c><00:10:51.120><c> into</c><00:10:51.600><c> accelerated</c>

00:10:52.310 --> 00:10:52.320 align:start position:0%
kinetic energy into accelerated
 

00:10:52.320 --> 00:10:54.949 align:start position:0%
kinetic energy into accelerated
particles,<00:10:53.360><c> supernova</c><00:10:53.920><c> remnants</c><00:10:54.640><c> could</c>

00:10:54.949 --> 00:10:54.959 align:start position:0%
particles, supernova remnants could
 

00:10:54.959 --> 00:10:57.750 align:start position:0%
particles, supernova remnants could
supply<00:10:55.519><c> most</c><00:10:55.920><c> of</c><00:10:56.079><c> the</c><00:10:56.240><c> cosmic</c><00:10:56.640><c> rays</c><00:10:57.040><c> we</c><00:10:57.360><c> see</c><00:10:57.519><c> in</c>

00:10:57.750 --> 00:10:57.760 align:start position:0%
supply most of the cosmic rays we see in
 

00:10:57.760 --> 00:10:59.750 align:start position:0%
supply most of the cosmic rays we see in
our<00:10:58.000><c> galaxy.</c>

00:10:59.750 --> 00:10:59.760 align:start position:0%
our galaxy.
 

00:10:59.760 --> 00:11:02.389 align:start position:0%
our galaxy.
See,<00:11:00.160><c> when</c><00:11:00.399><c> a</c><00:11:00.560><c> star</c><00:11:00.880><c> goes</c><00:11:01.200><c> supernova,</c><00:11:02.160><c> it</c>

00:11:02.389 --> 00:11:02.399 align:start position:0%
See, when a star goes supernova, it
 

00:11:02.399 --> 00:11:04.710 align:start position:0%
See, when a star goes supernova, it
drives<00:11:02.880><c> material</c><00:11:03.519><c> out</c><00:11:03.760><c> into</c><00:11:04.079><c> interstellar</c>

00:11:04.710 --> 00:11:04.720 align:start position:0%
drives material out into interstellar
 

00:11:04.720 --> 00:11:07.269 align:start position:0%
drives material out into interstellar
space,<00:11:05.440><c> forming</c><00:11:05.839><c> a</c><00:11:06.160><c> collisionless</c><00:11:06.880><c> shock</c>

00:11:07.269 --> 00:11:07.279 align:start position:0%
space, forming a collisionless shock
 

00:11:07.279 --> 00:11:09.670 align:start position:0%
space, forming a collisionless shock
wave<00:11:07.680><c> just</c><00:11:08.000><c> ahead</c><00:11:08.240><c> of</c><00:11:08.399><c> it,</c><00:11:08.880><c> where</c><00:11:09.120><c> there</c><00:11:09.279><c> is</c><00:11:09.440><c> a</c>

00:11:09.670 --> 00:11:09.680 align:start position:0%
wave just ahead of it, where there is a
 

00:11:09.680 --> 00:11:11.990 align:start position:0%
wave just ahead of it, where there is a
sharp<00:11:10.000><c> change</c><00:11:10.320><c> in</c><00:11:10.560><c> density,</c><00:11:11.519><c> magnetic</c>

00:11:11.990 --> 00:11:12.000 align:start position:0%
sharp change in density, magnetic
 

00:11:12.000 --> 00:11:15.190 align:start position:0%
sharp change in density, magnetic
fields,<00:11:12.640><c> and</c><00:11:12.880><c> pressure.</c><00:11:14.160><c> When</c><00:11:14.399><c> a</c><00:11:14.560><c> particle</c>

00:11:15.190 --> 00:11:15.200 align:start position:0%
fields, and pressure. When a particle
 

00:11:15.200 --> 00:11:17.350 align:start position:0%
fields, and pressure. When a particle
hits<00:11:15.600><c> this</c><00:11:15.839><c> shock</c><00:11:16.160><c> wave,</c><00:11:16.720><c> it</c><00:11:16.959><c> gets</c><00:11:17.277><c> [music]</c>

00:11:17.350 --> 00:11:17.360 align:start position:0%
hits this shock wave, it gets [music]
 

00:11:17.360 --> 00:11:19.750 align:start position:0%
hits this shock wave, it gets [music]
bounced<00:11:17.839><c> back</c><00:11:18.000><c> and</c><00:11:18.320><c> forth</c><00:11:18.720><c> across</c><00:11:19.120><c> the</c><00:11:19.360><c> shock</c>

00:11:19.750 --> 00:11:19.760 align:start position:0%
bounced back and forth across the shock
 

00:11:19.760 --> 00:11:22.550 align:start position:0%
bounced back and forth across the shock
front,<00:11:20.320><c> gaining</c><00:11:20.720><c> energy</c><00:11:21.200><c> each</c><00:11:21.519><c> time.</c>

00:11:22.550 --> 00:11:22.560 align:start position:0%
front, gaining energy each time.
 

00:11:22.560 --> 00:11:24.870 align:start position:0%
front, gaining energy each time.
Particles<00:11:23.120><c> can</c><00:11:23.440><c> propagate</c><00:11:24.000><c> here</c><00:11:24.320><c> for</c><00:11:24.640><c> some</c>

00:11:24.870 --> 00:11:24.880 align:start position:0%
Particles can propagate here for some
 

00:11:24.880 --> 00:11:27.590 align:start position:0%
Particles can propagate here for some
time,<00:11:25.360><c> up</c><00:11:25.600><c> to</c><00:11:25.839><c> thousands</c><00:11:26.320><c> of</c><00:11:26.480><c> years.</c><00:11:27.200><c> And</c><00:11:27.440><c> the</c>

00:11:27.590 --> 00:11:27.600 align:start position:0%
time, up to thousands of years. And the
 

00:11:27.600 --> 00:11:29.750 align:start position:0%
time, up to thousands of years. And the
longer<00:11:27.839><c> they</c><00:11:28.079><c> spend</c><00:11:28.320><c> there,</c><00:11:28.880><c> the</c><00:11:29.120><c> higher</c><00:11:29.440><c> the</c>

00:11:29.750 --> 00:11:29.760 align:start position:0%
longer they spend there, the higher the
 

00:11:29.760 --> 00:11:32.790 align:start position:0%
longer they spend there, the higher the
energy<00:11:30.079><c> can</c><00:11:30.320><c> become.</c><00:11:31.440><c> This</c><00:11:31.760><c> process</c><00:11:32.160><c> is</c><00:11:32.399><c> known</c>

00:11:32.790 --> 00:11:32.800 align:start position:0%
energy can become. This process is known
 

00:11:32.800 --> 00:11:35.590 align:start position:0%
energy can become. This process is known
as<00:11:32.997><c> [music]</c><00:11:33.279><c> diffusive</c><00:11:34.079><c> shock</c><00:11:34.560><c> acceleration</c>

00:11:35.590 --> 00:11:35.600 align:start position:0%
as [music] diffusive shock acceleration
 

00:11:35.600 --> 00:11:37.990 align:start position:0%
as [music] diffusive shock acceleration
or<00:11:35.839><c> the</c><00:11:36.079><c> the</c><00:11:36.560><c> mechanism.</c><00:11:37.519><c> But</c><00:11:37.680><c> although</c>

00:11:37.990 --> 00:11:38.000 align:start position:0%
or the the mechanism. But although
 

00:11:38.000 --> 00:11:39.538 align:start position:0%
or the the mechanism. But although
supernova<00:11:38.560><c> remnants</c><00:11:39.120><c> can</c><00:11:39.360><c> accelerate</c>

00:11:39.538 --> 00:11:39.548 align:start position:0%
supernova remnants can accelerate
 

00:11:39.548 --> 00:11:41.990 align:start position:0%
supernova remnants can accelerate
[music]<00:11:39.920><c> particles</c><00:11:40.320><c> in</c><00:11:40.560><c> this</c><00:11:40.720><c> way,</c><00:11:41.360><c> reaching</c>

00:11:41.990 --> 00:11:42.000 align:start position:0%
[music] particles in this way, reaching
 

00:11:42.000 --> 00:11:44.630 align:start position:0%
[music] particles in this way, reaching
pael<00:11:42.480><c> electronvault</c><00:11:43.200><c> energies</c><00:11:43.760><c> may</c><00:11:44.160><c> still</c><00:11:44.399><c> be</c>

00:11:44.630 --> 00:11:44.640 align:start position:0%
pael electronvault energies may still be
 

00:11:44.640 --> 00:11:47.190 align:start position:0%
pael electronvault energies may still be
tricky.<00:11:45.600><c> Theoretical</c><00:11:46.240><c> models</c><00:11:46.640><c> suggest</c><00:11:46.959><c> that</c>

00:11:47.190 --> 00:11:47.200 align:start position:0%
tricky. Theoretical models suggest that
 

00:11:47.200 --> 00:11:49.670 align:start position:0%
tricky. Theoretical models suggest that
supernova<00:11:47.760><c> remnants</c><00:11:48.320><c> are</c><00:11:48.640><c> only</c><00:11:48.959><c> capable</c><00:11:49.360><c> of</c>

00:11:49.670 --> 00:11:49.680 align:start position:0%
supernova remnants are only capable of
 

00:11:49.680 --> 00:11:52.470 align:start position:0%
supernova remnants are only capable of
accelerating<00:11:50.320><c> particles</c><00:11:50.880><c> to</c><00:11:51.120><c> these</c><00:11:51.519><c> extremes</c>

00:11:52.470 --> 00:11:52.480 align:start position:0%
accelerating particles to these extremes
 

00:11:52.480 --> 00:11:55.350 align:start position:0%
accelerating particles to these extremes
during<00:11:52.800><c> the</c><00:11:53.040><c> first</c><00:11:53.519><c> 100</c><00:11:54.000><c> years</c><00:11:54.240><c> of</c><00:11:54.399><c> their</c><00:11:54.640><c> life</c>

00:11:55.350 --> 00:11:55.360 align:start position:0%
during the first 100 years of their life
 

00:11:55.360 --> 00:11:57.509 align:start position:0%
during the first 100 years of their life
and<00:11:55.760><c> all</c><00:11:55.920><c> the</c><00:11:56.079><c> supernova</c><00:11:56.720><c> remnants</c><00:11:57.120><c> we</c><00:11:57.440><c> know</c>

00:11:57.509 --> 00:11:57.519 align:start position:0%
and all the supernova remnants we know
 

00:11:57.519 --> 00:12:00.310 align:start position:0%
and all the supernova remnants we know
of<00:11:58.160><c> are</c><00:11:58.480><c> much</c><00:11:58.720><c> older.</c>

00:12:00.310 --> 00:12:00.320 align:start position:0%
of are much older.
 

00:12:00.320 --> 00:12:02.550 align:start position:0%
of are much older.
However,<00:12:01.279><c> there</c><00:12:01.600><c> might</c><00:12:01.760><c> be</c><00:12:01.920><c> one</c><00:12:02.160><c> scenario</c>

00:12:02.550 --> 00:12:02.560 align:start position:0%
However, there might be one scenario
 

00:12:02.560 --> 00:12:05.030 align:start position:0%
However, there might be one scenario
where<00:12:02.880><c> supernova</c><00:12:03.440><c> remnants</c><00:12:04.000><c> can</c><00:12:04.320><c> act</c><00:12:04.560><c> as</c><00:12:04.800><c> a</c>

00:12:05.030 --> 00:12:05.040 align:start position:0%
where supernova remnants can act as a
 

00:12:05.040 --> 00:12:08.230 align:start position:0%
where supernova remnants can act as a
source<00:12:05.279><c> for</c><00:12:05.680><c> ultra</c><00:12:06.000><c> high</c><00:12:06.399><c> energy</c><00:12:06.720><c> gamma</c><00:12:07.120><c> rays.</c>

00:12:08.230 --> 00:12:08.240 align:start position:0%
source for ultra high energy gamma rays.
 

00:12:08.240 --> 00:12:10.870 align:start position:0%
source for ultra high energy gamma rays.
If<00:12:08.560><c> they</c><00:12:08.880><c> gain</c><00:12:09.279><c> enough</c><00:12:09.680><c> energy</c><00:12:10.079><c> to</c><00:12:10.320><c> overpower</c>

00:12:10.870 --> 00:12:10.880 align:start position:0%
If they gain enough energy to overpower
 

00:12:10.880 --> 00:12:13.430 align:start position:0%
If they gain enough energy to overpower
the<00:12:11.120><c> magnetic</c><00:12:11.519><c> forces</c><00:12:11.920><c> that</c><00:12:12.160><c> confine</c><00:12:12.560><c> them,</c>

00:12:13.430 --> 00:12:13.440 align:start position:0%
the magnetic forces that confine them,
 

00:12:13.440 --> 00:12:16.310 align:start position:0%
the magnetic forces that confine them,
some<00:12:13.920><c> accelerated</c><00:12:14.639><c> particles</c><00:12:15.440><c> may</c><00:12:16.000><c> escape</c>

00:12:16.310 --> 00:12:16.320 align:start position:0%
some accelerated particles may escape
 

00:12:16.320 --> 00:12:18.550 align:start position:0%
some accelerated particles may escape
the<00:12:16.560><c> supernova</c><00:12:17.120><c> remnant</c><00:12:17.600><c> and</c><00:12:17.920><c> get</c><00:12:18.079><c> trapped</c><00:12:18.399><c> in</c>

00:12:18.550 --> 00:12:18.560 align:start position:0%
the supernova remnant and get trapped in
 

00:12:18.560 --> 00:12:21.829 align:start position:0%
the supernova remnant and get trapped in
nearby<00:12:19.040><c> giant</c><00:12:19.440><c> molecular</c><00:12:20.079><c> clouds.</c><00:12:21.279><c> Here,</c>

00:12:21.829 --> 00:12:21.839 align:start position:0%
nearby giant molecular clouds. Here,
 

00:12:21.839 --> 00:12:24.150 align:start position:0%
nearby giant molecular clouds. Here,
they<00:12:22.079><c> can</c><00:12:22.320><c> interact</c><00:12:22.800><c> with</c><00:12:22.959><c> the</c><00:12:23.200><c> dense</c><00:12:23.519><c> gas</c><00:12:23.839><c> and</c>

00:12:24.150 --> 00:12:24.160 align:start position:0%
they can interact with the dense gas and
 

00:12:24.160 --> 00:12:26.710 align:start position:0%
they can interact with the dense gas and
produce<00:12:24.399><c> gamma</c><00:12:24.800><c> rays</c><00:12:25.040><c> with</c><00:12:25.279><c> energies</c><00:12:25.760><c> up</c><00:12:26.000><c> to</c><00:12:26.320><c> 1</c>

00:12:26.710 --> 00:12:26.720 align:start position:0%
produce gamma rays with energies up to 1
 

00:12:26.720 --> 00:12:29.509 align:start position:0%
produce gamma rays with energies up to 1
quadrillion<00:12:27.600><c> electron</c><00:12:28.079><c> volts.</c><00:12:28.800><c> even</c><00:12:29.040><c> if</c><00:12:29.279><c> the</c>

00:12:29.509 --> 00:12:29.519 align:start position:0%
quadrillion electron volts. even if the
 

00:12:29.519 --> 00:12:31.910 align:start position:0%
quadrillion electron volts. even if the
supernova<00:12:30.079><c> remnant</c><00:12:30.480><c> itself</c><00:12:31.120><c> is</c><00:12:31.440><c> no</c><00:12:31.680><c> longer</c>

00:12:31.910 --> 00:12:31.920 align:start position:0%
supernova remnant itself is no longer
 

00:12:31.920 --> 00:12:33.829 align:start position:0%
supernova remnant itself is no longer
capable<00:12:32.320><c> of</c><00:12:32.560><c> pa</c><00:12:32.959><c> electron</c><00:12:33.440><c> fault</c>

00:12:33.829 --> 00:12:33.839 align:start position:0%
capable of pa electron fault
 

00:12:33.839 --> 00:12:35.910 align:start position:0%
capable of pa electron fault
acceleration.

00:12:35.910 --> 00:12:35.920 align:start position:0%
acceleration.
 

00:12:35.920 --> 00:12:38.230 align:start position:0%
acceleration.
So<00:12:36.320><c> supernova</c><00:12:36.880><c> remnants</c><00:12:37.360><c> show</c><00:12:37.839><c> some</c>

00:12:38.230 --> 00:12:38.240 align:start position:0%
So supernova remnants show some
 

00:12:38.240 --> 00:12:41.350 align:start position:0%
So supernova remnants show some
potential<00:12:38.720><c> as</c><00:12:38.959><c> cosmic</c><00:12:39.440><c> ray</c><00:12:39.680><c> producers.</c><00:12:40.880><c> Up</c><00:12:41.120><c> to</c>

00:12:41.350 --> 00:12:41.360 align:start position:0%
potential as cosmic ray producers. Up to
 

00:12:41.360 --> 00:12:44.629 align:start position:0%
potential as cosmic ray producers. Up to
six<00:12:41.839><c> of</c><00:12:42.000><c> the</c><00:12:42.240><c> 12</c><00:12:42.639><c> lasso</c><00:12:43.200><c> candidates</c><00:12:44.160><c> could</c><00:12:44.480><c> be</c>

00:12:44.629 --> 00:12:44.639 align:start position:0%
six of the 12 lasso candidates could be
 

00:12:44.639 --> 00:12:46.790 align:start position:0%
six of the 12 lasso candidates could be
associated<00:12:45.200><c> with</c><00:12:45.440><c> them,</c><00:12:46.160><c> but</c><00:12:46.320><c> they're</c><00:12:46.639><c> not</c>

00:12:46.790 --> 00:12:46.800 align:start position:0%
associated with them, but they're not
 

00:12:46.800 --> 00:12:49.110 align:start position:0%
associated with them, but they're not
the<00:12:47.040><c> main</c><00:12:47.279><c> type</c><00:12:47.600><c> of</c><00:12:47.839><c> source</c><00:12:48.399><c> we</c><00:12:48.720><c> should</c><00:12:48.880><c> be</c>

00:12:49.110 --> 00:12:49.120 align:start position:0%
the main type of source we should be
 

00:12:49.120 --> 00:12:50.870 align:start position:0%
the main type of source we should be
looking<00:12:49.279><c> at.</c>

00:12:50.870 --> 00:12:50.880 align:start position:0%
looking at.
 

00:12:50.880 --> 00:12:52.790 align:start position:0%
looking at.
There's<00:12:51.440><c> another</c><00:12:51.760><c> source</c><00:12:52.160><c> capable</c><00:12:52.560><c> of</c>

00:12:52.790 --> 00:12:52.800 align:start position:0%
There's another source capable of
 

00:12:52.800 --> 00:12:57.750 align:start position:0%
There's another source capable of
creating<00:12:53.519><c> even</c><00:12:54.079><c> higher</c><00:12:54.560><c> energies.</c><00:12:56.000><c> Pulsars.</c>

00:12:57.750 --> 00:12:57.760 align:start position:0%
creating even higher energies. Pulsars.
 

00:12:57.760 --> 00:12:59.350 align:start position:0%
creating even higher energies. Pulsars.
We've<00:12:58.079><c> covered</c><00:12:58.320><c> pulsars</c><00:12:58.880><c> on</c><00:12:59.040><c> the</c><00:12:59.120><c> channel</c>

00:12:59.350 --> 00:12:59.360 align:start position:0%
We've covered pulsars on the channel
 

00:12:59.360 --> 00:13:01.590 align:start position:0%
We've covered pulsars on the channel
before,<00:13:00.079><c> so</c><00:13:00.399><c> feel</c><00:13:00.560><c> free</c><00:13:00.800><c> to</c><00:13:01.040><c> check</c><00:13:01.200><c> out</c><00:13:01.360><c> some</c>

00:13:01.590 --> 00:13:01.600 align:start position:0%
before, so feel free to check out some
 

00:13:01.600 --> 00:13:02.949 align:start position:0%
before, so feel free to check out some
of<00:13:01.680><c> the</c><00:13:01.920><c> previous</c><00:13:02.240><c> videos</c><00:13:02.480><c> for</c><00:13:02.720><c> more</c>

00:13:02.949 --> 00:13:02.959 align:start position:0%
of the previous videos for more
 

00:13:02.959 --> 00:13:05.509 align:start position:0%
of the previous videos for more
information,<00:13:03.839><c> but</c><00:13:04.000><c> as</c><00:13:04.240><c> a</c><00:13:04.399><c> quick</c><00:13:04.720><c> recap,</c>

00:13:05.509 --> 00:13:05.519 align:start position:0%
information, but as a quick recap,
 

00:13:05.519 --> 00:13:08.550 align:start position:0%
information, but as a quick recap,
pulsars<00:13:06.160><c> are</c><00:13:06.399><c> highly</c><00:13:07.040><c> magnetized</c><00:13:08.000><c> rotating</c>

00:13:08.550 --> 00:13:08.560 align:start position:0%
pulsars are highly magnetized rotating
 

00:13:08.560 --> 00:13:10.790 align:start position:0%
pulsars are highly magnetized rotating
neutron<00:13:09.040><c> stars</c><00:13:09.600><c> created</c><00:13:09.920><c> in</c><00:13:10.160><c> supernova</c>

00:13:10.790 --> 00:13:10.800 align:start position:0%
neutron stars created in supernova
 

00:13:10.800 --> 00:13:13.269 align:start position:0%
neutron stars created in supernova
explosions.<00:13:11.920><c> We</c><00:13:12.079><c> have</c><00:13:12.240><c> now</c><00:13:12.399><c> detected</c><00:13:12.880><c> over</c>

00:13:13.269 --> 00:13:13.279 align:start position:0%
explosions. We have now detected over
 

00:13:13.279 --> 00:13:17.190 align:start position:0%
explosions. We have now detected over
1,500<00:13:14.480><c> pulsars.</c><00:13:15.680><c> But</c><00:13:15.839><c> how</c><00:13:16.079><c> could</c><00:13:16.320><c> they</c><00:13:16.880><c> create</c>

00:13:17.190 --> 00:13:17.200 align:start position:0%
1,500 pulsars. But how could they create
 

00:13:17.200 --> 00:13:19.910 align:start position:0%
1,500 pulsars. But how could they create
such<00:13:17.519><c> high</c><00:13:17.920><c> power</c><00:13:18.160><c> gamma</c><00:13:18.560><c> rays?</c>

00:13:19.910 --> 00:13:19.920 align:start position:0%
such high power gamma rays?
 

00:13:19.920 --> 00:13:21.750 align:start position:0%
such high power gamma rays?
Well,<00:13:20.480><c> they're</c><00:13:20.800><c> already</c><00:13:21.120><c> proven</c><00:13:21.440><c> to</c><00:13:21.600><c> be</c>

00:13:21.750 --> 00:13:21.760 align:start position:0%
Well, they're already proven to be
 

00:13:21.760 --> 00:13:23.590 align:start position:0%
Well, they're already proven to be
capable<00:13:22.079><c> of</c><00:13:22.320><c> accelerating</c><00:13:22.959><c> electrons</c><00:13:23.440><c> and</c>

00:13:23.590 --> 00:13:23.600 align:start position:0%
capable of accelerating electrons and
 

00:13:23.600 --> 00:13:26.069 align:start position:0%
capable of accelerating electrons and
posetrons<00:13:24.560><c> since</c><00:13:24.880><c> the</c><00:13:25.040><c> dense</c><00:13:25.440><c> and</c><00:13:25.680><c> highly</c>

00:13:26.069 --> 00:13:26.079 align:start position:0%
posetrons since the dense and highly
 

00:13:26.079 --> 00:13:28.150 align:start position:0%
posetrons since the dense and highly
magnetized<00:13:26.639><c> structure</c><00:13:27.040><c> rotates</c><00:13:27.519><c> to</c><00:13:27.760><c> produce</c>

00:13:28.150 --> 00:13:28.160 align:start position:0%
magnetized structure rotates to produce
 

00:13:28.160 --> 00:13:30.870 align:start position:0%
magnetized structure rotates to produce
powerful<00:13:28.720><c> electric</c><00:13:29.120><c> fields.</c><00:13:30.240><c> These</c><00:13:30.480><c> electric</c>

00:13:30.870 --> 00:13:30.880 align:start position:0%
powerful electric fields. These electric
 

00:13:30.880 --> 00:13:32.710 align:start position:0%
powerful electric fields. These electric
fields<00:13:31.279><c> can</c><00:13:31.519><c> strip</c><00:13:31.839><c> electrons</c><00:13:32.320><c> from</c><00:13:32.480><c> the</c>

00:13:32.710 --> 00:13:32.720 align:start position:0%
fields can strip electrons from the
 

00:13:32.720 --> 00:13:35.030 align:start position:0%
fields can strip electrons from the
stars<00:13:33.040><c> surface</c><00:13:33.920><c> forming</c><00:13:34.320><c> a</c><00:13:34.560><c> wind</c><00:13:34.800><c> of</c>

00:13:35.030 --> 00:13:35.040 align:start position:0%
stars surface forming a wind of
 

00:13:35.040 --> 00:13:37.509 align:start position:0%
stars surface forming a wind of
particles<00:13:35.519><c> that</c><00:13:35.760><c> expands</c><00:13:36.240><c> outwards</c><00:13:36.720><c> at</c><00:13:37.120><c> rapid</c>

00:13:37.509 --> 00:13:37.519 align:start position:0%
particles that expands outwards at rapid
 

00:13:37.519 --> 00:13:40.069 align:start position:0%
particles that expands outwards at rapid
speeds.<00:13:38.399><c> And</c><00:13:38.560><c> once</c><00:13:38.880><c> this</c><00:13:39.120><c> wind</c><00:13:39.440><c> reaches</c><00:13:39.839><c> the</c>

00:13:40.069 --> 00:13:40.079 align:start position:0%
speeds. And once this wind reaches the
 

00:13:40.079 --> 00:13:42.949 align:start position:0%
speeds. And once this wind reaches the
surrounding<00:13:40.560><c> material,</c><00:13:41.440><c> like</c><00:13:41.760><c> the</c><00:13:42.240><c> gas</c><00:13:42.560><c> or</c>

00:13:42.949 --> 00:13:42.959 align:start position:0%
surrounding material, like the gas or
 

00:13:42.959 --> 00:13:45.670 align:start position:0%
surrounding material, like the gas or
dust<00:13:43.279><c> from</c><00:13:43.440><c> a</c><00:13:43.600><c> nebula,</c><00:13:44.639><c> it</c><00:13:44.880><c> suddenly</c><00:13:45.279><c> slows</c>

00:13:45.670 --> 00:13:45.680 align:start position:0%
dust from a nebula, it suddenly slows
 

00:13:45.680 --> 00:13:49.269 align:start position:0%
dust from a nebula, it suddenly slows
down,<00:13:46.240><c> forming</c><00:13:46.720><c> a</c><00:13:47.040><c> termination</c><00:13:47.760><c> shock.</c><00:13:48.959><c> At</c>

00:13:49.269 --> 00:13:49.279 align:start position:0%
down, forming a termination shock. At
 

00:13:49.279 --> 00:13:51.590 align:start position:0%
down, forming a termination shock. At
this<00:13:49.680><c> shock</c><00:13:50.079><c> point,</c><00:13:50.720><c> the</c><00:13:50.959><c> particles</c><00:13:51.440><c> are</c>

00:13:51.590 --> 00:13:51.600 align:start position:0%
this shock point, the particles are
 

00:13:51.600 --> 00:13:54.949 align:start position:0%
this shock point, the particles are
accelerated<00:13:52.240><c> to</c><00:13:52.560><c> extremely</c><00:13:53.440><c> high</c><00:13:53.680><c> energies.</c>

00:13:54.949 --> 00:13:54.959 align:start position:0%
accelerated to extremely high energies.
 

00:13:54.959 --> 00:13:56.870 align:start position:0%
accelerated to extremely high energies.
You<00:13:55.200><c> can</c><00:13:55.279><c> think</c><00:13:55.440><c> of</c><00:13:55.600><c> it</c><00:13:55.760><c> like</c><00:13:56.240><c> water</c><00:13:56.560><c> flowing</c>

00:13:56.870 --> 00:13:56.880 align:start position:0%
You can think of it like water flowing
 

00:13:56.880 --> 00:13:59.509 align:start position:0%
You can think of it like water flowing
in<00:13:57.040><c> a</c><00:13:57.279><c> stream.</c><00:13:58.160><c> Normally,</c><00:13:58.639><c> the</c><00:13:58.880><c> flow</c><00:13:59.120><c> is</c>

00:13:59.509 --> 00:13:59.519 align:start position:0%
in a stream. Normally, the flow is
 

00:13:59.519 --> 00:14:01.990 align:start position:0%
in a stream. Normally, the flow is
smooth,<00:14:00.399><c> but</c><00:14:00.639><c> if</c><00:14:00.800><c> you</c><00:14:00.959><c> place</c><00:14:01.199><c> an</c><00:14:01.440><c> obstacle</c><00:14:01.839><c> in</c>

00:14:01.990 --> 00:14:02.000 align:start position:0%
smooth, but if you place an obstacle in
 

00:14:02.000 --> 00:14:04.870 align:start position:0%
smooth, but if you place an obstacle in
the<00:14:02.160><c> way,</c><00:14:02.639><c> some</c><00:14:02.959><c> water</c><00:14:03.279><c> will</c><00:14:03.600><c> spill</c><00:14:03.920><c> out,</c><00:14:04.639><c> and</c>

00:14:04.870 --> 00:14:04.880 align:start position:0%
the way, some water will spill out, and
 

00:14:04.880 --> 00:14:07.910 align:start position:0%
the way, some water will spill out, and
this<00:14:05.120><c> water</c><00:14:05.440><c> will</c><00:14:05.680><c> be</c><00:14:05.839><c> flowing</c><00:14:06.320><c> much</c><00:14:06.720><c> faster.</c>

00:14:07.910 --> 00:14:07.920 align:start position:0%
this water will be flowing much faster.
 

00:14:07.920 --> 00:14:10.069 align:start position:0%
this water will be flowing much faster.
The<00:14:08.079><c> lasso</c><00:14:08.560><c> team</c><00:14:08.880><c> believed</c><00:14:09.279><c> that</c><00:14:09.600><c> more</c><00:14:09.839><c> than</c>

00:14:10.069 --> 00:14:10.079 align:start position:0%
The lasso team believed that more than
 

00:14:10.079 --> 00:14:12.550 align:start position:0%
The lasso team believed that more than
30%<00:14:10.880><c> of</c><00:14:11.040><c> the</c><00:14:11.279><c> candidate</c><00:14:11.760><c> feverrons</c><00:14:12.320><c> they</c>

00:14:12.550 --> 00:14:12.560 align:start position:0%
30% of the candidate feverrons they
 

00:14:12.560 --> 00:14:14.710 align:start position:0%
30% of the candidate feverrons they
detected<00:14:13.519><c> could</c><00:14:13.839><c> be</c><00:14:14.000><c> associated</c><00:14:14.480><c> with</c>

00:14:14.710 --> 00:14:14.720 align:start position:0%
detected could be associated with
 

00:14:14.720 --> 00:14:17.750 align:start position:0%
detected could be associated with
pulsars,<00:14:15.680><c> making</c><00:14:16.000><c> them</c><00:14:16.160><c> a</c><00:14:16.480><c> key</c><00:14:16.800><c> player</c><00:14:17.279><c> in</c><00:14:17.519><c> the</c>

00:14:17.750 --> 00:14:17.760 align:start position:0%
pulsars, making them a key player in the
 

00:14:17.760 --> 00:14:20.069 align:start position:0%
pulsars, making them a key player in the
search<00:14:18.000><c> for</c><00:14:18.160><c> cosmic</c><00:14:18.560><c> rays.</c>

00:14:20.069 --> 00:14:20.079 align:start position:0%
search for cosmic rays.
 

00:14:20.079 --> 00:14:22.310 align:start position:0%
search for cosmic rays.
The<00:14:20.320><c> final</c><00:14:20.639><c> type</c><00:14:20.800><c> of</c><00:14:21.040><c> cosmic</c><00:14:21.440><c> ray</c><00:14:21.680><c> source</c><00:14:22.079><c> came</c>

00:14:22.310 --> 00:14:22.320 align:start position:0%
The final type of cosmic ray source came
 

00:14:22.320 --> 00:14:25.430 align:start position:0%
The final type of cosmic ray source came
as<00:14:22.560><c> a</c><00:14:22.800><c> bit</c><00:14:23.040><c> of</c><00:14:23.199><c> a</c><00:14:23.360><c> surprise</c><00:14:23.680><c> to</c><00:14:23.920><c> scientists.</c><00:14:25.199><c> If</c>

00:14:25.430 --> 00:14:25.440 align:start position:0%
as a bit of a surprise to scientists. If
 

00:14:25.440 --> 00:14:27.750 align:start position:0%
as a bit of a surprise to scientists. If
we<00:14:25.680><c> take</c><00:14:25.920><c> another</c><00:14:26.240><c> look</c><00:14:26.399><c> at</c><00:14:26.560><c> the</c><00:14:26.720><c> spectrum</c><00:14:27.440><c> and</c>

00:14:27.750 --> 00:14:27.760 align:start position:0%
we take another look at the spectrum and
 

00:14:27.760 --> 00:14:30.230 align:start position:0%
we take another look at the spectrum and
zoom<00:14:27.884><c> [music]</c><00:14:28.160><c> into</c><00:14:28.560><c> the</c><00:14:28.720><c> knee</c><00:14:29.120><c> shape,</c><00:14:30.000><c> you</c>

00:14:30.230 --> 00:14:30.240 align:start position:0%
zoom [music] into the knee shape, you
 

00:14:30.240 --> 00:14:34.069 align:start position:0%
zoom [music] into the knee shape, you
see<00:14:30.639><c> not</c><00:14:30.880><c> a</c><00:14:31.120><c> smooth</c><00:14:31.519><c> line,</c><00:14:32.320><c> but</c><00:14:32.639><c> a</c><00:14:32.959><c> hump.</c><00:14:33.839><c> In</c>

00:14:34.069 --> 00:14:34.079 align:start position:0%
see not a smooth line, but a hump. In
 

00:14:34.079 --> 00:14:37.350 align:start position:0%
see not a smooth line, but a hump. In
other<00:14:34.240><c> words,</c><00:14:34.800><c> an</c><00:14:35.120><c> anomaly.</c><00:14:36.560><c> The</c><00:14:36.880><c> properties</c>

00:14:37.350 --> 00:14:37.360 align:start position:0%
other words, an anomaly. The properties
 

00:14:37.360 --> 00:14:40.230 align:start position:0%
other words, an anomaly. The properties
of<00:14:37.680><c> these</c><00:14:38.240><c> cosmic</c><00:14:38.639><c> rays</c><00:14:39.279><c> didn't</c><00:14:39.600><c> fit</c><00:14:40.000><c> with</c>

00:14:40.230 --> 00:14:40.240 align:start position:0%
of these cosmic rays didn't fit with
 

00:14:40.240 --> 00:14:42.310 align:start position:0%
of these cosmic rays didn't fit with
them<00:14:40.480><c> coming</c><00:14:40.720><c> from</c><00:14:40.880><c> a</c><00:14:41.120><c> known</c><00:14:41.360><c> source</c><00:14:41.760><c> like</c><00:14:41.920><c> a</c>

00:14:42.310 --> 00:14:42.320 align:start position:0%
them coming from a known source like a
 

00:14:42.320 --> 00:14:44.790 align:start position:0%
them coming from a known source like a
supernova<00:14:42.880><c> remnant</c><00:14:43.279><c> or</c><00:14:43.440><c> a</c><00:14:43.600><c> pulsar,</c><00:14:44.480><c> which</c>

00:14:44.790 --> 00:14:44.800 align:start position:0%
supernova remnant or a pulsar, which
 

00:14:44.800 --> 00:14:47.269 align:start position:0%
supernova remnant or a pulsar, which
meant<00:14:45.279><c> they</c><00:14:45.600><c> must</c><00:14:45.839><c> have</c><00:14:46.079><c> been</c><00:14:46.320><c> created</c><00:14:46.720><c> by</c>

00:14:47.269 --> 00:14:47.279 align:start position:0%
meant they must have been created by
 

00:14:47.279 --> 00:14:50.150 align:start position:0%
meant they must have been created by
another<00:14:47.839><c> type</c><00:14:48.079><c> of</c><00:14:48.320><c> source.</c><00:14:49.440><c> This</c><00:14:49.760><c> required</c>

00:14:50.150 --> 00:14:50.160 align:start position:0%
another type of source. This required
 

00:14:50.160 --> 00:14:52.470 align:start position:0%
another type of source. This required
scientists<00:14:50.560><c> to</c><00:14:50.800><c> think</c><00:14:51.040><c> outside</c><00:14:51.440><c> the</c><00:14:51.680><c> box</c><00:14:52.240><c> and</c>

00:14:52.470 --> 00:14:52.480 align:start position:0%
scientists to think outside the box and
 

00:14:52.480 --> 00:14:55.030 align:start position:0%
scientists to think outside the box and
propose<00:14:53.040><c> some</c><00:14:53.360><c> other</c><00:14:53.839><c> less</c><00:14:54.240><c> traditional</c><00:14:54.800><c> ways</c>

00:14:55.030 --> 00:14:55.040 align:start position:0%
propose some other less traditional ways
 

00:14:55.040 --> 00:14:57.670 align:start position:0%
propose some other less traditional ways
that<00:14:55.279><c> particles</c><00:14:55.760><c> could</c><00:14:56.000><c> be</c><00:14:56.079><c> accelerated.</c><00:14:57.519><c> And</c>

00:14:57.670 --> 00:14:57.680 align:start position:0%
that particles could be accelerated. And
 

00:14:57.680 --> 00:14:59.990 align:start position:0%
that particles could be accelerated. And
with<00:14:57.920><c> that,</c><00:14:58.639><c> they</c><00:14:58.959><c> recognized</c><00:14:59.440><c> what</c><00:14:59.680><c> could</c><00:14:59.839><c> be</c>

00:14:59.990 --> 00:15:00.000 align:start position:0%
with that, they recognized what could be
 

00:15:00.000 --> 00:15:02.629 align:start position:0%
with that, they recognized what could be
described<00:15:00.399><c> as</c><00:15:00.720><c> nature's</c><00:15:01.440><c> ultimate</c><00:15:02.000><c> particle</c>

00:15:02.629 --> 00:15:02.639 align:start position:0%
described as nature's ultimate particle
 

00:15:02.639 --> 00:15:04.230 align:start position:0%
described as nature's ultimate particle
accelerators,

00:15:04.230 --> 00:15:04.240 align:start position:0%
accelerators,
 

00:15:04.240 --> 00:15:06.230 align:start position:0%
accelerators,
black<00:15:04.639><c> holes.</c>

00:15:06.230 --> 00:15:06.240 align:start position:0%
black holes.
 

00:15:06.240 --> 00:15:08.310 align:start position:0%
black holes.
The<00:15:06.480><c> idea</c><00:15:06.720><c> that</c><00:15:07.040><c> black</c><00:15:07.279><c> holes</c><00:15:07.680><c> could</c><00:15:07.920><c> produce</c>

00:15:08.310 --> 00:15:08.320 align:start position:0%
The idea that black holes could produce
 

00:15:08.320 --> 00:15:10.790 align:start position:0%
The idea that black holes could produce
high<00:15:08.560><c> energy</c><00:15:08.959><c> particles</c><00:15:09.680><c> had</c><00:15:10.000><c> been</c><00:15:10.240><c> discussed</c>

00:15:10.790 --> 00:15:10.800 align:start position:0%
high energy particles had been discussed
 

00:15:10.800 --> 00:15:14.470 align:start position:0%
high energy particles had been discussed
way<00:15:11.120><c> back</c><00:15:11.360><c> in</c><00:15:11.680><c> 2009.</c><00:15:12.959><c> Named</c><00:15:13.279><c> the</c><00:15:13.440><c> Bardos</c><00:15:14.160><c> silk</c>

00:15:14.470 --> 00:15:14.480 align:start position:0%
way back in 2009. Named the Bardos silk
 

00:15:14.480 --> 00:15:16.470 align:start position:0%
way back in 2009. Named the Bardos silk
west<00:15:14.800><c> effect</c><00:15:15.360><c> after</c><00:15:15.680><c> the</c><00:15:15.920><c> scientists</c><00:15:16.240><c> who</c>

00:15:16.470 --> 00:15:16.480 align:start position:0%
west effect after the scientists who
 

00:15:16.480 --> 00:15:18.310 align:start position:0%
west effect after the scientists who
came<00:15:16.639><c> up</c><00:15:16.800><c> with</c><00:15:16.959><c> it.</c><00:15:17.519><c> It</c><00:15:17.760><c> describes</c><00:15:18.160><c> a</c>

00:15:18.310 --> 00:15:18.320 align:start position:0%
came up with it. It describes a
 

00:15:18.320 --> 00:15:20.470 align:start position:0%
came up with it. It describes a
phenomenon<00:15:18.800><c> where</c><00:15:19.120><c> if</c><00:15:19.360><c> two</c><00:15:19.680><c> particles</c><00:15:20.240><c> move</c>

00:15:20.470 --> 00:15:20.480 align:start position:0%
phenomenon where if two particles move
 

00:15:20.480 --> 00:15:22.629 align:start position:0%
phenomenon where if two particles move
towards<00:15:20.800><c> a</c><00:15:21.040><c> black</c><00:15:21.279><c> hole</c><00:15:21.680><c> and</c><00:15:22.000><c> collide</c><00:15:22.399><c> near</c>

00:15:22.629 --> 00:15:22.639 align:start position:0%
towards a black hole and collide near
 

00:15:22.639 --> 00:15:25.910 align:start position:0%
towards a black hole and collide near
the<00:15:22.800><c> event</c><00:15:23.120><c> horizon,</c><00:15:24.079><c> they</c><00:15:24.399><c> could</c><00:15:24.800><c> reach</c><00:15:25.440><c> near</c>

00:15:25.910 --> 00:15:25.920 align:start position:0%
the event horizon, they could reach near
 

00:15:25.920 --> 00:15:29.350 align:start position:0%
the event horizon, they could reach near
unlimited<00:15:26.639><c> energies.</c><00:15:28.079><c> However,</c><00:15:28.800><c> this</c><00:15:28.959><c> theory</c>

00:15:29.350 --> 00:15:29.360 align:start position:0%
unlimited energies. However, this theory
 

00:15:29.360 --> 00:15:31.670 align:start position:0%
unlimited energies. However, this theory
was<00:15:29.600><c> thought</c><00:15:29.760><c> to</c><00:15:30.000><c> be</c><00:15:30.399><c> effectively</c><00:15:30.959><c> useless</c>

00:15:31.670 --> 00:15:31.680 align:start position:0%
was thought to be effectively useless
 

00:15:31.680 --> 00:15:33.750 align:start position:0%
was thought to be effectively useless
since<00:15:31.920><c> the</c><00:15:32.160><c> particles</c><00:15:32.639><c> would</c><00:15:33.120><c> no</c><00:15:33.360><c> doubt</c><00:15:33.600><c> be</c>

00:15:33.750 --> 00:15:33.760 align:start position:0%
since the particles would no doubt be
 

00:15:33.760 --> 00:15:35.590 align:start position:0%
since the particles would no doubt be
sucked<00:15:34.079><c> into</c><00:15:34.320><c> the</c><00:15:34.560><c> black</c><00:15:34.720><c> hole</c><00:15:35.040><c> and</c><00:15:35.279><c> lost</c>

00:15:35.590 --> 00:15:35.600 align:start position:0%
sucked into the black hole and lost
 

00:15:35.600 --> 00:15:38.550 align:start position:0%
sucked into the black hole and lost
forever.<00:15:36.800><c> That</c><00:15:37.040><c> was</c><00:15:37.199><c> until</c><00:15:37.839><c> more</c><00:15:38.160><c> recent</c>

00:15:38.550 --> 00:15:38.560 align:start position:0%
forever. That was until more recent
 

00:15:38.560 --> 00:15:41.030 align:start position:0%
forever. That was until more recent
years<00:15:39.199><c> when</c><00:15:39.519><c> newer</c><00:15:39.839><c> models</c><00:15:40.240><c> revealed</c><00:15:40.560><c> that</c><00:15:40.800><c> a</c>

00:15:41.030 --> 00:15:41.040 align:start position:0%
years when newer models revealed that a
 

00:15:41.040 --> 00:15:43.189 align:start position:0%
years when newer models revealed that a
fraction<00:15:41.440><c> of</c><00:15:41.600><c> the</c><00:15:41.839><c> particles</c><00:15:42.639><c> would</c><00:15:42.959><c> more</c>

00:15:43.189 --> 00:15:43.199 align:start position:0%
fraction of the particles would more
 

00:15:43.199 --> 00:15:46.389 align:start position:0%
fraction of the particles would more
likely<00:15:43.519><c> be</c><00:15:43.680><c> ejected</c><00:15:44.320><c> back</c><00:15:44.639><c> out</c><00:15:44.959><c> into</c><00:15:45.279><c> space.</c>

00:15:46.389 --> 00:15:46.399 align:start position:0%
likely be ejected back out into space.
 

00:15:46.399 --> 00:15:49.110 align:start position:0%
likely be ejected back out into space.
Free<00:15:46.720><c> of</c><00:15:46.800><c> the</c><00:15:47.040><c> black</c><00:15:47.199><c> hole,</c><00:15:47.839><c> these</c><00:15:48.240><c> particles</c>

00:15:49.110 --> 00:15:49.120 align:start position:0%
Free of the black hole, these particles
 

00:15:49.120 --> 00:15:51.430 align:start position:0%
Free of the black hole, these particles
could<00:15:49.360><c> travel</c><00:15:49.680><c> through</c><00:15:50.000><c> space</c><00:15:50.560><c> as</c><00:15:50.880><c> none</c><00:15:51.120><c> other</c>

00:15:51.430 --> 00:15:51.440 align:start position:0%
could travel through space as none other
 

00:15:51.440 --> 00:15:53.749 align:start position:0%
could travel through space as none other
than<00:15:51.759><c> cosmic</c><00:15:52.240><c> rays.</c>

00:15:53.749 --> 00:15:53.759 align:start position:0%
than cosmic rays.
 

00:15:53.759 --> 00:15:55.590 align:start position:0%
than cosmic rays.
Now,<00:15:54.160><c> we've</c><00:15:54.399><c> discussed</c><00:15:54.720><c> some</c><00:15:54.959><c> of</c><00:15:55.040><c> the</c><00:15:55.199><c> theory</c>

00:15:55.590 --> 00:15:55.600 align:start position:0%
Now, we've discussed some of the theory
 

00:15:55.600 --> 00:15:57.350 align:start position:0%
Now, we've discussed some of the theory
behind<00:15:56.000><c> cosmic</c><00:15:56.399><c> rays</c><00:15:56.720><c> and</c><00:15:56.880><c> where</c><00:15:57.040><c> they</c><00:15:57.199><c> come</c>

00:15:57.350 --> 00:15:57.360 align:start position:0%
behind cosmic rays and where they come
 

00:15:57.360 --> 00:15:59.829 align:start position:0%
behind cosmic rays and where they come
from,<00:15:57.759><c> but</c><00:15:58.000><c> it</c><00:15:58.160><c> begs</c><00:15:58.480><c> the</c><00:15:58.720><c> question,</c><00:15:59.519><c> what</c>

00:15:59.829 --> 00:15:59.839 align:start position:0%
from, but it begs the question, what
 

00:15:59.839 --> 00:16:02.949 align:start position:0%
from, but it begs the question, what
have<00:16:00.079><c> we</c><00:16:00.399><c> actually</c><00:16:00.959><c> found?</c>

00:16:02.949 --> 00:16:02.959 align:start position:0%
have we actually found?
 

00:16:02.959 --> 00:16:04.629 align:start position:0%
have we actually found?
The<00:16:03.199><c> main</c><00:16:03.440><c> thing</c><00:16:03.519><c> to</c><00:16:03.759><c> understand</c><00:16:04.160><c> about</c><00:16:04.399><c> this</c>

00:16:04.629 --> 00:16:04.639 align:start position:0%
The main thing to understand about this
 

00:16:04.639 --> 00:16:07.670 align:start position:0%
The main thing to understand about this
search<00:16:05.279><c> is</c><00:16:05.519><c> that</c><00:16:05.759><c> it's</c><00:16:06.000><c> really</c><00:16:06.320><c> hard.</c><00:16:07.199><c> Lasso</c>

00:16:07.670 --> 00:16:07.680 align:start position:0%
search is that it's really hard. Lasso
 

00:16:07.680 --> 00:16:09.829 align:start position:0%
search is that it's really hard. Lasso
may<00:16:07.920><c> have</c><00:16:08.399><c> identified</c><00:16:08.959><c> 12</c><00:16:09.279><c> candidate</c>

00:16:09.829 --> 00:16:09.839 align:start position:0%
may have identified 12 candidate
 

00:16:09.839 --> 00:16:13.110 align:start position:0%
may have identified 12 candidate
Hevatrons<00:16:10.560><c> in</c><00:16:10.720><c> our</c><00:16:10.959><c> galaxy,</c><00:16:12.000><c> but</c><00:16:12.399><c> finding</c><00:16:12.800><c> the</c>

00:16:13.110 --> 00:16:13.120 align:start position:0%
Hevatrons in our galaxy, but finding the
 

00:16:13.120 --> 00:16:16.069 align:start position:0%
Hevatrons in our galaxy, but finding the
actual<00:16:13.759><c> object</c><00:16:14.320><c> responsible</c><00:16:15.360><c> is</c><00:16:15.680><c> a</c><00:16:15.839><c> whole</c>

00:16:16.069 --> 00:16:16.079 align:start position:0%
actual object responsible is a whole
 

00:16:16.079 --> 00:16:19.350 align:start position:0%
actual object responsible is a whole
other<00:16:16.399><c> task.</c><00:16:17.440><c> That</c><00:16:17.680><c> aside,</c><00:16:18.480><c> the</c><00:16:18.720><c> search</c><00:16:19.040><c> is</c>

00:16:19.350 --> 00:16:19.360 align:start position:0%
other task. That aside, the search is
 

00:16:19.360 --> 00:16:21.829 align:start position:0%
other task. That aside, the search is
still<00:16:19.680><c> ongoing,</c><00:16:20.399><c> and</c><00:16:20.639><c> a</c><00:16:20.880><c> few</c><00:16:21.040><c> sources</c><00:16:21.519><c> have</c>

00:16:21.829 --> 00:16:21.839 align:start position:0%
still ongoing, and a few sources have
 

00:16:21.839 --> 00:16:24.870 align:start position:0%
still ongoing, and a few sources have
been<00:16:22.079><c> found.</c><00:16:22.959><c> So,</c><00:16:23.279><c> without</c><00:16:23.600><c> further</c><00:16:24.000><c> ado,</c>

00:16:24.870 --> 00:16:24.880 align:start position:0%
been found. So, without further ado,
 

00:16:24.880 --> 00:16:27.350 align:start position:0%
been found. So, without further ado,
let's<00:16:25.199><c> take</c><00:16:25.360><c> a</c><00:16:25.519><c> look.</c>

00:16:27.350 --> 00:16:27.360 align:start position:0%
let's take a look.
 

00:16:27.360 --> 00:16:29.670 align:start position:0%
let's take a look.
One<00:16:27.600><c> of</c><00:16:27.680><c> the</c><00:16:27.920><c> first</c><00:16:28.240><c> objects</c><00:16:28.639><c> pinned</c><00:16:29.040><c> down</c><00:16:29.440><c> may</c>

00:16:29.670 --> 00:16:29.680 align:start position:0%
One of the first objects pinned down may
 

00:16:29.680 --> 00:16:32.870 align:start position:0%
One of the first objects pinned down may
be<00:16:29.920><c> familiar</c><00:16:30.320><c> to</c><00:16:30.480><c> you.</c><00:16:30.959><c> The</c><00:16:31.199><c> Crab</c><00:16:31.680><c> Nebula,</c>

00:16:32.870 --> 00:16:32.880 align:start position:0%
be familiar to you. The Crab Nebula,
 

00:16:32.880 --> 00:16:35.509 align:start position:0%
be familiar to you. The Crab Nebula,
known<00:16:33.120><c> as</c><00:16:33.440><c> Messia</c><00:16:34.079><c> 1,</c><00:16:34.639><c> it's</c><00:16:34.800><c> a</c><00:16:34.959><c> supernova</c>

00:16:35.509 --> 00:16:35.519 align:start position:0%
known as Messia 1, it's a supernova
 

00:16:35.519 --> 00:16:38.790 align:start position:0%
known as Messia 1, it's a supernova
remnant<00:16:36.079><c> found</c><00:16:36.560><c> around</c><00:16:37.040><c> 6,500</c><00:16:38.320><c> light-years</c>

00:16:38.790 --> 00:16:38.800 align:start position:0%
remnant found around 6,500 light-years
 

00:16:38.800 --> 00:16:41.509 align:start position:0%
remnant found around 6,500 light-years
away<00:16:39.199><c> in</c><00:16:39.440><c> the</c><00:16:39.600><c> constellation</c><00:16:40.320><c> Taurus.</c>

00:16:41.509 --> 00:16:41.519 align:start position:0%
away in the constellation Taurus.
 

00:16:41.519 --> 00:16:44.389 align:start position:0%
away in the constellation Taurus.
Although<00:16:42.000><c> stunning</c><00:16:42.480><c> to</c><00:16:42.720><c> look</c><00:16:42.880><c> at,</c><00:16:43.600><c> Messia</c><00:16:44.160><c> 1</c>

00:16:44.389 --> 00:16:44.399 align:start position:0%
Although stunning to look at, Messia 1
 

00:16:44.399 --> 00:16:47.269 align:start position:0%
Although stunning to look at, Messia 1
is<00:16:44.720><c> not</c><00:16:44.959><c> just</c><00:16:45.199><c> a</c><00:16:45.440><c> pretty</c><00:16:45.680><c> face.</c><00:16:46.560><c> It's</c><00:16:46.880><c> capable</c>

00:16:47.269 --> 00:16:47.279 align:start position:0%
is not just a pretty face. It's capable
 

00:16:47.279 --> 00:16:49.430 align:start position:0%
is not just a pretty face. It's capable
of<00:16:47.600><c> accelerating</c><00:16:48.240><c> electrons</c><00:16:48.880><c> to</c><00:16:49.199><c> a</c>

00:16:49.430 --> 00:16:49.440 align:start position:0%
of accelerating electrons to a
 

00:16:49.440 --> 00:16:51.990 align:start position:0%
of accelerating electrons to a
quadrillion<00:16:50.240><c> electron</c><00:16:50.720><c> volts</c><00:16:51.040><c> of</c><00:16:51.199><c> energy.</c>

00:16:51.990 --> 00:16:52.000 align:start position:0%
quadrillion electron volts of energy.
 

00:16:52.000 --> 00:16:54.230 align:start position:0%
quadrillion electron volts of energy.
And<00:16:52.399><c> as</c><00:16:52.800><c> one</c><00:16:53.040><c> of</c><00:16:53.120><c> the</c><00:16:53.279><c> best</c><00:16:53.519><c> studied</c><00:16:53.839><c> objects</c>

00:16:54.230 --> 00:16:54.240 align:start position:0%
And as one of the best studied objects
 

00:16:54.240 --> 00:16:57.030 align:start position:0%
And as one of the best studied objects
in<00:16:54.480><c> the</c><00:16:54.639><c> known</c><00:16:54.959><c> universe,</c><00:16:55.920><c> observing</c><00:16:56.480><c> Messia</c>

00:16:57.030 --> 00:16:57.040 align:start position:0%
in the known universe, observing Messia
 

00:16:57.040 --> 00:16:59.590 align:start position:0%
in the known universe, observing Messia
1<00:16:57.360><c> gives</c><00:16:57.600><c> astronomers</c><00:16:58.240><c> a</c><00:16:58.560><c> good</c><00:16:58.800><c> insight</c><00:16:59.279><c> into</c>

00:16:59.590 --> 00:16:59.600 align:start position:0%
1 gives astronomers a good insight into
 

00:16:59.600 --> 00:17:02.870 align:start position:0%
1 gives astronomers a good insight into
how<00:17:00.000><c> nature's</c><00:17:00.480><c> particle</c><00:17:00.959><c> accelerators</c><00:17:01.759><c> work.</c>

00:17:02.870 --> 00:17:02.880 align:start position:0%
how nature's particle accelerators work.
 

00:17:02.880 --> 00:17:05.829 align:start position:0%
how nature's particle accelerators work.
In<00:17:03.040><c> the</c><00:17:03.199><c> gammaray</c><00:17:03.839><c> domain,</c><00:17:04.640><c> Messia</c><00:17:05.199><c> 1</c><00:17:05.439><c> shows</c>

00:17:05.829 --> 00:17:05.839 align:start position:0%
In the gammaray domain, Messia 1 shows
 

00:17:05.839 --> 00:17:09.029 align:start position:0%
In the gammaray domain, Messia 1 shows
some<00:17:06.079><c> extreme</c><00:17:06.880><c> variability.</c><00:17:08.240><c> It</c><00:17:08.559><c> produces</c>

00:17:09.029 --> 00:17:09.039 align:start position:0%
some extreme variability. It produces
 

00:17:09.039 --> 00:17:11.429 align:start position:0%
some extreme variability. It produces
intense<00:17:09.600><c> flares</c><00:17:10.000><c> which</c><00:17:10.319><c> can</c><00:17:10.480><c> last</c><00:17:10.799><c> anywhere</c>

00:17:11.429 --> 00:17:11.439 align:start position:0%
intense flares which can last anywhere
 

00:17:11.439 --> 00:17:14.470 align:start position:0%
intense flares which can last anywhere
between<00:17:11.839><c> a</c><00:17:12.079><c> few</c><00:17:12.319><c> hours</c><00:17:12.720><c> to</c><00:17:13.039><c> a</c><00:17:13.199><c> few</c><00:17:13.439><c> days.</c><00:17:14.240><c> And</c>

00:17:14.470 --> 00:17:14.480 align:start position:0%
between a few hours to a few days. And
 

00:17:14.480 --> 00:17:17.270 align:start position:0%
between a few hours to a few days. And
with<00:17:14.720><c> our</c><00:17:15.039><c> new</c><00:17:15.360><c> understanding</c><00:17:15.760><c> of</c><00:17:16.000><c> pevetrons,</c>

00:17:17.270 --> 00:17:17.280 align:start position:0%
with our new understanding of pevetrons,
 

00:17:17.280 --> 00:17:19.350 align:start position:0%
with our new understanding of pevetrons,
scientists<00:17:17.839><c> realized</c><00:17:18.319><c> that</c><00:17:18.480><c> these</c><00:17:18.799><c> flares</c>

00:17:19.350 --> 00:17:19.360 align:start position:0%
scientists realized that these flares
 

00:17:19.360 --> 00:17:21.990 align:start position:0%
scientists realized that these flares
were<00:17:19.679><c> the</c><00:17:19.919><c> photons</c><00:17:20.559><c> resulting</c><00:17:21.280><c> from</c><00:17:21.600><c> some</c>

00:17:21.990 --> 00:17:22.000 align:start position:0%
were the photons resulting from some
 

00:17:22.000 --> 00:17:24.710 align:start position:0%
were the photons resulting from some
serious<00:17:22.559><c> electron</c><00:17:23.199><c> acceleration.</c>

00:17:24.710 --> 00:17:24.720 align:start position:0%
serious electron acceleration.
 

00:17:24.720 --> 00:17:26.949 align:start position:0%
serious electron acceleration.
Exactly<00:17:25.199><c> how</c><00:17:25.520><c> this</c><00:17:25.839><c> happens</c><00:17:26.319><c> has</c><00:17:26.720><c> been</c>

00:17:26.949 --> 00:17:26.959 align:start position:0%
Exactly how this happens has been
 

00:17:26.959 --> 00:17:30.310 align:start position:0%
Exactly how this happens has been
debated.<00:17:28.000><c> It</c><00:17:28.240><c> could</c><00:17:28.480><c> be</c><00:17:28.880><c> DSA</c><00:17:29.520><c> at</c><00:17:29.760><c> the</c><00:17:29.919><c> boundary</c>

00:17:30.310 --> 00:17:30.320 align:start position:0%
debated. It could be DSA at the boundary
 

00:17:30.320 --> 00:17:32.549 align:start position:0%
debated. It could be DSA at the boundary
between<00:17:30.640><c> the</c><00:17:30.799><c> particle</c><00:17:31.280><c> wind</c><00:17:31.679><c> and</c><00:17:31.919><c> the</c><00:17:32.160><c> medium</c>

00:17:32.549 --> 00:17:32.559 align:start position:0%
between the particle wind and the medium
 

00:17:32.559 --> 00:17:35.110 align:start position:0%
between the particle wind and the medium
surrounding<00:17:32.960><c> the</c><00:17:33.120><c> pulsar,</c><00:17:34.240><c> energy</c><00:17:34.720><c> released</c>

00:17:35.110 --> 00:17:35.120 align:start position:0%
surrounding the pulsar, energy released
 

00:17:35.120 --> 00:17:37.430 align:start position:0%
surrounding the pulsar, energy released
by<00:17:35.520><c> magnetic</c><00:17:36.000><c> field</c><00:17:36.320><c> lines</c><00:17:36.720><c> breaking</c><00:17:37.039><c> and</c>

00:17:37.430 --> 00:17:37.440 align:start position:0%
by magnetic field lines breaking and
 

00:17:37.440 --> 00:17:39.590 align:start position:0%
by magnetic field lines breaking and
reconnecting,<00:17:38.559><c> or</c><00:17:38.720><c> a</c><00:17:38.960><c> more</c><00:17:39.200><c> complex</c>

00:17:39.590 --> 00:17:39.600 align:start position:0%
reconnecting, or a more complex
 

00:17:39.600 --> 00:17:41.669 align:start position:0%
reconnecting, or a more complex
mechanism<00:17:40.240><c> within</c><00:17:40.640><c> the</c><00:17:40.880><c> particle</c><00:17:41.360><c> wind</c>

00:17:41.669 --> 00:17:41.679 align:start position:0%
mechanism within the particle wind
 

00:17:41.679 --> 00:17:45.110 align:start position:0%
mechanism within the particle wind
itself.<00:17:43.120><c> For</c><00:17:43.440><c> context,</c><00:17:44.160><c> electrons</c><00:17:44.720><c> at</c><00:17:44.880><c> high</c>

00:17:45.110 --> 00:17:45.120 align:start position:0%
itself. For context, electrons at high
 

00:17:45.120 --> 00:17:46.870 align:start position:0%
itself. For context, electrons at high
energies<00:17:45.679><c> transfer</c><00:17:46.080><c> part</c><00:17:46.320><c> of</c><00:17:46.400><c> their</c><00:17:46.640><c> energy</c>

00:17:46.870 --> 00:17:46.880 align:start position:0%
energies transfer part of their energy
 

00:17:46.880 --> 00:17:49.270 align:start position:0%
energies transfer part of their energy
to<00:17:47.120><c> background</c><00:17:47.679><c> photons,</c><00:17:48.559><c> boosting</c><00:17:48.960><c> them</c><00:17:49.120><c> to</c>

00:17:49.270 --> 00:17:49.280 align:start position:0%
to background photons, boosting them to
 

00:17:49.280 --> 00:17:51.750 align:start position:0%
to background photons, boosting them to
gamma<00:17:49.600><c> rays</c><00:17:49.840><c> that</c><00:17:50.000><c> scientists</c><00:17:50.480><c> can</c><00:17:50.640><c> detect.</c>

00:17:51.750 --> 00:17:51.760 align:start position:0%
gamma rays that scientists can detect.
 

00:17:51.760 --> 00:17:53.669 align:start position:0%
gamma rays that scientists can detect.
However,<00:17:52.160><c> accelerating</c><00:17:52.799><c> electrons</c><00:17:53.440><c> is</c>

00:17:53.669 --> 00:17:53.679 align:start position:0%
However, accelerating electrons is
 

00:17:53.679 --> 00:17:55.590 align:start position:0%
However, accelerating electrons is
really<00:17:54.000><c> difficult</c><00:17:54.480><c> because</c><00:17:54.960><c> they</c><00:17:55.280><c> lose</c>

00:17:55.590 --> 00:17:55.600 align:start position:0%
really difficult because they lose
 

00:17:55.600 --> 00:17:58.390 align:start position:0%
really difficult because they lose
energy<00:17:56.160><c> very</c><00:17:56.559><c> quickly.</c><00:17:57.600><c> To</c><00:17:57.840><c> produce</c><00:17:58.080><c> gamma</c>

00:17:58.390 --> 00:17:58.400 align:start position:0%
energy very quickly. To produce gamma
 

00:17:58.400 --> 00:18:00.390 align:start position:0%
energy very quickly. To produce gamma
rays<00:17:58.720><c> with</c><00:17:58.880><c> energies</c><00:17:59.360><c> of</c><00:17:59.520><c> a</c><00:17:59.679><c> quadrillion</c>

00:18:00.390 --> 00:18:00.400 align:start position:0%
rays with energies of a quadrillion
 

00:18:00.400 --> 00:18:03.270 align:start position:0%
rays with energies of a quadrillion
electron<00:18:00.880><c> volts,</c><00:18:01.679><c> the</c><00:18:01.919><c> electrons</c><00:18:02.480><c> themselves</c>

00:18:03.270 --> 00:18:03.280 align:start position:0%
electron volts, the electrons themselves
 

00:18:03.280 --> 00:18:06.390 align:start position:0%
electron volts, the electrons themselves
must<00:18:03.600><c> have</c><00:18:03.760><c> had</c><00:18:04.160><c> several</c><00:18:04.640><c> times</c><00:18:05.039><c> that</c><00:18:05.360><c> energy.</c>

00:18:06.390 --> 00:18:06.400 align:start position:0%
must have had several times that energy.
 

00:18:06.400 --> 00:18:09.510 align:start position:0%
must have had several times that energy.
This<00:18:06.640><c> proves</c><00:18:06.960><c> that</c><00:18:07.200><c> Messia</c><00:18:07.760><c> 1</c><00:18:08.160><c> is</c><00:18:08.559><c> undoubtedly</c>

00:18:09.510 --> 00:18:09.520 align:start position:0%
This proves that Messia 1 is undoubtedly
 

00:18:09.520 --> 00:18:12.549 align:start position:0%
This proves that Messia 1 is undoubtedly
a<00:18:09.760><c> pevatron</c><00:18:10.880><c> and</c><00:18:11.280><c> an</c><00:18:11.600><c> impressive</c><00:18:12.080><c> one</c><00:18:12.320><c> at</c>

00:18:12.549 --> 00:18:12.559 align:start position:0%
a pevatron and an impressive one at
 

00:18:12.559 --> 00:18:15.430 align:start position:0%
a pevatron and an impressive one at
that.<00:18:13.520><c> However,</c><00:18:14.080><c> this</c><00:18:14.320><c> has</c><00:18:14.559><c> only</c><00:18:14.880><c> been</c><00:18:15.120><c> proven</c>

00:18:15.430 --> 00:18:15.440 align:start position:0%
that. However, this has only been proven
 

00:18:15.440 --> 00:18:18.150 align:start position:0%
that. However, this has only been proven
for<00:18:15.760><c> electrons,</c><00:18:16.720><c> making</c><00:18:17.120><c> Messia</c><00:18:17.679><c> 1</c><00:18:17.919><c> what</c>

00:18:18.150 --> 00:18:18.160 align:start position:0%
for electrons, making Messia 1 what
 

00:18:18.160 --> 00:18:21.909 align:start position:0%
for electrons, making Messia 1 what
scientists<00:18:18.640><c> call</c><00:18:19.280><c> electronic</c><00:18:20.160><c> accelerator.</c>

00:18:21.909 --> 00:18:21.919 align:start position:0%
scientists call electronic accelerator.
 

00:18:21.919 --> 00:18:23.830 align:start position:0%
scientists call electronic accelerator.
But<00:18:22.160><c> pevetrons</c><00:18:22.960><c> are</c><00:18:23.200><c> capable</c><00:18:23.600><c> of</c>

00:18:23.830 --> 00:18:23.840 align:start position:0%
But pevetrons are capable of
 

00:18:23.840 --> 00:18:26.630 align:start position:0%
But pevetrons are capable of
accelerating<00:18:24.720><c> any</c><00:18:25.200><c> charged</c><00:18:25.600><c> particle.</c><00:18:26.480><c> And</c>

00:18:26.630 --> 00:18:26.640 align:start position:0%
accelerating any charged particle. And
 

00:18:26.640 --> 00:18:29.029 align:start position:0%
accelerating any charged particle. And
if<00:18:26.880><c> you</c><00:18:27.039><c> remember,</c><00:18:27.520><c> cosmic</c><00:18:27.919><c> rays</c><00:18:28.240><c> are</c><00:18:28.480><c> mostly</c>

00:18:29.029 --> 00:18:29.039 align:start position:0%
if you remember, cosmic rays are mostly
 

00:18:29.039 --> 00:18:31.909 align:start position:0%
if you remember, cosmic rays are mostly
protons.<00:18:30.160><c> So,</c><00:18:30.400><c> it's</c><00:18:30.640><c> these</c><00:18:30.960><c> pevetrons,</c>

00:18:31.909 --> 00:18:31.919 align:start position:0%
protons. So, it's these pevetrons,
 

00:18:31.919 --> 00:18:33.830 align:start position:0%
protons. So, it's these pevetrons,
otherwise<00:18:32.320><c> known</c><00:18:32.559><c> as</c><00:18:33.039><c> hydronic</c>

00:18:33.830 --> 00:18:33.840 align:start position:0%
otherwise known as hydronic
 

00:18:33.840 --> 00:18:36.150 align:start position:0%
otherwise known as hydronic
accelerators,<00:18:34.880><c> that</c><00:18:35.200><c> scientists</c><00:18:35.760><c> are</c><00:18:35.919><c> most</c>

00:18:36.150 --> 00:18:36.160 align:start position:0%
accelerators, that scientists are most
 

00:18:36.160 --> 00:18:39.510 align:start position:0%
accelerators, that scientists are most
keen<00:18:36.320><c> to</c><00:18:36.559><c> find.</c>

00:18:39.510 --> 00:18:39.520 align:start position:0%
keen to find.
 

00:18:39.520 --> 00:18:41.750 align:start position:0%
keen to find.
I<00:18:39.760><c> mentioned</c><00:18:40.000><c> that</c><00:18:40.240><c> lasso</c><00:18:40.720><c> detected</c><00:18:41.120><c> a</c><00:18:41.280><c> photon</c>

00:18:41.750 --> 00:18:41.760 align:start position:0%
I mentioned that lasso detected a photon
 

00:18:41.760 --> 00:18:45.510 align:start position:0%
I mentioned that lasso detected a photon
at<00:18:42.240><c> 1.4</c><00:18:43.360><c> peta</c><00:18:43.679><c> electron</c><00:18:44.160><c> volts,</c><00:18:44.720><c> the</c><00:18:45.039><c> highest</c>

00:18:45.510 --> 00:18:45.520 align:start position:0%
at 1.4 peta electron volts, the highest
 

00:18:45.520 --> 00:18:49.270 align:start position:0%
at 1.4 peta electron volts, the highest
energy<00:18:46.000><c> photon</c><00:18:46.720><c> ever</c><00:18:47.120><c> observed.</c><00:18:48.480><c> With</c><00:18:48.720><c> such</c>

00:18:49.270 --> 00:18:49.280 align:start position:0%
energy photon ever observed. With such
 

00:18:49.280 --> 00:18:51.750 align:start position:0%
energy photon ever observed. With such
mindblowing<00:18:50.080><c> energy,</c><00:18:50.799><c> scientists</c><00:18:51.280><c> were</c><00:18:51.520><c> keen</c>

00:18:51.750 --> 00:18:51.760 align:start position:0%
mindblowing energy, scientists were keen
 

00:18:51.760 --> 00:18:53.909 align:start position:0%
mindblowing energy, scientists were keen
to<00:18:51.919><c> see</c><00:18:52.080><c> where</c><00:18:52.320><c> it</c><00:18:52.559><c> came</c><00:18:52.720><c> from,</c><00:18:53.360><c> which</c><00:18:53.679><c> led</c>

00:18:53.909 --> 00:18:53.919 align:start position:0%
to see where it came from, which led
 

00:18:53.919 --> 00:18:57.110 align:start position:0%
to see where it came from, which led
them<00:18:54.240><c> to</c><00:18:54.559><c> our</c><00:18:55.039><c> next</c><00:18:55.360><c> candidate,</c><00:18:56.240><c> the</c><00:18:56.559><c> Signis</c>

00:18:57.110 --> 00:18:57.120 align:start position:0%
them to our next candidate, the Signis
 

00:18:57.120 --> 00:19:00.390 align:start position:0%
them to our next candidate, the Signis
region.<00:18:58.320><c> The</c><00:18:58.559><c> Signis</c><00:18:59.039><c> constellation</c><00:18:59.840><c> is</c><00:19:00.160><c> one</c>

00:19:00.390 --> 00:19:00.400 align:start position:0%
region. The Signis constellation is one
 

00:19:00.400 --> 00:19:02.710 align:start position:0%
region. The Signis constellation is one
of<00:19:00.559><c> the</c><00:19:00.720><c> most</c><00:19:01.120><c> recognizable</c><00:19:01.919><c> in</c><00:19:02.160><c> the</c><00:19:02.320><c> northern</c>

00:19:02.710 --> 00:19:02.720 align:start position:0%
of the most recognizable in the northern
 

00:19:02.720 --> 00:19:06.390 align:start position:0%
of the most recognizable in the northern
sky,<00:19:03.440><c> spanning</c><00:19:03.919><c> more</c><00:19:04.080><c> than</c><00:19:04.400><c> 800</c><00:19:04.960><c> square°</c><00:19:05.760><c> or</c>

00:19:06.390 --> 00:19:06.400 align:start position:0%
sky, spanning more than 800 square° or
 

00:19:06.400 --> 00:19:09.909 align:start position:0%
sky, spanning more than 800 square° or
4,000<00:19:07.200><c> full</c><00:19:07.520><c> moons.</c><00:19:08.559><c> And</c><00:19:08.799><c> it</c><00:19:09.039><c> was</c><00:19:09.200><c> here</c><00:19:09.600><c> that</c>

00:19:09.909 --> 00:19:09.919 align:start position:0%
4,000 full moons. And it was here that
 

00:19:09.919 --> 00:19:11.590 align:start position:0%
4,000 full moons. And it was here that
scientists<00:19:10.480><c> found</c><00:19:10.720><c> some</c><00:19:11.039><c> seriously</c>

00:19:11.590 --> 00:19:11.600 align:start position:0%
scientists found some seriously
 

00:19:11.600 --> 00:19:14.630 align:start position:0%
scientists found some seriously
interesting<00:19:12.080><c> stuff.</c><00:19:13.039><c> Lasso</c><00:19:13.520><c> found</c><00:19:14.000><c> lots</c><00:19:14.320><c> of</c>

00:19:14.630 --> 00:19:14.640 align:start position:0%
interesting stuff. Lasso found lots of
 

00:19:14.640 --> 00:19:17.110 align:start position:0%
interesting stuff. Lasso found lots of
petal<00:19:14.960><c> electron</c><00:19:15.440><c> vault</c><00:19:15.840><c> photons</c><00:19:16.480><c> inside</c><00:19:16.880><c> the</c>

00:19:17.110 --> 00:19:17.120 align:start position:0%
petal electron vault photons inside the
 

00:19:17.120 --> 00:19:19.990 align:start position:0%
petal electron vault photons inside the
Signis<00:19:17.600><c> Cocoon,</c><00:19:18.640><c> a</c><00:19:18.960><c> huge</c><00:19:19.360><c> superb</c><00:19:19.679><c> bubble</c>

00:19:19.990 --> 00:19:20.000 align:start position:0%
Signis Cocoon, a huge superb bubble
 

00:19:20.000 --> 00:19:22.390 align:start position:0%
Signis Cocoon, a huge superb bubble
which<00:19:20.240><c> surrounds</c><00:19:20.640><c> a</c><00:19:20.880><c> region</c><00:19:21.280><c> of</c><00:19:21.600><c> massive</c><00:19:22.080><c> star</c>

00:19:22.390 --> 00:19:22.400 align:start position:0%
which surrounds a region of massive star
 

00:19:22.400 --> 00:19:25.190 align:start position:0%
which surrounds a region of massive star
formation.<00:19:23.840><c> Inside</c><00:19:24.240><c> the</c><00:19:24.400><c> bubble</c><00:19:24.720><c> is</c><00:19:24.960><c> a</c>

00:19:25.190 --> 00:19:25.200 align:start position:0%
formation. Inside the bubble is a
 

00:19:25.200 --> 00:19:27.830 align:start position:0%
formation. Inside the bubble is a
massive<00:19:25.760><c> young</c><00:19:26.080><c> star</c><00:19:26.400><c> cluster</c><00:19:26.960><c> known</c><00:19:27.280><c> as</c><00:19:27.600><c> the</c>

00:19:27.830 --> 00:19:27.840 align:start position:0%
massive young star cluster known as the
 

00:19:27.840 --> 00:19:32.549 align:start position:0%
massive young star cluster known as the
Signis<00:19:28.559><c> OB2</c><00:19:29.520><c> Association.</c><00:19:30.960><c> This</c><00:19:31.200><c> is</c><00:19:31.520><c> a</c><00:19:32.000><c> very</c>

00:19:32.549 --> 00:19:32.559 align:start position:0%
Signis OB2 Association. This is a very
 

00:19:32.559 --> 00:19:35.990 align:start position:0%
Signis OB2 Association. This is a very
active<00:19:32.960><c> place</c><00:19:33.679><c> and</c><00:19:33.919><c> the</c><00:19:34.160><c> many</c><00:19:34.559><c> young</c><00:19:35.440><c> massive</c>

00:19:35.990 --> 00:19:36.000 align:start position:0%
active place and the many young massive
 

00:19:36.000 --> 00:19:38.470 align:start position:0%
active place and the many young massive
stars<00:19:36.559><c> can</c><00:19:36.799><c> create</c><00:19:37.120><c> a</c><00:19:37.440><c> strong</c><00:19:37.840><c> wind</c><00:19:38.160><c> which</c>

00:19:38.470 --> 00:19:38.480 align:start position:0%
stars can create a strong wind which
 

00:19:38.480 --> 00:19:41.430 align:start position:0%
stars can create a strong wind which
accelerates<00:19:39.200><c> particles.</c><00:19:40.080><c> Signis</c><00:19:40.640><c> OB2</c><00:19:41.200><c> is</c>

00:19:41.430 --> 00:19:41.440 align:start position:0%
accelerates particles. Signis OB2 is
 

00:19:41.440 --> 00:19:43.990 align:start position:0%
accelerates particles. Signis OB2 is
found<00:19:41.679><c> nearly</c><00:19:42.080><c> 5,000</c><00:19:42.799><c> lightyears</c><00:19:43.200><c> from</c><00:19:43.440><c> Earth</c>

00:19:43.990 --> 00:19:44.000 align:start position:0%
found nearly 5,000 lightyears from Earth
 

00:19:44.000 --> 00:19:45.990 align:start position:0%
found nearly 5,000 lightyears from Earth
and<00:19:44.240><c> it</c><00:19:44.400><c> lines</c><00:19:44.720><c> up</c><00:19:44.960><c> pretty</c><00:19:45.280><c> well</c><00:19:45.520><c> with</c><00:19:45.760><c> some</c><00:19:45.919><c> of</c>

00:19:45.990 --> 00:19:46.000 align:start position:0%
and it lines up pretty well with some of
 

00:19:46.000 --> 00:19:48.950 align:start position:0%
and it lines up pretty well with some of
the<00:19:46.160><c> gamma</c><00:19:46.480><c> rays</c><00:19:46.720><c> observed</c><00:19:47.120><c> by</c><00:19:47.360><c> Lasso.</c><00:19:48.480><c> But</c><00:19:48.720><c> as</c>

00:19:48.950 --> 00:19:48.960 align:start position:0%
the gamma rays observed by Lasso. But as
 

00:19:48.960 --> 00:19:50.789 align:start position:0%
the gamma rays observed by Lasso. But as
I<00:19:49.120><c> mentioned,</c><00:19:49.493><c> [music]</c><00:19:49.840><c> these</c><00:19:50.160><c> gamma</c><00:19:50.480><c> rays</c>

00:19:50.789 --> 00:19:50.799 align:start position:0%
I mentioned, [music] these gamma rays
 

00:19:50.799 --> 00:19:53.110 align:start position:0%
I mentioned, [music] these gamma rays
only<00:19:51.120><c> indicate</c><00:19:51.520><c> the</c><00:19:51.840><c> general</c><00:19:52.240><c> direction</c><00:19:52.720><c> of</c><00:19:52.960><c> a</c>

00:19:53.110 --> 00:19:53.120 align:start position:0%
only indicate the general direction of a
 

00:19:53.120 --> 00:19:55.750 align:start position:0%
only indicate the general direction of a
Pevotron,<00:19:54.160><c> not</c><00:19:54.400><c> its</c><00:19:54.640><c> distance.</c><00:19:55.388><c> [music]</c><00:19:55.520><c> So</c>

00:19:55.750 --> 00:19:55.760 align:start position:0%
Pevotron, not its distance. [music] So
 

00:19:55.760 --> 00:19:57.750 align:start position:0%
Pevotron, not its distance. [music] So
scientists<00:19:56.240><c> can</c><00:19:56.480><c> often</c><00:19:56.880><c> struggle</c><00:19:57.360><c> to</c>

00:19:57.750 --> 00:19:57.760 align:start position:0%
scientists can often struggle to
 

00:19:57.760 --> 00:20:00.310 align:start position:0%
scientists can often struggle to
identify<00:19:58.080><c> the</c><00:19:58.320><c> origin</c><00:19:58.720><c> of</c><00:19:58.880><c> a</c><00:19:59.039><c> signal</c><00:19:59.760><c> among</c>

00:20:00.310 --> 00:20:00.320 align:start position:0%
identify the origin of a signal among
 

00:20:00.320 --> 00:20:02.630 align:start position:0%
identify the origin of a signal among
several<00:20:00.799><c> possible</c><00:20:01.200><c> sources.</c><00:20:02.160><c> And</c><00:20:02.320><c> in</c><00:20:02.559><c> the</c>

00:20:02.630 --> 00:20:02.640 align:start position:0%
several possible sources. And in the
 

00:20:02.640 --> 00:20:04.710 align:start position:0%
several possible sources. And in the
case<00:20:02.799><c> of</c><00:20:03.039><c> Signis,</c><00:20:03.903><c> [music]</c><00:20:03.919><c> there</c><00:20:04.160><c> are</c><00:20:04.400><c> plenty</c>

00:20:04.710 --> 00:20:04.720 align:start position:0%
case of Signis, [music] there are plenty
 

00:20:04.720 --> 00:20:07.990 align:start position:0%
case of Signis, [music] there are plenty
of<00:20:04.960><c> energetic</c><00:20:05.520><c> objects</c><00:20:05.840><c> to</c><00:20:06.080><c> choose</c><00:20:06.320><c> from.</c><00:20:07.760><c> In</c>

00:20:07.990 --> 00:20:08.000 align:start position:0%
of energetic objects to choose from. In
 

00:20:08.000 --> 00:20:10.230 align:start position:0%
of energetic objects to choose from. In
a<00:20:08.160><c> similar</c><00:20:08.480><c> direction</c><00:20:08.799><c> to</c><00:20:08.960><c> OB2,</c><00:20:09.600><c> but</c><00:20:09.919><c> further</c>

00:20:10.230 --> 00:20:10.240 align:start position:0%
a similar direction to OB2, but further
 

00:20:10.240 --> 00:20:13.350 align:start position:0%
a similar direction to OB2, but further
away,<00:20:11.039><c> there</c><00:20:11.200><c> is</c><00:20:11.360><c> an</c><00:20:11.600><c> X-ray</c><00:20:12.080><c> binary</c><00:20:12.720><c> known</c><00:20:13.039><c> as</c>

00:20:13.350 --> 00:20:13.360 align:start position:0%
away, there is an X-ray binary known as
 

00:20:13.360 --> 00:20:15.510 align:start position:0%
away, there is an X-ray binary known as
Signis<00:20:14.000><c> X3.</c>

00:20:15.510 --> 00:20:15.520 align:start position:0%
Signis X3.
 

00:20:15.520 --> 00:20:17.909 align:start position:0%
Signis X3.
It<00:20:15.840><c> consists</c><00:20:16.240><c> of</c><00:20:16.400><c> a</c><00:20:16.559><c> donor</c><00:20:17.039><c> star</c><00:20:17.440><c> and</c><00:20:17.679><c> a</c>

00:20:17.909 --> 00:20:17.919 align:start position:0%
It consists of a donor star and a
 

00:20:17.919 --> 00:20:20.710 align:start position:0%
It consists of a donor star and a
compact<00:20:18.400><c> object</c><00:20:19.120><c> likely</c><00:20:19.520><c> a</c><00:20:19.679><c> black</c><00:20:19.919><c> hole</c><00:20:20.320><c> or</c>

00:20:20.710 --> 00:20:20.720 align:start position:0%
compact object likely a black hole or
 

00:20:20.720 --> 00:20:24.230 align:start position:0%
compact object likely a black hole or
neutron<00:20:21.200><c> star.</c><00:20:22.160><c> The</c><00:20:22.400><c> donor</c><00:20:22.880><c> is</c><00:20:23.120><c> a</c><00:20:23.440><c> wolf</c><00:20:23.760><c> ray</c>

00:20:24.230 --> 00:20:24.240 align:start position:0%
neutron star. The donor is a wolf ray
 

00:20:24.240 --> 00:20:27.190 align:start position:0%
neutron star. The donor is a wolf ray
star<00:20:24.960><c> meaning</c><00:20:25.280><c> it</c><00:20:25.520><c> is</c><00:20:25.840><c> extremely</c><00:20:26.480><c> hot</c><00:20:26.880><c> and</c>

00:20:27.190 --> 00:20:27.200 align:start position:0%
star meaning it is extremely hot and
 

00:20:27.200 --> 00:20:29.590 align:start position:0%
star meaning it is extremely hot and
massive<00:20:27.919><c> and</c><00:20:28.159><c> it</c><00:20:28.320><c> feeds</c><00:20:28.720><c> material</c><00:20:29.120><c> into</c><00:20:29.440><c> the</c>

00:20:29.590 --> 00:20:29.600 align:start position:0%
massive and it feeds material into the
 

00:20:29.600 --> 00:20:31.510 align:start position:0%
massive and it feeds material into the
compact<00:20:30.000><c> object</c><00:20:30.400><c> through</c><00:20:30.720><c> strong</c><00:20:31.120><c> stellar</c>

00:20:31.510 --> 00:20:31.520 align:start position:0%
compact object through strong stellar
 

00:20:31.520 --> 00:20:34.230 align:start position:0%
compact object through strong stellar
winds.<00:20:32.480><c> This</c><00:20:32.960><c> combined</c><00:20:33.440><c> with</c><00:20:33.600><c> the</c><00:20:33.840><c> compact</c>

00:20:34.230 --> 00:20:34.240 align:start position:0%
winds. This combined with the compact
 

00:20:34.240 --> 00:20:36.789 align:start position:0%
winds. This combined with the compact
object<00:20:34.960><c> which</c><00:20:35.280><c> releases</c><00:20:35.840><c> powerful</c><00:20:36.240><c> jets</c><00:20:36.559><c> of</c>

00:20:36.789 --> 00:20:36.799 align:start position:0%
object which releases powerful jets of
 

00:20:36.799 --> 00:20:39.270 align:start position:0%
object which releases powerful jets of
plasma<00:20:37.679><c> creates</c><00:20:38.080><c> the</c><00:20:38.400><c> perfect</c><00:20:38.880><c> conditions</c>

00:20:39.270 --> 00:20:39.280 align:start position:0%
plasma creates the perfect conditions
 

00:20:39.280 --> 00:20:42.070 align:start position:0%
plasma creates the perfect conditions
for<00:20:39.520><c> particle</c><00:20:40.000><c> acceleration.</c>

00:20:42.070 --> 00:20:42.080 align:start position:0%
for particle acceleration.
 

00:20:42.080 --> 00:20:44.390 align:start position:0%
for particle acceleration.
At<00:20:42.320><c> first,</c><00:20:42.640><c> it</c><00:20:42.880><c> seemed</c><00:20:43.280><c> impossible</c><00:20:43.840><c> to</c><00:20:44.080><c> tell</c>

00:20:44.390 --> 00:20:44.400 align:start position:0%
At first, it seemed impossible to tell
 

00:20:44.400 --> 00:20:46.789 align:start position:0%
At first, it seemed impossible to tell
which<00:20:44.720><c> system</c><00:20:45.120><c> Lasso</c><00:20:45.600><c> was</c><00:20:45.760><c> detecting</c><00:20:46.400><c> PA</c>

00:20:46.789 --> 00:20:46.799 align:start position:0%
which system Lasso was detecting PA
 

00:20:46.799 --> 00:20:48.950 align:start position:0%
which system Lasso was detecting PA
electron<00:20:47.120><c> volt</c><00:20:47.440><c> signals</c><00:20:47.840><c> from.</c><00:20:48.559><c> But</c><00:20:48.720><c> on</c>

00:20:48.950 --> 00:20:48.960 align:start position:0%
electron volt signals from. But on
 

00:20:48.960 --> 00:20:50.710 align:start position:0%
electron volt signals from. But on
taking<00:20:49.280><c> a</c><00:20:49.600><c> closer</c><00:20:49.919><c> look</c><00:20:50.080><c> at</c><00:20:50.240><c> the</c><00:20:50.400><c> signal</c>

00:20:50.710 --> 00:20:50.720 align:start position:0%
taking a closer look at the signal
 

00:20:50.720 --> 00:20:53.110 align:start position:0%
taking a closer look at the signal
itself,<00:20:51.600><c> scientists</c><00:20:52.080><c> noticed</c><00:20:52.720><c> something</c>

00:20:53.110 --> 00:20:53.120 align:start position:0%
itself, scientists noticed something
 

00:20:53.120 --> 00:20:56.310 align:start position:0%
itself, scientists noticed something
unique.<00:20:54.240><c> There</c><00:20:54.480><c> was</c><00:20:54.720><c> a</c><00:20:55.120><c> temporal</c><00:20:55.760><c> feature</c><00:20:56.159><c> of</c>

00:20:56.310 --> 00:20:56.320 align:start position:0%
unique. There was a temporal feature of
 

00:20:56.320 --> 00:20:58.710 align:start position:0%
unique. There was a temporal feature of
the<00:20:56.559><c> signals.</c><00:20:57.520><c> A</c><00:20:57.679><c> pattern</c><00:20:58.000><c> that</c><00:20:58.240><c> repeated</c>

00:20:58.710 --> 00:20:58.720 align:start position:0%
the signals. A pattern that repeated
 

00:20:58.720 --> 00:21:02.470 align:start position:0%
the signals. A pattern that repeated
every<00:20:59.280><c> 4.8</c><00:21:00.240><c> hours,</c><00:21:01.120><c> seen</c><00:21:01.600><c> not</c><00:21:01.840><c> just</c><00:21:02.080><c> in</c><00:21:02.320><c> the</c>

00:21:02.470 --> 00:21:02.480 align:start position:0%
every 4.8 hours, seen not just in the
 

00:21:02.480 --> 00:21:04.870 align:start position:0%
every 4.8 hours, seen not just in the
gamma<00:21:02.799><c> rays,</c><00:21:03.360><c> but</c><00:21:03.679><c> in</c><00:21:03.840><c> the</c><00:21:04.000><c> X-rays</c><00:21:04.559><c> and</c><00:21:04.720><c> the</c>

00:21:04.870 --> 00:21:04.880 align:start position:0%
gamma rays, but in the X-rays and the
 

00:21:04.880 --> 00:21:07.990 align:start position:0%
gamma rays, but in the X-rays and the
infrared<00:21:05.360><c> radiation,</c><00:21:06.000><c> too.</c><00:21:07.200><c> But</c><00:21:07.440><c> where</c><00:21:07.760><c> was</c>

00:21:07.990 --> 00:21:08.000 align:start position:0%
infrared radiation, too. But where was
 

00:21:08.000 --> 00:21:10.549 align:start position:0%
infrared radiation, too. But where was
the<00:21:08.159><c> pattern</c><00:21:08.559><c> coming</c><00:21:08.799><c> from?</c><00:21:09.919><c> On</c><00:21:10.159><c> further</c>

00:21:10.549 --> 00:21:10.559 align:start position:0%
the pattern coming from? On further
 

00:21:10.559 --> 00:21:12.870 align:start position:0%
the pattern coming from? On further
investigation,<00:21:11.600><c> scientists</c><00:21:12.240><c> realize</c><00:21:12.640><c> the</c>

00:21:12.870 --> 00:21:12.880 align:start position:0%
investigation, scientists realize the
 

00:21:12.880 --> 00:21:16.470 align:start position:0%
investigation, scientists realize the
truth.<00:21:13.760><c> Every</c><00:21:14.159><c> 4.8</c><00:21:14.960><c> hours,</c><00:21:15.760><c> the</c><00:21:16.000><c> black</c><00:21:16.240><c> hole</c>

00:21:16.470 --> 00:21:16.480 align:start position:0%
truth. Every 4.8 hours, the black hole
 

00:21:16.480 --> 00:21:19.909 align:start position:0%
truth. Every 4.8 hours, the black hole
of<00:21:16.720><c> Signis</c><00:21:17.200><c> X3</c><00:21:18.320><c> orbits</c><00:21:18.799><c> its</c><00:21:19.039><c> massive</c><00:21:19.440><c> donor</c>

00:21:19.909 --> 00:21:19.919 align:start position:0%
of Signis X3 orbits its massive donor
 

00:21:19.919 --> 00:21:22.470 align:start position:0%
of Signis X3 orbits its massive donor
star.<00:21:21.039><c> Suddenly,</c><00:21:21.600><c> scientists</c><00:21:22.080><c> could</c><00:21:22.320><c> be</c>

00:21:22.470 --> 00:21:22.480 align:start position:0%
star. Suddenly, scientists could be
 

00:21:22.480 --> 00:21:24.789 align:start position:0%
star. Suddenly, scientists could be
certain<00:21:22.960><c> the</c><00:21:23.200><c> gamma</c><00:21:23.600><c> rays</c><00:21:23.919><c> were</c><00:21:24.159><c> coming</c><00:21:24.400><c> from</c>

00:21:24.789 --> 00:21:24.799 align:start position:0%
certain the gamma rays were coming from
 

00:21:24.799 --> 00:21:27.430 align:start position:0%
certain the gamma rays were coming from
Signis<00:21:25.280><c> X3</c><00:21:26.159><c> and</c><00:21:26.400><c> that</c><00:21:26.720><c> they</c><00:21:26.960><c> had</c><00:21:27.200><c> found</c>

00:21:27.430 --> 00:21:27.440 align:start position:0%
Signis X3 and that they had found
 

00:21:27.440 --> 00:21:29.750 align:start position:0%
Signis X3 and that they had found
another<00:21:27.919><c> Pevverron.</c>

00:21:29.750 --> 00:21:29.760 align:start position:0%
another Pevverron.
 

00:21:29.760 --> 00:21:32.870 align:start position:0%
another Pevverron.
Signis<00:21:30.240><c> X3</c><00:21:30.880><c> was</c><00:21:31.120><c> a</c><00:21:31.360><c> particularly</c><00:21:32.240><c> intriguing</c>

00:21:32.870 --> 00:21:32.880 align:start position:0%
Signis X3 was a particularly intriguing
 

00:21:32.880 --> 00:21:35.270 align:start position:0%
Signis X3 was a particularly intriguing
object.<00:21:33.840><c> For</c><00:21:34.080><c> one</c><00:21:34.320><c> thing,</c><00:21:34.720><c> the</c><00:21:34.960><c> highest</c>

00:21:35.270 --> 00:21:35.280 align:start position:0%
object. For one thing, the highest
 

00:21:35.280 --> 00:21:37.510 align:start position:0%
object. For one thing, the highest
energy<00:21:35.679><c> photons</c><00:21:36.080><c> from</c><00:21:36.320><c> this</c><00:21:36.480><c> object</c><00:21:37.039><c> already</c>

00:21:37.510 --> 00:21:37.520 align:start position:0%
energy photons from this object already
 

00:21:37.520 --> 00:21:41.350 align:start position:0%
energy photons from this object already
measured<00:21:38.240><c> 3.7</c><00:21:39.360><c> pal</c><00:21:39.840><c> electron</c><00:21:40.240><c> volts.</c><00:21:41.120><c> And</c>

00:21:41.350 --> 00:21:41.360 align:start position:0%
measured 3.7 pal electron volts. And
 

00:21:41.360 --> 00:21:43.190 align:start position:0%
measured 3.7 pal electron volts. And
since<00:21:41.679><c> photons</c><00:21:42.240><c> are</c><00:21:42.400><c> radiated</c><00:21:42.880><c> by</c>

00:21:43.190 --> 00:21:43.200 align:start position:0%
since photons are radiated by
 

00:21:43.200 --> 00:21:46.149 align:start position:0%
since photons are radiated by
accelerated<00:21:44.000><c> protons,</c><00:21:45.120><c> the</c><00:21:45.360><c> energy</c><00:21:45.760><c> of</c><00:21:45.919><c> the</c>

00:21:46.149 --> 00:21:46.159 align:start position:0%
accelerated protons, the energy of the
 

00:21:46.159 --> 00:21:49.590 align:start position:0%
accelerated protons, the energy of the
proton<00:21:46.720><c> must</c><00:21:47.039><c> be</c><00:21:47.280><c> several</c><00:21:47.840><c> times</c><00:21:48.400><c> larger.</c>

00:21:49.590 --> 00:21:49.600 align:start position:0%
proton must be several times larger.
 

00:21:49.600 --> 00:21:52.470 align:start position:0%
proton must be several times larger.
What<00:21:49.760><c> that</c><00:21:50.080><c> suggests</c><00:21:50.559><c> is</c><00:21:50.720><c> that</c><00:21:51.039><c> Signis</c><00:21:51.440><c> X3</c><00:21:52.159><c> is</c>

00:21:52.470 --> 00:21:52.480 align:start position:0%
What that suggests is that Signis X3 is
 

00:21:52.480 --> 00:21:55.750 align:start position:0%
What that suggests is that Signis X3 is
not<00:21:52.799><c> just</c><00:21:53.280><c> a</c><00:21:53.520><c> pevetron,</c><00:21:54.480><c> but</c><00:21:54.720><c> a</c><00:21:55.200><c> super</c>

00:21:55.750 --> 00:21:55.760 align:start position:0%
not just a pevetron, but a super
 

00:21:55.760 --> 00:21:58.630 align:start position:0%
not just a pevetron, but a super
pevetron<00:21:56.720><c> capable</c><00:21:57.120><c> of</c><00:21:57.360><c> accelerating</c><00:21:58.080><c> protons</c>

00:21:58.630 --> 00:21:58.640 align:start position:0%
pevetron capable of accelerating protons
 

00:21:58.640 --> 00:22:03.590 align:start position:0%
pevetron capable of accelerating protons
to<00:21:58.880><c> at</c><00:21:58.880><c> least</c><00:21:59.520><c> 10</c><00:22:00.480><c> pa</c><00:22:01.039><c> electron</c><00:22:01.520><c> volts.</c>

00:22:03.590 --> 00:22:03.600 align:start position:0%
to at least 10 pa electron volts.
 

00:22:03.600 --> 00:22:05.990 align:start position:0%
to at least 10 pa electron volts.
We've<00:22:03.919><c> had</c><00:22:04.240><c> a</c><00:22:04.640><c> whistle</c><00:22:05.039><c> stop</c><00:22:05.360><c> tour</c><00:22:05.600><c> of</c><00:22:05.760><c> some</c><00:22:05.919><c> of</c>

00:22:05.990 --> 00:22:06.000 align:start position:0%
We've had a whistle stop tour of some of
 

00:22:06.000 --> 00:22:08.710 align:start position:0%
We've had a whistle stop tour of some of
the<00:22:06.159><c> most</c><00:22:06.320><c> exciting</c><00:22:06.880><c> pevatrons</c><00:22:07.600><c> we</c><00:22:07.840><c> found</c><00:22:08.400><c> so</c>

00:22:08.710 --> 00:22:08.720 align:start position:0%
the most exciting pevatrons we found so
 

00:22:08.720 --> 00:22:11.750 align:start position:0%
the most exciting pevatrons we found so
far,<00:22:09.760><c> but</c><00:22:10.000><c> what</c><00:22:10.320><c> does</c><00:22:10.559><c> the</c><00:22:10.799><c> future</c><00:22:11.200><c> hold</c><00:22:11.520><c> for</c>

00:22:11.750 --> 00:22:11.760 align:start position:0%
far, but what does the future hold for
 

00:22:11.760 --> 00:22:14.789 align:start position:0%
far, but what does the future hold for
this<00:22:12.240><c> ultra</c><00:22:12.720><c> powered</c><00:22:13.200><c> search?</c><00:22:14.240><c> And</c><00:22:14.480><c> where</c>

00:22:14.789 --> 00:22:14.799 align:start position:0%
this ultra powered search? And where
 

00:22:14.799 --> 00:22:18.230 align:start position:0%
this ultra powered search? And where
will<00:22:15.039><c> it</c><00:22:15.200><c> take</c><00:22:15.360><c> us?</c><00:22:16.640><c> Hunting</c><00:22:17.200><c> 12</c><00:22:17.679><c> candidate</c>

00:22:18.230 --> 00:22:18.240 align:start position:0%
will it take us? Hunting 12 candidate
 

00:22:18.240 --> 00:22:20.870 align:start position:0%
will it take us? Hunting 12 candidate
Pevatrons<00:22:18.960><c> seemed</c><00:22:19.360><c> hard</c><00:22:19.600><c> enough,</c><00:22:20.400><c> but</c><00:22:20.640><c> since</c>

00:22:20.870 --> 00:22:20.880 align:start position:0%
Pevatrons seemed hard enough, but since
 

00:22:20.880 --> 00:22:23.430 align:start position:0%
Pevatrons seemed hard enough, but since
Lasso's<00:22:21.600><c> first</c><00:22:21.919><c> finding,</c><00:22:22.720><c> that</c><00:22:22.960><c> number</c><00:22:23.200><c> has</c>

00:22:23.430 --> 00:22:23.440 align:start position:0%
Lasso's first finding, that number has
 

00:22:23.440 --> 00:22:26.630 align:start position:0%
Lasso's first finding, that number has
boomed.<00:22:24.480><c> Lasso</c><00:22:25.039><c> published</c><00:22:25.440><c> the</c><00:22:25.679><c> first</c><00:22:26.080><c> global</c>

00:22:26.630 --> 00:22:26.640 align:start position:0%
boomed. Lasso published the first global
 

00:22:26.640 --> 00:22:30.549 align:start position:0%
boomed. Lasso published the first global
catalog<00:22:27.200><c> of</c><00:22:27.520><c> galactic</c><00:22:28.159><c> pevatrons</c><00:22:28.960><c> in</c><00:22:29.280><c> 2023</c>

00:22:30.549 --> 00:22:30.559 align:start position:0%
catalog of galactic pevatrons in 2023
 

00:22:30.559 --> 00:22:34.630 align:start position:0%
catalog of galactic pevatrons in 2023
detailing<00:22:31.440><c> 43</c><00:22:32.640><c> ultra</c><00:22:33.120><c> high</c><00:22:33.520><c> energy</c><00:22:34.000><c> gammaray</c>

00:22:34.630 --> 00:22:34.640 align:start position:0%
detailing 43 ultra high energy gammaray
 

00:22:34.640 --> 00:22:38.475 align:start position:0%
detailing 43 ultra high energy gammaray
sources.<00:22:35.919><c> But</c><00:22:36.159><c> now</c><00:22:36.799><c> 2</c><00:22:37.120><c> years</c><00:22:37.360><c> later</c><00:22:37.919><c> and</c><00:22:38.159><c> with</c>

00:22:38.475 --> 00:22:38.485 align:start position:0%
sources. But now 2 years later and with
 

00:22:38.485 --> 00:22:39.909 align:start position:0%
sources. But now 2 years later and with
[music]<00:22:38.559><c> continued</c><00:22:39.120><c> monitoring</c><00:22:39.600><c> from</c>

00:22:39.909 --> 00:22:39.919 align:start position:0%
[music] continued monitoring from
 

00:22:39.919 --> 00:22:42.470 align:start position:0%
[music] continued monitoring from
observatories<00:22:40.720><c> around</c><00:22:41.120><c> the</c><00:22:41.440><c> world,</c><00:22:42.240><c> the</c>

00:22:42.470 --> 00:22:42.480 align:start position:0%
observatories around the world, the
 

00:22:42.480 --> 00:22:44.789 align:start position:0%
observatories around the world, the
number<00:22:42.640><c> of</c><00:22:42.880><c> sources</c><00:22:43.360><c> has</c><00:22:43.600><c> risen</c><00:22:43.919><c> to</c><00:22:44.159><c> more</c><00:22:44.400><c> than</c>

00:22:44.789 --> 00:22:44.799 align:start position:0%
number of sources has risen to more than
 

00:22:44.799 --> 00:22:46.549 align:start position:0%
number of sources has risen to more than
75.

00:22:46.549 --> 00:22:46.559 align:start position:0%
75.
 

00:22:46.559 --> 00:22:48.950 align:start position:0%
75.
With<00:22:46.799><c> so</c><00:22:47.120><c> many</c><00:22:47.360><c> candidate</c><00:22:47.919><c> pevatrons</c><00:22:48.640><c> hiding</c>

00:22:48.950 --> 00:22:48.960 align:start position:0%
With so many candidate pevatrons hiding
 

00:22:48.960 --> 00:22:51.430 align:start position:0%
With so many candidate pevatrons hiding
in<00:22:49.200><c> our</c><00:22:49.440><c> Milky</c><00:22:49.760><c> Way,</c><00:22:50.240><c> we</c><00:22:50.480><c> need</c><00:22:50.640><c> to</c><00:22:50.880><c> seriously</c>

00:22:51.430 --> 00:22:51.440 align:start position:0%
in our Milky Way, we need to seriously
 

00:22:51.440 --> 00:22:53.830 align:start position:0%
in our Milky Way, we need to seriously
rethink<00:22:51.840><c> our</c><00:22:52.080><c> perception</c><00:22:52.559><c> of</c><00:22:52.720><c> the</c><00:22:52.960><c> galaxy</c><00:22:53.440><c> and</c>

00:22:53.830 --> 00:22:53.840 align:start position:0%
rethink our perception of the galaxy and
 

00:22:53.840 --> 00:22:56.310 align:start position:0%
rethink our perception of the galaxy and
what<00:22:54.080><c> it's</c><00:22:54.320><c> capable</c><00:22:54.720><c> of.</c><00:22:55.679><c> Many</c><00:22:55.919><c> thought</c><00:22:56.159><c> that</c>

00:22:56.310 --> 00:22:56.320 align:start position:0%
what it's capable of. Many thought that
 

00:22:56.320 --> 00:22:58.310 align:start position:0%
what it's capable of. Many thought that
the<00:22:56.480><c> Milky</c><00:22:56.799><c> Way</c><00:22:57.039><c> was</c><00:22:57.200><c> a</c><00:22:57.360><c> relatively</c><00:22:57.919><c> peaceful</c>

00:22:58.310 --> 00:22:58.320 align:start position:0%
the Milky Way was a relatively peaceful
 

00:22:58.320 --> 00:23:00.630 align:start position:0%
the Milky Way was a relatively peaceful
place<00:22:58.960><c> since</c><00:22:59.200><c> it</c><00:22:59.440><c> lacks</c><00:22:59.840><c> the</c><00:23:00.000><c> massive</c><00:23:00.400><c> black</c>

00:23:00.630 --> 00:23:00.640 align:start position:0%
place since it lacks the massive black
 

00:23:00.640 --> 00:23:03.590 align:start position:0%
place since it lacks the massive black
holes<00:23:01.039><c> typical</c><00:23:01.520><c> of</c><00:23:01.760><c> galaxies</c><00:23:02.559><c> with</c><00:23:02.880><c> violent</c>

00:23:03.590 --> 00:23:03.600 align:start position:0%
holes typical of galaxies with violent
 

00:23:03.600 --> 00:23:06.710 align:start position:0%
holes typical of galaxies with violent
energetic<00:23:04.240><c> pasts.</c><00:23:05.360><c> However,</c><00:23:05.760><c> Lasso's</c><00:23:06.400><c> work</c>

00:23:06.710 --> 00:23:06.720 align:start position:0%
energetic pasts. However, Lasso's work
 

00:23:06.720 --> 00:23:08.870 align:start position:0%
energetic pasts. However, Lasso's work
has<00:23:06.960><c> proven</c><00:23:07.360><c> this</c><00:23:07.600><c> to</c><00:23:07.760><c> be</c><00:23:07.919><c> an</c><00:23:08.159><c> outdated</c>

00:23:08.870 --> 00:23:08.880 align:start position:0%
has proven this to be an outdated
 

00:23:08.880 --> 00:23:11.350 align:start position:0%
has proven this to be an outdated
assumption<00:23:09.760><c> and</c><00:23:10.000><c> is</c><00:23:10.320><c> changing</c><00:23:10.640><c> the</c><00:23:10.880><c> landscape</c>

00:23:11.350 --> 00:23:11.360 align:start position:0%
assumption and is changing the landscape
 

00:23:11.360 --> 00:23:14.470 align:start position:0%
assumption and is changing the landscape
of<00:23:11.520><c> our</c><00:23:11.919><c> non-therrmal</c><00:23:12.880><c> universe.</c><00:23:13.840><c> Starting</c>

00:23:14.470 --> 00:23:14.480 align:start position:0%
of our non-therrmal universe. Starting
 

00:23:14.480 --> 00:23:17.510 align:start position:0%
of our non-therrmal universe. Starting
with<00:23:14.799><c> our</c><00:23:15.120><c> own</c><00:23:15.440><c> cosmic</c><00:23:16.000><c> home,</c><00:23:17.120><c> it's</c>

00:23:17.510 --> 00:23:17.520 align:start position:0%
with our own cosmic home, it's
 

00:23:17.520 --> 00:23:19.110 align:start position:0%
with our own cosmic home, it's
definitely<00:23:17.919><c> an</c><00:23:18.159><c> exciting</c><00:23:18.559><c> time</c><00:23:18.720><c> to</c><00:23:18.960><c> be</c>

00:23:19.110 --> 00:23:19.120 align:start position:0%
definitely an exciting time to be
 

00:23:19.120 --> 00:23:21.510 align:start position:0%
definitely an exciting time to be
hunting<00:23:19.520><c> cosmic</c><00:23:19.919><c> rays.</c><00:23:20.799><c> Lasso</c><00:23:21.360><c> is</c>

00:23:21.510 --> 00:23:21.520 align:start position:0%
hunting cosmic rays. Lasso is
 

00:23:21.520 --> 00:23:22.950 align:start position:0%
hunting cosmic rays. Lasso is
collaborating<00:23:22.080><c> with</c><00:23:22.320><c> several</c><00:23:22.720><c> other</c>

00:23:22.950 --> 00:23:22.960 align:start position:0%
collaborating with several other
 

00:23:22.960 --> 00:23:25.110 align:start position:0%
collaborating with several other
observatories<00:23:23.760><c> detecting</c><00:23:24.400><c> high</c><00:23:24.720><c> energy</c>

00:23:25.110 --> 00:23:25.120 align:start position:0%
observatories detecting high energy
 

00:23:25.120 --> 00:23:27.590 align:start position:0%
observatories detecting high energy
gamma<00:23:25.440><c> rays</c><00:23:25.760><c> around</c><00:23:26.159><c> the</c><00:23:26.400><c> world,</c><00:23:27.200><c> including</c>

00:23:27.590 --> 00:23:27.600 align:start position:0%
gamma rays around the world, including
 

00:23:27.600 --> 00:23:31.669 align:start position:0%
gamma rays around the world, including
the<00:23:27.919><c> US,</c><00:23:28.720><c> Germany,</c><00:23:29.440><c> Namibia,</c><00:23:30.240><c> and</c><00:23:30.559><c> Spain.</c>

00:23:31.669 --> 00:23:31.679 align:start position:0%
the US, Germany, Namibia, and Spain.
 

00:23:31.679 --> 00:23:33.909 align:start position:0%
the US, Germany, Namibia, and Spain.
This<00:23:32.159><c> international</c><00:23:32.799><c> network</c><00:23:33.200><c> has</c><00:23:33.520><c> fostered</c>

00:23:33.909 --> 00:23:33.919 align:start position:0%
This international network has fostered
 

00:23:33.919 --> 00:23:36.230 align:start position:0%
This international network has fostered
an<00:23:34.240><c> open</c><00:23:34.799><c> and</c><00:23:35.120><c> collaborative</c><00:23:35.760><c> approach</c><00:23:36.000><c> to</c>

00:23:36.230 --> 00:23:36.240 align:start position:0%
an open and collaborative approach to
 

00:23:36.240 --> 00:23:38.630 align:start position:0%
an open and collaborative approach to
their<00:23:36.480><c> experiments,</c><00:23:37.280><c> sharing</c><00:23:37.679><c> data</c><00:23:38.320><c> and</c>

00:23:38.630 --> 00:23:38.640 align:start position:0%
their experiments, sharing data and
 

00:23:38.640 --> 00:23:41.590 align:start position:0%
their experiments, sharing data and
cooperating<00:23:39.280><c> evidence.</c><00:23:40.480><c> Their</c><00:23:40.720><c> goal</c><00:23:41.039><c> is</c><00:23:41.280><c> to</c>

00:23:41.590 --> 00:23:41.600 align:start position:0%
cooperating evidence. Their goal is to
 

00:23:41.600 --> 00:23:43.909 align:start position:0%
cooperating evidence. Their goal is to
build<00:23:41.840><c> up</c><00:23:42.080><c> a</c><00:23:42.400><c> comprehensive</c><00:23:43.280><c> spectrum</c><00:23:43.679><c> of</c>

00:23:43.909 --> 00:23:43.919 align:start position:0%
build up a comprehensive spectrum of
 

00:23:43.919 --> 00:23:47.110 align:start position:0%
build up a comprehensive spectrum of
photons<00:23:44.640><c> across</c><00:23:45.440><c> different</c><00:23:45.840><c> energies</c><00:23:46.799><c> as</c>

00:23:47.110 --> 00:23:47.120 align:start position:0%
photons across different energies as
 

00:23:47.120 --> 00:23:50.310 align:start position:0%
photons across different energies as
well<00:23:47.520><c> as</c><00:23:47.840><c> measuring</c><00:23:48.320><c> X-rays</c><00:23:49.120><c> and</c><00:23:49.360><c> gamma</c><00:23:49.760><c> rays</c>

00:23:50.310 --> 00:23:50.320 align:start position:0%
well as measuring X-rays and gamma rays
 

00:23:50.320 --> 00:23:52.950 align:start position:0%
well as measuring X-rays and gamma rays
above<00:23:50.880><c> Earth's</c><00:23:51.280><c> atmosphere.</c>

00:23:52.950 --> 00:23:52.960 align:start position:0%
above Earth's atmosphere.
 

00:23:52.960 --> 00:23:54.630 align:start position:0%
above Earth's atmosphere.
I<00:23:53.200><c> want</c><00:23:53.280><c> to</c><00:23:53.440><c> give</c><00:23:53.600><c> a</c><00:23:53.919><c> huge</c><00:23:54.159><c> thanks</c><00:23:54.480><c> to</c>

00:23:54.630 --> 00:23:54.640 align:start position:0%
I want to give a huge thanks to
 

00:23:54.640 --> 00:23:57.029 align:start position:0%
I want to give a huge thanks to
Professor<00:23:55.039><c> Kyle</c><00:23:55.440><c> for</c><00:23:55.679><c> his</c><00:23:56.080><c> expertise</c><00:23:56.640><c> on</c><00:23:56.880><c> the</c>

00:23:57.029 --> 00:23:57.039 align:start position:0%
Professor Kyle for his expertise on the
 

00:23:57.039 --> 00:23:59.590 align:start position:0%
Professor Kyle for his expertise on the
world<00:23:57.280><c> of</c><00:23:57.520><c> high</c><00:23:57.840><c> energy</c><00:23:58.159><c> astrophysics.</c><00:23:59.360><c> As</c>

00:23:59.590 --> 00:23:59.600 align:start position:0%
world of high energy astrophysics. As
 

00:23:59.600 --> 00:24:01.350 align:start position:0%
world of high energy astrophysics. As
I'm<00:23:59.840><c> sure</c><00:23:59.919><c> you'll</c><00:24:00.240><c> agree,</c><00:24:00.880><c> studying</c>

00:24:01.350 --> 00:24:01.360 align:start position:0%
I'm sure you'll agree, studying
 

00:24:01.360 --> 00:24:03.990 align:start position:0%
I'm sure you'll agree, studying
pevetrons<00:24:02.080><c> is</c><00:24:02.240><c> a</c><00:24:02.400><c> dynamic</c><00:24:02.880><c> and</c><00:24:03.360><c> rapidly</c>

00:24:03.990 --> 00:24:04.000 align:start position:0%
pevetrons is a dynamic and rapidly
 

00:24:04.000 --> 00:24:06.070 align:start position:0%
pevetrons is a dynamic and rapidly
developing<00:24:04.480><c> field,</c><00:24:04.960><c> and</c><00:24:05.280><c> observatories</c><00:24:05.840><c> like</c>

00:24:06.070 --> 00:24:06.080 align:start position:0%
developing field, and observatories like
 

00:24:06.080 --> 00:24:08.870 align:start position:0%
developing field, and observatories like
Lasso<00:24:06.640><c> are</c><00:24:06.799><c> on</c><00:24:07.039><c> the</c><00:24:07.200><c> front</c><00:24:07.440><c> line.</c><00:24:08.400><c> Their</c><00:24:08.640><c> work</c>

00:24:08.870 --> 00:24:08.880 align:start position:0%
Lasso are on the front line. Their work
 

00:24:08.880 --> 00:24:11.350 align:start position:0%
Lasso are on the front line. Their work
so<00:24:09.120><c> far</c><00:24:09.280><c> has</c><00:24:09.600><c> transformed</c><00:24:10.080><c> our</c><00:24:10.400><c> galaxy</c><00:24:10.799><c> from</c><00:24:11.039><c> a</c>

00:24:11.350 --> 00:24:11.360 align:start position:0%
so far has transformed our galaxy from a
 

00:24:11.360 --> 00:24:14.549 align:start position:0%
so far has transformed our galaxy from a
tranquil<00:24:11.919><c> place</c><00:24:12.480><c> to</c><00:24:12.799><c> a</c><00:24:13.039><c> violent,</c><00:24:13.840><c> energetic</c>

00:24:14.549 --> 00:24:14.559 align:start position:0%
tranquil place to a violent, energetic
 

00:24:14.559 --> 00:24:17.029 align:start position:0%
tranquil place to a violent, energetic
mess<00:24:15.360><c> filled</c><00:24:15.600><c> with</c><00:24:15.840><c> particle</c><00:24:16.240><c> accelerators,</c>

00:24:17.029 --> 00:24:17.039 align:start position:0%
mess filled with particle accelerators,
 

00:24:17.039 --> 00:24:19.190 align:start position:0%
mess filled with particle accelerators,
more<00:24:17.360><c> powerful</c><00:24:17.919><c> than</c><00:24:18.159><c> anything</c><00:24:18.559><c> we</c><00:24:18.799><c> can</c><00:24:18.960><c> build</c>

00:24:19.190 --> 00:24:19.200 align:start position:0%
more powerful than anything we can build
 

00:24:19.200 --> 00:24:21.909 align:start position:0%
more powerful than anything we can build
here<00:24:19.360><c> on</c><00:24:19.600><c> Earth.</c><00:24:20.640><c> We</c><00:24:20.880><c> may</c><00:24:21.200><c> still</c><00:24:21.520><c> be</c><00:24:21.679><c> under</c>

00:24:21.909 --> 00:24:21.919 align:start position:0%
here on Earth. We may still be under
 

00:24:21.919 --> 00:24:24.870 align:start position:0%
here on Earth. We may still be under
attack<00:24:22.240><c> from</c><00:24:22.480><c> cosmic</c><00:24:22.880><c> rays,</c><00:24:23.760><c> but</c><00:24:24.000><c> now</c><00:24:24.559><c> we're</c>

00:24:24.870 --> 00:24:24.880 align:start position:0%
attack from cosmic rays, but now we're
 

00:24:24.880 --> 00:24:26.230 align:start position:0%
attack from cosmic rays, but now we're
ready<00:24:25.039><c> to</c><00:24:25.251><c> [music]</c><00:24:25.279><c> chase</c><00:24:25.520><c> them</c><00:24:25.760><c> back</c><00:24:26.000><c> to</c>

00:24:26.230 --> 00:24:26.240 align:start position:0%
ready to [music] chase them back to
 

00:24:26.240 --> 00:24:28.630 align:start position:0%
ready to [music] chase them back to
their<00:24:26.400><c> hiding</c><00:24:26.799><c> places.</c>

00:24:28.630 --> 00:24:28.640 align:start position:0%
their hiding places.
 

00:24:28.640 --> 00:24:32.310 align:start position:0%
their hiding places.
In<00:24:28.880><c> October</c><00:24:29.440><c> 2022,</c><00:24:30.559><c> a</c><00:24:30.960><c> brilliant</c><00:24:31.600><c> flash</c>

00:24:32.310 --> 00:24:32.320 align:start position:0%
In October 2022, a brilliant flash
 

00:24:32.320 --> 00:24:35.190 align:start position:0%
In October 2022, a brilliant flash
pierced<00:24:32.799><c> the</c><00:24:33.039><c> cosmos,</c><00:24:34.080><c> brighter</c><00:24:34.640><c> and</c><00:24:34.960><c> more</c>

00:24:35.190 --> 00:24:35.200 align:start position:0%
pierced the cosmos, brighter and more
 

00:24:35.200 --> 00:24:37.830 align:start position:0%
pierced the cosmos, brighter and more
intense<00:24:35.760><c> than</c><00:24:36.080><c> anything</c><00:24:36.640><c> human</c><00:24:37.039><c> civilization</c>

00:24:37.830 --> 00:24:37.840 align:start position:0%
intense than anything human civilization
 

00:24:37.840 --> 00:24:40.710 align:start position:0%
intense than anything human civilization
had<00:24:38.240><c> ever</c><00:24:38.640><c> seen.</c><00:24:39.679><c> And</c><00:24:40.000><c> that's</c><00:24:40.320><c> not</c><00:24:40.480><c> an</c>

00:24:40.710 --> 00:24:40.720 align:start position:0%
had ever seen. And that's not an
 

00:24:40.720 --> 00:24:43.350 align:start position:0%
had ever seen. And that's not an
exaggeration.<00:24:41.919><c> The</c><00:24:42.159><c> strength</c><00:24:42.400><c> of</c><00:24:42.559><c> the</c><00:24:42.720><c> blast</c>

00:24:43.350 --> 00:24:43.360 align:start position:0%
exaggeration. The strength of the blast
 

00:24:43.360 --> 00:24:45.750 align:start position:0%
exaggeration. The strength of the blast
blinded<00:24:43.919><c> our</c><00:24:44.159><c> gammaray</c><00:24:44.799><c> detectors</c><00:24:45.200><c> the</c><00:24:45.520><c> world</c>

00:24:45.750 --> 00:24:45.760 align:start position:0%
blinded our gammaray detectors the world
 

00:24:45.760 --> 00:24:48.390 align:start position:0%
blinded our gammaray detectors the world
over<00:24:46.320><c> and</c><00:24:46.640><c> unleashed</c><00:24:47.200><c> more</c><00:24:47.600><c> energy</c><00:24:48.000><c> in</c><00:24:48.240><c> a</c>

00:24:48.390 --> 00:24:48.400 align:start position:0%
over and unleashed more energy in a
 

00:24:48.400 --> 00:24:50.950 align:start position:0%
over and unleashed more energy in a
matter<00:24:48.640><c> of</c><00:24:48.960><c> seconds</c><00:24:49.679><c> than</c><00:24:49.919><c> our</c><00:24:50.159><c> sun</c><00:24:50.400><c> will</c><00:24:50.559><c> emit</c>

00:24:50.950 --> 00:24:50.960 align:start position:0%
matter of seconds than our sun will emit
 

00:24:50.960 --> 00:24:54.310 align:start position:0%
matter of seconds than our sun will emit
over<00:24:51.200><c> its</c><00:24:51.520><c> entire</c><00:24:52.240><c> 9</c><00:24:52.640><c> billionyear</c><00:24:53.360><c> lifespan.</c>

00:24:54.310 --> 00:24:54.320 align:start position:0%
over its entire 9 billionyear lifespan.
 

00:24:54.320 --> 00:24:56.789 align:start position:0%
over its entire 9 billionyear lifespan.
Over<00:24:54.960><c> the</c><00:24:55.200><c> 18</c><00:24:55.520><c> months</c><00:24:55.760><c> that</c><00:24:56.000><c> followed,</c><00:24:56.559><c> it</c>

00:24:56.789 --> 00:24:56.799 align:start position:0%
Over the 18 months that followed, it
 

00:24:56.799 --> 00:24:59.350 align:start position:0%
Over the 18 months that followed, it
became<00:24:57.120><c> the</c><00:24:57.360><c> most</c><00:24:57.679><c> widely</c><00:24:58.320><c> studied</c><00:24:58.799><c> gammaray</c>

00:24:59.350 --> 00:24:59.360 align:start position:0%
became the most widely studied gammaray
 

00:24:59.360 --> 00:25:02.710 align:start position:0%
became the most widely studied gammaray
burst<00:24:59.679><c> in</c><00:24:59.919><c> history.</c><00:25:01.279><c> Creatively</c><00:25:01.840><c> dubbed</c><00:25:02.400><c> the</c>

00:25:02.710 --> 00:25:02.720 align:start position:0%
burst in history. Creatively dubbed the
 

00:25:02.720 --> 00:25:06.630 align:start position:0%
burst in history. Creatively dubbed the
boat<00:25:03.520><c> for</c><00:25:04.000><c> the</c><00:25:04.240><c> brightest</c><00:25:04.799><c> of</c><00:25:05.039><c> all</c><00:25:05.279><c> time.</c><00:25:06.320><c> As</c>

00:25:06.630 --> 00:25:06.640 align:start position:0%
boat for the brightest of all time. As
 

00:25:06.640 --> 00:25:09.110 align:start position:0%
boat for the brightest of all time. As
researchers<00:25:07.200><c> began</c><00:25:07.520><c> to</c><00:25:07.679><c> decipher</c><00:25:08.240><c> its</c><00:25:08.480><c> cause,</c>

00:25:09.110 --> 00:25:09.120 align:start position:0%
researchers began to decipher its cause,
 

00:25:09.120 --> 00:25:11.190 align:start position:0%
researchers began to decipher its cause,
their<00:25:09.440><c> findings</c><00:25:09.840><c> unraveled</c><00:25:10.480><c> one</c><00:25:10.720><c> mystery</c>

00:25:11.190 --> 00:25:11.200 align:start position:0%
their findings unraveled one mystery
 

00:25:11.200 --> 00:25:13.830 align:start position:0%
their findings unraveled one mystery
after<00:25:11.679><c> another.</c><00:25:12.880><c> Scientists</c><00:25:13.360><c> have</c><00:25:13.600><c> been</c>

00:25:13.830 --> 00:25:13.840 align:start position:0%
after another. Scientists have been
 

00:25:13.840 --> 00:25:16.230 align:start position:0%
after another. Scientists have been
cataloging<00:25:14.400><c> gammaray</c><00:25:14.880><c> burst</c><00:25:15.200><c> for</c><00:25:15.360><c> decades.</c>

00:25:16.230 --> 00:25:16.240 align:start position:0%
cataloging gammaray burst for decades.
 

00:25:16.240 --> 00:25:19.750 align:start position:0%
cataloging gammaray burst for decades.
But<00:25:16.480><c> this</c><00:25:16.640><c> one</c><00:25:16.880><c> was</c><00:25:17.279><c> closer,</c><00:25:18.320><c> brighter,</c><00:25:19.360><c> and</c>

00:25:19.750 --> 00:25:19.760 align:start position:0%
But this one was closer, brighter, and
 

00:25:19.760 --> 00:25:22.230 align:start position:0%
But this one was closer, brighter, and
unexplainably<00:25:20.960><c> devoid</c><00:25:21.360><c> of</c><00:25:21.600><c> some</c><00:25:21.919><c> key</c>

00:25:22.230 --> 00:25:22.240 align:start position:0%
unexplainably devoid of some key
 

00:25:22.240 --> 00:25:25.029 align:start position:0%
unexplainably devoid of some key
signatures<00:25:22.799><c> you'd</c><00:25:23.200><c> expect</c><00:25:23.440><c> to</c><00:25:23.679><c> see.</c><00:25:24.559><c> It</c><00:25:24.799><c> also</c>

00:25:25.029 --> 00:25:25.039 align:start position:0%
signatures you'd expect to see. It also
 

00:25:25.039 --> 00:25:27.190 align:start position:0%
signatures you'd expect to see. It also
raises<00:25:25.440><c> some</c><00:25:25.679><c> farreaching</c><00:25:26.400><c> questions</c><00:25:26.880><c> about</c>

00:25:27.190 --> 00:25:27.200 align:start position:0%
raises some farreaching questions about
 

00:25:27.200 --> 00:25:30.070 align:start position:0%
raises some farreaching questions about
our<00:25:27.600><c> standard</c><00:25:28.080><c> model,</c><00:25:28.799><c> the</c><00:25:29.120><c> possibility</c><00:25:29.600><c> of</c><00:25:29.840><c> a</c>

00:25:30.070 --> 00:25:30.080 align:start position:0%
our standard model, the possibility of a
 

00:25:30.080 --> 00:25:32.710 align:start position:0%
our standard model, the possibility of a
dark<00:25:30.400><c> matter</c><00:25:30.799><c> particle,</c><00:25:31.760><c> and</c><00:25:32.000><c> how</c><00:25:32.320><c> heavy</c>

00:25:32.710 --> 00:25:32.720 align:start position:0%
dark matter particle, and how heavy
 

00:25:32.720 --> 00:25:36.149 align:start position:0%
dark matter particle, and how heavy
elements<00:25:33.200><c> like</c><00:25:33.520><c> gold</c><00:25:34.080><c> are</c><00:25:34.320><c> made.</c>

00:25:36.149 --> 00:25:36.159 align:start position:0%
elements like gold are made.
 

00:25:36.159 --> 00:25:38.149 align:start position:0%
elements like gold are made.
I'm<00:25:36.400><c> Alex</c><00:25:36.720><c> Mccoan,</c><00:25:37.440><c> and</c><00:25:37.600><c> you're</c><00:25:37.919><c> watching</c>

00:25:38.149 --> 00:25:38.159 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan, and you're watching
 

00:25:38.159 --> 00:25:41.110 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan, and you're watching
Astramm.<00:25:39.039><c> Join</c><00:25:39.360><c> me</c><00:25:39.520><c> today</c><00:25:39.840><c> as</c><00:25:40.159><c> we</c><00:25:40.400><c> dive</c><00:25:40.880><c> into</c>

00:25:41.110 --> 00:25:41.120 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join me today as we dive into
 

00:25:41.120 --> 00:25:43.830 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join me today as we dive into
the<00:25:41.360><c> mystery</c><00:25:41.760><c> of</c><00:25:42.000><c> the</c><00:25:42.240><c> biggest</c><00:25:42.799><c> and</c><00:25:43.200><c> brightest</c>

00:25:43.830 --> 00:25:43.840 align:start position:0%
the mystery of the biggest and brightest
 

00:25:43.840 --> 00:25:47.190 align:start position:0%
the mystery of the biggest and brightest
gammaray<00:25:44.400><c> burst</c><00:25:44.799><c> of</c><00:25:45.120><c> all</c><00:25:45.440><c> time.</c><00:25:46.559><c> What</c><00:25:46.799><c> caused</c>

00:25:47.190 --> 00:25:47.200 align:start position:0%
gammaray burst of all time. What caused
 

00:25:47.200 --> 00:25:50.149 align:start position:0%
gammaray burst of all time. What caused
such<00:25:47.440><c> a</c><00:25:47.600><c> colossal</c><00:25:48.240><c> explosion?</c><00:25:49.520><c> How</c><00:25:49.760><c> is</c><00:25:50.000><c> it</c>

00:25:50.149 --> 00:25:50.159 align:start position:0%
such a colossal explosion? How is it
 

00:25:50.159 --> 00:25:51.909 align:start position:0%
such a colossal explosion? How is it
different<00:25:50.480><c> from</c><00:25:50.720><c> other</c><00:25:50.960><c> gammaray</c><00:25:51.600><c> bursts</c>

00:25:51.909 --> 00:25:51.919 align:start position:0%
different from other gammaray bursts
 

00:25:51.919 --> 00:25:54.549 align:start position:0%
different from other gammaray bursts
before<00:25:52.240><c> it?</c><00:25:53.120><c> And</c><00:25:53.360><c> what</c><00:25:53.679><c> can</c><00:25:53.919><c> it</c><00:25:54.080><c> teach</c><00:25:54.320><c> us</c>

00:25:54.549 --> 00:25:54.559 align:start position:0%
before it? And what can it teach us
 

00:25:54.559 --> 00:25:56.870 align:start position:0%
before it? And what can it teach us
about<00:25:54.880><c> our</c><00:25:55.279><c> understanding</c><00:25:55.760><c> of</c><00:25:56.000><c> the</c><00:25:56.240><c> universe</c>

00:25:56.870 --> 00:25:56.880 align:start position:0%
about our understanding of the universe
 

00:25:56.880 --> 00:26:01.590 align:start position:0%
about our understanding of the universe
and<00:25:57.120><c> the</c><00:25:57.360><c> particles</c><00:25:57.840><c> that</c><00:25:58.080><c> constitute</c><00:25:58.640><c> it?</c>

00:26:01.590 --> 00:26:01.600 align:start position:0%
and the particles that constitute it?
 

00:26:01.600 --> 00:26:04.470 align:start position:0%
and the particles that constitute it?
Gammaray<00:26:02.240><c> bursts</c><00:26:02.720><c> are</c><00:26:03.120><c> brief</c><00:26:03.919><c> intense</c>

00:26:04.470 --> 00:26:04.480 align:start position:0%
Gammaray bursts are brief intense
 

00:26:04.480 --> 00:26:07.110 align:start position:0%
Gammaray bursts are brief intense
flashes<00:26:04.960><c> of</c><00:26:05.200><c> high</c><00:26:05.520><c> energy</c><00:26:05.919><c> gamma</c><00:26:06.320><c> radiation</c>

00:26:07.110 --> 00:26:07.120 align:start position:0%
flashes of high energy gamma radiation
 

00:26:07.120 --> 00:26:09.430 align:start position:0%
flashes of high energy gamma radiation
lasting<00:26:07.520><c> from</c><00:26:07.840><c> milliseconds</c><00:26:08.720><c> to</c><00:26:09.039><c> several</c>

00:26:09.430 --> 00:26:09.440 align:start position:0%
lasting from milliseconds to several
 

00:26:09.440 --> 00:26:11.190 align:start position:0%
lasting from milliseconds to several
minutes.<00:26:10.053><c> [music]</c><00:26:10.240><c> The</c><00:26:10.400><c> first</c><00:26:10.559><c> of</c><00:26:10.720><c> its</c><00:26:10.960><c> kind</c>

00:26:11.190 --> 00:26:11.200 align:start position:0%
minutes. [music] The first of its kind
 

00:26:11.200 --> 00:26:14.310 align:start position:0%
minutes. [music] The first of its kind
was<00:26:11.440><c> detected</c><00:26:11.919><c> in</c><00:26:12.240><c> 1967</c><00:26:13.440><c> when</c><00:26:13.840><c> American</c>

00:26:14.310 --> 00:26:14.320 align:start position:0%
was detected in 1967 when American
 

00:26:14.320 --> 00:26:16.789 align:start position:0%
was detected in 1967 when American
satellites<00:26:15.039><c> designed</c><00:26:15.440><c> for</c><00:26:15.600><c> detecting</c><00:26:16.240><c> covert</c>

00:26:16.789 --> 00:26:16.799 align:start position:0%
satellites designed for detecting covert
 

00:26:16.799 --> 00:26:19.430 align:start position:0%
satellites designed for detecting covert
Soviet<00:26:17.360><c> nuclear</c><00:26:17.840><c> testing</c><00:26:18.640><c> picked</c><00:26:18.960><c> up</c><00:26:19.120><c> an</c>

00:26:19.430 --> 00:26:19.440 align:start position:0%
Soviet nuclear testing picked up an
 

00:26:19.440 --> 00:26:21.590 align:start position:0%
Soviet nuclear testing picked up an
unusual<00:26:20.080><c> pattern</c><00:26:20.480><c> of</c><00:26:20.720><c> electromagnetic</c>

00:26:21.590 --> 00:26:21.600 align:start position:0%
unusual pattern of electromagnetic
 

00:26:21.600 --> 00:26:24.870 align:start position:0%
unusual pattern of electromagnetic
energy.<00:26:22.799><c> Since</c><00:26:23.120><c> then,</c><00:26:23.679><c> gammaray</c><00:26:24.240><c> bursts</c><00:26:24.640><c> have</c>

00:26:24.870 --> 00:26:24.880 align:start position:0%
energy. Since then, gammaray bursts have
 

00:26:24.880 --> 00:26:26.710 align:start position:0%
energy. Since then, gammaray bursts have
been<00:26:25.039><c> of</c><00:26:25.440><c> tremendous</c><00:26:26.080><c> interest</c><00:26:26.400><c> to</c><00:26:26.559><c> the</c>

00:26:26.710 --> 00:26:26.720 align:start position:0%
been of tremendous interest to the
 

00:26:26.720 --> 00:26:28.950 align:start position:0%
been of tremendous interest to the
cosmological<00:26:27.520><c> community</c><00:26:28.240><c> as</c><00:26:28.480><c> they</c><00:26:28.640><c> allow</c>

00:26:28.950 --> 00:26:28.960 align:start position:0%
cosmological community as they allow
 

00:26:28.960 --> 00:26:31.029 align:start position:0%
cosmological community as they allow
scientists<00:26:29.440><c> to</c><00:26:29.600><c> study</c><00:26:29.919><c> states</c><00:26:30.159><c> of</c><00:26:30.320><c> matter</c><00:26:30.720><c> and</c>

00:26:31.029 --> 00:26:31.039 align:start position:0%
scientists to study states of matter and
 

00:26:31.039 --> 00:26:33.190 align:start position:0%
scientists to study states of matter and
physics<00:26:31.600><c> that</c><00:26:31.840><c> are</c><00:26:32.080><c> not</c><00:26:32.320><c> reproducible</c><00:26:32.960><c> on</c>

00:26:33.190 --> 00:26:33.200 align:start position:0%
physics that are not reproducible on
 

00:26:33.200 --> 00:26:36.070 align:start position:0%
physics that are not reproducible on
Earth.<00:26:34.640><c> Essentially,</c><00:26:35.360><c> they</c><00:26:35.679><c> provide</c>

00:26:36.070 --> 00:26:36.080 align:start position:0%
Earth. Essentially, they provide
 

00:26:36.080 --> 00:26:38.710 align:start position:0%
Earth. Essentially, they provide
researchers<00:26:36.720><c> with</c><00:26:36.880><c> a</c><00:26:37.200><c> glimpse</c><00:26:37.760><c> of</c><00:26:38.080><c> how</c><00:26:38.320><c> stars</c>

00:26:38.710 --> 00:26:38.720 align:start position:0%
researchers with a glimpse of how stars
 

00:26:38.720 --> 00:26:41.269 align:start position:0%
researchers with a glimpse of how stars
are<00:26:38.880><c> formed</c><00:26:39.440><c> and</c><00:26:39.760><c> evolve</c><00:26:40.240><c> across</c><00:26:40.640><c> the</c><00:26:40.960><c> whole</c>

00:26:41.269 --> 00:26:41.279 align:start position:0%
are formed and evolve across the whole
 

00:26:41.279 --> 00:26:43.830 align:start position:0%
are formed and evolve across the whole
timeline<00:26:41.760><c> of</c><00:26:41.919><c> the</c><00:26:42.080><c> universe.</c>

00:26:43.830 --> 00:26:43.840 align:start position:0%
timeline of the universe.
 

00:26:43.840 --> 00:26:45.190 align:start position:0%
timeline of the universe.
There<00:26:44.080><c> are</c><00:26:44.240><c> two</c><00:26:44.480><c> different</c><00:26:44.720><c> kinds</c><00:26:45.039><c> of</c>

00:26:45.190 --> 00:26:45.200 align:start position:0%
There are two different kinds of
 

00:26:45.200 --> 00:26:47.990 align:start position:0%
There are two different kinds of
gammaray<00:26:45.760><c> bursts.</c><00:26:46.720><c> Short</c><00:26:47.039><c> gammaray</c><00:26:47.520><c> bursts</c>

00:26:47.990 --> 00:26:48.000 align:start position:0%
gammaray bursts. Short gammaray bursts
 

00:26:48.000 --> 00:26:50.310 align:start position:0%
gammaray bursts. Short gammaray bursts
last<00:26:48.400><c> less</c><00:26:48.640><c> than</c><00:26:48.960><c> 2</c><00:26:49.279><c> seconds</c><00:26:49.919><c> and</c><00:26:50.159><c> are</c>

00:26:50.310 --> 00:26:50.320 align:start position:0%
last less than 2 seconds and are
 

00:26:50.320 --> 00:26:52.310 align:start position:0%
last less than 2 seconds and are
attributed<00:26:50.880><c> to</c><00:26:51.120><c> either</c><00:26:51.440><c> the</c><00:26:51.679><c> collision</c><00:26:52.080><c> of</c>

00:26:52.310 --> 00:26:52.320 align:start position:0%
attributed to either the collision of
 

00:26:52.320 --> 00:26:54.789 align:start position:0%
attributed to either the collision of
two<00:26:52.640><c> neutron</c><00:26:53.039><c> stars</c><00:26:53.679><c> or</c><00:26:53.919><c> the</c><00:26:54.159><c> merger</c><00:26:54.480><c> of</c><00:26:54.640><c> a</c>

00:26:54.789 --> 00:26:54.799 align:start position:0%
two neutron stars or the merger of a
 

00:26:54.799 --> 00:26:57.909 align:start position:0%
two neutron stars or the merger of a
neutron<00:26:55.200><c> star</c><00:26:55.520><c> and</c><00:26:55.760><c> a</c><00:26:55.919><c> black</c><00:26:56.159><c> hole.</c><00:26:57.279><c> They</c><00:26:57.679><c> can</c>

00:26:57.909 --> 00:26:57.919 align:start position:0%
neutron star and a black hole. They can
 

00:26:57.919 --> 00:27:00.950 align:start position:0%
neutron star and a black hole. They can
be<00:26:58.159><c> followed</c><00:26:58.559><c> by</c><00:26:58.799><c> a</c><00:26:59.039><c> kilonova,</c><00:27:00.240><c> an</c><00:27:00.480><c> emission</c>

00:27:00.950 --> 00:27:00.960 align:start position:0%
be followed by a kilonova, an emission
 

00:27:00.960 --> 00:27:02.710 align:start position:0%
be followed by a kilonova, an emission
of<00:27:01.279><c> bright</c><00:27:01.600><c> light</c><00:27:01.919><c> resulting</c><00:27:02.320><c> from</c><00:27:02.559><c> the</c>

00:27:02.710 --> 00:27:02.720 align:start position:0%
of bright light resulting from the
 

00:27:02.720 --> 00:27:05.590 align:start position:0%
of bright light resulting from the
radioactive<00:27:03.360><c> decay</c><00:27:03.760><c> of</c><00:27:04.080><c> chemical</c><00:27:04.480><c> elements.</c>

00:27:05.590 --> 00:27:05.600 align:start position:0%
radioactive decay of chemical elements.
 

00:27:05.600 --> 00:27:07.750 align:start position:0%
radioactive decay of chemical elements.
This<00:27:05.840><c> decay</c><00:27:06.400><c> creates</c><00:27:06.880><c> even</c><00:27:07.200><c> heavier</c>

00:27:07.750 --> 00:27:07.760 align:start position:0%
This decay creates even heavier
 

00:27:07.760 --> 00:27:10.149 align:start position:0%
This decay creates even heavier
elements,<00:27:08.480><c> an</c><00:27:08.720><c> important</c><00:27:09.200><c> feature</c><00:27:09.440><c> of</c><00:27:09.600><c> nove</c>

00:27:10.149 --> 00:27:10.159 align:start position:0%
elements, an important feature of nove
 

00:27:10.159 --> 00:27:12.870 align:start position:0%
elements, an important feature of nove
which<00:27:10.320><c> we'll</c><00:27:10.640><c> discuss</c><00:27:11.039><c> more</c><00:27:11.279><c> later.</c><00:27:12.000><c> Anything</c>

00:27:12.870 --> 00:27:12.880 align:start position:0%
which we'll discuss more later. Anything
 

00:27:12.880 --> 00:27:15.669 align:start position:0%
which we'll discuss more later. Anything
lasting<00:27:13.440><c> longer</c><00:27:13.840><c> than</c><00:27:14.080><c> 2</c><00:27:14.320><c> seconds</c><00:27:14.880><c> is</c><00:27:15.200><c> classed</c>

00:27:15.669 --> 00:27:15.679 align:start position:0%
lasting longer than 2 seconds is classed
 

00:27:15.679 --> 00:27:18.710 align:start position:0%
lasting longer than 2 seconds is classed
as<00:27:15.919><c> a</c><00:27:16.240><c> long</c><00:27:16.720><c> gammaray</c><00:27:17.360><c> burst.</c><00:27:18.240><c> These</c><00:27:18.559><c> are</c>

00:27:18.710 --> 00:27:18.720 align:start position:0%
as a long gammaray burst. These are
 

00:27:18.720 --> 00:27:20.549 align:start position:0%
as a long gammaray burst. These are
thought<00:27:18.880><c> to</c><00:27:19.039><c> be</c><00:27:19.200><c> caused</c><00:27:19.520><c> by</c><00:27:19.679><c> the</c><00:27:19.919><c> explosive</c>

00:27:20.549 --> 00:27:20.559 align:start position:0%
thought to be caused by the explosive
 

00:27:20.559 --> 00:27:23.190 align:start position:0%
thought to be caused by the explosive
deaths<00:27:21.039><c> of</c><00:27:21.360><c> massive</c><00:27:21.919><c> stars</c><00:27:22.640><c> and</c><00:27:22.880><c> their</c>

00:27:23.190 --> 00:27:23.200 align:start position:0%
deaths of massive stars and their
 

00:27:23.200 --> 00:27:25.990 align:start position:0%
deaths of massive stars and their
subsequent<00:27:23.760><c> supernova.</c><00:27:25.039><c> The</c><00:27:25.200><c> collapsed</c><00:27:25.679><c> core</c>

00:27:25.990 --> 00:27:26.000 align:start position:0%
subsequent supernova. The collapsed core
 

00:27:26.000 --> 00:27:28.549 align:start position:0%
subsequent supernova. The collapsed core
may<00:27:26.240><c> form</c><00:27:26.640><c> either</c><00:27:26.960><c> a</c><00:27:27.200><c> neutron</c><00:27:27.600><c> star</c><00:27:28.000><c> or</c><00:27:28.320><c> a</c>

00:27:28.549 --> 00:27:28.559 align:start position:0%
may form either a neutron star or a
 

00:27:28.559 --> 00:27:31.350 align:start position:0%
may form either a neutron star or a
black<00:27:28.799><c> hole.</c><00:27:29.840><c> These</c><00:27:30.240><c> typically</c><00:27:30.720><c> occur</c><00:27:31.120><c> close</c>

00:27:31.350 --> 00:27:31.360 align:start position:0%
black hole. These typically occur close
 

00:27:31.360 --> 00:27:33.590 align:start position:0%
black hole. These typically occur close
to<00:27:31.600><c> the</c><00:27:31.760><c> edges</c><00:27:32.080><c> of</c><00:27:32.240><c> the</c><00:27:32.400><c> observable</c><00:27:33.039><c> universe</c>

00:27:33.590 --> 00:27:33.600 align:start position:0%
to the edges of the observable universe
 

00:27:33.600 --> 00:27:35.830 align:start position:0%
to the edges of the observable universe
because<00:27:33.919><c> they</c><00:27:34.159><c> are</c><00:27:34.400><c> characteristic</c><00:27:35.120><c> of</c><00:27:35.440><c> low</c>

00:27:35.830 --> 00:27:35.840 align:start position:0%
because they are characteristic of low
 

00:27:35.840 --> 00:27:38.310 align:start position:0%
because they are characteristic of low
metalicity<00:27:36.559><c> stars</c><00:27:37.200><c> which</c><00:27:37.440><c> formed</c><00:27:37.919><c> when</c><00:27:38.080><c> there</c>

00:27:38.310 --> 00:27:38.320 align:start position:0%
metalicity stars which formed when there
 

00:27:38.320 --> 00:27:41.190 align:start position:0%
metalicity stars which formed when there
were<00:27:38.480><c> less</c><00:27:38.720><c> heavy</c><00:27:39.120><c> elements</c><00:27:39.520><c> around.</c><00:27:40.720><c> When</c><00:27:40.960><c> we</c>

00:27:41.190 --> 00:27:41.200 align:start position:0%
were less heavy elements around. When we
 

00:27:41.200 --> 00:27:43.110 align:start position:0%
were less heavy elements around. When we
see<00:27:41.360><c> one</c><00:27:41.600><c> of</c><00:27:41.679><c> these,</c><00:27:42.320><c> we</c><00:27:42.480><c> are</c><00:27:42.640><c> witnessing</c>

00:27:43.110 --> 00:27:43.120 align:start position:0%
see one of these, we are witnessing
 

00:27:43.120 --> 00:27:46.310 align:start position:0%
see one of these, we are witnessing
events<00:27:43.679><c> from</c><00:27:44.080><c> billions</c><00:27:44.559><c> of</c><00:27:44.799><c> years</c><00:27:44.960><c> ago.</c><00:27:46.159><c> In</c>

00:27:46.310 --> 00:27:46.320 align:start position:0%
events from billions of years ago. In
 

00:27:46.320 --> 00:27:48.710 align:start position:0%
events from billions of years ago. In
the<00:27:46.480><c> case</c><00:27:46.640><c> of</c><00:27:46.799><c> both</c><00:27:47.120><c> long</c><00:27:47.520><c> and</c><00:27:47.840><c> short</c><00:27:48.159><c> gammaray</c>

00:27:48.710 --> 00:27:48.720 align:start position:0%
the case of both long and short gammaray
 

00:27:48.720 --> 00:27:51.269 align:start position:0%
the case of both long and short gammaray
bursts,<00:27:49.440><c> the</c><00:27:49.679><c> newly</c><00:27:50.000><c> formed</c><00:27:50.400><c> black</c><00:27:50.640><c> hole</c>

00:27:51.269 --> 00:27:51.279 align:start position:0%
bursts, the newly formed black hole
 

00:27:51.279 --> 00:27:53.430 align:start position:0%
bursts, the newly formed black hole
blasts<00:27:51.840><c> out</c><00:27:52.159><c> jets</c><00:27:52.234><c> [music]</c><00:27:52.640><c> in</c><00:27:52.880><c> opposing</c>

00:27:53.430 --> 00:27:53.440 align:start position:0%
blasts out jets [music] in opposing
 

00:27:53.440 --> 00:27:55.669 align:start position:0%
blasts out jets [music] in opposing
directions<00:27:54.480><c> containing</c><00:27:55.039><c> particles</c>

00:27:55.669 --> 00:27:55.679 align:start position:0%
directions containing particles
 

00:27:55.679 --> 00:27:58.549 align:start position:0%
directions containing particles
accelerated<00:27:56.399><c> close</c><00:27:56.720><c> to</c><00:27:56.880><c> the</c><00:27:57.120><c> speed</c><00:27:57.360><c> of</c><00:27:57.520><c> light.</c>

00:27:58.549 --> 00:27:58.559 align:start position:0%
accelerated close to the speed of light.
 

00:27:58.559 --> 00:28:00.149 align:start position:0%
accelerated close to the speed of light.
When<00:27:58.799><c> these</c><00:27:59.039><c> particles</c><00:27:59.520><c> interact</c><00:27:59.919><c> with</c>

00:28:00.149 --> 00:28:00.159 align:start position:0%
When these particles interact with
 

00:28:00.159 --> 00:28:02.470 align:start position:0%
When these particles interact with
surrounding<00:28:00.559><c> matter,</c><00:28:01.200><c> they</c><00:28:01.440><c> emit</c><00:28:01.840><c> the</c><00:28:02.080><c> gamma</c>

00:28:02.470 --> 00:28:02.480 align:start position:0%
surrounding matter, they emit the gamma
 

00:28:02.480 --> 00:28:06.310 align:start position:0%
surrounding matter, they emit the gamma
rays<00:28:02.799><c> we</c><00:28:02.960><c> detect.</c><00:28:04.320><c> So,</c><00:28:04.799><c> what</c><00:28:05.200><c> made</c><00:28:05.520><c> the</c><00:28:05.840><c> boat</c>

00:28:06.310 --> 00:28:06.320 align:start position:0%
rays we detect. So, what made the boat
 

00:28:06.320 --> 00:28:09.029 align:start position:0%
rays we detect. So, what made the boat
so<00:28:06.559><c> special?</c><00:28:07.679><c> Let's</c><00:28:08.000><c> start</c><00:28:08.240><c> by</c><00:28:08.480><c> analyzing</c>

00:28:09.029 --> 00:28:09.039 align:start position:0%
so special? Let's start by analyzing
 

00:28:09.039 --> 00:28:11.750 align:start position:0%
so special? Let's start by analyzing
some<00:28:09.279><c> of</c><00:28:09.440><c> its</c><00:28:09.679><c> key</c><00:28:10.080><c> characteristics.</c>

00:28:11.750 --> 00:28:11.760 align:start position:0%
some of its key characteristics.
 

00:28:11.760 --> 00:28:15.190 align:start position:0%
some of its key characteristics.
Firstly,<00:28:12.559><c> the</c><00:28:12.799><c> boat</c><00:28:13.279><c> lasted</c><00:28:14.240><c> 10</c><00:28:14.799><c> whole</c>

00:28:15.190 --> 00:28:15.200 align:start position:0%
Firstly, the boat lasted 10 whole
 

00:28:15.200 --> 00:28:18.230 align:start position:0%
Firstly, the boat lasted 10 whole
minutes<00:28:15.919><c> and</c><00:28:16.240><c> was</c><00:28:16.480><c> detectable</c><00:28:17.120><c> for</c><00:28:17.360><c> 10</c><00:28:17.840><c> hours</c>

00:28:18.230 --> 00:28:18.240 align:start position:0%
minutes and was detectable for 10 hours
 

00:28:18.240 --> 00:28:20.230 align:start position:0%
minutes and was detectable for 10 hours
after<00:28:18.559><c> the</c><00:28:18.799><c> fact.</c><00:28:19.360><c> It</c><00:28:19.600><c> occurred</c><00:28:19.919><c> in</c><00:28:20.080><c> the</c>

00:28:20.230 --> 00:28:20.240 align:start position:0%
after the fact. It occurred in the
 

00:28:20.240 --> 00:28:22.710 align:start position:0%
after the fact. It occurred in the
Sajitta<00:28:20.799><c> constellation</c><00:28:21.679><c> only</c><00:28:22.080><c> 2</c><00:28:22.320><c> billion</c>

00:28:22.710 --> 00:28:22.720 align:start position:0%
Sajitta constellation only 2 billion
 

00:28:22.720 --> 00:28:25.190 align:start position:0%
Sajitta constellation only 2 billion
lighty<00:28:22.960><c> years</c><00:28:23.120><c> away,</c><00:28:23.760><c> which</c><00:28:24.000><c> is</c><00:28:24.320><c> much</c><00:28:24.799><c> closer</c>

00:28:25.190 --> 00:28:25.200 align:start position:0%
lighty years away, which is much closer
 

00:28:25.200 --> 00:28:26.870 align:start position:0%
lighty years away, which is much closer
than<00:28:25.440><c> other</c><00:28:25.679><c> gammaray</c><00:28:26.240><c> bursts</c><00:28:26.559><c> we've</c>

00:28:26.870 --> 00:28:26.880 align:start position:0%
than other gammaray bursts we've
 

00:28:26.880 --> 00:28:29.909 align:start position:0%
than other gammaray bursts we've
detected<00:28:27.440><c> until</c><00:28:27.760><c> now.</c><00:28:28.720><c> In</c><00:28:28.960><c> fact,</c><00:28:29.440><c> such</c><00:28:29.679><c> a</c>

00:28:29.909 --> 00:28:29.919 align:start position:0%
detected until now. In fact, such a
 

00:28:29.919 --> 00:28:32.549 align:start position:0%
detected until now. In fact, such a
bright<00:28:30.320><c> explosion</c><00:28:31.039><c> so</c><00:28:31.360><c> close</c><00:28:31.600><c> to</c><00:28:31.760><c> Earth</c><00:28:32.240><c> is</c>

00:28:32.549 --> 00:28:32.559 align:start position:0%
bright explosion so close to Earth is
 

00:28:32.559 --> 00:28:36.310 align:start position:0%
bright explosion so close to Earth is
thought<00:28:32.799><c> to</c><00:28:32.960><c> be</c><00:28:33.200><c> a</c><00:28:33.600><c> 1</c><00:28:33.919><c> in</c><00:28:34.320><c> 10,000year</c><00:28:35.440><c> event,</c>

00:28:36.310 --> 00:28:36.320 align:start position:0%
thought to be a 1 in 10,000year event,
 

00:28:36.320 --> 00:28:38.389 align:start position:0%
thought to be a 1 in 10,000year event,
meaning<00:28:36.640><c> the</c><00:28:36.880><c> last</c><00:28:37.039><c> time</c><00:28:37.279><c> one</c><00:28:37.600><c> happened,</c>

00:28:38.389 --> 00:28:38.399 align:start position:0%
meaning the last time one happened,
 

00:28:38.399 --> 00:28:41.990 align:start position:0%
meaning the last time one happened,
humans<00:28:38.880><c> had</c><00:28:39.200><c> barely</c><00:28:39.679><c> started</c><00:28:40.240><c> farming.</c><00:28:41.600><c> As</c><00:28:41.760><c> is</c>

00:28:41.990 --> 00:28:42.000 align:start position:0%
humans had barely started farming. As is
 

00:28:42.000 --> 00:28:43.909 align:start position:0%
humans had barely started farming. As is
the<00:28:42.159><c> case</c><00:28:42.320><c> with</c><00:28:42.640><c> other</c><00:28:43.039><c> long</c><00:28:43.360><c> gammaray</c>

00:28:43.909 --> 00:28:43.919 align:start position:0%
the case with other long gammaray
 

00:28:43.919 --> 00:28:46.070 align:start position:0%
the case with other long gammaray
bursts,<00:28:44.559><c> we</c><00:28:44.799><c> know</c><00:28:45.039><c> a</c><00:28:45.200><c> collapsing</c><00:28:45.840><c> and</c>

00:28:46.070 --> 00:28:46.080 align:start position:0%
bursts, we know a collapsing and
 

00:28:46.080 --> 00:28:48.710 align:start position:0%
bursts, we know a collapsing and
exploding<00:28:46.640><c> star</c><00:28:46.880><c> was</c><00:28:47.120><c> behind</c><00:28:47.360><c> it.</c><00:28:48.159><c> But</c><00:28:48.480><c> this</c>

00:28:48.710 --> 00:28:48.720 align:start position:0%
exploding star was behind it. But this
 

00:28:48.720 --> 00:28:52.310 align:start position:0%
exploding star was behind it. But this
is<00:28:48.799><c> where</c><00:28:49.039><c> things</c><00:28:49.360><c> start</c><00:28:49.600><c> to</c><00:28:49.760><c> get</c><00:28:50.000><c> fuzzy.</c>

00:28:52.310 --> 00:28:52.320 align:start position:0%
is where things start to get fuzzy.
 

00:28:52.320 --> 00:28:54.710 align:start position:0%
is where things start to get fuzzy.
A<00:28:52.559><c> supernova</c><00:28:53.200><c> alone</c><00:28:53.679><c> isn't</c><00:28:54.080><c> enough</c><00:28:54.399><c> to</c>

00:28:54.710 --> 00:28:54.720 align:start position:0%
A supernova alone isn't enough to
 

00:28:54.720 --> 00:28:56.870 align:start position:0%
A supernova alone isn't enough to
explain<00:28:55.039><c> the</c><00:28:55.440><c> magnitude</c><00:28:56.000><c> of</c><00:28:56.159><c> the</c><00:28:56.320><c> gamma</c><00:28:56.640><c> rays</c>

00:28:56.870 --> 00:28:56.880 align:start position:0%
explain the magnitude of the gamma rays
 

00:28:56.880 --> 00:28:58.389 align:start position:0%
explain the magnitude of the gamma rays
emitted.

00:28:58.389 --> 00:28:58.399 align:start position:0%
emitted.
 

00:28:58.399 --> 00:29:00.870 align:start position:0%
emitted.
The<00:28:58.640><c> boat</c><00:28:58.880><c> was</c><00:28:59.039><c> a</c><00:28:59.200><c> whopping</c><00:28:59.919><c> 70</c><00:29:00.399><c> times</c>

00:29:00.870 --> 00:29:00.880 align:start position:0%
The boat was a whopping 70 times
 

00:29:00.880 --> 00:29:03.590 align:start position:0%
The boat was a whopping 70 times
stronger<00:29:01.679><c> than</c><00:29:02.080><c> any</c><00:29:02.480><c> other</c><00:29:02.720><c> gammaray</c><00:29:03.279><c> burst</c>

00:29:03.590 --> 00:29:03.600 align:start position:0%
stronger than any other gammaray burst
 

00:29:03.600 --> 00:29:06.470 align:start position:0%
stronger than any other gammaray burst
detected.<00:29:04.880><c> Initially,</c><00:29:05.360><c> the</c><00:29:05.600><c> theory</c><00:29:05.919><c> was</c><00:29:06.240><c> that</c>

00:29:06.470 --> 00:29:06.480 align:start position:0%
detected. Initially, the theory was that
 

00:29:06.480 --> 00:29:08.149 align:start position:0%
detected. Initially, the theory was that
this<00:29:06.720><c> must</c><00:29:06.880><c> be</c><00:29:07.039><c> the</c><00:29:07.200><c> supernova</c><00:29:07.760><c> of</c><00:29:07.919><c> a</c>

00:29:08.149 --> 00:29:08.159 align:start position:0%
this must be the supernova of a
 

00:29:08.159 --> 00:29:10.470 align:start position:0%
this must be the supernova of a
ginormous<00:29:08.720><c> star</c><00:29:09.360><c> the</c><00:29:09.600><c> likes</c><00:29:09.840><c> of</c><00:29:10.000><c> which</c><00:29:10.240><c> we</c>

00:29:10.470 --> 00:29:10.480 align:start position:0%
ginormous star the likes of which we
 

00:29:10.480 --> 00:29:13.430 align:start position:0%
ginormous star the likes of which we
rarely<00:29:10.799><c> see.</c><00:29:11.919><c> However,</c><00:29:12.559><c> upon</c><00:29:13.039><c> closer</c>

00:29:13.430 --> 00:29:13.440 align:start position:0%
rarely see. However, upon closer
 

00:29:13.440 --> 00:29:15.590 align:start position:0%
rarely see. However, upon closer
inspection<00:29:13.840><c> of</c><00:29:14.000><c> the</c><00:29:14.159><c> afterglow,</c><00:29:15.120><c> scientists</c>

00:29:15.590 --> 00:29:15.600 align:start position:0%
inspection of the afterglow, scientists
 

00:29:15.600 --> 00:29:17.669 align:start position:0%
inspection of the afterglow, scientists
found<00:29:15.760><c> that</c><00:29:16.000><c> the</c><00:29:16.159><c> supernova</c><00:29:16.799><c> behind</c><00:29:17.120><c> the</c><00:29:17.279><c> boat</c>

00:29:17.669 --> 00:29:17.679 align:start position:0%
found that the supernova behind the boat
 

00:29:17.679 --> 00:29:20.630 align:start position:0%
found that the supernova behind the boat
was<00:29:18.320><c> shockingly</c><00:29:19.200><c> ordinary.</c><00:29:20.005><c> [music]</c>

00:29:20.630 --> 00:29:20.640 align:start position:0%
was shockingly ordinary. [music]
 

00:29:20.640 --> 00:29:22.630 align:start position:0%
was shockingly ordinary. [music]
To<00:29:20.799><c> get</c><00:29:20.960><c> a</c><00:29:21.120><c> clearer</c><00:29:21.520><c> picture,</c><00:29:22.000><c> astronomers</c>

00:29:22.630 --> 00:29:22.640 align:start position:0%
To get a clearer picture, astronomers
 

00:29:22.640 --> 00:29:24.549 align:start position:0%
To get a clearer picture, astronomers
pointed<00:29:22.960><c> the</c><00:29:23.120><c> James</c><00:29:23.440><c> Webb</c><00:29:23.840><c> Space</c><00:29:24.080><c> Telescope</c>

00:29:24.549 --> 00:29:24.559 align:start position:0%
pointed the James Webb Space Telescope
 

00:29:24.559 --> 00:29:26.870 align:start position:0%
pointed the James Webb Space Telescope
in<00:29:24.720><c> the</c><00:29:24.880><c> boat's</c><00:29:25.279><c> direction.</c><00:29:26.240><c> Web's</c><00:29:26.640><c> near</c>

00:29:26.870 --> 00:29:26.880 align:start position:0%
in the boat's direction. Web's near
 

00:29:26.880 --> 00:29:29.029 align:start position:0%
in the boat's direction. Web's near
infrared<00:29:27.440><c> spectrograph</c><00:29:28.240><c> revealed</c><00:29:28.640><c> that</c><00:29:28.880><c> the</c>

00:29:29.029 --> 00:29:29.039 align:start position:0%
infrared spectrograph revealed that the
 

00:29:29.039 --> 00:29:31.510 align:start position:0%
infrared spectrograph revealed that the
supernova<00:29:29.679><c> behind</c><00:29:30.000><c> the</c><00:29:30.240><c> boat</c><00:29:30.559><c> was</c><00:29:30.880><c> actually</c>

00:29:31.510 --> 00:29:31.520 align:start position:0%
supernova behind the boat was actually
 

00:29:31.520 --> 00:29:34.230 align:start position:0%
supernova behind the boat was actually
pretty<00:29:31.840><c> average.</c><00:29:32.960><c> It</c><00:29:33.200><c> wasn't</c><00:29:33.520><c> nearly</c><00:29:33.919><c> as</c>

00:29:34.230 --> 00:29:34.240 align:start position:0%
pretty average. It wasn't nearly as
 

00:29:34.240 --> 00:29:36.389 align:start position:0%
pretty average. It wasn't nearly as
bright<00:29:34.559><c> as</c><00:29:34.799><c> you'd</c><00:29:35.120><c> expect</c><00:29:35.840><c> given</c><00:29:36.159><c> the</c>

00:29:36.389 --> 00:29:36.399 align:start position:0%
bright as you'd expect given the
 

00:29:36.399 --> 00:29:39.669 align:start position:0%
bright as you'd expect given the
gammaray<00:29:37.039><c> burst</c><00:29:37.279><c> that</c><00:29:37.520><c> accompanied</c><00:29:38.000><c> it.</c><00:29:39.200><c> So</c>

00:29:39.669 --> 00:29:39.679 align:start position:0%
gammaray burst that accompanied it. So
 

00:29:39.679 --> 00:29:42.870 align:start position:0%
gammaray burst that accompanied it. So
what<00:29:40.000><c> could</c><00:29:40.240><c> have</c><00:29:40.480><c> caused</c><00:29:40.880><c> such</c><00:29:41.120><c> a</c><00:29:41.279><c> flash?</c>

00:29:42.870 --> 00:29:42.880 align:start position:0%
what could have caused such a flash?
 

00:29:42.880 --> 00:29:45.669 align:start position:0%
what could have caused such a flash?
One<00:29:43.120><c> idea</c><00:29:43.840><c> is</c><00:29:44.080><c> that</c><00:29:44.320><c> we</c><00:29:44.720><c> simply</c><00:29:45.120><c> perceive</c><00:29:45.440><c> the</c>

00:29:45.669 --> 00:29:45.679 align:start position:0%
One idea is that we simply perceive the
 

00:29:45.679 --> 00:29:48.149 align:start position:0%
One idea is that we simply perceive the
flash<00:29:46.000><c> as</c><00:29:46.240><c> bigger</c><00:29:46.559><c> and</c><00:29:46.799><c> brighter</c><00:29:47.600><c> because</c><00:29:47.840><c> of</c>

00:29:48.149 --> 00:29:48.159 align:start position:0%
flash as bigger and brighter because of
 

00:29:48.159 --> 00:29:51.269 align:start position:0%
flash as bigger and brighter because of
Earth's<00:29:48.640><c> relative</c><00:29:49.120><c> position</c><00:29:49.520><c> to</c><00:29:49.679><c> the</c><00:29:49.840><c> blast.</c>

00:29:51.269 --> 00:29:51.279 align:start position:0%
Earth's relative position to the blast.
 

00:29:51.279 --> 00:29:53.430 align:start position:0%
Earth's relative position to the blast.
Imagine<00:29:51.679><c> a</c><00:29:52.000><c> flashlight</c><00:29:52.640><c> shining</c><00:29:53.039><c> in</c><00:29:53.279><c> the</c>

00:29:53.430 --> 00:29:53.440 align:start position:0%
Imagine a flashlight shining in the
 

00:29:53.440 --> 00:29:56.389 align:start position:0%
Imagine a flashlight shining in the
dark,<00:29:54.159><c> diffused</c><00:29:54.640><c> and</c><00:29:54.960><c> soft.</c><00:29:55.679><c> It</c><00:29:55.919><c> lights</c><00:29:56.159><c> the</c>

00:29:56.389 --> 00:29:56.399 align:start position:0%
dark, diffused and soft. It lights the
 

00:29:56.399 --> 00:29:59.669 align:start position:0%
dark, diffused and soft. It lights the
path<00:29:56.640><c> 1</c><00:29:56.880><c> to</c><00:29:57.039><c> 2</c><00:29:57.200><c> m</c><00:29:57.520><c> ahead</c><00:29:57.760><c> of</c><00:29:57.919><c> you.</c><00:29:58.559><c> Now</c><00:29:59.120><c> imagine</c>

00:29:59.669 --> 00:29:59.679 align:start position:0%
path 1 to 2 m ahead of you. Now imagine
 

00:29:59.679 --> 00:30:02.310 align:start position:0%
path 1 to 2 m ahead of you. Now imagine
capturing<00:30:00.240><c> all</c><00:30:00.480><c> that</c><00:30:00.799><c> light</c><00:30:01.200><c> and</c><00:30:01.520><c> focusing</c><00:30:02.000><c> it</c>

00:30:02.310 --> 00:30:02.320 align:start position:0%
capturing all that light and focusing it
 

00:30:02.320 --> 00:30:05.590 align:start position:0%
capturing all that light and focusing it
into<00:30:02.640><c> a</c><00:30:02.880><c> singular</c><00:30:03.440><c> laser</c><00:30:03.840><c> beam.</c><00:30:04.799><c> It</c><00:30:05.120><c> wouldn't</c>

00:30:05.590 --> 00:30:05.600 align:start position:0%
into a singular laser beam. It wouldn't
 

00:30:05.600 --> 00:30:07.750 align:start position:0%
into a singular laser beam. It wouldn't
illuminate<00:30:05.919><c> the</c><00:30:06.159><c> path</c><00:30:06.399><c> as</c><00:30:06.640><c> widely,</c><00:30:07.279><c> but</c><00:30:07.520><c> it</c>

00:30:07.750 --> 00:30:07.760 align:start position:0%
illuminate the path as widely, but it
 

00:30:07.760 --> 00:30:09.590 align:start position:0%
illuminate the path as widely, but it
would<00:30:07.919><c> reach</c><00:30:08.240><c> hundreds</c><00:30:08.640><c> of</c><00:30:08.799><c> meters</c><00:30:09.120><c> into</c><00:30:09.440><c> the</c>

00:30:09.590 --> 00:30:09.600 align:start position:0%
would reach hundreds of meters into the
 

00:30:09.600 --> 00:30:12.389 align:start position:0%
would reach hundreds of meters into the
distance.<00:30:10.480><c> And</c><00:30:10.640><c> if</c><00:30:10.960><c> Earth</c><00:30:11.279><c> was</c><00:30:11.520><c> in</c><00:30:11.679><c> the</c><00:30:11.840><c> direct</c>

00:30:12.389 --> 00:30:12.399 align:start position:0%
distance. And if Earth was in the direct
 

00:30:12.399 --> 00:30:15.029 align:start position:0%
distance. And if Earth was in the direct
path<00:30:12.640><c> of</c><00:30:12.880><c> that</c><00:30:13.039><c> laser,</c><00:30:13.840><c> it</c><00:30:14.080><c> would</c><00:30:14.240><c> register</c><00:30:14.720><c> a</c>

00:30:15.029 --> 00:30:15.039 align:start position:0%
path of that laser, it would register a
 

00:30:15.039 --> 00:30:17.510 align:start position:0%
path of that laser, it would register a
super<00:30:15.440><c> bright</c><00:30:15.919><c> reading.</c><00:30:16.960><c> That</c><00:30:17.120><c> doesn't</c><00:30:17.360><c> mean</c>

00:30:17.510 --> 00:30:17.520 align:start position:0%
super bright reading. That doesn't mean
 

00:30:17.520 --> 00:30:19.590 align:start position:0%
super bright reading. That doesn't mean
the<00:30:17.760><c> laser</c><00:30:18.080><c> released</c><00:30:18.480><c> more</c><00:30:18.799><c> energy</c><00:30:19.200><c> than</c><00:30:19.360><c> the</c>

00:30:19.590 --> 00:30:19.600 align:start position:0%
the laser released more energy than the
 

00:30:19.600 --> 00:30:22.310 align:start position:0%
the laser released more energy than the
flashlight.<00:30:20.559><c> It</c><00:30:20.799><c> just</c><00:30:20.960><c> means</c><00:30:21.279><c> the</c><00:30:21.600><c> way</c><00:30:21.840><c> it</c><00:30:22.080><c> was</c>

00:30:22.310 --> 00:30:22.320 align:start position:0%
flashlight. It just means the way it was
 

00:30:22.320 --> 00:30:25.029 align:start position:0%
flashlight. It just means the way it was
concentrated<00:30:23.200><c> and</c><00:30:23.440><c> then</c><00:30:23.679><c> detected</c><00:30:24.559><c> resulted</c>

00:30:25.029 --> 00:30:25.039 align:start position:0%
concentrated and then detected resulted
 

00:30:25.039 --> 00:30:27.669 align:start position:0%
concentrated and then detected resulted
in<00:30:25.200><c> a</c><00:30:25.440><c> higher</c><00:30:25.760><c> reading.</c><00:30:26.799><c> The</c><00:30:27.039><c> same</c><00:30:27.279><c> concept</c>

00:30:27.669 --> 00:30:27.679 align:start position:0%
in a higher reading. The same concept
 

00:30:27.679 --> 00:30:30.310 align:start position:0%
in a higher reading. The same concept
can<00:30:27.919><c> be</c><00:30:28.080><c> applied</c><00:30:28.320><c> to</c><00:30:28.480><c> these</c><00:30:28.720><c> gammaray</c><00:30:29.440><c> bursts.</c>

00:30:30.310 --> 00:30:30.320 align:start position:0%
can be applied to these gammaray bursts.
 

00:30:30.320 --> 00:30:32.710 align:start position:0%
can be applied to these gammaray bursts.
If<00:30:30.559><c> a</c><00:30:30.720><c> massive</c><00:30:31.120><c> star</c><00:30:31.440><c> is</c><00:30:31.679><c> spinning</c><00:30:32.080><c> super</c><00:30:32.480><c> fast</c>

00:30:32.710 --> 00:30:32.720 align:start position:0%
If a massive star is spinning super fast
 

00:30:32.720 --> 00:30:35.190 align:start position:0%
If a massive star is spinning super fast
when<00:30:32.960><c> it</c><00:30:33.120><c> collapses,</c><00:30:34.080><c> then</c><00:30:34.320><c> the</c><00:30:34.480><c> shape</c><00:30:34.799><c> and</c>

00:30:35.190 --> 00:30:35.200 align:start position:0%
when it collapses, then the shape and
 

00:30:35.200 --> 00:30:37.350 align:start position:0%
when it collapses, then the shape and
structure<00:30:35.600><c> of</c><00:30:35.760><c> the</c><00:30:36.000><c> near</c><00:30:36.399><c> lighteed</c><00:30:36.880><c> jets</c><00:30:37.200><c> it</c>

00:30:37.350 --> 00:30:37.360 align:start position:0%
structure of the near lighteed jets it
 

00:30:37.360 --> 00:30:39.909 align:start position:0%
structure of the near lighteed jets it
emits<00:30:38.000><c> will</c><00:30:38.240><c> be</c><00:30:38.320><c> more</c><00:30:38.559><c> narrow</c><00:30:38.960><c> and</c><00:30:39.279><c> focused</c>

00:30:39.909 --> 00:30:39.919 align:start position:0%
emits will be more narrow and focused
 

00:30:39.919 --> 00:30:42.710 align:start position:0%
emits will be more narrow and focused
and<00:30:40.240><c> therefore</c><00:30:40.960><c> brighter.</c><00:30:42.080><c> In</c><00:30:42.320><c> fact,</c><00:30:42.559><c> the</c>

00:30:42.710 --> 00:30:42.720 align:start position:0%
and therefore brighter. In fact, the
 

00:30:42.720 --> 00:30:44.950 align:start position:0%
and therefore brighter. In fact, the
jets<00:30:43.120><c> seen</c><00:30:43.440><c> from</c><00:30:43.600><c> the</c><00:30:43.840><c> boat</c><00:30:44.159><c> are</c><00:30:44.399><c> some</c><00:30:44.640><c> of</c><00:30:44.720><c> the</c>

00:30:44.950 --> 00:30:44.960 align:start position:0%
jets seen from the boat are some of the
 

00:30:44.960 --> 00:30:48.470 align:start position:0%
jets seen from the boat are some of the
narrowest<00:30:45.520><c> we've</c><00:30:45.919><c> ever</c><00:30:46.240><c> seen.</c>

00:30:48.470 --> 00:30:48.480 align:start position:0%
narrowest we've ever seen.
 

00:30:48.480 --> 00:30:50.870 align:start position:0%
narrowest we've ever seen.
But<00:30:49.120><c> not</c><00:30:49.360><c> only</c><00:30:49.600><c> were</c><00:30:49.760><c> these</c><00:30:50.080><c> particle</c><00:30:50.480><c> jets</c>

00:30:50.870 --> 00:30:50.880 align:start position:0%
But not only were these particle jets
 

00:30:50.880 --> 00:30:53.190 align:start position:0%
But not only were these particle jets
brighter<00:30:51.279><c> than</c><00:30:51.520><c> expected,</c><00:30:52.399><c> scientists</c><00:30:52.880><c> also</c>

00:30:53.190 --> 00:30:53.200 align:start position:0%
brighter than expected, scientists also
 

00:30:53.200 --> 00:30:56.470 align:start position:0%
brighter than expected, scientists also
detected<00:30:54.159><c> way</c><00:30:54.559><c> more</c><00:30:54.880><c> of</c><00:30:55.039><c> them</c><00:30:55.360><c> going</c><00:30:56.000><c> faster</c>

00:30:56.470 --> 00:30:56.480 align:start position:0%
detected way more of them going faster
 

00:30:56.480 --> 00:30:58.630 align:start position:0%
detected way more of them going faster
than<00:30:56.799><c> expected,</c><00:30:57.601><c> [music]</c><00:30:58.000><c> they</c><00:30:58.240><c> traveled</c>

00:30:58.630 --> 00:30:58.640 align:start position:0%
than expected, [music] they traveled
 

00:30:58.640 --> 00:31:01.350 align:start position:0%
than expected, [music] they traveled
with<00:30:58.880><c> such</c><00:30:59.279><c> fervor</c><00:30:59.919><c> that</c><00:31:00.240><c> after</c><00:31:00.720><c> 2</c><00:31:00.960><c> billion</c>

00:31:01.350 --> 00:31:01.360 align:start position:0%
with such fervor that after 2 billion
 

00:31:01.360 --> 00:31:03.510 align:start position:0%
with such fervor that after 2 billion
years<00:31:01.760><c> traversing</c><00:31:02.240><c> the</c><00:31:02.480><c> cosmos,</c><00:31:03.279><c> they</c>

00:31:03.510 --> 00:31:03.520 align:start position:0%
years traversing the cosmos, they
 

00:31:03.520 --> 00:31:06.230 align:start position:0%
years traversing the cosmos, they
arrived<00:31:03.919><c> here</c><00:31:04.480><c> and</c><00:31:04.799><c> momentarily</c><00:31:05.679><c> disrupted</c>

00:31:06.230 --> 00:31:06.240 align:start position:0%
arrived here and momentarily disrupted
 

00:31:06.240 --> 00:31:08.470 align:start position:0%
arrived here and momentarily disrupted
the<00:31:06.480><c> Earth's</c><00:31:06.880><c> atmosphere.</c>

00:31:08.470 --> 00:31:08.480 align:start position:0%
the Earth's atmosphere.
 

00:31:08.480 --> 00:31:11.590 align:start position:0%
the Earth's atmosphere.
Sitting<00:31:08.880><c> just</c><00:31:09.440><c> 50</c><00:31:09.840><c> to</c><00:31:10.159><c> a,000</c><00:31:10.559><c> km</c><00:31:11.120><c> above</c><00:31:11.440><c> the</c>

00:31:11.590 --> 00:31:11.600 align:start position:0%
Sitting just 50 to a,000 km above the
 

00:31:11.600 --> 00:31:13.590 align:start position:0%
Sitting just 50 to a,000 km above the
surface<00:31:11.919><c> of</c><00:31:12.080><c> our</c><00:31:12.399><c> planet,</c><00:31:13.120><c> Earth's</c>

00:31:13.590 --> 00:31:13.600 align:start position:0%
surface of our planet, Earth's
 

00:31:13.600 --> 00:31:15.669 align:start position:0%
surface of our planet, Earth's
ionosphere<00:31:14.240><c> is</c><00:31:14.559><c> rich</c><00:31:14.799><c> in</c><00:31:15.120><c> electrically</c>

00:31:15.669 --> 00:31:15.679 align:start position:0%
ionosphere is rich in electrically
 

00:31:15.679 --> 00:31:18.710 align:start position:0%
ionosphere is rich in electrically
charged<00:31:16.080><c> particles.</c><00:31:17.200><c> When</c><00:31:17.440><c> the</c><00:31:17.600><c> boat</c><00:31:18.000><c> struck,</c>

00:31:18.710 --> 00:31:18.720 align:start position:0%
charged particles. When the boat struck,
 

00:31:18.720 --> 00:31:21.190 align:start position:0%
charged particles. When the boat struck,
it<00:31:18.960><c> left</c><00:31:19.120><c> a</c><00:31:19.360><c> mark</c><00:31:19.840><c> comparable</c><00:31:20.399><c> to</c><00:31:20.559><c> that</c><00:31:20.799><c> of</c><00:31:20.960><c> a</c>

00:31:21.190 --> 00:31:21.200 align:start position:0%
it left a mark comparable to that of a
 

00:31:21.200 --> 00:31:23.430 align:start position:0%
it left a mark comparable to that of a
major<00:31:21.600><c> solar</c><00:31:22.000><c> flare,</c><00:31:22.720><c> pushing</c><00:31:23.039><c> the</c>

00:31:23.430 --> 00:31:23.440 align:start position:0%
major solar flare, pushing the
 

00:31:23.440 --> 00:31:27.029 align:start position:0%
major solar flare, pushing the
ionosphere<00:31:24.159><c> down</c><00:31:24.640><c> into</c><00:31:25.039><c> lower</c><00:31:25.440><c> altitudes.</c><00:31:26.799><c> If</c>

00:31:27.029 --> 00:31:27.039 align:start position:0%
ionosphere down into lower altitudes. If
 

00:31:27.039 --> 00:31:29.510 align:start position:0%
ionosphere down into lower altitudes. If
photons<00:31:27.520><c> from</c><00:31:27.760><c> an</c><00:31:27.919><c> explosion</c><00:31:28.799><c> 2</c><00:31:29.200><c> billion</c>

00:31:29.510 --> 00:31:29.520 align:start position:0%
photons from an explosion 2 billion
 

00:31:29.520 --> 00:31:31.590 align:start position:0%
photons from an explosion 2 billion
light<00:31:29.840><c> years</c><00:31:30.080><c> away</c><00:31:30.399><c> can</c><00:31:30.640><c> have</c><00:31:30.960><c> this</c><00:31:31.279><c> kind</c><00:31:31.440><c> of</c>

00:31:31.590 --> 00:31:31.600 align:start position:0%
light years away can have this kind of
 

00:31:31.600 --> 00:31:34.149 align:start position:0%
light years away can have this kind of
effect<00:31:31.919><c> on</c><00:31:32.159><c> our</c><00:31:32.480><c> planet,</c><00:31:33.279><c> I</c><00:31:33.600><c> don't</c><00:31:33.840><c> really</c>

00:31:34.149 --> 00:31:34.159 align:start position:0%
effect on our planet, I don't really
 

00:31:34.159 --> 00:31:35.830 align:start position:0%
effect on our planet, I don't really
want<00:31:34.320><c> to</c><00:31:34.480><c> think</c><00:31:34.720><c> about</c><00:31:34.960><c> what</c><00:31:35.200><c> happens</c><00:31:35.520><c> if</c>

00:31:35.830 --> 00:31:35.840 align:start position:0%
want to think about what happens if
 

00:31:35.840 --> 00:31:37.509 align:start position:0%
want to think about what happens if
something<00:31:36.080><c> like</c><00:31:36.240><c> that</c><00:31:36.480><c> in</c><00:31:36.720><c> our</c><00:31:37.039><c> neighborhood</c>

00:31:37.509 --> 00:31:37.519 align:start position:0%
something like that in our neighborhood
 

00:31:37.519 --> 00:31:39.029 align:start position:0%
something like that in our neighborhood
explodes.

00:31:39.029 --> 00:31:39.039 align:start position:0%
explodes.
 

00:31:39.039 --> 00:31:41.350 align:start position:0%
explodes.
The<00:31:39.279><c> large</c><00:31:39.679><c> highaltitude</c><00:31:40.640><c> air</c><00:31:40.960><c> shower</c>

00:31:41.350 --> 00:31:41.360 align:start position:0%
The large highaltitude air shower
 

00:31:41.360 --> 00:31:44.389 align:start position:0%
The large highaltitude air shower
observatory<00:31:42.159><c> in</c><00:31:42.399><c> Daqeng</c><00:31:43.120><c> County,</c><00:31:43.600><c> China,</c>

00:31:44.389 --> 00:31:44.399 align:start position:0%
observatory in Daqeng County, China,
 

00:31:44.399 --> 00:31:46.789 align:start position:0%
observatory in Daqeng County, China,
managed<00:31:44.720><c> to</c><00:31:44.960><c> capture</c><00:31:45.440><c> data</c><00:31:45.840><c> on</c><00:31:46.159><c> tens</c><00:31:46.559><c> of</c>

00:31:46.789 --> 00:31:46.799 align:start position:0%
managed to capture data on tens of
 

00:31:46.799 --> 00:31:48.789 align:start position:0%
managed to capture data on tens of
thousands<00:31:47.279><c> of</c><00:31:47.440><c> photons</c><00:31:48.000><c> over</c><00:31:48.240><c> the</c><00:31:48.480><c> course</c><00:31:48.640><c> of</c>

00:31:48.789 --> 00:31:48.799 align:start position:0%
thousands of photons over the course of
 

00:31:48.799 --> 00:31:50.470 align:start position:0%
thousands of photons over the course of
the<00:31:48.960><c> initial</c><00:31:49.360><c> blast</c><00:31:49.840><c> and</c><00:31:50.080><c> into</c><00:31:50.320><c> the</c>

00:31:50.470 --> 00:31:50.480 align:start position:0%
the initial blast and into the
 

00:31:50.480 --> 00:31:53.430 align:start position:0%
the initial blast and into the
afterglow.<00:31:51.760><c> This</c><00:31:51.919><c> is</c><00:31:52.000><c> a</c><00:31:52.240><c> quantity</c><00:31:52.880><c> unlike</c>

00:31:53.430 --> 00:31:53.440 align:start position:0%
afterglow. This is a quantity unlike
 

00:31:53.440 --> 00:31:55.430 align:start position:0%
afterglow. This is a quantity unlike
anything<00:31:54.000><c> seen</c><00:31:54.320><c> before</c><00:31:54.640><c> in</c><00:31:54.880><c> gammaray</c>

00:31:55.430 --> 00:31:55.440 align:start position:0%
anything seen before in gammaray
 

00:31:55.440 --> 00:31:58.549 align:start position:0%
anything seen before in gammaray
astronomy.<00:31:56.559><c> In</c><00:31:56.799><c> fact,</c><00:31:57.279><c> it's</c><00:31:57.600><c> so</c><00:31:57.840><c> far</c><00:31:58.159><c> out</c><00:31:58.399><c> of</c>

00:31:58.549 --> 00:31:58.559 align:start position:0%
astronomy. In fact, it's so far out of
 

00:31:58.559 --> 00:32:00.789 align:start position:0%
astronomy. In fact, it's so far out of
pocket<00:31:59.120><c> that</c><00:31:59.440><c> some</c><00:31:59.679><c> astrophysicists</c><00:32:00.559><c> think</c>

00:32:00.789 --> 00:32:00.799 align:start position:0%
pocket that some astrophysicists think
 

00:32:00.799 --> 00:32:02.549 align:start position:0%
pocket that some astrophysicists think
that<00:32:01.039><c> they</c><00:32:01.279><c> might</c><00:32:01.519><c> be</c><00:32:01.760><c> pointing</c><00:32:02.080><c> towards</c>

00:32:02.549 --> 00:32:02.559 align:start position:0%
that they might be pointing towards
 

00:32:02.559 --> 00:32:05.509 align:start position:0%
that they might be pointing towards
something<00:32:03.039><c> missing</c><00:32:03.440><c> from</c><00:32:03.760><c> our</c><00:32:04.000><c> models.</c>

00:32:05.509 --> 00:32:05.519 align:start position:0%
something missing from our models.
 

00:32:05.519 --> 00:32:07.830 align:start position:0%
something missing from our models.
According<00:32:05.919><c> to</c><00:32:06.080><c> our</c><00:32:06.480><c> current</c><00:32:06.799><c> understanding,</c>

00:32:07.830 --> 00:32:07.840 align:start position:0%
According to our current understanding,
 

00:32:07.840 --> 00:32:10.149 align:start position:0%
According to our current understanding,
it's<00:32:08.080><c> very</c><00:32:08.320><c> unlikely</c><00:32:08.880><c> these</c><00:32:09.360><c> super</c><00:32:09.840><c> high</c>

00:32:10.149 --> 00:32:10.159 align:start position:0%
it's very unlikely these super high
 

00:32:10.159 --> 00:32:12.230 align:start position:0%
it's very unlikely these super high
energergy<00:32:10.559><c> photons</c><00:32:11.120><c> are</c><00:32:11.360><c> traveling</c><00:32:11.760><c> for</c><00:32:12.000><c> two</c>

00:32:12.230 --> 00:32:12.240 align:start position:0%
energergy photons are traveling for two
 

00:32:12.240 --> 00:32:14.549 align:start position:0%
energergy photons are traveling for two
billion<00:32:12.559><c> years.</c><00:32:13.519><c> Cosmic</c><00:32:14.000><c> microwave</c>

00:32:14.549 --> 00:32:14.559 align:start position:0%
billion years. Cosmic microwave
 

00:32:14.559 --> 00:32:16.710 align:start position:0%
billion years. Cosmic microwave
background<00:32:14.960><c> radiation,</c><00:32:15.919><c> interactions</c><00:32:16.559><c> with</c>

00:32:16.710 --> 00:32:16.720 align:start position:0%
background radiation, interactions with
 

00:32:16.720 --> 00:32:19.269 align:start position:0%
background radiation, interactions with
intergalactic<00:32:17.519><c> dust,</c><00:32:18.159><c> or</c><00:32:18.480><c> redshifting</c>

00:32:19.269 --> 00:32:19.279 align:start position:0%
intergalactic dust, or redshifting
 

00:32:19.279 --> 00:32:21.350 align:start position:0%
intergalactic dust, or redshifting
caused<00:32:19.679><c> by</c><00:32:19.840><c> the</c><00:32:20.000><c> expansion</c><00:32:20.399><c> of</c><00:32:20.559><c> the</c><00:32:20.720><c> universe</c>

00:32:21.350 --> 00:32:21.360 align:start position:0%
caused by the expansion of the universe
 

00:32:21.360 --> 00:32:23.430 align:start position:0%
caused by the expansion of the universe
are<00:32:21.679><c> all</c><00:32:21.919><c> factors</c><00:32:22.320><c> that</c><00:32:22.559><c> can</c><00:32:22.720><c> interfere</c><00:32:23.279><c> with</c>

00:32:23.430 --> 00:32:23.440 align:start position:0%
are all factors that can interfere with
 

00:32:23.440 --> 00:32:26.630 align:start position:0%
are all factors that can interfere with
a<00:32:23.600><c> photon's</c><00:32:24.159><c> trajectory.</c><00:32:25.600><c> One</c><00:32:25.919><c> hypothesis</c>

00:32:26.630 --> 00:32:26.640 align:start position:0%
a photon's trajectory. One hypothesis
 

00:32:26.640 --> 00:32:28.870 align:start position:0%
a photon's trajectory. One hypothesis
put<00:32:26.880><c> forward</c><00:32:27.440><c> is</c><00:32:27.600><c> that</c><00:32:27.919><c> photons</c><00:32:28.480><c> convert</c>

00:32:28.870 --> 00:32:28.880 align:start position:0%
put forward is that photons convert
 

00:32:28.880 --> 00:32:31.750 align:start position:0%
put forward is that photons convert
themselves<00:32:29.360><c> into</c><00:32:29.679><c> a</c><00:32:30.000><c> hypothetical</c><00:32:30.960><c> particle</c>

00:32:31.750 --> 00:32:31.760 align:start position:0%
themselves into a hypothetical particle
 

00:32:31.760 --> 00:32:34.710 align:start position:0%
themselves into a hypothetical particle
called<00:32:32.080><c> an</c><00:32:32.320><c> axion</c><00:32:33.519><c> and</c><00:32:33.760><c> then</c><00:32:34.000><c> convert</c><00:32:34.480><c> back</c>

00:32:34.710 --> 00:32:34.720 align:start position:0%
called an axion and then convert back
 

00:32:34.720 --> 00:32:36.950 align:start position:0%
called an axion and then convert back
into<00:32:35.039><c> gamma</c><00:32:35.360><c> rays</c><00:32:35.760><c> upon</c><00:32:36.159><c> reaching</c><00:32:36.640><c> our</c>

00:32:36.950 --> 00:32:36.960 align:start position:0%
into gamma rays upon reaching our
 

00:32:36.960 --> 00:32:39.990 align:start position:0%
into gamma rays upon reaching our
galaxy's<00:32:37.519><c> magnetic</c><00:32:38.000><c> field.</c><00:32:39.279><c> Axons</c><00:32:39.840><c> are</c>

00:32:39.990 --> 00:32:40.000 align:start position:0%
galaxy's magnetic field. Axons are
 

00:32:40.000 --> 00:32:42.230 align:start position:0%
galaxy's magnetic field. Axons are
thought<00:32:40.240><c> to</c><00:32:40.399><c> be</c><00:32:40.559><c> an</c><00:32:40.960><c> ultra</c><00:32:41.360><c> light</c><00:32:41.600><c> particle</c>

00:32:42.230 --> 00:32:42.240 align:start position:0%
thought to be an ultra light particle
 

00:32:42.240 --> 00:32:44.789 align:start position:0%
thought to be an ultra light particle
responsible<00:32:42.880><c> for</c><00:32:43.120><c> dark</c><00:32:43.440><c> matter.</c><00:32:44.559><c> Their</c>

00:32:44.789 --> 00:32:44.799 align:start position:0%
responsible for dark matter. Their
 

00:32:44.799 --> 00:32:46.630 align:start position:0%
responsible for dark matter. Their
existence<00:32:45.279><c> is</c><00:32:45.679><c> currently</c><00:32:46.159><c> purely</c>

00:32:46.630 --> 00:32:46.640 align:start position:0%
existence is currently purely
 

00:32:46.640 --> 00:32:49.269 align:start position:0%
existence is currently purely
hypothetical.<00:32:47.840><c> We</c><00:32:48.159><c> have</c><00:32:48.399><c> no</c><00:32:48.640><c> evidence</c><00:32:49.039><c> for</c>

00:32:49.269 --> 00:32:49.279 align:start position:0%
hypothetical. We have no evidence for
 

00:32:49.279 --> 00:32:51.750 align:start position:0%
hypothetical. We have no evidence for
them.<00:32:49.840><c> And</c><00:32:50.000><c> even</c><00:32:50.159><c> if</c><00:32:50.320><c> we</c><00:32:50.559><c> did,</c><00:32:50.960><c> they</c><00:32:51.200><c> would</c><00:32:51.440><c> lie</c>

00:32:51.750 --> 00:32:51.760 align:start position:0%
them. And even if we did, they would lie
 

00:32:51.760 --> 00:32:53.990 align:start position:0%
them. And even if we did, they would lie
outside<00:32:52.320><c> the</c><00:32:52.559><c> standard</c><00:32:53.039><c> model</c><00:32:53.279><c> of</c><00:32:53.519><c> particle</c>

00:32:53.990 --> 00:32:54.000 align:start position:0%
outside the standard model of particle
 

00:32:54.000 --> 00:32:56.070 align:start position:0%
outside the standard model of particle
physics.<00:32:55.039><c> We</c><00:32:55.279><c> don't</c><00:32:55.360><c> have</c><00:32:55.519><c> time</c><00:32:55.679><c> to</c><00:32:55.840><c> delve</c>

00:32:56.070 --> 00:32:56.080 align:start position:0%
physics. We don't have time to delve
 

00:32:56.080 --> 00:32:58.470 align:start position:0%
physics. We don't have time to delve
into<00:32:56.320><c> detail</c><00:32:56.640><c> in</c><00:32:56.880><c> today's</c><00:32:57.279><c> video,</c><00:32:57.919><c> but</c><00:32:58.159><c> let</c><00:32:58.320><c> me</c>

00:32:58.470 --> 00:32:58.480 align:start position:0%
into detail in today's video, but let me
 

00:32:58.480 --> 00:33:00.070 align:start position:0%
into detail in today's video, but let me
know<00:32:58.559><c> if</c><00:32:58.720><c> you'd</c><00:32:58.960><c> enjoy</c><00:32:59.200><c> a</c><00:32:59.360><c> separate</c><00:32:59.679><c> video</c><00:32:59.919><c> on</c>

00:33:00.070 --> 00:33:00.080 align:start position:0%
know if you'd enjoy a separate video on
 

00:33:00.080 --> 00:33:02.549 align:start position:0%
know if you'd enjoy a separate video on
this<00:33:00.240><c> in</c><00:33:00.480><c> the</c><00:33:00.640><c> comments.</c>

00:33:02.549 --> 00:33:02.559 align:start position:0%
this in the comments.
 

00:33:02.559 --> 00:33:05.110 align:start position:0%
this in the comments.
Okay,<00:33:03.120><c> so</c><00:33:03.360><c> far</c><00:33:03.600><c> we've</c><00:33:03.919><c> established</c><00:33:04.320><c> that</c><00:33:04.640><c> boat</c>

00:33:05.110 --> 00:33:05.120 align:start position:0%
Okay, so far we've established that boat
 

00:33:05.120 --> 00:33:07.909 align:start position:0%
Okay, so far we've established that boat
was<00:33:05.519><c> caused</c><00:33:05.919><c> by</c><00:33:06.159><c> a</c><00:33:06.399><c> massive</c><00:33:06.799><c> star</c><00:33:07.279><c> collapsing</c>

00:33:07.909 --> 00:33:07.919 align:start position:0%
was caused by a massive star collapsing
 

00:33:07.919 --> 00:33:10.149 align:start position:0%
was caused by a massive star collapsing
and<00:33:08.240><c> turning</c><00:33:08.559><c> into</c><00:33:08.720><c> a</c><00:33:08.960><c> black</c><00:33:09.120><c> hole,</c><00:33:09.840><c> which</c>

00:33:10.149 --> 00:33:10.159 align:start position:0%
and turning into a black hole, which
 

00:33:10.159 --> 00:33:13.750 align:start position:0%
and turning into a black hole, which
incidentally<00:33:11.120><c> is</c><00:33:11.440><c> known</c><00:33:11.679><c> as</c><00:33:11.840><c> a</c><00:33:12.080><c> collapsar.</c>

00:33:13.750 --> 00:33:13.760 align:start position:0%
incidentally is known as a collapsar.
 

00:33:13.760 --> 00:33:16.389 align:start position:0%
incidentally is known as a collapsar.
Aside<00:33:14.159><c> from</c><00:33:14.399><c> generating</c><00:33:15.039><c> a</c><00:33:15.360><c> long</c><00:33:15.760><c> gammaray</c>

00:33:16.389 --> 00:33:16.399 align:start position:0%
Aside from generating a long gammaray
 

00:33:16.399 --> 00:33:19.110 align:start position:0%
Aside from generating a long gammaray
burst,<00:33:17.039><c> collaps</c><00:33:17.919><c> are</c><00:33:18.159><c> also</c><00:33:18.559><c> known</c><00:33:18.880><c> for</c>

00:33:19.110 --> 00:33:19.120 align:start position:0%
burst, collaps are also known for
 

00:33:19.120 --> 00:33:22.870 align:start position:0%
burst, collaps are also known for
generating<00:33:19.760><c> something</c><00:33:20.159><c> else.</c><00:33:21.360><c> Gold.</c>

00:33:22.870 --> 00:33:22.880 align:start position:0%
generating something else. Gold.
 

00:33:22.880 --> 00:33:25.509 align:start position:0%
generating something else. Gold.
Wait,<00:33:23.279><c> wait.</c><00:33:23.919><c> How</c><00:33:24.159><c> is</c><00:33:24.480><c> gold</c><00:33:24.960><c> connected</c><00:33:25.360><c> to</c>

00:33:25.509 --> 00:33:25.519 align:start position:0%
Wait, wait. How is gold connected to
 

00:33:25.519 --> 00:33:28.898 align:start position:0%
Wait, wait. How is gold connected to
gamma<00:33:25.919><c> rays?</c><00:33:26.960><c> Good</c><00:33:27.279><c> question.</c><00:33:28.320><c> To</c><00:33:28.640><c> understand</c>

00:33:28.898 --> 00:33:28.908 align:start position:0%
gamma rays? Good question. To understand
 

00:33:28.908 --> 00:33:30.630 align:start position:0%
gamma rays? Good question. To understand
[music]<00:33:28.960><c> that,</c><00:33:29.519><c> let's</c><00:33:29.840><c> take</c><00:33:30.000><c> a</c><00:33:30.240><c> minute</c><00:33:30.399><c> to</c>

00:33:30.630 --> 00:33:30.640 align:start position:0%
[music] that, let's take a minute to
 

00:33:30.640 --> 00:33:33.830 align:start position:0%
[music] that, let's take a minute to
discuss<00:33:31.120><c> how</c><00:33:31.519><c> elements</c><00:33:32.080><c> are</c><00:33:32.320><c> made.</c>

00:33:33.830 --> 00:33:33.840 align:start position:0%
discuss how elements are made.
 

00:33:33.840 --> 00:33:36.710 align:start position:0%
discuss how elements are made.
The<00:33:34.080><c> core</c><00:33:34.320><c> of</c><00:33:34.480><c> a</c><00:33:34.720><c> star</c><00:33:35.120><c> is</c><00:33:35.360><c> a</c><00:33:35.679><c> super</c><00:33:36.240><c> high</c>

00:33:36.710 --> 00:33:36.720 align:start position:0%
The core of a star is a super high
 

00:33:36.720 --> 00:33:39.990 align:start position:0%
The core of a star is a super high
pressure<00:33:37.120><c> environment,</c><00:33:38.159><c> some</c><00:33:38.720><c> 200</c><00:33:39.519><c> billion</c>

00:33:39.990 --> 00:33:40.000 align:start position:0%
pressure environment, some 200 billion
 

00:33:40.000 --> 00:33:41.590 align:start position:0%
pressure environment, some 200 billion
times<00:33:40.399><c> higher</c><00:33:40.720><c> than</c><00:33:40.880><c> the</c><00:33:41.039><c> atmospheric</c>

00:33:41.590 --> 00:33:41.600 align:start position:0%
times higher than the atmospheric
 

00:33:41.600 --> 00:33:44.389 align:start position:0%
times higher than the atmospheric
pressure<00:33:41.840><c> on</c><00:33:42.080><c> Earth.</c><00:33:43.120><c> In</c><00:33:43.360><c> these</c><00:33:43.679><c> conditions,</c>

00:33:44.389 --> 00:33:44.399 align:start position:0%
pressure on Earth. In these conditions,
 

00:33:44.399 --> 00:33:46.630 align:start position:0%
pressure on Earth. In these conditions,
nuclear<00:33:44.880><c> fusion</c><00:33:45.279><c> reactions</c><00:33:45.840><c> create</c><00:33:46.159><c> heavier</c>

00:33:46.630 --> 00:33:46.640 align:start position:0%
nuclear fusion reactions create heavier
 

00:33:46.640 --> 00:33:48.950 align:start position:0%
nuclear fusion reactions create heavier
elements<00:33:47.120><c> out</c><00:33:47.360><c> of</c><00:33:47.519><c> lighter</c><00:33:47.840><c> ones.</c><00:33:48.799><c> For</c>

00:33:48.950 --> 00:33:48.960 align:start position:0%
elements out of lighter ones. For
 

00:33:48.960 --> 00:33:51.509 align:start position:0%
elements out of lighter ones. For
example,<00:33:49.760><c> one</c><00:33:50.000><c> helium</c><00:33:50.480><c> atom</c><00:33:51.039><c> comes</c><00:33:51.360><c> from</c>

00:33:51.509 --> 00:33:51.519 align:start position:0%
example, one helium atom comes from
 

00:33:51.519 --> 00:33:54.389 align:start position:0%
example, one helium atom comes from
fusing<00:33:52.080><c> four</c><00:33:52.480><c> hydrogen</c><00:33:52.960><c> atoms</c><00:33:53.360><c> together.</c>

00:33:54.389 --> 00:33:54.399 align:start position:0%
fusing four hydrogen atoms together.
 

00:33:54.399 --> 00:33:57.509 align:start position:0%
fusing four hydrogen atoms together.
Elements<00:33:54.960><c> 2</c><00:33:55.519><c> through</c><00:33:56.080><c> 26</c><00:33:56.640><c> on</c><00:33:56.880><c> the</c><00:33:57.039><c> periodic</c>

00:33:57.509 --> 00:33:57.519 align:start position:0%
Elements 2 through 26 on the periodic
 

00:33:57.519 --> 00:34:00.389 align:start position:0%
Elements 2 through 26 on the periodic
table,<00:33:58.320><c> that's</c><00:33:58.720><c> helium</c><00:33:59.120><c> to</c><00:33:59.360><c> iron,</c><00:34:00.000><c> are</c><00:34:00.240><c> made</c>

00:34:00.389 --> 00:34:00.399 align:start position:0%
table, that's helium to iron, are made
 

00:34:00.399 --> 00:34:03.110 align:start position:0%
table, that's helium to iron, are made
this<00:34:00.720><c> way.</c><00:34:01.279><c> The</c><00:34:01.440><c> process</c><00:34:01.840><c> known</c><00:34:02.159><c> as</c><00:34:02.480><c> stellar</c>

00:34:03.110 --> 00:34:03.120 align:start position:0%
this way. The process known as stellar
 

00:34:03.120 --> 00:34:05.029 align:start position:0%
this way. The process known as stellar
nucleioynthesis.

00:34:05.029 --> 00:34:05.039 align:start position:0%
nucleioynthesis.
 

00:34:05.039 --> 00:34:07.909 align:start position:0%
nucleioynthesis.
However,<00:34:05.840><c> once</c><00:34:06.080><c> you</c><00:34:06.320><c> get</c><00:34:06.480><c> to</c><00:34:06.720><c> iron,</c><00:34:07.360><c> it</c><00:34:07.519><c> isn't</c>

00:34:07.909 --> 00:34:07.919 align:start position:0%
However, once you get to iron, it isn't
 

00:34:07.919 --> 00:34:09.909 align:start position:0%
However, once you get to iron, it isn't
energetically<00:34:08.720><c> favorable</c><00:34:09.200><c> to</c><00:34:09.520><c> continue</c>

00:34:09.909 --> 00:34:09.919 align:start position:0%
energetically favorable to continue
 

00:34:09.919 --> 00:34:12.069 align:start position:0%
energetically favorable to continue
making<00:34:10.480><c> bigger</c><00:34:10.800><c> and</c><00:34:11.040><c> bigger</c><00:34:11.359><c> elements</c><00:34:11.760><c> this</c>

00:34:12.069 --> 00:34:12.079 align:start position:0%
making bigger and bigger elements this
 

00:34:12.079 --> 00:34:14.869 align:start position:0%
making bigger and bigger elements this
way.<00:34:13.040><c> So,</c><00:34:13.359><c> how</c><00:34:13.599><c> do</c><00:34:13.760><c> we</c><00:34:13.919><c> account</c><00:34:14.240><c> for</c><00:34:14.480><c> the</c><00:34:14.720><c> rest</c>

00:34:14.869 --> 00:34:14.879 align:start position:0%
way. So, how do we account for the rest
 

00:34:14.879 --> 00:34:17.430 align:start position:0%
way. So, how do we account for the rest
of<00:34:15.040><c> the</c><00:34:15.200><c> periodic</c><00:34:15.760><c> table?</c><00:34:16.720><c> Where</c><00:34:16.960><c> do</c><00:34:17.119><c> these</c>

00:34:17.430 --> 00:34:17.440 align:start position:0%
of the periodic table? Where do these
 

00:34:17.440 --> 00:34:19.988 align:start position:0%
of the periodic table? Where do these
heavier<00:34:17.919><c> elements</c><00:34:18.399><c> like</c><00:34:18.800><c> gold</c><00:34:19.280><c> come</c><00:34:19.440><c> from?</c>

00:34:19.988 --> 00:34:19.998 align:start position:0%
heavier elements like gold come from?
 

00:34:19.998 --> 00:34:20.550 align:start position:0%
heavier elements like gold come from?
[music]

00:34:20.550 --> 00:34:20.560 align:start position:0%
[music]
 

00:34:20.560 --> 00:34:22.790 align:start position:0%
[music]
At<00:34:20.800><c> the</c><00:34:20.960><c> moment,</c><00:34:21.520><c> we</c><00:34:21.839><c> know</c><00:34:22.159><c> two</c><00:34:22.560><c> different</c>

00:34:22.790 --> 00:34:22.800 align:start position:0%
At the moment, we know two different
 

00:34:22.800 --> 00:34:25.030 align:start position:0%
At the moment, we know two different
ways<00:34:23.119><c> these</c><00:34:23.359><c> elements</c><00:34:23.760><c> are</c><00:34:23.919><c> formed.</c><00:34:24.800><c> The</c>

00:34:25.030 --> 00:34:25.040 align:start position:0%
ways these elements are formed. The
 

00:34:25.040 --> 00:34:26.629 align:start position:0%
ways these elements are formed. The
first<00:34:25.280><c> was</c><00:34:25.599><c> recently</c><00:34:26.000><c> confirmed</c><00:34:26.399><c> by</c><00:34:26.560><c> the</c>

00:34:26.629 --> 00:34:26.639 align:start position:0%
first was recently confirmed by the
 

00:34:26.639 --> 00:34:29.510 align:start position:0%
first was recently confirmed by the
James<00:34:26.960><c> Webb</c><00:34:27.280><c> Space</c><00:34:27.599><c> Telescope.</c><00:34:28.639><c> When</c><00:34:28.960><c> two</c>

00:34:29.510 --> 00:34:29.520 align:start position:0%
James Webb Space Telescope. When two
 

00:34:29.520 --> 00:34:31.909 align:start position:0%
James Webb Space Telescope. When two
ultra<00:34:29.839><c> dense</c><00:34:30.159><c> neutron</c><00:34:30.639><c> stars</c><00:34:31.040><c> collide,</c><00:34:31.679><c> they</c>

00:34:31.909 --> 00:34:31.919 align:start position:0%
ultra dense neutron stars collide, they
 

00:34:31.919 --> 00:34:34.069 align:start position:0%
ultra dense neutron stars collide, they
emit<00:34:32.240><c> an</c><00:34:32.480><c> immense</c><00:34:32.960><c> amount</c><00:34:33.200><c> of</c><00:34:33.520><c> neutron</c>

00:34:34.069 --> 00:34:34.079 align:start position:0%
emit an immense amount of neutron
 

00:34:34.079 --> 00:34:36.869 align:start position:0%
emit an immense amount of neutron
particles.<00:34:35.280><c> Surrounding</c><00:34:35.839><c> material</c><00:34:36.399><c> captures</c>

00:34:36.869 --> 00:34:36.879 align:start position:0%
particles. Surrounding material captures
 

00:34:36.879 --> 00:34:39.030 align:start position:0%
particles. Surrounding material captures
these<00:34:37.119><c> neutrons,</c><00:34:38.000><c> making</c><00:34:38.240><c> their</c><00:34:38.480><c> atoms</c>

00:34:39.030 --> 00:34:39.040 align:start position:0%
these neutrons, making their atoms
 

00:34:39.040 --> 00:34:41.669 align:start position:0%
these neutrons, making their atoms
temporarily<00:34:39.679><c> unstable.</c><00:34:41.040><c> In</c><00:34:41.280><c> order</c><00:34:41.440><c> to</c>

00:34:41.669 --> 00:34:41.679 align:start position:0%
temporarily unstable. In order to
 

00:34:41.679 --> 00:34:43.510 align:start position:0%
temporarily unstable. In order to
stabilize,<00:34:42.320><c> the</c><00:34:42.560><c> neutrons</c><00:34:43.040><c> undergo</c>

00:34:43.510 --> 00:34:43.520 align:start position:0%
stabilize, the neutrons undergo
 

00:34:43.520 --> 00:34:46.550 align:start position:0%
stabilize, the neutrons undergo
radioactive<00:34:44.240><c> decay</c><00:34:44.720><c> into</c><00:34:45.119><c> protons,</c><00:34:46.079><c> creating</c>

00:34:46.550 --> 00:34:46.560 align:start position:0%
radioactive decay into protons, creating
 

00:34:46.560 --> 00:34:49.750 align:start position:0%
radioactive decay into protons, creating
new,<00:34:47.280><c> heavier</c><00:34:47.760><c> elements.</c><00:34:48.879><c> This</c><00:34:49.200><c> process</c><00:34:49.520><c> is</c>

00:34:49.750 --> 00:34:49.760 align:start position:0%
new, heavier elements. This process is
 

00:34:49.760 --> 00:34:53.190 align:start position:0%
new, heavier elements. This process is
known<00:34:50.000><c> as</c><00:34:50.399><c> rapid</c><00:34:50.960><c> neutron</c><00:34:51.520><c> capture</c><00:34:52.399><c> or</c><00:34:52.800><c> R</c>

00:34:53.190 --> 00:34:53.200 align:start position:0%
known as rapid neutron capture or R
 

00:34:53.200 --> 00:34:55.430 align:start position:0%
known as rapid neutron capture or R
processed<00:34:53.679><c> nucleiosynthesis.</c>

00:34:55.430 --> 00:34:55.440 align:start position:0%
processed nucleiosynthesis.
 

00:34:55.440 --> 00:34:57.670 align:start position:0%
processed nucleiosynthesis.
Some<00:34:55.760><c> calculations</c><00:34:56.480><c> suggest</c><00:34:56.960><c> one</c><00:34:57.280><c> neutron</c>

00:34:57.670 --> 00:34:57.680 align:start position:0%
Some calculations suggest one neutron
 

00:34:57.680 --> 00:35:00.150 align:start position:0%
Some calculations suggest one neutron
star<00:34:57.920><c> collision</c><00:34:58.400><c> can</c><00:34:58.720><c> produce</c><00:34:59.119><c> up</c><00:34:59.359><c> to</c><00:34:59.680><c> three</c>

00:35:00.150 --> 00:35:00.160 align:start position:0%
star collision can produce up to three
 

00:35:00.160 --> 00:35:03.109 align:start position:0%
star collision can produce up to three
Earth<00:35:00.640><c> masses</c><00:35:01.280><c> worth</c><00:35:01.520><c> of</c><00:35:01.760><c> heavy</c><00:35:02.079><c> elements.</c>

00:35:03.109 --> 00:35:03.119 align:start position:0%
Earth masses worth of heavy elements.
 

00:35:03.119 --> 00:35:05.670 align:start position:0%
Earth masses worth of heavy elements.
However,<00:35:03.839><c> this</c><00:35:04.160><c> explanation</c><00:35:04.720><c> alone</c><00:35:05.200><c> isn't</c>

00:35:05.670 --> 00:35:05.680 align:start position:0%
However, this explanation alone isn't
 

00:35:05.680 --> 00:35:07.829 align:start position:0%
However, this explanation alone isn't
sufficient<00:35:06.079><c> to</c><00:35:06.400><c> account</c><00:35:06.720><c> for</c><00:35:07.040><c> all</c><00:35:07.280><c> the</c><00:35:07.520><c> heavy</c>

00:35:07.829 --> 00:35:07.839 align:start position:0%
sufficient to account for all the heavy
 

00:35:07.839 --> 00:35:10.390 align:start position:0%
sufficient to account for all the heavy
elements<00:35:08.240><c> in</c><00:35:08.400><c> the</c><00:35:08.560><c> universe.</c><00:35:09.680><c> Neutron</c><00:35:10.160><c> star</c>

00:35:10.390 --> 00:35:10.400 align:start position:0%
elements in the universe. Neutron star
 

00:35:10.400 --> 00:35:13.030 align:start position:0%
elements in the universe. Neutron star
collisions<00:35:10.960><c> are</c><00:35:11.200><c> rare</c><00:35:11.839><c> and</c><00:35:12.160><c> take</c><00:35:12.320><c> a</c><00:35:12.560><c> long</c><00:35:12.800><c> time</c>

00:35:13.030 --> 00:35:13.040 align:start position:0%
collisions are rare and take a long time
 

00:35:13.040 --> 00:35:15.430 align:start position:0%
collisions are rare and take a long time
to<00:35:13.280><c> happen</c><00:35:13.839><c> in</c><00:35:14.000><c> the</c><00:35:14.240><c> order</c><00:35:14.480><c> of</c><00:35:14.800><c> billions</c><00:35:15.280><c> of</c>

00:35:15.430 --> 00:35:15.440 align:start position:0%
to happen in the order of billions of
 

00:35:15.440 --> 00:35:18.310 align:start position:0%
to happen in the order of billions of
years.<00:35:16.480><c> On</c><00:35:16.720><c> top</c><00:35:16.880><c> of</c><00:35:16.960><c> that,</c><00:35:17.359><c> observations</c><00:35:18.079><c> of</c>

00:35:18.310 --> 00:35:18.320 align:start position:0%
years. On top of that, observations of
 

00:35:18.320 --> 00:35:20.710 align:start position:0%
years. On top of that, observations of
very<00:35:18.640><c> old</c><00:35:18.960><c> stars</c><00:35:19.359><c> show</c><00:35:19.599><c> that</c><00:35:19.920><c> heavy</c><00:35:20.240><c> elements</c>

00:35:20.710 --> 00:35:20.720 align:start position:0%
very old stars show that heavy elements
 

00:35:20.720 --> 00:35:22.630 align:start position:0%
very old stars show that heavy elements
were<00:35:21.040><c> already</c><00:35:21.520><c> present</c><00:35:21.760><c> in</c><00:35:22.079><c> parts</c><00:35:22.320><c> of</c><00:35:22.480><c> the</c>

00:35:22.630 --> 00:35:22.640 align:start position:0%
were already present in parts of the
 

00:35:22.640 --> 00:35:25.670 align:start position:0%
were already present in parts of the
universe<00:35:23.359><c> well</c><00:35:23.760><c> before</c><00:35:24.320><c> most</c><00:35:24.720><c> binary</c><00:35:25.200><c> neutron</c>

00:35:25.670 --> 00:35:25.680 align:start position:0%
universe well before most binary neutron
 

00:35:25.680 --> 00:35:27.349 align:start position:0%
universe well before most binary neutron
stars<00:35:26.160><c> would</c><00:35:26.400><c> have</c><00:35:26.560><c> had</c><00:35:26.720><c> a</c><00:35:26.880><c> chance</c><00:35:27.119><c> to</c>

00:35:27.349 --> 00:35:27.359 align:start position:0%
stars would have had a chance to
 

00:35:27.359 --> 00:35:31.190 align:start position:0%
stars would have had a chance to
collide.<00:35:28.640><c> So,</c><00:35:29.119><c> how</c><00:35:29.440><c> do</c><00:35:29.599><c> you</c><00:35:29.760><c> explain</c><00:35:30.160><c> that?</c>

00:35:31.190 --> 00:35:31.200 align:start position:0%
collide. So, how do you explain that?
 

00:35:31.200 --> 00:35:33.510 align:start position:0%
collide. So, how do you explain that?
There<00:35:31.440><c> must</c><00:35:31.760><c> be</c><00:35:32.079><c> another</c><00:35:32.640><c> source</c><00:35:32.960><c> of</c><00:35:33.119><c> heavy</c>

00:35:33.510 --> 00:35:33.520 align:start position:0%
There must be another source of heavy
 

00:35:33.520 --> 00:35:36.790 align:start position:0%
There must be another source of heavy
elements<00:35:34.079><c> in</c><00:35:34.400><c> the</c><00:35:34.560><c> cosmos.</c><00:35:36.000><c> Which</c><00:35:36.320><c> brings</c><00:35:36.640><c> us</c>

00:35:36.790 --> 00:35:36.800 align:start position:0%
elements in the cosmos. Which brings us
 

00:35:36.800 --> 00:35:38.589 align:start position:0%
elements in the cosmos. Which brings us
back<00:35:37.119><c> to</c><00:35:37.440><c> our</c><00:35:37.760><c> boat.</c>

00:35:38.589 --> 00:35:38.599 align:start position:0%
back to our boat.
 

00:35:38.599 --> 00:35:40.470 align:start position:0%
back to our boat.
&gt;&gt; [music]

00:35:40.470 --> 00:35:40.480 align:start position:0%
&gt;&gt; [music]
 

00:35:40.480 --> 00:35:42.790 align:start position:0%
&gt;&gt; [music]
&gt;&gt; There's<00:35:40.800><c> another</c><00:35:41.119><c> theory</c><00:35:41.599><c> that</c><00:35:41.920><c> collaps</c><00:35:42.640><c> like</c>

00:35:42.790 --> 00:35:42.800 align:start position:0%
&gt;&gt; There's another theory that collaps like
 

00:35:42.800 --> 00:35:45.589 align:start position:0%
&gt;&gt; There's another theory that collaps like
the<00:35:43.040><c> boat</c><00:35:43.599><c> could</c><00:35:43.920><c> be</c><00:35:44.160><c> another</c><00:35:44.560><c> source</c><00:35:44.960><c> of</c><00:35:45.359><c> our</c>

00:35:45.589 --> 00:35:45.599 align:start position:0%
the boat could be another source of our
 

00:35:45.599 --> 00:35:47.829 align:start position:0%
the boat could be another source of our
process<00:35:46.079><c> nucleioynthesis.</c>

00:35:47.829 --> 00:35:47.839 align:start position:0%
process nucleioynthesis.
 

00:35:47.839 --> 00:35:50.069 align:start position:0%
process nucleioynthesis.
In<00:35:48.079><c> their</c><00:35:48.240><c> dying</c><00:35:48.560><c> stages,</c><00:35:49.200><c> massive</c><00:35:49.680><c> stars</c>

00:35:50.069 --> 00:35:50.079 align:start position:0%
In their dying stages, massive stars
 

00:35:50.079 --> 00:35:52.150 align:start position:0%
In their dying stages, massive stars
like<00:35:50.240><c> the</c><00:35:50.480><c> one</c><00:35:50.640><c> that</c><00:35:50.880><c> caused</c><00:35:51.119><c> the</c><00:35:51.359><c> boat</c><00:35:52.000><c> are</c>

00:35:52.150 --> 00:35:52.160 align:start position:0%
like the one that caused the boat are
 

00:35:52.160 --> 00:35:55.270 align:start position:0%
like the one that caused the boat are
surrounded<00:35:52.640><c> by</c><00:35:53.040><c> layers</c><00:35:53.359><c> of</c><00:35:53.599><c> exploding</c><00:35:54.240><c> gas.</c>

00:35:55.270 --> 00:35:55.280 align:start position:0%
surrounded by layers of exploding gas.
 

00:35:55.280 --> 00:35:57.670 align:start position:0%
surrounded by layers of exploding gas.
These<00:35:55.680><c> explosions</c><00:35:56.240><c> leave</c><00:35:56.560><c> discs</c><00:35:56.960><c> of</c><00:35:57.200><c> matter</c>

00:35:57.670 --> 00:35:57.680 align:start position:0%
These explosions leave discs of matter
 

00:35:57.680 --> 00:35:59.589 align:start position:0%
These explosions leave discs of matter
swirling<00:35:58.160><c> around</c><00:35:58.400><c> the</c><00:35:58.720><c> resulting</c><00:35:59.119><c> infant</c>

00:35:59.589 --> 00:35:59.599 align:start position:0%
swirling around the resulting infant
 

00:35:59.599 --> 00:36:01.829 align:start position:0%
swirling around the resulting infant
black<00:35:59.839><c> hole.</c><00:36:00.480><c> As</c><00:36:00.720><c> the</c><00:36:00.880><c> black</c><00:36:01.119><c> hole</c><00:36:01.440><c> begins</c>

00:36:01.829 --> 00:36:01.839 align:start position:0%
black hole. As the black hole begins
 

00:36:01.839 --> 00:36:04.150 align:start position:0%
black hole. As the black hole begins
devouring<00:36:02.400><c> the</c><00:36:02.640><c> surrounding</c><00:36:03.119><c> material,</c><00:36:03.920><c> it</c>

00:36:04.150 --> 00:36:04.160 align:start position:0%
devouring the surrounding material, it
 

00:36:04.160 --> 00:36:07.349 align:start position:0%
devouring the surrounding material, it
can<00:36:04.320><c> only</c><00:36:04.800><c> ingest</c><00:36:05.359><c> so</c><00:36:05.680><c> much</c><00:36:05.920><c> at</c><00:36:06.160><c> a</c><00:36:06.320><c> time.</c><00:36:07.119><c> What</c>

00:36:07.349 --> 00:36:07.359 align:start position:0%
can only ingest so much at a time. What
 

00:36:07.359 --> 00:36:09.829 align:start position:0%
can only ingest so much at a time. What
it<00:36:07.599><c> cannot</c><00:36:08.000><c> manage</c><00:36:08.400><c> is</c><00:36:08.720><c> swept</c><00:36:09.119><c> away</c><00:36:09.359><c> in</c><00:36:09.680><c> a</c>

00:36:09.829 --> 00:36:09.839 align:start position:0%
it cannot manage is swept away in a
 

00:36:09.839 --> 00:36:13.510 align:start position:0%
it cannot manage is swept away in a
neutron<00:36:10.400><c> dense</c><00:36:10.800><c> wind.</c><00:36:11.839><c> Here</c><00:36:12.400><c> the</c><00:36:12.720><c> same</c><00:36:13.119><c> R</c>

00:36:13.510 --> 00:36:13.520 align:start position:0%
neutron dense wind. Here the same R
 

00:36:13.520 --> 00:36:16.310 align:start position:0%
neutron dense wind. Here the same R
process<00:36:14.000><c> nucleiosynthesis</c><00:36:14.960><c> occurs</c><00:36:15.920><c> forming</c>

00:36:16.310 --> 00:36:16.320 align:start position:0%
process nucleiosynthesis occurs forming
 

00:36:16.320 --> 00:36:19.270 align:start position:0%
process nucleiosynthesis occurs forming
heavier<00:36:16.800><c> elements</c><00:36:17.280><c> like</c><00:36:17.680><c> gold,</c><00:36:18.480><c> silver,</c><00:36:18.960><c> and</c>

00:36:19.270 --> 00:36:19.280 align:start position:0%
heavier elements like gold, silver, and
 

00:36:19.280 --> 00:36:22.630 align:start position:0%
heavier elements like gold, silver, and
platinum.<00:36:20.480><c> This</c><00:36:20.720><c> seems</c><00:36:21.119><c> promising,</c><00:36:22.240><c> but</c>

00:36:22.630 --> 00:36:22.640 align:start position:0%
platinum. This seems promising, but
 

00:36:22.640 --> 00:36:25.349 align:start position:0%
platinum. This seems promising, but
unfortunately<00:36:23.839><c> even</c><00:36:24.240><c> factoring</c><00:36:24.800><c> in</c><00:36:25.040><c> these</c>

00:36:25.349 --> 00:36:25.359 align:start position:0%
unfortunately even factoring in these
 

00:36:25.359 --> 00:36:27.589 align:start position:0%
unfortunately even factoring in these
kinds<00:36:25.599><c> of</c><00:36:25.760><c> supernova</c><00:36:26.640><c> isn't</c><00:36:27.040><c> enough</c><00:36:27.359><c> to</c>

00:36:27.589 --> 00:36:27.599 align:start position:0%
kinds of supernova isn't enough to
 

00:36:27.599 --> 00:36:29.589 align:start position:0%
kinds of supernova isn't enough to
account<00:36:27.839><c> for</c><00:36:28.079><c> the</c><00:36:28.240><c> abundance</c><00:36:28.720><c> of</c><00:36:28.960><c> gold</c><00:36:29.200><c> in</c><00:36:29.440><c> the</c>

00:36:29.589 --> 00:36:29.599 align:start position:0%
account for the abundance of gold in the
 

00:36:29.599 --> 00:36:31.109 align:start position:0%
account for the abundance of gold in the
universe.

00:36:31.109 --> 00:36:31.119 align:start position:0%
universe.
 

00:36:31.119 --> 00:36:33.670 align:start position:0%
universe.
To<00:36:31.359><c> make</c><00:36:31.520><c> matters</c><00:36:32.000><c> worse,</c><00:36:32.720><c> analysis</c><00:36:33.280><c> of</c><00:36:33.440><c> the</c>

00:36:33.670 --> 00:36:33.680 align:start position:0%
To make matters worse, analysis of the
 

00:36:33.680 --> 00:36:37.030 align:start position:0%
To make matters worse, analysis of the
boat<00:36:34.079><c> spectrum</c><00:36:34.880><c> didn't</c><00:36:35.200><c> show</c><00:36:35.760><c> any</c><00:36:36.320><c> traces</c><00:36:36.800><c> of</c>

00:36:37.030 --> 00:36:37.040 align:start position:0%
boat spectrum didn't show any traces of
 

00:36:37.040 --> 00:36:39.510 align:start position:0%
boat spectrum didn't show any traces of
heavy<00:36:37.440><c> elements,</c><00:36:38.480><c> raising</c><00:36:38.880><c> questions</c><00:36:39.359><c> about</c>

00:36:39.510 --> 00:36:39.520 align:start position:0%
heavy elements, raising questions about
 

00:36:39.520 --> 00:36:41.829 align:start position:0%
heavy elements, raising questions about
the<00:36:39.760><c> validity</c><00:36:40.320><c> of</c><00:36:40.480><c> this</c><00:36:40.720><c> collapsar</c><00:36:41.440><c> gold</c>

00:36:41.829 --> 00:36:41.839 align:start position:0%
the validity of this collapsar gold
 

00:36:41.839 --> 00:36:44.710 align:start position:0%
the validity of this collapsar gold
making<00:36:42.240><c> theory.</c><00:36:43.359><c> Some</c><00:36:43.680><c> scientists</c><00:36:44.160><c> suggest</c>

00:36:44.710 --> 00:36:44.720 align:start position:0%
making theory. Some scientists suggest
 

00:36:44.720 --> 00:36:46.950 align:start position:0%
making theory. Some scientists suggest
the<00:36:44.960><c> boat's</c><00:36:45.359><c> host</c><00:36:45.760><c> galaxy</c><00:36:46.480><c> might</c><00:36:46.800><c> have</c>

00:36:46.950 --> 00:36:46.960 align:start position:0%
the boat's host galaxy might have
 

00:36:46.960 --> 00:36:48.710 align:start position:0%
the boat's host galaxy might have
something<00:36:47.200><c> to</c><00:36:47.440><c> do</c><00:36:47.599><c> with</c><00:36:47.680><c> the</c><00:36:47.920><c> lack</c><00:36:48.160><c> of</c><00:36:48.320><c> heavy</c>

00:36:48.710 --> 00:36:48.720 align:start position:0%
something to do with the lack of heavy
 

00:36:48.720 --> 00:36:51.349 align:start position:0%
something to do with the lack of heavy
elements<00:36:49.040><c> in</c><00:36:49.280><c> the</c><00:36:49.440><c> explosion.</c><00:36:50.480><c> Upon</c><00:36:50.960><c> modeling</c>

00:36:51.349 --> 00:36:51.359 align:start position:0%
elements in the explosion. Upon modeling
 

00:36:51.359 --> 00:36:53.990 align:start position:0%
elements in the explosion. Upon modeling
the<00:36:51.680><c> host</c><00:36:52.000><c> galaxy</c><00:36:52.560><c> spectrum,</c><00:36:53.440><c> researchers</c>

00:36:53.990 --> 00:36:54.000 align:start position:0%
the host galaxy spectrum, researchers
 

00:36:54.000 --> 00:36:56.950 align:start position:0%
the host galaxy spectrum, researchers
discovered<00:36:54.640><c> it</c><00:36:54.960><c> has</c><00:36:55.200><c> the</c><00:36:55.440><c> lowest</c><00:36:56.000><c> metallicity</c>

00:36:56.950 --> 00:36:56.960 align:start position:0%
discovered it has the lowest metallicity
 

00:36:56.960 --> 00:36:59.270 align:start position:0%
discovered it has the lowest metallicity
of<00:36:57.280><c> all</c><00:36:57.680><c> previous</c><00:36:58.160><c> host</c><00:36:58.480><c> galaxies</c><00:36:59.040><c> where</c>

00:36:59.270 --> 00:36:59.280 align:start position:0%
of all previous host galaxies where
 

00:36:59.280 --> 00:37:01.829 align:start position:0%
of all previous host galaxies where
gammaray<00:36:59.839><c> bursts</c><00:37:00.079><c> were</c><00:37:00.320><c> detected.</c><00:37:01.440><c> In</c><00:37:01.680><c> other</c>

00:37:01.829 --> 00:37:01.839 align:start position:0%
gammaray bursts were detected. In other
 

00:37:01.839 --> 00:37:04.390 align:start position:0%
gammaray bursts were detected. In other
words,<00:37:02.560><c> maybe</c><00:37:02.880><c> the</c><00:37:03.119><c> environment</c><00:37:03.760><c> didn't</c><00:37:04.160><c> have</c>

00:37:04.390 --> 00:37:04.400 align:start position:0%
words, maybe the environment didn't have
 

00:37:04.400 --> 00:37:05.990 align:start position:0%
words, maybe the environment didn't have
the<00:37:04.640><c> right</c><00:37:04.800><c> building</c><00:37:05.119><c> blocks</c><00:37:05.440><c> to</c><00:37:05.680><c> make</c>

00:37:05.990 --> 00:37:06.000 align:start position:0%
the right building blocks to make
 

00:37:06.000 --> 00:37:08.870 align:start position:0%
the right building blocks to make
heavier<00:37:06.480><c> elements.</c><00:37:07.839><c> How</c><00:37:08.079><c> do</c><00:37:08.240><c> we</c><00:37:08.400><c> know</c><00:37:08.640><c> how</c>

00:37:08.870 --> 00:37:08.880 align:start position:0%
heavier elements. How do we know how
 

00:37:08.880 --> 00:37:10.470 align:start position:0%
heavier elements. How do we know how
much<00:37:09.040><c> gold</c><00:37:09.359><c> should</c><00:37:09.599><c> be</c><00:37:09.680><c> out</c><00:37:09.920><c> there</c><00:37:10.079><c> in</c><00:37:10.320><c> the</c>

00:37:10.470 --> 00:37:10.480 align:start position:0%
much gold should be out there in the
 

00:37:10.480 --> 00:37:12.950 align:start position:0%
much gold should be out there in the
first<00:37:10.720><c> place?</c><00:37:11.680><c> How</c><00:37:11.920><c> do</c><00:37:12.079><c> scientists</c><00:37:12.560><c> predict</c>

00:37:12.950 --> 00:37:12.960 align:start position:0%
first place? How do scientists predict
 

00:37:12.960 --> 00:37:14.790 align:start position:0%
first place? How do scientists predict
something<00:37:13.280><c> like</c><00:37:13.520><c> the</c><00:37:13.760><c> relative</c><00:37:14.160><c> abundance</c><00:37:14.640><c> of</c>

00:37:14.790 --> 00:37:14.800 align:start position:0%
something like the relative abundance of
 

00:37:14.800 --> 00:37:17.670 align:start position:0%
something like the relative abundance of
elements<00:37:15.119><c> in</c><00:37:15.359><c> the</c><00:37:15.520><c> universe?</c>

00:37:17.670 --> 00:37:17.680 align:start position:0%
elements in the universe?
 

00:37:17.680 --> 00:37:19.190 align:start position:0%
elements in the universe?
There<00:37:17.920><c> are</c><00:37:18.079><c> two</c><00:37:18.320><c> main</c><00:37:18.560><c> methods</c><00:37:18.960><c> of</c>

00:37:19.190 --> 00:37:19.200 align:start position:0%
There are two main methods of
 

00:37:19.200 --> 00:37:21.750 align:start position:0%
There are two main methods of
calculating<00:37:19.760><c> this.</c><00:37:20.480><c> The</c><00:37:20.720><c> spectroscopy</c><00:37:21.520><c> of</c>

00:37:21.750 --> 00:37:21.760 align:start position:0%
calculating this. The spectroscopy of
 

00:37:21.760 --> 00:37:24.150 align:start position:0%
calculating this. The spectroscopy of
stellar<00:37:22.160><c> photospheres</c><00:37:23.119><c> and</c><00:37:23.440><c> meteorite</c>

00:37:24.150 --> 00:37:24.160 align:start position:0%
stellar photospheres and meteorite
 

00:37:24.160 --> 00:37:26.870 align:start position:0%
stellar photospheres and meteorite
analysis.<00:37:25.359><c> By</c><00:37:25.599><c> analyzing</c><00:37:26.160><c> the</c><00:37:26.320><c> absorption</c>

00:37:26.870 --> 00:37:26.880 align:start position:0%
analysis. By analyzing the absorption
 

00:37:26.880 --> 00:37:28.870 align:start position:0%
analysis. By analyzing the absorption
lines<00:37:27.119><c> in</c><00:37:27.280><c> the</c><00:37:27.440><c> spectra</c><00:37:27.839><c> of</c><00:37:28.079><c> stars,</c>

00:37:28.870 --> 00:37:28.880 align:start position:0%
lines in the spectra of stars,
 

00:37:28.880 --> 00:37:30.710 align:start position:0%
lines in the spectra of stars,
astronomers<00:37:29.440><c> can</c><00:37:29.680><c> determine</c><00:37:30.079><c> the</c><00:37:30.320><c> relative</c>

00:37:30.710 --> 00:37:30.720 align:start position:0%
astronomers can determine the relative
 

00:37:30.720 --> 00:37:32.470 align:start position:0%
astronomers can determine the relative
abundances<00:37:31.359><c> of</c><00:37:31.680><c> elements</c><00:37:32.079><c> in</c><00:37:32.320><c> the</c>

00:37:32.470 --> 00:37:32.480 align:start position:0%
abundances of elements in the
 

00:37:32.480 --> 00:37:35.030 align:start position:0%
abundances of elements in the
photosphere<00:37:33.200><c> of</c><00:37:33.440><c> those</c><00:37:33.680><c> stars.</c><00:37:34.800><c> The</c>

00:37:35.030 --> 00:37:35.040 align:start position:0%
photosphere of those stars. The
 

00:37:35.040 --> 00:37:37.589 align:start position:0%
photosphere of those stars. The
composition<00:37:35.440><c> of</c><00:37:35.680><c> meteorites,</c><00:37:36.880><c> remnants</c><00:37:37.359><c> of</c>

00:37:37.589 --> 00:37:37.599 align:start position:0%
composition of meteorites, remnants of
 

00:37:37.599 --> 00:37:40.150 align:start position:0%
composition of meteorites, remnants of
an<00:37:37.839><c> early</c><00:37:38.240><c> solar</c><00:37:38.560><c> system,</c><00:37:39.280><c> are</c><00:37:39.440><c> analyzed</c><00:37:39.920><c> in</c>

00:37:40.150 --> 00:37:40.160 align:start position:0%
an early solar system, are analyzed in
 

00:37:40.160 --> 00:37:41.589 align:start position:0%
an early solar system, are analyzed in
parallel<00:37:40.560><c> to</c><00:37:40.800><c> determine</c><00:37:41.119><c> the</c><00:37:41.280><c> relative</c>

00:37:41.589 --> 00:37:41.599 align:start position:0%
parallel to determine the relative
 

00:37:41.599 --> 00:37:44.630 align:start position:0%
parallel to determine the relative
abundances<00:37:42.160><c> of</c><00:37:42.320><c> elements.</c><00:37:43.440><c> Meteorites</c><00:37:44.240><c> are</c>

00:37:44.630 --> 00:37:44.640 align:start position:0%
abundances of elements. Meteorites are
 

00:37:44.640 --> 00:37:46.310 align:start position:0%
abundances of elements. Meteorites are
especially<00:37:45.200><c> useful</c><00:37:45.520><c> for</c><00:37:45.760><c> measuring</c><00:37:46.160><c> the</c>

00:37:46.310 --> 00:37:46.320 align:start position:0%
especially useful for measuring the
 

00:37:46.320 --> 00:37:48.630 align:start position:0%
especially useful for measuring the
abundances<00:37:46.880><c> of</c><00:37:47.119><c> volatile</c><00:37:47.680><c> elements</c><00:37:48.240><c> like</c>

00:37:48.630 --> 00:37:48.640 align:start position:0%
abundances of volatile elements like
 

00:37:48.640 --> 00:37:51.670 align:start position:0%
abundances of volatile elements like
hydrogen,<00:37:49.520><c> helium,</c><00:37:50.320><c> and</c><00:37:50.560><c> noble</c><00:37:50.960><c> gases</c><00:37:51.359><c> that</c>

00:37:51.670 --> 00:37:51.680 align:start position:0%
hydrogen, helium, and noble gases that
 

00:37:51.680 --> 00:37:53.190 align:start position:0%
hydrogen, helium, and noble gases that
are<00:37:51.839><c> unrepresented</c><00:37:52.640><c> in</c><00:37:52.880><c> stellar</c>

00:37:53.190 --> 00:37:53.200 align:start position:0%
are unrepresented in stellar
 

00:37:53.200 --> 00:37:55.670 align:start position:0%
are unrepresented in stellar
photospheres.<00:37:54.560><c> The</c><00:37:54.800><c> results</c><00:37:55.119><c> of</c><00:37:55.359><c> both</c><00:37:55.599><c> of</c>

00:37:55.670 --> 00:37:55.680 align:start position:0%
photospheres. The results of both of
 

00:37:55.680 --> 00:37:58.069 align:start position:0%
photospheres. The results of both of
these<00:37:56.000><c> methods</c><00:37:56.400><c> are</c><00:37:56.640><c> usually</c><00:37:57.040><c> congruent,</c>

00:37:58.069 --> 00:37:58.079 align:start position:0%
these methods are usually congruent,
 

00:37:58.079 --> 00:37:59.670 align:start position:0%
these methods are usually congruent,
indicating<00:37:58.640><c> we're</c><00:37:59.040><c> probably</c><00:37:59.440><c> doing</c>

00:37:59.670 --> 00:37:59.680 align:start position:0%
indicating we're probably doing
 

00:37:59.680 --> 00:38:03.190 align:start position:0%
indicating we're probably doing
something<00:38:00.079><c> right.</c><00:38:01.040><c> But</c><00:38:01.440><c> this</c><00:38:01.760><c> is</c><00:38:02.079><c> physics,</c><00:38:02.880><c> so</c>

00:38:03.190 --> 00:38:03.200 align:start position:0%
something right. But this is physics, so
 

00:38:03.200 --> 00:38:06.470 align:start position:0%
something right. But this is physics, so
of<00:38:03.440><c> course</c><00:38:03.839><c> nothing</c><00:38:04.240><c> is</c><00:38:04.480><c> so</c><00:38:04.720><c> cut</c><00:38:04.880><c> and</c><00:38:05.119><c> dry.</c><00:38:06.160><c> One</c>

00:38:06.470 --> 00:38:06.480 align:start position:0%
of course nothing is so cut and dry. One
 

00:38:06.480 --> 00:38:08.390 align:start position:0%
of course nothing is so cut and dry. One
famous<00:38:06.960><c> exception</c><00:38:07.359><c> to</c><00:38:07.599><c> this</c><00:38:07.760><c> rule</c><00:38:08.079><c> is</c>

00:38:08.390 --> 00:38:08.400 align:start position:0%
famous exception to this rule is
 

00:38:08.400 --> 00:38:11.030 align:start position:0%
famous exception to this rule is
lithium.<00:38:09.599><c> According</c><00:38:10.079><c> to</c><00:38:10.160><c> the</c><00:38:10.400><c> standard</c><00:38:10.800><c> big</c>

00:38:11.030 --> 00:38:11.040 align:start position:0%
lithium. According to the standard big
 

00:38:11.040 --> 00:38:13.510 align:start position:0%
lithium. According to the standard big
bang<00:38:11.359><c> nucleiosynthesis</c><00:38:12.240><c> theory,</c><00:38:13.040><c> the</c><00:38:13.280><c> early</c>

00:38:13.510 --> 00:38:13.520 align:start position:0%
bang nucleiosynthesis theory, the early
 

00:38:13.520 --> 00:38:15.270 align:start position:0%
bang nucleiosynthesis theory, the early
universe<00:38:14.000><c> should</c><00:38:14.160><c> have</c><00:38:14.320><c> produced</c><00:38:14.720><c> about</c>

00:38:15.270 --> 00:38:15.280 align:start position:0%
universe should have produced about
 

00:38:15.280 --> 00:38:17.750 align:start position:0%
universe should have produced about
three<00:38:15.599><c> times</c><00:38:16.000><c> more</c><00:38:16.400><c> lithium</c><00:38:16.960><c> 7</c><00:38:17.280><c> than</c><00:38:17.520><c> is</c>

00:38:17.750 --> 00:38:17.760 align:start position:0%
three times more lithium 7 than is
 

00:38:17.760 --> 00:38:20.150 align:start position:0%
three times more lithium 7 than is
currently<00:38:18.160><c> observed.</c><00:38:19.200><c> The</c><00:38:19.440><c> plot</c><00:38:19.680><c> thickens</c>

00:38:20.150 --> 00:38:20.160 align:start position:0%
currently observed. The plot thickens
 

00:38:20.160 --> 00:38:23.349 align:start position:0%
currently observed. The plot thickens
when<00:38:20.400><c> we</c><00:38:20.640><c> consider</c><00:38:20.960><c> its</c><00:38:21.280><c> isotope,</c><00:38:22.079><c> lithium</c><00:38:22.720><c> 6,</c>

00:38:23.349 --> 00:38:23.359 align:start position:0%
when we consider its isotope, lithium 6,
 

00:38:23.359 --> 00:38:26.790 align:start position:0%
when we consider its isotope, lithium 6,
where<00:38:23.599><c> we</c><00:38:23.760><c> observe</c><00:38:24.560><c> 1,000</c><00:38:25.520><c> times</c><00:38:26.000><c> more</c><00:38:26.560><c> than</c>

00:38:26.790 --> 00:38:26.800 align:start position:0%
where we observe 1,000 times more than
 

00:38:26.800 --> 00:38:29.190 align:start position:0%
where we observe 1,000 times more than
our<00:38:27.040><c> predictions</c><00:38:27.520><c> can</c><00:38:27.680><c> account</c><00:38:28.000><c> for.</c><00:38:28.960><c> This</c>

00:38:29.190 --> 00:38:29.200 align:start position:0%
our predictions can account for. This
 

00:38:29.200 --> 00:38:31.349 align:start position:0%
our predictions can account for. This
discrepancy<00:38:29.920><c> is</c><00:38:30.160><c> known</c><00:38:30.400><c> as</c><00:38:30.640><c> the</c><00:38:30.800><c> lithium</c>

00:38:31.349 --> 00:38:31.359 align:start position:0%
discrepancy is known as the lithium
 

00:38:31.359 --> 00:38:34.390 align:start position:0%
discrepancy is known as the lithium
problem<00:38:32.000><c> and</c><00:38:32.320><c> remains</c><00:38:32.720><c> unsolved,</c><00:38:33.839><c> presenting</c>

00:38:34.390 --> 00:38:34.400 align:start position:0%
problem and remains unsolved, presenting
 

00:38:34.400 --> 00:38:36.470 align:start position:0%
problem and remains unsolved, presenting
a<00:38:34.720><c> significant</c><00:38:35.359><c> challenge</c><00:38:35.760><c> to</c><00:38:35.920><c> the</c><00:38:36.079><c> standard</c>

00:38:36.470 --> 00:38:36.480 align:start position:0%
a significant challenge to the standard
 

00:38:36.480 --> 00:38:38.790 align:start position:0%
a significant challenge to the standard
cosmological<00:38:37.200><c> model.</c><00:38:37.920><c> It</c><00:38:38.240><c> highlights</c><00:38:38.560><c> the</c>

00:38:38.790 --> 00:38:38.800 align:start position:0%
cosmological model. It highlights the
 

00:38:38.800 --> 00:38:40.150 align:start position:0%
cosmological model. It highlights the
importance<00:38:39.119><c> of</c><00:38:39.359><c> understanding</c><00:38:39.839><c> the</c>

00:38:40.150 --> 00:38:40.160 align:start position:0%
importance of understanding the
 

00:38:40.160 --> 00:38:41.750 align:start position:0%
importance of understanding the
processes<00:38:40.720><c> that</c><00:38:40.960><c> shape</c><00:38:41.200><c> the</c><00:38:41.359><c> relative</c>

00:38:41.750 --> 00:38:41.760 align:start position:0%
processes that shape the relative
 

00:38:41.760 --> 00:38:43.910 align:start position:0%
processes that shape the relative
abundances<00:38:42.320><c> of</c><00:38:42.560><c> elements</c><00:38:42.880><c> in</c><00:38:43.040><c> the</c><00:38:43.200><c> universe</c>

00:38:43.910 --> 00:38:43.920 align:start position:0%
abundances of elements in the universe
 

00:38:43.920 --> 00:38:45.670 align:start position:0%
abundances of elements in the universe
and<00:38:44.160><c> suggests</c><00:38:44.560><c> that</c><00:38:44.880><c> our</c><00:38:45.280><c> current</c>

00:38:45.670 --> 00:38:45.680 align:start position:0%
and suggests that our current
 

00:38:45.680 --> 00:38:48.069 align:start position:0%
and suggests that our current
understanding<00:38:46.240><c> of</c><00:38:46.480><c> nucleiosynthesis</c><00:38:47.839><c> might</c>

00:38:48.069 --> 00:38:48.079 align:start position:0%
understanding of nucleiosynthesis might
 

00:38:48.079 --> 00:38:51.270 align:start position:0%
understanding of nucleiosynthesis might
be<00:38:48.240><c> incomplete.</c>

00:38:51.270 --> 00:38:51.280 align:start position:0%
 
 

00:38:51.280 --> 00:38:53.910 align:start position:0%
 
Just<00:38:51.599><c> because</c><00:38:52.240><c> boat</c><00:38:52.560><c> didn't</c><00:38:52.800><c> yield</c><00:38:53.280><c> gold</c><00:38:53.680><c> as</c>

00:38:53.910 --> 00:38:53.920 align:start position:0%
Just because boat didn't yield gold as
 

00:38:53.920 --> 00:38:56.230 align:start position:0%
Just because boat didn't yield gold as
expected<00:38:54.800><c> doesn't</c><00:38:55.119><c> mean</c><00:38:55.359><c> we</c><00:38:55.599><c> should</c><00:38:55.760><c> discard</c>

00:38:56.230 --> 00:38:56.240 align:start position:0%
expected doesn't mean we should discard
 

00:38:56.240 --> 00:38:58.230 align:start position:0%
expected doesn't mean we should discard
these<00:38:56.560><c> kinds</c><00:38:56.720><c> of</c><00:38:56.880><c> extreme</c><00:38:57.280><c> gammaray</c><00:38:57.839><c> bursts</c>

00:38:58.230 --> 00:38:58.240 align:start position:0%
these kinds of extreme gammaray bursts
 

00:38:58.240 --> 00:39:00.310 align:start position:0%
these kinds of extreme gammaray bursts
as<00:38:58.560><c> places</c><00:38:58.880><c> where</c><00:38:59.200><c> heavy</c><00:38:59.520><c> elements</c><00:38:59.920><c> could</c><00:39:00.160><c> be</c>

00:39:00.310 --> 00:39:00.320 align:start position:0%
as places where heavy elements could be
 

00:39:00.320 --> 00:39:03.030 align:start position:0%
as places where heavy elements could be
made.<00:39:01.200><c> Observations</c><00:39:01.760><c> of</c><00:39:01.920><c> nearby</c><00:39:02.400><c> stars</c><00:39:02.800><c> have</c>

00:39:03.030 --> 00:39:03.040 align:start position:0%
made. Observations of nearby stars have
 

00:39:03.040 --> 00:39:05.430 align:start position:0%
made. Observations of nearby stars have
provided<00:39:03.520><c> strong</c><00:39:04.000><c> evidence</c><00:39:04.400><c> for</c><00:39:04.640><c> an</c><00:39:04.880><c> early</c><00:39:05.119><c> R</c>

00:39:05.430 --> 00:39:05.440 align:start position:0%
provided strong evidence for an early R
 

00:39:05.440 --> 00:39:07.510 align:start position:0%
provided strong evidence for an early R
process<00:39:05.920><c> that</c><00:39:06.160><c> enriched</c><00:39:06.720><c> the</c><00:39:06.960><c> universe</c><00:39:07.280><c> with</c>

00:39:07.510 --> 00:39:07.520 align:start position:0%
process that enriched the universe with
 

00:39:07.520 --> 00:39:10.390 align:start position:0%
process that enriched the universe with
heavy<00:39:07.839><c> elements.</c><00:39:09.040><c> But</c><00:39:09.200><c> the</c><00:39:09.440><c> boat</c><00:39:09.760><c> findings</c>

00:39:10.390 --> 00:39:10.400 align:start position:0%
heavy elements. But the boat findings
 

00:39:10.400 --> 00:39:13.030 align:start position:0%
heavy elements. But the boat findings
cannot<00:39:10.800><c> be</c><00:39:11.040><c> ignored</c><00:39:11.920><c> as</c><00:39:12.240><c> they</c><00:39:12.400><c> suggest</c><00:39:12.800><c> there</c>

00:39:13.030 --> 00:39:13.040 align:start position:0%
cannot be ignored as they suggest there
 

00:39:13.040 --> 00:39:15.910 align:start position:0%
cannot be ignored as they suggest there
may<00:39:13.200><c> be</c><00:39:13.520><c> alternative</c><00:39:14.640><c> currently</c><00:39:15.200><c> unknown</c>

00:39:15.910 --> 00:39:15.920 align:start position:0%
may be alternative currently unknown
 

00:39:15.920 --> 00:39:18.230 align:start position:0%
may be alternative currently unknown
processes<00:39:16.560><c> responsible</c><00:39:17.200><c> for</c><00:39:17.359><c> this</c><00:39:17.680><c> elemental</c>

00:39:18.230 --> 00:39:18.240 align:start position:0%
processes responsible for this elemental
 

00:39:18.240 --> 00:39:20.950 align:start position:0%
processes responsible for this elemental
enrichment<00:39:18.800><c> of</c><00:39:19.040><c> our</c><00:39:19.280><c> cosmos.</c><00:39:20.400><c> The</c><00:39:20.640><c> results</c>

00:39:20.950 --> 00:39:20.960 align:start position:0%
enrichment of our cosmos. The results
 

00:39:20.960 --> 00:39:23.349 align:start position:0%
enrichment of our cosmos. The results
may<00:39:21.200><c> call</c><00:39:21.520><c> into</c><00:39:21.839><c> question</c><00:39:22.240><c> our</c><00:39:22.480><c> entire</c><00:39:23.040><c> model</c>

00:39:23.349 --> 00:39:23.359 align:start position:0%
may call into question our entire model
 

00:39:23.359 --> 00:39:25.349 align:start position:0%
may call into question our entire model
of<00:39:23.599><c> understanding</c><00:39:24.400><c> regarding</c><00:39:24.960><c> collapse</c>

00:39:25.349 --> 00:39:25.359 align:start position:0%
of understanding regarding collapse
 

00:39:25.359 --> 00:39:27.270 align:start position:0%
of understanding regarding collapse
stars<00:39:25.680><c> and</c><00:39:25.920><c> their</c><00:39:26.160><c> role</c><00:39:26.400><c> in</c><00:39:26.640><c> creating</c><00:39:26.960><c> heavy</c>

00:39:27.270 --> 00:39:27.280 align:start position:0%
stars and their role in creating heavy
 

00:39:27.280 --> 00:39:30.790 align:start position:0%
stars and their role in creating heavy
elements.<00:39:28.560><c> This</c><00:39:28.880><c> discovery</c><00:39:29.599><c> is</c><00:39:30.000><c> much</c><00:39:30.400><c> bigger</c>

00:39:30.790 --> 00:39:30.800 align:start position:0%
elements. This discovery is much bigger
 

00:39:30.800 --> 00:39:33.670 align:start position:0%
elements. This discovery is much bigger
than<00:39:30.960><c> just</c><00:39:31.200><c> the</c><00:39:31.440><c> boat</c><00:39:31.839><c> or</c><00:39:32.240><c> gamma</c><00:39:32.560><c> rays.</c><00:39:33.440><c> It's</c>

00:39:33.670 --> 00:39:33.680 align:start position:0%
than just the boat or gamma rays. It's
 

00:39:33.680 --> 00:39:35.990 align:start position:0%
than just the boat or gamma rays. It's
about<00:39:33.920><c> the</c><00:39:34.160><c> literal</c><00:39:34.800><c> building</c><00:39:35.200><c> blocks</c><00:39:35.599><c> of</c><00:39:35.760><c> our</c>

00:39:35.990 --> 00:39:36.000 align:start position:0%
about the literal building blocks of our
 

00:39:36.000 --> 00:39:38.870 align:start position:0%
about the literal building blocks of our
universe<00:39:36.480><c> as</c><00:39:36.720><c> we</c><00:39:36.880><c> know</c><00:39:37.040><c> it.</c><00:39:37.839><c> Where</c><00:39:38.160><c> do</c><00:39:38.560><c> our</c>

00:39:38.870 --> 00:39:38.880 align:start position:0%
universe as we know it. Where do our
 

00:39:38.880 --> 00:39:41.430 align:start position:0%
universe as we know it. Where do our
different<00:39:39.280><c> atoms</c><00:39:39.760><c> come</c><00:39:39.920><c> from?</c><00:39:40.800><c> And</c><00:39:40.960><c> why</c><00:39:41.280><c> do</c>

00:39:41.430 --> 00:39:41.440 align:start position:0%
different atoms come from? And why do
 

00:39:41.440 --> 00:39:44.310 align:start position:0%
different atoms come from? And why do
they<00:39:41.599><c> exist</c><00:39:41.920><c> in</c><00:39:42.160><c> the</c><00:39:42.320><c> proportions</c><00:39:42.880><c> they</c><00:39:43.119><c> do?</c>

00:39:44.310 --> 00:39:44.320 align:start position:0%
they exist in the proportions they do?
 

00:39:44.320 --> 00:39:46.790 align:start position:0%
they exist in the proportions they do?
How<00:39:44.560><c> much</c><00:39:44.720><c> of</c><00:39:44.960><c> our</c><00:39:45.200><c> model</c><00:39:45.520><c> is</c><00:39:45.839><c> accurate</c><00:39:46.560><c> and</c>

00:39:46.790 --> 00:39:46.800 align:start position:0%
How much of our model is accurate and
 

00:39:46.800 --> 00:39:49.910 align:start position:0%
How much of our model is accurate and
how<00:39:46.960><c> much</c><00:39:47.119><c> is</c><00:39:47.359><c> missing?</c><00:39:48.720><c> What</c><00:39:48.960><c> role</c><00:39:49.359><c> does</c><00:39:49.599><c> dark</c>

00:39:49.910 --> 00:39:49.920 align:start position:0%
how much is missing? What role does dark
 

00:39:49.920 --> 00:39:53.109 align:start position:0%
how much is missing? What role does dark
matter<00:39:50.400><c> play</c><00:39:50.720><c> in</c><00:39:50.960><c> all</c><00:39:51.200><c> of</c><00:39:51.359><c> this?</c><00:39:52.400><c> We</c><00:39:52.640><c> need</c><00:39:52.800><c> more</c>

00:39:53.109 --> 00:39:53.119 align:start position:0%
matter play in all of this? We need more
 

00:39:53.119 --> 00:39:55.190 align:start position:0%
matter play in all of this? We need more
time<00:39:53.440><c> and</c><00:39:53.760><c> research</c><00:39:54.240><c> before</c><00:39:54.560><c> we</c><00:39:54.800><c> know</c><00:39:54.960><c> for</c>

00:39:55.190 --> 00:39:55.200 align:start position:0%
time and research before we know for
 

00:39:55.200 --> 00:39:58.150 align:start position:0%
time and research before we know for
sure.<00:39:55.599><c> But</c><00:39:55.839><c> the</c><00:39:56.000><c> boat</c><00:39:56.400><c> is</c><00:39:56.560><c> a</c><00:39:56.880><c> great</c><00:39:57.280><c> example</c><00:39:58.000><c> of</c>

00:39:58.150 --> 00:39:58.160 align:start position:0%
sure. But the boat is a great example of
 

00:39:58.160 --> 00:40:00.390 align:start position:0%
sure. But the boat is a great example of
how<00:39:58.480><c> new</c><00:39:58.720><c> findings</c><00:39:59.280><c> keep</c><00:39:59.520><c> our</c><00:39:59.920><c> understanding</c>

00:40:00.390 --> 00:40:00.400 align:start position:0%
how new findings keep our understanding
 

00:40:00.400 --> 00:40:03.829 align:start position:0%
how new findings keep our understanding
of<00:40:00.720><c> physics</c><00:40:01.359><c> ever</c><00:40:01.839><c> evolving,</c><00:40:02.960><c> just</c><00:40:03.200><c> like</c><00:40:03.599><c> the</c>

00:40:03.829 --> 00:40:03.839 align:start position:0%
of physics ever evolving, just like the
 

00:40:03.839 --> 00:40:06.470 align:start position:0%
of physics ever evolving, just like the
universe<00:40:04.320><c> itself.</c>

00:40:06.470 --> 00:40:06.480 align:start position:0%
universe itself.
 

00:40:06.480 --> 00:40:08.790 align:start position:0%
universe itself.
When<00:40:06.720><c> the</c><00:40:06.880><c> James</c><00:40:07.280><c> Web</c><00:40:07.599><c> Space</c><00:40:07.920><c> Telescope</c>

00:40:08.790 --> 00:40:08.800 align:start position:0%
When the James Web Space Telescope
 

00:40:08.800 --> 00:40:12.069 align:start position:0%
When the James Web Space Telescope
finally<00:40:09.359><c> saw</c><00:40:09.760><c> the</c><00:40:10.000><c> edges</c><00:40:10.480><c> of</c><00:40:10.800><c> the</c><00:40:11.119><c> universe,</c>

00:40:12.069 --> 00:40:12.079 align:start position:0%
finally saw the edges of the universe,
 

00:40:12.079 --> 00:40:15.349 align:start position:0%
finally saw the edges of the universe,
we<00:40:12.400><c> knew</c><00:40:12.560><c> we</c><00:40:12.880><c> had</c><00:40:13.119><c> a</c><00:40:13.440><c> problem.</c><00:40:13.702><c> [music]</c>

00:40:15.349 --> 00:40:15.359 align:start position:0%
we knew we had a problem. [music]
 

00:40:15.359 --> 00:40:17.430 align:start position:0%
we knew we had a problem. [music]
Web<00:40:15.760><c> was</c><00:40:15.920><c> able</c><00:40:16.079><c> to</c><00:40:16.240><c> resolve</c><00:40:16.720><c> light</c><00:40:16.960><c> emitted</c>

00:40:17.430 --> 00:40:17.440 align:start position:0%
Web was able to resolve light emitted
 

00:40:17.440 --> 00:40:20.710 align:start position:0%
Web was able to resolve light emitted
from<00:40:17.680><c> stars</c><00:40:18.400><c> 13</c><00:40:18.880><c> billion</c><00:40:19.280><c> years</c><00:40:19.520><c> ago,</c><00:40:20.400><c> helping</c>

00:40:20.710 --> 00:40:20.720 align:start position:0%
from stars 13 billion years ago, helping
 

00:40:20.720 --> 00:40:23.349 align:start position:0%
from stars 13 billion years ago, helping
us<00:40:20.960><c> to</c><00:40:21.119><c> peer</c><00:40:21.599><c> back</c><00:40:21.839><c> in</c><00:40:22.160><c> time</c><00:40:22.400><c> to</c><00:40:22.720><c> some</c><00:40:23.040><c> of</c><00:40:23.200><c> the</c>

00:40:23.349 --> 00:40:23.359 align:start position:0%
us to peer back in time to some of the
 

00:40:23.359 --> 00:40:26.870 align:start position:0%
us to peer back in time to some of the
universe's<00:40:24.240><c> earliest</c><00:40:24.800><c> moments.</c><00:40:26.160><c> But</c><00:40:26.480><c> what</c><00:40:26.720><c> we</c>

00:40:26.870 --> 00:40:26.880 align:start position:0%
universe's earliest moments. But what we
 

00:40:26.880 --> 00:40:30.390 align:start position:0%
universe's earliest moments. But what we
saw<00:40:27.280><c> was</c><00:40:27.599><c> not</c><00:40:28.000><c> a</c><00:40:28.480><c> sparsely</c><00:40:29.200><c> populated</c><00:40:29.920><c> proto</c>

00:40:30.390 --> 00:40:30.400 align:start position:0%
saw was not a sparsely populated proto
 

00:40:30.400 --> 00:40:33.030 align:start position:0%
saw was not a sparsely populated proto
universe<00:40:31.280><c> where</c><00:40:31.680><c> matter</c><00:40:32.079><c> was</c><00:40:32.320><c> only</c><00:40:32.640><c> just</c>

00:40:33.030 --> 00:40:33.040 align:start position:0%
universe where matter was only just
 

00:40:33.040 --> 00:40:36.230 align:start position:0%
universe where matter was only just
starting<00:40:33.440><c> to</c><00:40:33.599><c> coalesce</c><00:40:34.160><c> into</c><00:40:34.480><c> the</c><00:40:34.720><c> first</c><00:40:35.440><c> tiny</c>

00:40:36.230 --> 00:40:36.240 align:start position:0%
starting to coalesce into the first tiny
 

00:40:36.240 --> 00:40:39.430 align:start position:0%
starting to coalesce into the first tiny
intermittent<00:40:37.040><c> galaxies</c><00:40:37.839><c> here</c><00:40:38.160><c> and</c><00:40:38.400><c> there.</c>

00:40:39.430 --> 00:40:39.440 align:start position:0%
intermittent galaxies here and there.
 

00:40:39.440 --> 00:40:43.270 align:start position:0%
intermittent galaxies here and there.
The<00:40:39.680><c> early</c><00:40:40.079><c> universe</c><00:40:40.880><c> was</c><00:40:41.119><c> a</c><00:40:41.440><c> bustling</c><00:40:42.000><c> place.</c>

00:40:43.270 --> 00:40:43.280 align:start position:0%
The early universe was a bustling place.
 

00:40:43.280 --> 00:40:45.670 align:start position:0%
The early universe was a bustling place.
It<00:40:43.599><c> had</c><00:40:44.160><c> galaxies,</c>

00:40:45.670 --> 00:40:45.680 align:start position:0%
It had galaxies,
 

00:40:45.680 --> 00:40:49.750 align:start position:0%
It had galaxies,
too<00:40:46.240><c> many</c><00:40:46.560><c> of</c><00:40:46.720><c> them.</c><00:40:47.680><c> They</c><00:40:48.000><c> were</c><00:40:48.480><c> too</c><00:40:48.880><c> bright.</c>

00:40:49.750 --> 00:40:49.760 align:start position:0%
too many of them. They were too bright.
 

00:40:49.760 --> 00:40:52.230 align:start position:0%
too many of them. They were too bright.
And<00:40:49.920><c> the</c><00:40:50.160><c> black</c><00:40:50.400><c> holes</c><00:40:50.800><c> we</c><00:40:51.200><c> started</c><00:40:51.599><c> to</c><00:40:51.839><c> spot</c>

00:40:52.230 --> 00:40:52.240 align:start position:0%
And the black holes we started to spot
 

00:40:52.240 --> 00:40:55.990 align:start position:0%
And the black holes we started to spot
in<00:40:52.480><c> their</c><00:40:52.800><c> hearts</c><00:40:53.680><c> had</c><00:40:54.000><c> grown</c><00:40:54.400><c> too</c><00:40:54.720><c> big</c><00:40:55.599><c> too</c>

00:40:55.990 --> 00:40:56.000 align:start position:0%
in their hearts had grown too big too
 

00:40:56.000 --> 00:40:57.589 align:start position:0%
in their hearts had grown too big too
quickly.

00:40:57.589 --> 00:40:57.599 align:start position:0%
quickly.
 

00:40:57.599 --> 00:40:59.990 align:start position:0%
quickly.
Some<00:40:58.000><c> began</c><00:40:58.319><c> to</c><00:40:58.560><c> proclaim</c><00:40:58.960><c> that</c><00:40:59.280><c> our</c><00:40:59.599><c> models</c>

00:40:59.990 --> 00:41:00.000 align:start position:0%
Some began to proclaim that our models
 

00:41:00.000 --> 00:41:04.069 align:start position:0%
Some began to proclaim that our models
were<00:41:00.240><c> wrong</c><00:41:00.880><c> and</c><00:41:01.280><c> cosmology</c><00:41:02.079><c> was</c><00:41:02.319><c> in</c><00:41:02.560><c> crisis.</c>

00:41:04.069 --> 00:41:04.079 align:start position:0%
were wrong and cosmology was in crisis.
 

00:41:04.079 --> 00:41:06.069 align:start position:0%
were wrong and cosmology was in crisis.
And<00:41:04.319><c> while</c><00:41:04.640><c> some</c><00:41:04.800><c> of</c><00:41:04.880><c> these</c><00:41:05.200><c> problems</c><00:41:05.680><c> have</c>

00:41:06.069 --> 00:41:06.079 align:start position:0%
And while some of these problems have
 

00:41:06.079 --> 00:41:08.710 align:start position:0%
And while some of these problems have
begun<00:41:06.400><c> to</c><00:41:06.560><c> alleviate</c><00:41:07.280><c> as</c><00:41:07.760><c> better</c><00:41:08.079><c> data</c><00:41:08.480><c> came</c>

00:41:08.710 --> 00:41:08.720 align:start position:0%
begun to alleviate as better data came
 

00:41:08.720 --> 00:41:12.230 align:start position:0%
begun to alleviate as better data came
in,<00:41:09.440><c> other</c><00:41:09.760><c> problems</c><00:41:10.480><c> simply</c><00:41:10.960><c> became</c><00:41:11.680><c> more</c>

00:41:12.230 --> 00:41:12.240 align:start position:0%
in, other problems simply became more
 

00:41:12.240 --> 00:41:15.510 align:start position:0%
in, other problems simply became more
prominent.<00:41:13.440><c> But</c><00:41:13.599><c> in</c><00:41:13.760><c> a</c><00:41:14.000><c> strange</c><00:41:14.400><c> twist,</c><00:41:15.280><c> one</c>

00:41:15.510 --> 00:41:15.520 align:start position:0%
prominent. But in a strange twist, one
 

00:41:15.520 --> 00:41:17.990 align:start position:0%
prominent. But in a strange twist, one
of<00:41:15.599><c> the</c><00:41:15.839><c> most</c><00:41:16.240><c> resilient</c><00:41:16.960><c> mysteries</c><00:41:17.440><c> in</c><00:41:17.760><c> all</c>

00:41:17.990 --> 00:41:18.000 align:start position:0%
of the most resilient mysteries in all
 

00:41:18.000 --> 00:41:20.870 align:start position:0%
of the most resilient mysteries in all
of<00:41:18.160><c> this</c><00:41:18.800><c> might</c><00:41:19.119><c> be</c><00:41:19.280><c> about</c><00:41:19.520><c> to</c><00:41:19.680><c> unravel</c><00:41:20.640><c> thanks</c>

00:41:20.870 --> 00:41:20.880 align:start position:0%
of this might be about to unravel thanks
 

00:41:20.880 --> 00:41:22.950 align:start position:0%
of this might be about to unravel thanks
to<00:41:21.040><c> a</c><00:41:21.280><c> black</c><00:41:21.440><c> hole</c><00:41:21.760><c> with</c><00:41:21.920><c> an</c><00:41:22.160><c> impossibly</c><00:41:22.720><c> big</c>

00:41:22.950 --> 00:41:22.960 align:start position:0%
to a black hole with an impossibly big
 

00:41:22.960 --> 00:41:26.230 align:start position:0%
to a black hole with an impossibly big
appetite.

00:41:26.230 --> 00:41:26.240 align:start position:0%
 
 

00:41:26.240 --> 00:41:30.069 align:start position:0%
 
Its<00:41:26.560><c> name</c><00:41:27.119><c> is</c><00:41:27.599><c> lid</c><00:41:28.240><c> 568</c>

00:41:30.069 --> 00:41:30.079 align:start position:0%
Its name is lid 568
 

00:41:30.079 --> 00:41:33.030 align:start position:0%
Its name is lid 568
and<00:41:30.720><c> we've</c><00:41:31.119><c> just</c><00:41:31.359><c> seen</c><00:41:31.599><c> it</c><00:41:32.079><c> breaking</c><00:41:32.720><c> the</c>

00:41:33.030 --> 00:41:33.040 align:start position:0%
and we've just seen it breaking the
 

00:41:33.040 --> 00:41:36.390 align:start position:0%
and we've just seen it breaking the
Edington<00:41:33.680><c> limit</c><00:41:34.880><c> consuming</c><00:41:35.440><c> matter</c><00:41:35.920><c> faster</c>

00:41:36.390 --> 00:41:36.400 align:start position:0%
Edington limit consuming matter faster
 

00:41:36.400 --> 00:41:39.510 align:start position:0%
Edington limit consuming matter faster
than<00:41:36.560><c> it</c><00:41:36.800><c> should</c><00:41:36.960><c> be</c><00:41:37.040><c> able</c><00:41:37.280><c> to</c><00:41:38.160><c> and</c><00:41:38.480><c> it</c><00:41:39.200><c> might</c>

00:41:39.510 --> 00:41:39.520 align:start position:0%
than it should be able to and it might
 

00:41:39.520 --> 00:41:43.349 align:start position:0%
than it should be able to and it might
just<00:41:39.760><c> be</c><00:41:39.920><c> the</c><00:41:40.160><c> key</c><00:41:40.640><c> to</c><00:41:41.119><c> everything.</c>

00:41:43.349 --> 00:41:43.359 align:start position:0%
just be the key to everything.
 

00:41:43.359 --> 00:41:45.510 align:start position:0%
just be the key to everything.
I'm<00:41:43.680><c> Alex</c><00:41:44.000><c> Mccoan</c><00:41:44.720><c> and</c><00:41:45.040><c> you're</c><00:41:45.200><c> watching</c>

00:41:45.510 --> 00:41:45.520 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
 

00:41:45.520 --> 00:41:48.950 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
Astramm.<00:41:46.400><c> Join</c><00:41:46.720><c> me</c><00:41:46.960><c> today</c><00:41:47.280><c> as</c><00:41:47.599><c> we</c><00:41:47.839><c> explore</c><00:41:48.319><c> lid</c>

00:41:48.950 --> 00:41:48.960 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join me today as we explore lid
 

00:41:48.960 --> 00:41:52.710 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join me today as we explore lid
568,<00:41:50.160><c> the</c><00:41:50.400><c> Edington</c><00:41:50.880><c> limit,</c><00:41:51.760><c> and</c><00:41:52.319><c> its</c>

00:41:52.710 --> 00:41:52.720 align:start position:0%
568, the Edington limit, and its
 

00:41:52.720 --> 00:41:54.790 align:start position:0%
568, the Edington limit, and its
groundbreaking<00:41:53.520><c> implications</c><00:41:54.400><c> on</c>

00:41:54.790 --> 00:41:54.800 align:start position:0%
groundbreaking implications on
 

00:41:54.800 --> 00:41:56.390 align:start position:0%
groundbreaking implications on
cosmology.

00:41:56.390 --> 00:41:56.400 align:start position:0%
cosmology.
 

00:41:56.400 --> 00:41:59.589 align:start position:0%
cosmology.
A<00:41:56.640><c> black</c><00:41:56.880><c> hole</c><00:41:57.280><c> breaking</c><00:41:57.760><c> physics.</c><00:41:58.720><c> By</c><00:41:58.960><c> now,</c><00:41:59.359><c> I</c>

00:41:59.589 --> 00:41:59.599 align:start position:0%
A black hole breaking physics. By now, I
 

00:41:59.599 --> 00:42:03.990 align:start position:0%
A black hole breaking physics. By now, I
really<00:41:59.839><c> shouldn't</c><00:42:00.240><c> be</c><00:42:00.400><c> surprised.</c>

00:42:03.990 --> 00:42:04.000 align:start position:0%
 
 

00:42:04.000 --> 00:42:06.870 align:start position:0%
 
It<00:42:04.400><c> takes</c><00:42:04.720><c> time</c><00:42:04.960><c> to</c><00:42:05.520><c> up</c><00:42:05.680><c> a</c><00:42:05.920><c> galaxy.</c>

00:42:06.870 --> 00:42:06.880 align:start position:0%
It takes time to up a galaxy.
 

00:42:06.880 --> 00:42:08.950 align:start position:0%
It takes time to up a galaxy.
Interstellar<00:42:07.599><c> gas</c><00:42:07.674><c> [music]</c><00:42:07.920><c> and</c><00:42:08.160><c> dust</c><00:42:08.640><c> need</c>

00:42:08.950 --> 00:42:08.960 align:start position:0%
Interstellar gas [music] and dust need
 

00:42:08.960 --> 00:42:11.030 align:start position:0%
Interstellar gas [music] and dust need
time<00:42:09.280><c> to</c><00:42:09.599><c> subtly</c><00:42:10.160><c> come</c><00:42:10.400><c> together</c><00:42:10.720><c> under</c>

00:42:11.030 --> 00:42:11.040 align:start position:0%
time to subtly come together under
 

00:42:11.040 --> 00:42:14.150 align:start position:0%
time to subtly come together under
gravity<00:42:11.839><c> until</c><00:42:12.240><c> a</c><00:42:12.560><c> critical</c><00:42:13.040><c> mass</c><00:42:13.359><c> is</c><00:42:13.599><c> reached</c>

00:42:14.150 --> 00:42:14.160 align:start position:0%
gravity until a critical mass is reached
 

00:42:14.160 --> 00:42:17.030 align:start position:0%
gravity until a critical mass is reached
and<00:42:14.224><c> [music]</c><00:42:14.480><c> stars</c><00:42:14.880><c> begin</c><00:42:15.119><c> to</c><00:42:15.440><c> ignite.</c><00:42:16.720><c> These</c>

00:42:17.030 --> 00:42:17.040 align:start position:0%
and [music] stars begin to ignite. These
 

00:42:17.040 --> 00:42:19.430 align:start position:0%
and [music] stars begin to ignite. These
stars<00:42:17.440><c> live</c><00:42:17.760><c> and</c><00:42:18.079><c> die</c><00:42:18.720><c> and</c><00:42:18.960><c> from</c><00:42:19.200><c> their</c>

00:42:19.430 --> 00:42:19.440 align:start position:0%
stars live and die and from their
 

00:42:19.440 --> 00:42:22.710 align:start position:0%
stars live and die and from their
deaths,<00:42:20.079><c> new</c><00:42:20.319><c> stars</c><00:42:20.640><c> are</c><00:42:20.800><c> formed.</c><00:42:21.839><c> This</c><00:42:22.240><c> too</c>

00:42:22.710 --> 00:42:22.720 align:start position:0%
deaths, new stars are formed. This too
 

00:42:22.720 --> 00:42:25.510 align:start position:0%
deaths, new stars are formed. This too
takes<00:42:23.119><c> time.</c><00:42:24.000><c> Cosmologists</c><00:42:24.800><c> have</c><00:42:25.119><c> observed</c>

00:42:25.510 --> 00:42:25.520 align:start position:0%
takes time. Cosmologists have observed
 

00:42:25.520 --> 00:42:27.510 align:start position:0%
takes time. Cosmologists have observed
our<00:42:25.920><c> universe</c><00:42:26.560><c> and</c><00:42:26.669><c> [music]</c><00:42:26.880><c> based</c><00:42:27.200><c> on</c><00:42:27.359><c> what</c>

00:42:27.510 --> 00:42:27.520 align:start position:0%
our universe and [music] based on what
 

00:42:27.520 --> 00:42:30.710 align:start position:0%
our universe and [music] based on what
they<00:42:27.760><c> saw</c><00:42:28.560><c> created</c><00:42:29.040><c> models</c><00:42:29.440><c> for</c><00:42:29.680><c> how</c><00:42:30.000><c> old</c><00:42:30.400><c> our</c>

00:42:30.710 --> 00:42:30.720 align:start position:0%
they saw created models for how old our
 

00:42:30.720 --> 00:42:33.270 align:start position:0%
they saw created models for how old our
universe<00:42:31.200><c> is</c><00:42:31.680><c> and</c><00:42:32.000><c> how</c><00:42:32.240><c> quickly</c><00:42:32.720><c> galaxies</c>

00:42:33.270 --> 00:42:33.280 align:start position:0%
universe is and how quickly galaxies
 

00:42:33.280 --> 00:42:35.430 align:start position:0%
universe is and how quickly galaxies
form.<00:42:34.240><c> which</c><00:42:34.480><c> is</c><00:42:34.529><c> [music]</c><00:42:34.640><c> why</c><00:42:34.960><c> the</c><00:42:35.119><c> James</c>

00:42:35.430 --> 00:42:35.440 align:start position:0%
form. which is [music] why the James
 

00:42:35.440 --> 00:42:38.470 align:start position:0%
form. which is [music] why the James
Webb<00:42:35.760><c> Space</c><00:42:36.079><c> Telescope</c><00:42:36.640><c> data</c><00:42:37.280><c> caused</c><00:42:37.920><c> such</c><00:42:38.240><c> a</c>

00:42:38.470 --> 00:42:38.480 align:start position:0%
Webb Space Telescope data caused such a
 

00:42:38.480 --> 00:42:41.670 align:start position:0%
Webb Space Telescope data caused such a
crisis.<00:42:39.599><c> Things</c><00:42:40.240><c> were</c><00:42:40.560><c> not</c><00:42:40.800><c> as</c><00:42:41.119><c> the</c><00:42:41.280><c> models</c>

00:42:41.670 --> 00:42:41.680 align:start position:0%
crisis. Things were not as the models
 

00:42:41.680 --> 00:42:43.109 align:start position:0%
crisis. Things were not as the models
predicted.<00:42:42.389><c> [music]</c>

00:42:43.109 --> 00:42:43.119 align:start position:0%
predicted. [music]
 

00:42:43.119 --> 00:42:45.270 align:start position:0%
predicted. [music]
Fortunately,<00:42:44.079><c> some</c><00:42:44.319><c> of</c><00:42:44.480><c> those</c><00:42:44.720><c> problems</c>

00:42:45.270 --> 00:42:45.280 align:start position:0%
Fortunately, some of those problems
 

00:42:45.280 --> 00:42:47.589 align:start position:0%
Fortunately, some of those problems
proved<00:42:45.839><c> solvable</c><00:42:46.480><c> in</c><00:42:46.640><c> the</c><00:42:46.880><c> months</c><00:42:47.119><c> after</c><00:42:47.440><c> the</c>

00:42:47.589 --> 00:42:47.599 align:start position:0%
proved solvable in the months after the
 

00:42:47.599 --> 00:42:50.150 align:start position:0%
proved solvable in the months after the
data<00:42:47.920><c> was</c><00:42:48.160><c> released.</c><00:42:49.119><c> For</c><00:42:49.280><c> example,</c><00:42:49.920><c> the</c>

00:42:50.150 --> 00:42:50.160 align:start position:0%
data was released. For example, the
 

00:42:50.160 --> 00:42:51.910 align:start position:0%
data was released. For example, the
brightness<00:42:50.560><c> of</c><00:42:50.720><c> the</c><00:42:50.880><c> galaxies</c><00:42:51.359><c> we</c><00:42:51.599><c> could</c><00:42:51.680><c> see</c>

00:42:51.910 --> 00:42:51.920 align:start position:0%
brightness of the galaxies we could see
 

00:42:51.920 --> 00:42:54.470 align:start position:0%
brightness of the galaxies we could see
through<00:42:52.240><c> web.</c><00:42:53.200><c> This</c><00:42:53.440><c> brightness</c><00:42:53.920><c> implied</c>

00:42:54.470 --> 00:42:54.480 align:start position:0%
through web. This brightness implied
 

00:42:54.480 --> 00:42:56.630 align:start position:0%
through web. This brightness implied
that<00:42:54.800><c> there</c><00:42:55.040><c> were</c><00:42:55.200><c> far</c><00:42:55.520><c> too</c><00:42:55.760><c> many</c><00:42:56.079><c> stars</c>

00:42:56.630 --> 00:42:56.640 align:start position:0%
that there were far too many stars
 

00:42:56.640 --> 00:43:00.150 align:start position:0%
that there were far too many stars
present<00:42:57.040><c> in</c><00:42:57.280><c> those</c><00:42:57.520><c> galaxies.</c><00:42:58.960><c> So</c><00:42:59.200><c> many</c><00:42:59.520><c> stars</c>

00:43:00.150 --> 00:43:00.160 align:start position:0%
present in those galaxies. So many stars
 

00:43:00.160 --> 00:43:03.030 align:start position:0%
present in those galaxies. So many stars
should<00:43:00.400><c> have</c><00:43:00.560><c> taken</c><00:43:01.200><c> much</c><00:43:01.520><c> longer</c><00:43:01.839><c> to</c><00:43:02.000><c> form.</c>

00:43:03.030 --> 00:43:03.040 align:start position:0%
should have taken much longer to form.
 

00:43:03.040 --> 00:43:06.390 align:start position:0%
should have taken much longer to form.
And<00:43:03.280><c> yet</c><00:43:03.920><c> there</c><00:43:04.079><c> they</c><00:43:04.400><c> were,</c><00:43:05.119><c> fuzzy</c><00:43:05.680><c> red</c><00:43:06.000><c> dots</c>

00:43:06.390 --> 00:43:06.400 align:start position:0%
And yet there they were, fuzzy red dots
 

00:43:06.400 --> 00:43:09.030 align:start position:0%
And yet there they were, fuzzy red dots
at<00:43:06.560><c> the</c><00:43:06.720><c> edge</c><00:43:06.960><c> of</c><00:43:07.200><c> Web's</c><00:43:07.599><c> resolution.</c>

00:43:09.030 --> 00:43:09.040 align:start position:0%
at the edge of Web's resolution.
 

00:43:09.040 --> 00:43:11.030 align:start position:0%
at the edge of Web's resolution.
However,<00:43:09.440><c> scientists</c><00:43:10.000><c> at</c><00:43:10.160><c> the</c><00:43:10.400><c> University</c><00:43:10.800><c> of</c>

00:43:11.030 --> 00:43:11.040 align:start position:0%
However, scientists at the University of
 

00:43:11.040 --> 00:43:13.910 align:start position:0%
However, scientists at the University of
Texas<00:43:11.680><c> studying</c><00:43:12.160><c> Web's</c><00:43:12.720><c> cosmic</c><00:43:13.200><c> evolution</c>

00:43:13.910 --> 00:43:13.920 align:start position:0%
Texas studying Web's cosmic evolution
 

00:43:13.920 --> 00:43:16.309 align:start position:0%
Texas studying Web's cosmic evolution
early<00:43:14.319><c> release</c><00:43:14.640><c> survey</c><00:43:15.440><c> realized</c><00:43:16.000><c> there</c>

00:43:16.309 --> 00:43:16.319 align:start position:0%
early release survey realized there
 

00:43:16.319 --> 00:43:18.550 align:start position:0%
early release survey realized there
could<00:43:16.480><c> be</c><00:43:16.800><c> another</c><00:43:17.200><c> explanation</c><00:43:17.920><c> for</c><00:43:18.240><c> all</c>

00:43:18.550 --> 00:43:18.560 align:start position:0%
could be another explanation for all
 

00:43:18.560 --> 00:43:20.710 align:start position:0%
could be another explanation for all
that<00:43:18.880><c> excess</c><00:43:19.069><c> [music]</c><00:43:19.359><c> light.</c><00:43:20.160><c> And</c>

00:43:20.710 --> 00:43:20.720 align:start position:0%
that excess [music] light. And
 

00:43:20.720 --> 00:43:22.309 align:start position:0%
that excess [music] light. And
counterintuitively,

00:43:22.309 --> 00:43:22.319 align:start position:0%
counterintuitively,
 

00:43:22.319 --> 00:43:26.390 align:start position:0%
counterintuitively,
that<00:43:22.640><c> explanation</c><00:43:23.520><c> was</c><00:43:24.480><c> black</c><00:43:24.720><c> holes.</c>

00:43:26.390 --> 00:43:26.400 align:start position:0%
that explanation was black holes.
 

00:43:26.400 --> 00:43:28.069 align:start position:0%
that explanation was black holes.
If<00:43:26.560><c> we</c><00:43:26.720><c> work</c><00:43:26.960><c> under</c><00:43:27.200><c> the</c><00:43:27.440><c> assumption</c><00:43:27.760><c> that</c>

00:43:28.069 --> 00:43:28.079 align:start position:0%
If we work under the assumption that
 

00:43:28.079 --> 00:43:30.790 align:start position:0%
If we work under the assumption that
there<00:43:28.400><c> were</c><00:43:28.880><c> massive</c><00:43:29.599><c> black</c><00:43:29.920><c> holes</c><00:43:30.319><c> in</c><00:43:30.560><c> these</c>

00:43:30.790 --> 00:43:30.800 align:start position:0%
there were massive black holes in these
 

00:43:30.800 --> 00:43:34.230 align:start position:0%
there were massive black holes in these
galaxies<00:43:31.680><c> rapidly</c><00:43:32.319><c> consuming</c><00:43:32.960><c> cosmic</c><00:43:33.440><c> gas,</c>

00:43:34.230 --> 00:43:34.240 align:start position:0%
galaxies rapidly consuming cosmic gas,
 

00:43:34.240 --> 00:43:36.710 align:start position:0%
galaxies rapidly consuming cosmic gas,
then<00:43:34.480><c> the</c><00:43:34.720><c> intense</c><00:43:35.280><c> friction</c><00:43:35.839><c> given</c><00:43:36.240><c> off</c><00:43:36.480><c> by</c>

00:43:36.710 --> 00:43:36.720 align:start position:0%
then the intense friction given off by
 

00:43:36.720 --> 00:43:39.589 align:start position:0%
then the intense friction given off by
these<00:43:37.119><c> hungry</c><00:43:37.520><c> leviathans</c><00:43:38.400><c> as</c><00:43:38.720><c> they</c><00:43:38.960><c> ate</c>

00:43:39.589 --> 00:43:39.599 align:start position:0%
these hungry leviathans as they ate
 

00:43:39.599 --> 00:43:42.069 align:start position:0%
these hungry leviathans as they ate
created<00:43:40.079><c> an</c><00:43:40.400><c> excess</c><00:43:40.960><c> of</c><00:43:41.280><c> light</c><00:43:41.599><c> in</c><00:43:41.839><c> their</c>

00:43:42.069 --> 00:43:42.079 align:start position:0%
created an excess of light in their
 

00:43:42.079 --> 00:43:44.950 align:start position:0%
created an excess of light in their
accretion<00:43:42.640><c> discs.</c><00:43:44.000><c> This</c><00:43:44.240><c> explains</c><00:43:44.720><c> why</c>

00:43:44.950 --> 00:43:44.960 align:start position:0%
accretion discs. This explains why
 

00:43:44.960 --> 00:43:47.670 align:start position:0%
accretion discs. This explains why
galaxies<00:43:45.599><c> overall</c><00:43:46.160><c> seemed</c><00:43:46.640><c> brighter</c><00:43:47.359><c> and</c>

00:43:47.670 --> 00:43:47.680 align:start position:0%
galaxies overall seemed brighter and
 

00:43:47.680 --> 00:43:50.790 align:start position:0%
galaxies overall seemed brighter and
were<00:43:48.079><c> throwing</c><00:43:48.560><c> off</c><00:43:48.800><c> our</c><00:43:49.119><c> estimates.</c><00:43:50.480><c> Once</c>

00:43:50.790 --> 00:43:50.800 align:start position:0%
were throwing off our estimates. Once
 

00:43:50.800 --> 00:43:53.990 align:start position:0%
were throwing off our estimates. Once
you<00:43:51.040><c> add</c><00:43:51.359><c> these</c><00:43:51.839><c> shining</c><00:43:52.480><c> black</c><00:43:52.720><c> holes,</c><00:43:53.599><c> you</c>

00:43:53.990 --> 00:43:54.000 align:start position:0%
you add these shining black holes, you
 

00:43:54.000 --> 00:43:56.710 align:start position:0%
you add these shining black holes, you
don't<00:43:54.240><c> need</c><00:43:54.400><c> so</c><00:43:54.640><c> many</c><00:43:54.880><c> stars.</c><00:43:55.839><c> The</c><00:43:56.160><c> mass</c><00:43:56.480><c> of</c>

00:43:56.710 --> 00:43:56.720 align:start position:0%
don't need so many stars. The mass of
 

00:43:56.720 --> 00:43:59.270 align:start position:0%
don't need so many stars. The mass of
each<00:43:57.119><c> problematic</c><00:43:57.839><c> galaxy</c><00:43:58.319><c> dropped</c><00:43:58.960><c> and</c>

00:43:59.270 --> 00:43:59.280 align:start position:0%
each problematic galaxy dropped and
 

00:43:59.280 --> 00:44:01.430 align:start position:0%
each problematic galaxy dropped and
everything<00:43:59.760><c> fell</c><00:44:00.079><c> back</c><00:44:00.319><c> into</c><00:44:00.640><c> line</c><00:44:00.960><c> with</c><00:44:01.200><c> the</c>

00:44:01.430 --> 00:44:01.440 align:start position:0%
everything fell back into line with the
 

00:44:01.440 --> 00:44:05.829 align:start position:0%
everything fell back into line with the
cosmological<00:44:02.240><c> model.</c><00:44:03.200><c> Problem</c><00:44:03.839><c> solved.</c>

00:44:05.829 --> 00:44:05.839 align:start position:0%
cosmological model. Problem solved.
 

00:44:05.839 --> 00:44:07.910 align:start position:0%
cosmological model. Problem solved.
This<00:44:06.079><c> reinforced</c><00:44:06.800><c> how</c><00:44:07.119><c> important</c><00:44:07.680><c> black</c>

00:44:07.910 --> 00:44:07.920 align:start position:0%
This reinforced how important black
 

00:44:07.920 --> 00:44:10.470 align:start position:0%
This reinforced how important black
holes<00:44:08.400><c> are</c><00:44:08.800><c> to</c><00:44:09.119><c> our</c><00:44:09.440><c> understanding</c><00:44:10.079><c> of</c><00:44:10.319><c> the</c>

00:44:10.470 --> 00:44:10.480 align:start position:0%
holes are to our understanding of the
 

00:44:10.480 --> 00:44:13.190 align:start position:0%
holes are to our understanding of the
early<00:44:10.800><c> universe,</c><00:44:11.760><c> which</c><00:44:12.319><c> was</c><00:44:12.640><c> in</c><00:44:12.800><c> and</c><00:44:13.040><c> of</c>

00:44:13.190 --> 00:44:13.200 align:start position:0%
early universe, which was in and of
 

00:44:13.200 --> 00:44:15.589 align:start position:0%
early universe, which was in and of
itself<00:44:13.599><c> a</c><00:44:13.920><c> problem</c><00:44:14.560><c> because</c><00:44:14.800><c> the</c><00:44:15.040><c> black</c><00:44:15.200><c> holes</c>

00:44:15.589 --> 00:44:15.599 align:start position:0%
itself a problem because the black holes
 

00:44:15.599 --> 00:44:19.030 align:start position:0%
itself a problem because the black holes
themselves<00:44:16.480><c> broke</c><00:44:16.880><c> our</c><00:44:17.200><c> models,</c><00:44:17.680><c> too.</c><00:44:18.720><c> In</c>

00:44:19.030 --> 00:44:19.040 align:start position:0%
themselves broke our models, too. In
 

00:44:19.040 --> 00:44:21.270 align:start position:0%
themselves broke our models, too. In
particular,<00:44:19.760><c> cosmologists</c><00:44:20.640><c> struggled</c><00:44:21.119><c> with</c>

00:44:21.270 --> 00:44:21.280 align:start position:0%
particular, cosmologists struggled with
 

00:44:21.280 --> 00:44:23.430 align:start position:0%
particular, cosmologists struggled with
the<00:44:21.440><c> thorny</c><00:44:21.920><c> question</c><00:44:22.240><c> of</c><00:44:22.480><c> how</c><00:44:22.800><c> they'd</c><00:44:23.200><c> come</c>

00:44:23.430 --> 00:44:23.440 align:start position:0%
the thorny question of how they'd come
 

00:44:23.440 --> 00:44:25.750 align:start position:0%
the thorny question of how they'd come
to<00:44:23.680><c> be.</c>

00:44:25.750 --> 00:44:25.760 align:start position:0%
to be.
 

00:44:25.760 --> 00:44:28.309 align:start position:0%
to be.
For<00:44:26.000><c> small</c><00:44:26.319><c> black</c><00:44:26.560><c> holes</c><00:44:27.200><c> known</c><00:44:27.520><c> as</c><00:44:27.839><c> stellar</c>

00:44:28.309 --> 00:44:28.319 align:start position:0%
For small black holes known as stellar
 

00:44:28.319 --> 00:44:31.030 align:start position:0%
For small black holes known as stellar
black<00:44:28.560><c> holes,</c><00:44:29.200><c> there</c><00:44:29.440><c> was</c><00:44:29.680><c> no</c><00:44:29.920><c> issue.</c><00:44:30.640><c> Stella</c>

00:44:31.030 --> 00:44:31.040 align:start position:0%
black holes, there was no issue. Stella
 

00:44:31.040 --> 00:44:34.150 align:start position:0%
black holes, there was no issue. Stella
black<00:44:31.280><c> holes</c><00:44:31.680><c> have</c><00:44:31.920><c> masses</c><00:44:32.480><c> a</c><00:44:32.720><c> few</c><00:44:33.280><c> to</c><00:44:33.839><c> 100</c>

00:44:34.150 --> 00:44:34.160 align:start position:0%
black holes have masses a few to 100
 

00:44:34.160 --> 00:44:36.950 align:start position:0%
black holes have masses a few to 100
times<00:44:34.480><c> that</c><00:44:34.720><c> of</c><00:44:34.960><c> our</c><00:44:35.200><c> sun.</c><00:44:35.839><c> And</c><00:44:36.000><c> we</c><00:44:36.240><c> understand</c>

00:44:36.950 --> 00:44:36.960 align:start position:0%
times that of our sun. And we understand
 

00:44:36.960 --> 00:44:39.990 align:start position:0%
times that of our sun. And we understand
very<00:44:37.280><c> well</c><00:44:37.599><c> how</c><00:44:37.920><c> they</c><00:44:38.079><c> are</c><00:44:38.240><c> formed.</c>

00:44:39.990 --> 00:44:40.000 align:start position:0%
very well how they are formed.
 

00:44:40.000 --> 00:44:42.309 align:start position:0%
very well how they are formed.
They<00:44:40.319><c> are</c><00:44:40.560><c> the</c><00:44:40.800><c> collapsed</c><00:44:41.280><c> remnants</c><00:44:41.760><c> of</c><00:44:42.000><c> a</c>

00:44:42.309 --> 00:44:42.319 align:start position:0%
They are the collapsed remnants of a
 

00:44:42.319 --> 00:44:44.790 align:start position:0%
They are the collapsed remnants of a
sufficiently<00:44:42.960><c> massive</c><00:44:43.440><c> star</c><00:44:44.240><c> and</c><00:44:44.480><c> there</c>

00:44:44.790 --> 00:44:44.800 align:start position:0%
sufficiently massive star and there
 

00:44:44.800 --> 00:44:46.390 align:start position:0%
sufficiently massive star and there
would<00:44:44.960><c> have</c><00:44:45.119><c> been</c><00:44:45.280><c> time</c><00:44:45.599><c> for</c><00:44:45.839><c> such</c><00:44:46.160><c> black</c>

00:44:46.390 --> 00:44:46.400 align:start position:0%
would have been time for such black
 

00:44:46.400 --> 00:44:49.670 align:start position:0%
would have been time for such black
holes<00:44:46.720><c> to</c><00:44:46.960><c> form</c><00:44:47.359><c> in</c><00:44:47.599><c> the</c><00:44:47.760><c> early</c><00:44:48.079><c> universe.</c><00:44:49.440><c> But</c>

00:44:49.670 --> 00:44:49.680 align:start position:0%
holes to form in the early universe. But
 

00:44:49.680 --> 00:44:51.750 align:start position:0%
holes to form in the early universe. But
scientists<00:44:50.160><c> were</c><00:44:50.400><c> struggling</c><00:44:51.040><c> with</c><00:44:51.359><c> the</c>

00:44:51.750 --> 00:44:51.760 align:start position:0%
scientists were struggling with the
 

00:44:51.760 --> 00:44:54.950 align:start position:0%
scientists were struggling with the
super<00:44:52.319><c> massive</c><00:44:52.800><c> black</c><00:44:53.040><c> holes</c><00:44:53.920><c> with</c><00:44:54.240><c> masses</c>

00:44:54.950 --> 00:44:54.960 align:start position:0%
super massive black holes with masses
 

00:44:54.960 --> 00:44:58.069 align:start position:0%
super massive black holes with masses
tens<00:44:55.359><c> of</c><00:44:55.599><c> thousands</c><00:44:56.640><c> to</c><00:44:57.040><c> billions</c><00:44:57.520><c> of</c><00:44:57.760><c> times</c>

00:44:58.069 --> 00:44:58.079 align:start position:0%
tens of thousands to billions of times
 

00:44:58.079 --> 00:45:00.309 align:start position:0%
tens of thousands to billions of times
that<00:44:58.319><c> of</c><00:44:58.480><c> our</c><00:44:58.720><c> sun</c><00:44:59.200><c> which</c><00:44:59.440><c> tend</c><00:44:59.680><c> to</c><00:44:59.839><c> lurk</c><00:45:00.079><c> at</c>

00:45:00.309 --> 00:45:00.319 align:start position:0%
that of our sun which tend to lurk at
 

00:45:00.319 --> 00:45:03.030 align:start position:0%
that of our sun which tend to lurk at
the<00:45:00.480><c> central</c><00:45:00.880><c> point</c><00:45:01.119><c> of</c><00:45:01.359><c> galaxies</c><00:45:02.400><c> and</c><00:45:02.640><c> due</c><00:45:02.800><c> to</c>

00:45:03.030 --> 00:45:03.040 align:start position:0%
the central point of galaxies and due to
 

00:45:03.040 --> 00:45:05.510 align:start position:0%
the central point of galaxies and due to
something<00:45:03.359><c> called</c><00:45:03.520><c> the</c><00:45:03.760><c> Edington</c><00:45:04.319><c> limit.</c>

00:45:05.510 --> 00:45:05.520 align:start position:0%
something called the Edington limit.
 

00:45:05.520 --> 00:45:07.510 align:start position:0%
something called the Edington limit.
There<00:45:05.839><c> just</c><00:45:06.160><c> shouldn't</c><00:45:06.560><c> have</c><00:45:06.720><c> been</c><00:45:06.960><c> time</c><00:45:07.280><c> for</c>

00:45:07.510 --> 00:45:07.520 align:start position:0%
There just shouldn't have been time for
 

00:45:07.520 --> 00:45:09.430 align:start position:0%
There just shouldn't have been time for
these<00:45:07.920><c> kinds</c><00:45:08.240><c> of</c><00:45:08.400><c> black</c><00:45:08.640><c> holes</c><00:45:09.040><c> to</c><00:45:09.280><c> have</c>

00:45:09.430 --> 00:45:09.440 align:start position:0%
these kinds of black holes to have
 

00:45:09.440 --> 00:45:13.030 align:start position:0%
these kinds of black holes to have
formed<00:45:10.000><c> where</c><00:45:10.480><c> and</c><00:45:10.880><c> when</c><00:45:11.359><c> webb</c><00:45:11.680><c> saw</c><00:45:12.000><c> them.</c><00:45:12.880><c> And</c>

00:45:13.030 --> 00:45:13.040 align:start position:0%
formed where and when webb saw them. And
 

00:45:13.040 --> 00:45:16.069 align:start position:0%
formed where and when webb saw them. And
yet<00:45:13.680><c> there</c><00:45:13.920><c> they</c><00:45:14.160><c> were</c><00:45:15.040><c> and</c><00:45:15.359><c> they</c><00:45:15.680><c> were</c>

00:45:16.069 --> 00:45:16.079 align:start position:0%
yet there they were and they were
 

00:45:16.079 --> 00:45:18.710 align:start position:0%
yet there they were and they were
numerous.

00:45:18.710 --> 00:45:18.720 align:start position:0%
numerous.
 

00:45:18.720 --> 00:45:21.829 align:start position:0%
numerous.
Stella<00:45:19.200><c> black</c><00:45:19.359><c> holes</c><00:45:20.240><c> can</c><00:45:20.720><c> grow</c><00:45:21.119><c> as</c><00:45:21.359><c> time</c><00:45:21.599><c> goes</c>

00:45:21.829 --> 00:45:21.839 align:start position:0%
Stella black holes can grow as time goes
 

00:45:21.839 --> 00:45:24.470 align:start position:0%
Stella black holes can grow as time goes
on,<00:45:22.400><c> provided</c><00:45:22.880><c> you</c><00:45:23.119><c> funnel</c><00:45:23.520><c> more</c><00:45:23.839><c> mass</c><00:45:24.240><c> into</c>

00:45:24.470 --> 00:45:24.480 align:start position:0%
on, provided you funnel more mass into
 

00:45:24.480 --> 00:45:28.790 align:start position:0%
on, provided you funnel more mass into
them.<00:45:25.440><c> But</c><00:45:25.839><c> how</c><00:45:26.160><c> quickly?</c>

00:45:28.790 --> 00:45:28.800 align:start position:0%
them. But how quickly?
 

00:45:28.800 --> 00:45:31.349 align:start position:0%
them. But how quickly?
In<00:45:29.119><c> 1920,</c><00:45:29.920><c> an</c><00:45:30.160><c> English</c><00:45:30.480><c> astronomer</c><00:45:31.119><c> and</c>

00:45:31.349 --> 00:45:31.359 align:start position:0%
In 1920, an English astronomer and
 

00:45:31.359 --> 00:45:33.750 align:start position:0%
In 1920, an English astronomer and
physicist<00:45:32.000><c> called</c><00:45:32.400><c> Arthur</c><00:45:32.880><c> Edington</c>

00:45:33.750 --> 00:45:33.760 align:start position:0%
physicist called Arthur Edington
 

00:45:33.760 --> 00:45:35.750 align:start position:0%
physicist called Arthur Edington
formulated<00:45:34.319><c> the</c><00:45:34.480><c> idea</c><00:45:34.800><c> that</c><00:45:35.040><c> there</c><00:45:35.280><c> was</c><00:45:35.520><c> a</c>

00:45:35.750 --> 00:45:35.760 align:start position:0%
formulated the idea that there was a
 

00:45:35.760 --> 00:45:38.550 align:start position:0%
formulated the idea that there was a
limit<00:45:36.079><c> to</c><00:45:36.319><c> how</c><00:45:36.560><c> quickly</c><00:45:37.040><c> either</c><00:45:37.359><c> a</c><00:45:37.680><c> star</c><00:45:38.079><c> or</c><00:45:38.319><c> a</c>

00:45:38.550 --> 00:45:38.560 align:start position:0%
limit to how quickly either a star or a
 

00:45:38.560 --> 00:45:41.510 align:start position:0%
limit to how quickly either a star or a
black<00:45:38.800><c> hole</c><00:45:39.119><c> could</c><00:45:39.359><c> grow.</c><00:45:40.480><c> This</c><00:45:40.720><c> was</c><00:45:40.960><c> because</c>

00:45:41.510 --> 00:45:41.520 align:start position:0%
black hole could grow. This was because
 

00:45:41.520 --> 00:45:44.790 align:start position:0%
black hole could grow. This was because
photons<00:45:42.160><c> carry</c><00:45:42.560><c> momentum.</c><00:45:43.599><c> A</c><00:45:43.839><c> tiny</c><00:45:44.160><c> amount,</c>

00:45:44.790 --> 00:45:44.800 align:start position:0%
photons carry momentum. A tiny amount,
 

00:45:44.800 --> 00:45:48.550 align:start position:0%
photons carry momentum. A tiny amount,
true,<00:45:45.520><c> but</c><00:45:45.760><c> enough</c><00:45:46.000><c> to</c><00:45:46.240><c> exert</c><00:45:46.640><c> a</c><00:45:46.960><c> push.</c><00:45:48.240><c> This</c>

00:45:48.550 --> 00:45:48.560 align:start position:0%
true, but enough to exert a push. This
 

00:45:48.560 --> 00:45:50.870 align:start position:0%
true, but enough to exert a push. This
is<00:45:48.720><c> what</c><00:45:48.960><c> pushes</c><00:45:49.066><c> [music]</c><00:45:49.520><c> solar</c><00:45:50.000><c> sails</c><00:45:50.480><c> on</c>

00:45:50.870 --> 00:45:50.880 align:start position:0%
is what pushes [music] solar sails on
 

00:45:50.880 --> 00:45:53.270 align:start position:0%
is what pushes [music] solar sails on
certain<00:45:51.280><c> hypothetical</c><00:45:52.000><c> spaceship</c><00:45:52.480><c> designs.</c>

00:45:53.270 --> 00:45:53.280 align:start position:0%
certain hypothetical spaceship designs.
 

00:45:53.280 --> 00:45:56.550 align:start position:0%
certain hypothetical spaceship designs.
That<00:45:53.839><c> tiny</c><00:45:54.319><c> amount</c><00:45:54.640><c> of</c><00:45:54.800><c> momentum</c><00:45:55.680><c> imparted</c><00:45:56.319><c> by</c>

00:45:56.550 --> 00:45:56.560 align:start position:0%
That tiny amount of momentum imparted by
 

00:45:56.560 --> 00:45:58.069 align:start position:0%
That tiny amount of momentum imparted by
photons.

00:45:58.069 --> 00:45:58.079 align:start position:0%
photons.
 

00:45:58.079 --> 00:46:00.790 align:start position:0%
photons.
For<00:45:58.319><c> mass</c><00:45:58.560><c> to</c><00:45:58.800><c> enter</c><00:45:59.040><c> into</c><00:45:59.280><c> a</c><00:45:59.520><c> star,</c><00:46:00.079><c> it</c><00:46:00.400><c> has</c><00:46:00.560><c> to</c>

00:46:00.790 --> 00:46:00.800 align:start position:0%
For mass to enter into a star, it has to
 

00:46:00.800 --> 00:46:02.870 align:start position:0%
For mass to enter into a star, it has to
push<00:46:01.119><c> against</c><00:46:01.520><c> a</c><00:46:01.839><c> constant</c><00:46:02.319><c> stream</c><00:46:02.640><c> of</c>

00:46:02.870 --> 00:46:02.880 align:start position:0%
push against a constant stream of
 

00:46:02.880 --> 00:46:05.829 align:start position:0%
push against a constant stream of
photons<00:46:03.359><c> that</c><00:46:03.520><c> are</c><00:46:03.760><c> radiating</c><00:46:04.319><c> outward.</c><00:46:05.440><c> And</c>

00:46:05.829 --> 00:46:05.839 align:start position:0%
photons that are radiating outward. And
 

00:46:05.839 --> 00:46:08.470 align:start position:0%
photons that are radiating outward. And
at<00:46:06.079><c> a</c><00:46:06.319><c> certain</c><00:46:06.720><c> level</c><00:46:06.960><c> of</c><00:46:07.200><c> brightness,</c><00:46:08.240><c> not</c>

00:46:08.470 --> 00:46:08.480 align:start position:0%
at a certain level of brightness, not
 

00:46:08.480 --> 00:46:10.950 align:start position:0%
at a certain level of brightness, not
even<00:46:08.880><c> gravity</c><00:46:09.520><c> is</c><00:46:09.760><c> strong</c><00:46:10.000><c> enough</c><00:46:10.319><c> to</c><00:46:10.560><c> pull</c>

00:46:10.950 --> 00:46:10.960 align:start position:0%
even gravity is strong enough to pull
 

00:46:10.960 --> 00:46:13.589 align:start position:0%
even gravity is strong enough to pull
against<00:46:11.280><c> the</c><00:46:11.520><c> flow.</c><00:46:12.560><c> This</c><00:46:12.800><c> is</c><00:46:13.040><c> called</c><00:46:13.359><c> the</c>

00:46:13.589 --> 00:46:13.599 align:start position:0%
against the flow. This is called the
 

00:46:13.599 --> 00:46:16.309 align:start position:0%
against the flow. This is called the
Edington<00:46:14.160><c> limit.</c><00:46:14.880><c> and</c><00:46:15.119><c> stars</c><00:46:15.520><c> that</c><00:46:15.920><c> brush</c>

00:46:16.309 --> 00:46:16.319 align:start position:0%
Edington limit. and stars that brush
 

00:46:16.319 --> 00:46:19.109 align:start position:0%
Edington limit. and stars that brush
against<00:46:16.720><c> its</c><00:46:17.040><c> boundaries,</c><00:46:17.839><c> such</c><00:46:18.000><c> as</c><00:46:18.319><c> Volraier</c>

00:46:19.109 --> 00:46:19.119 align:start position:0%
against its boundaries, such as Volraier
 

00:46:19.119 --> 00:46:22.069 align:start position:0%
against its boundaries, such as Volraier
stars.<00:46:20.000><c> Bright</c><00:46:20.400><c> stars</c><00:46:20.880><c> at</c><00:46:21.040><c> least</c><00:46:21.440><c> 20</c><00:46:21.760><c> times</c>

00:46:22.069 --> 00:46:22.079 align:start position:0%
stars. Bright stars at least 20 times
 

00:46:22.079 --> 00:46:23.990 align:start position:0%
stars. Bright stars at least 20 times
more<00:46:22.240><c> massive</c><00:46:22.560><c> than</c><00:46:22.720><c> the</c><00:46:22.960><c> sun,</c><00:46:23.280><c> emanating</c>

00:46:23.990 --> 00:46:24.000 align:start position:0%
more massive than the sun, emanating
 

00:46:24.000 --> 00:46:26.390 align:start position:0%
more massive than the sun, emanating
powerful<00:46:24.480><c> stellar</c><00:46:24.880><c> winds,</c><00:46:25.599><c> are</c><00:46:25.760><c> just</c><00:46:26.079><c> the</c>

00:46:26.390 --> 00:46:26.400 align:start position:0%
powerful stellar winds, are just the
 

00:46:26.400 --> 00:46:28.470 align:start position:0%
powerful stellar winds, are just the
slightest<00:46:26.960><c> nudge</c><00:46:27.280><c> away</c><00:46:27.680><c> from</c><00:46:28.000><c> blowing</c>

00:46:28.470 --> 00:46:28.480 align:start position:0%
slightest nudge away from blowing
 

00:46:28.480 --> 00:46:31.750 align:start position:0%
slightest nudge away from blowing
themselves<00:46:28.960><c> apart.</c><00:46:30.319><c> For</c><00:46:30.560><c> black</c><00:46:30.880><c> holes,</c><00:46:31.520><c> you</c>

00:46:31.750 --> 00:46:31.760 align:start position:0%
themselves apart. For black holes, you
 

00:46:31.760 --> 00:46:33.430 align:start position:0%
themselves apart. For black holes, you
might<00:46:32.000><c> think</c><00:46:32.240><c> this</c><00:46:32.480><c> would</c><00:46:32.640><c> be</c><00:46:32.800><c> less</c><00:46:33.040><c> of</c><00:46:33.200><c> a</c>

00:46:33.430 --> 00:46:33.440 align:start position:0%
might think this would be less of a
 

00:46:33.440 --> 00:46:35.670 align:start position:0%
might think this would be less of a
problem.<00:46:34.319><c> Isn't</c><00:46:34.640><c> the</c><00:46:34.880><c> whole</c><00:46:35.040><c> point</c><00:46:35.200><c> of</c><00:46:35.440><c> black</c>

00:46:35.670 --> 00:46:35.680 align:start position:0%
problem. Isn't the whole point of black
 

00:46:35.680 --> 00:46:38.710 align:start position:0%
problem. Isn't the whole point of black
holes<00:46:36.160><c> that</c><00:46:36.319><c> they</c><00:46:36.640><c> don't</c><00:46:36.800><c> radiate</c><00:46:37.440><c> any</c><00:46:37.760><c> light?</c>

00:46:38.710 --> 00:46:38.720 align:start position:0%
holes that they don't radiate any light?
 

00:46:38.720 --> 00:46:40.550 align:start position:0%
holes that they don't radiate any light?
But<00:46:38.880><c> their</c><00:46:39.200><c> accretion</c><00:46:39.680><c> discs</c><00:46:40.079><c> are</c><00:46:40.319><c> a</c>

00:46:40.550 --> 00:46:40.560 align:start position:0%
But their accretion discs are a
 

00:46:40.560 --> 00:46:42.710 align:start position:0%
But their accretion discs are a
different<00:46:40.800><c> story.</c><00:46:41.839><c> As</c><00:46:42.160><c> we</c><00:46:42.319><c> discussed</c>

00:46:42.710 --> 00:46:42.720 align:start position:0%
different story. As we discussed
 

00:46:42.720 --> 00:46:44.950 align:start position:0%
different story. As we discussed
earlier,<00:46:43.520><c> accretion</c><00:46:44.079><c> discs</c><00:46:44.099><c> [music]</c><00:46:44.560><c> around</c>

00:46:44.950 --> 00:46:44.960 align:start position:0%
earlier, accretion discs [music] around
 

00:46:44.960 --> 00:46:47.030 align:start position:0%
earlier, accretion discs [music] around
super<00:46:45.280><c> massive</c><00:46:45.680><c> black</c><00:46:45.920><c> holes</c><00:46:46.319><c> can</c><00:46:46.640><c> be</c>

00:46:47.030 --> 00:46:47.040 align:start position:0%
super massive black holes can be
 

00:46:47.040 --> 00:46:50.069 align:start position:0%
super massive black holes can be
incredibly<00:46:47.839><c> bright,</c><00:46:48.800><c> particularly</c><00:46:49.520><c> around</c>

00:46:50.069 --> 00:46:50.079 align:start position:0%
incredibly bright, particularly around
 

00:46:50.079 --> 00:46:52.550 align:start position:0%
incredibly bright, particularly around
super<00:46:50.400><c> massive</c><00:46:50.800><c> black</c><00:46:51.040><c> holes,</c><00:46:51.920><c> sometimes</c>

00:46:52.550 --> 00:46:52.560 align:start position:0%
super massive black holes, sometimes
 

00:46:52.560 --> 00:46:54.570 align:start position:0%
super massive black holes, sometimes
dwarfing<00:46:53.119><c> the</c><00:46:53.359><c> brightness</c><00:46:53.760><c> of</c><00:46:53.920><c> the</c><00:46:54.160><c> stars</c><00:46:54.560><c> in</c>

00:46:54.570 --> 00:46:54.580 align:start position:0%
dwarfing the brightness of the stars in
 

00:46:54.580 --> 00:46:57.430 align:start position:0%
dwarfing the brightness of the stars in
[music]<00:46:54.800><c> the</c><00:46:54.960><c> galaxy</c><00:46:55.359><c> they</c><00:46:55.680><c> reside</c><00:46:56.079><c> in.</c><00:46:57.119><c> With</c>

00:46:57.430 --> 00:46:57.440 align:start position:0%
[music] the galaxy they reside in. With
 

00:46:57.440 --> 00:47:00.230 align:start position:0%
[music] the galaxy they reside in. With
brightness<00:46:58.079><c> comes</c><00:46:58.560><c> resistance</c><00:46:59.040><c> to</c><00:46:59.280><c> gravity,</c>

00:47:00.230 --> 00:47:00.240 align:start position:0%
brightness comes resistance to gravity,
 

00:47:00.240 --> 00:47:02.150 align:start position:0%
brightness comes resistance to gravity,
and<00:47:00.480><c> black</c><00:47:00.720><c> holes</c><00:47:01.119><c> have</c><00:47:01.359><c> to</c><00:47:01.599><c> obey</c><00:47:01.920><c> the</c>

00:47:02.150 --> 00:47:02.160 align:start position:0%
and black holes have to obey the
 

00:47:02.160 --> 00:47:06.710 align:start position:0%
and black holes have to obey the
Edington<00:47:02.720><c> limit,</c><00:47:03.200><c> too.</c>

00:47:06.710 --> 00:47:06.720 align:start position:0%
 
 

00:47:06.720 --> 00:47:09.190 align:start position:0%
 
So<00:47:07.040><c> even</c><00:47:07.359><c> though</c><00:47:07.920><c> given</c><00:47:08.400><c> enough</c><00:47:08.720><c> time</c><00:47:09.040><c> and</c>

00:47:09.190 --> 00:47:09.200 align:start position:0%
So even though given enough time and
 

00:47:09.200 --> 00:47:11.670 align:start position:0%
So even though given enough time and
mass,<00:47:09.920><c> stellar</c><00:47:10.319><c> black</c><00:47:10.560><c> holes</c><00:47:11.200><c> could</c>

00:47:11.670 --> 00:47:11.680 align:start position:0%
mass, stellar black holes could
 

00:47:11.680 --> 00:47:13.349 align:start position:0%
mass, stellar black holes could
theoretically<00:47:12.252><c> [music]</c><00:47:12.480><c> grow</c><00:47:12.720><c> into</c><00:47:13.040><c> super</c>

00:47:13.349 --> 00:47:13.359 align:start position:0%
theoretically [music] grow into super
 

00:47:13.359 --> 00:47:16.150 align:start position:0%
theoretically [music] grow into super
massive<00:47:13.760><c> black</c><00:47:13.920><c> holes,</c><00:47:15.200><c> it</c><00:47:15.520><c> doesn't</c><00:47:15.760><c> seem</c>

00:47:16.150 --> 00:47:16.160 align:start position:0%
massive black holes, it doesn't seem
 

00:47:16.160 --> 00:47:18.710 align:start position:0%
massive black holes, it doesn't seem
plausible<00:47:16.800><c> that</c><00:47:17.200><c> this</c><00:47:17.680><c> actually</c><00:47:18.160><c> explains</c>

00:47:18.710 --> 00:47:18.720 align:start position:0%
plausible that this actually explains
 

00:47:18.720 --> 00:47:20.790 align:start position:0%
plausible that this actually explains
all<00:47:18.960><c> the</c><00:47:19.119><c> super</c><00:47:19.359><c> massive</c><00:47:19.760><c> black</c><00:47:19.920><c> holes</c><00:47:20.319><c> we</c><00:47:20.640><c> see</c>

00:47:20.790 --> 00:47:20.800 align:start position:0%
all the super massive black holes we see
 

00:47:20.800 --> 00:47:23.750 align:start position:0%
all the super massive black holes we see
in<00:47:21.040><c> the</c><00:47:21.200><c> early</c><00:47:21.520><c> universe.</c><00:47:22.800><c> simulations</c><00:47:23.520><c> have</c>

00:47:23.750 --> 00:47:23.760 align:start position:0%
in the early universe. simulations have
 

00:47:23.760 --> 00:47:26.390 align:start position:0%
in the early universe. simulations have
been<00:47:23.920><c> run</c><00:47:24.480><c> and</c><00:47:24.720><c> although</c><00:47:25.119><c> it</c><00:47:25.359><c> is</c><00:47:25.760><c> technically</c>

00:47:26.390 --> 00:47:26.400 align:start position:0%
been run and although it is technically
 

00:47:26.400 --> 00:47:28.150 align:start position:0%
been run and although it is technically
possible<00:47:26.720><c> to</c><00:47:26.960><c> grow</c><00:47:27.119><c> a</c><00:47:27.280><c> stellar</c><00:47:27.680><c> black</c><00:47:27.839><c> hole</c>

00:47:28.150 --> 00:47:28.160 align:start position:0%
possible to grow a stellar black hole
 

00:47:28.160 --> 00:47:30.230 align:start position:0%
possible to grow a stellar black hole
into<00:47:28.480><c> a</c><00:47:28.640><c> super</c><00:47:28.960><c> massive</c><00:47:29.280><c> black</c><00:47:29.520><c> hole</c><00:47:29.760><c> in</c><00:47:30.079><c> that</c>

00:47:30.230 --> 00:47:30.240 align:start position:0%
into a super massive black hole in that
 

00:47:30.240 --> 00:47:32.630 align:start position:0%
into a super massive black hole in that
time<00:47:30.480><c> frame,</c><00:47:31.359><c> it</c><00:47:31.599><c> would</c><00:47:31.760><c> require</c><00:47:32.160><c> those</c><00:47:32.480><c> black</c>

00:47:32.630 --> 00:47:32.640 align:start position:0%
time frame, it would require those black
 

00:47:32.640 --> 00:47:35.030 align:start position:0%
time frame, it would require those black
holes<00:47:32.960><c> to</c><00:47:33.200><c> be</c><00:47:33.359><c> feeding</c><00:47:33.839><c> at</c><00:47:34.079><c> near</c><00:47:34.319><c> the</c><00:47:34.560><c> Edington</c>

00:47:35.030 --> 00:47:35.040 align:start position:0%
holes to be feeding at near the Edington
 

00:47:35.040 --> 00:47:38.630 align:start position:0%
holes to be feeding at near the Edington
limit<00:47:35.760><c> nonstop</c><00:47:36.560><c> since</c><00:47:36.800><c> their</c><00:47:37.040><c> birth,</c><00:47:38.000><c> which</c>

00:47:38.630 --> 00:47:38.640 align:start position:0%
limit nonstop since their birth, which
 

00:47:38.640 --> 00:47:41.510 align:start position:0%
limit nonstop since their birth, which
just<00:47:38.960><c> doesn't</c><00:47:39.359><c> happen.</c><00:47:40.480><c> Black</c><00:47:40.800><c> holes</c><00:47:41.040><c> in</c><00:47:41.280><c> real</c>

00:47:41.510 --> 00:47:41.520 align:start position:0%
just doesn't happen. Black holes in real
 

00:47:41.520 --> 00:47:44.150 align:start position:0%
just doesn't happen. Black holes in real
life<00:47:41.839><c> often</c><00:47:42.240><c> run</c><00:47:42.480><c> out</c><00:47:42.640><c> of</c><00:47:42.800><c> mass</c><00:47:43.119><c> nearby</c><00:47:43.839><c> and</c>

00:47:44.150 --> 00:47:44.160 align:start position:0%
life often run out of mass nearby and
 

00:47:44.160 --> 00:47:46.710 align:start position:0%
life often run out of mass nearby and
need<00:47:44.319><c> to</c><00:47:44.480><c> wait</c><00:47:44.720><c> to</c><00:47:44.960><c> run</c><00:47:45.200><c> into</c><00:47:45.440><c> more</c><00:47:46.160><c> or</c><00:47:46.480><c> for</c>

00:47:46.710 --> 00:47:46.720 align:start position:0%
need to wait to run into more or for
 

00:47:46.720 --> 00:47:49.829 align:start position:0%
need to wait to run into more or for
more<00:47:46.960><c> to</c><00:47:47.119><c> come</c><00:47:47.280><c> to</c><00:47:47.520><c> them.</c><00:47:48.880><c> To</c><00:47:49.359><c> further</c>

00:47:49.829 --> 00:47:49.839 align:start position:0%
more to come to them. To further
 

00:47:49.839 --> 00:47:51.990 align:start position:0%
more to come to them. To further
complicate<00:47:50.400><c> the</c><00:47:50.560><c> matter,</c><00:47:51.359><c> we're</c><00:47:51.680><c> not</c>

00:47:51.990 --> 00:47:52.000 align:start position:0%
complicate the matter, we're not
 

00:47:52.000 --> 00:47:53.910 align:start position:0%
complicate the matter, we're not
completely<00:47:52.480><c> sure</c><00:47:52.720><c> that</c><00:47:53.040><c> super</c><00:47:53.280><c> massive</c><00:47:53.680><c> black</c>

00:47:53.910 --> 00:47:53.920 align:start position:0%
completely sure that super massive black
 

00:47:53.920 --> 00:47:56.230 align:start position:0%
completely sure that super massive black
holes<00:47:54.480><c> are</c><00:47:54.800><c> the</c><00:47:55.040><c> grown-up</c><00:47:55.599><c> version</c><00:47:55.920><c> of</c>

00:47:56.230 --> 00:47:56.240 align:start position:0%
holes are the grown-up version of
 

00:47:56.240 --> 00:47:57.750 align:start position:0%
holes are the grown-up version of
stellar<00:47:56.640><c> black</c><00:47:56.793><c> [music]</c><00:47:56.880><c> holes</c><00:47:57.200><c> in</c><00:47:57.359><c> the</c><00:47:57.520><c> first</c>

00:47:57.750 --> 00:47:57.760 align:start position:0%
stellar black [music] holes in the first
 

00:47:57.760 --> 00:48:00.550 align:start position:0%
stellar black [music] holes in the first
place.<00:47:58.720><c> Although</c><00:47:59.040><c> it</c><00:47:59.359><c> seems</c><00:47:59.760><c> like</c><00:48:00.240><c> common</c>

00:48:00.550 --> 00:48:00.560 align:start position:0%
place. Although it seems like common
 

00:48:00.560 --> 00:48:03.109 align:start position:0%
place. Although it seems like common
sense<00:48:00.800><c> to</c><00:48:01.040><c> assume</c><00:48:01.440><c> so,</c><00:48:02.079><c> scientists</c><00:48:02.640><c> have</c><00:48:02.880><c> been</c>

00:48:03.109 --> 00:48:03.119 align:start position:0%
sense to assume so, scientists have been
 

00:48:03.119 --> 00:48:06.230 align:start position:0%
sense to assume so, scientists have been
confused<00:48:03.920><c> at</c><00:48:04.240><c> the</c><00:48:04.400><c> lack</c><00:48:04.720><c> of</c><00:48:04.960><c> the</c><00:48:05.440><c> intermediate</c>

00:48:06.230 --> 00:48:06.240 align:start position:0%
confused at the lack of the intermediate
 

00:48:06.240 --> 00:48:08.470 align:start position:0%
confused at the lack of the intermediate
stage<00:48:06.560><c> of</c><00:48:06.800><c> black</c><00:48:07.040><c> holes</c><00:48:07.440><c> observable</c><00:48:08.000><c> in</c><00:48:08.240><c> our</c>

00:48:08.470 --> 00:48:08.480 align:start position:0%
stage of black holes observable in our
 

00:48:08.480 --> 00:48:12.069 align:start position:0%
stage of black holes observable in our
universe.<00:48:09.599><c> To</c><00:48:09.839><c> be</c><00:48:10.000><c> frank,</c><00:48:10.720><c> they've</c><00:48:11.119><c> not</c><00:48:11.359><c> cited</c>

00:48:12.069 --> 00:48:12.079 align:start position:0%
universe. To be frank, they've not cited
 

00:48:12.079 --> 00:48:17.349 align:start position:0%
universe. To be frank, they've not cited
any,<00:48:13.119><c> at</c><00:48:13.119><c> least</c><00:48:13.839><c> none</c><00:48:14.160><c> for</c><00:48:14.400><c> sure.</c>

00:48:17.349 --> 00:48:17.359 align:start position:0%
any, at least none for sure.
 

00:48:17.359 --> 00:48:19.589 align:start position:0%
any, at least none for sure.
Super<00:48:17.760><c> massive</c><00:48:18.160><c> black</c><00:48:18.319><c> holes</c><00:48:18.800><c> are</c><00:48:19.040><c> common</c><00:48:19.359><c> at</c>

00:48:19.589 --> 00:48:19.599 align:start position:0%
Super massive black holes are common at
 

00:48:19.599 --> 00:48:21.670 align:start position:0%
Super massive black holes are common at
the<00:48:19.680><c> center</c><00:48:19.920><c> of</c><00:48:20.160><c> galaxies</c><00:48:20.960><c> and</c><00:48:21.280><c> there</c><00:48:21.520><c> are</c>

00:48:21.670 --> 00:48:21.680 align:start position:0%
the center of galaxies and there are
 

00:48:21.680 --> 00:48:23.990 align:start position:0%
the center of galaxies and there are
thought<00:48:21.920><c> to</c><00:48:22.079><c> be</c><00:48:22.400><c> 100</c><00:48:22.880><c> million</c><00:48:23.359><c> stellar</c><00:48:23.839><c> black</c>

00:48:23.990 --> 00:48:24.000 align:start position:0%
thought to be 100 million stellar black
 

00:48:24.000 --> 00:48:26.470 align:start position:0%
thought to be 100 million stellar black
holes<00:48:24.240><c> in</c><00:48:24.480><c> our</c><00:48:24.640><c> Milky</c><00:48:24.960><c> Way</c><00:48:25.200><c> alone</c><00:48:26.000><c> based</c><00:48:26.319><c> on</c>

00:48:26.470 --> 00:48:26.480 align:start position:0%
holes in our Milky Way alone based on
 

00:48:26.480 --> 00:48:29.829 align:start position:0%
holes in our Milky Way alone based on
the<00:48:26.720><c> number</c><00:48:26.960><c> we've</c><00:48:27.280><c> seen.</c><00:48:28.559><c> But</c><00:48:29.040><c> intermediate</c>

00:48:29.829 --> 00:48:29.839 align:start position:0%
the number we've seen. But intermediate
 

00:48:29.839 --> 00:48:32.390 align:start position:0%
the number we've seen. But intermediate
black<00:48:30.079><c> holes</c><00:48:30.559><c> are</c><00:48:30.880><c> suspiciously</c><00:48:31.599><c> lacking</c>

00:48:32.390 --> 00:48:32.400 align:start position:0%
black holes are suspiciously lacking
 

00:48:32.400 --> 00:48:34.870 align:start position:0%
black holes are suspiciously lacking
with<00:48:32.640><c> only</c><00:48:32.880><c> a</c><00:48:33.119><c> handful</c><00:48:33.839><c> of</c><00:48:34.160><c> potential</c>

00:48:34.870 --> 00:48:34.880 align:start position:0%
with only a handful of potential
 

00:48:34.880 --> 00:48:37.910 align:start position:0%
with only a handful of potential
candidates.<00:48:36.160><c> You</c><00:48:36.319><c> would</c><00:48:36.480><c> think</c><00:48:36.880><c> we'd</c><00:48:37.280><c> see</c><00:48:37.599><c> a</c>

00:48:37.910 --> 00:48:37.920 align:start position:0%
candidates. You would think we'd see a
 

00:48:37.920 --> 00:48:39.990 align:start position:0%
candidates. You would think we'd see a
lot<00:48:38.079><c> more.</c>

00:48:39.990 --> 00:48:40.000 align:start position:0%
lot more.
 

00:48:40.000 --> 00:48:41.990 align:start position:0%
lot more.
Struggling<00:48:40.480><c> for</c><00:48:40.720><c> certainty,</c><00:48:41.520><c> scientists</c>

00:48:41.990 --> 00:48:42.000 align:start position:0%
Struggling for certainty, scientists
 

00:48:42.000 --> 00:48:44.390 align:start position:0%
Struggling for certainty, scientists
began<00:48:42.319><c> to</c><00:48:42.559><c> hypothesize</c><00:48:43.280><c> that</c><00:48:43.680><c> super</c><00:48:44.000><c> massive</c>

00:48:44.390 --> 00:48:44.400 align:start position:0%
began to hypothesize that super massive
 

00:48:44.400 --> 00:48:46.630 align:start position:0%
began to hypothesize that super massive
black<00:48:44.559><c> holes</c><00:48:44.960><c> were</c><00:48:45.200><c> instead</c><00:48:45.680><c> born</c><00:48:46.079><c> in</c><00:48:46.400><c> some</c>

00:48:46.630 --> 00:48:46.640 align:start position:0%
black holes were instead born in some
 

00:48:46.640 --> 00:48:49.430 align:start position:0%
black holes were instead born in some
other<00:48:46.880><c> way.</c><00:48:47.920><c> Many</c><00:48:48.319><c> cosmologists</c><00:48:49.040><c> have</c><00:48:49.280><c> been</c>

00:48:49.430 --> 00:48:49.440 align:start position:0%
other way. Many cosmologists have been
 

00:48:49.440 --> 00:48:51.190 align:start position:0%
other way. Many cosmologists have been
exploring<00:48:49.920><c> the</c><00:48:50.160><c> idea</c><00:48:50.400><c> that</c><00:48:50.800><c> because</c>

00:48:51.190 --> 00:48:51.200 align:start position:0%
exploring the idea that because
 

00:48:51.200 --> 00:48:53.030 align:start position:0%
exploring the idea that because
everything<00:48:51.520><c> was</c><00:48:51.760><c> much</c><00:48:52.079><c> closer</c><00:48:52.480><c> together</c><00:48:52.800><c> in</c>

00:48:53.030 --> 00:48:53.040 align:start position:0%
everything was much closer together in
 

00:48:53.040 --> 00:48:55.510 align:start position:0%
everything was much closer together in
an<00:48:53.200><c> early</c><00:48:53.520><c> universe,</c><00:48:54.480><c> things</c><00:48:54.960><c> might</c><00:48:55.280><c> have</c>

00:48:55.510 --> 00:48:55.520 align:start position:0%
an early universe, things might have
 

00:48:55.520 --> 00:48:57.990 align:start position:0%
an early universe, things might have
been<00:48:55.760><c> dense</c><00:48:56.160><c> enough</c><00:48:56.480><c> that</c><00:48:56.960><c> interstellar</c><00:48:57.680><c> dust</c>

00:48:57.990 --> 00:48:58.000 align:start position:0%
been dense enough that interstellar dust
 

00:48:58.000 --> 00:49:00.710 align:start position:0%
been dense enough that interstellar dust
itself<00:48:58.880><c> could</c><00:48:59.280><c> conceivably</c><00:49:00.000><c> have</c><00:49:00.319><c> collapsed</c>

00:49:00.710 --> 00:49:00.720 align:start position:0%
itself could conceivably have collapsed
 

00:49:00.720 --> 00:49:03.430 align:start position:0%
itself could conceivably have collapsed
to<00:49:00.880><c> form</c><00:49:01.200><c> a</c><00:49:01.359><c> black</c><00:49:01.599><c> hole</c><00:49:01.920><c> directly,</c><00:49:02.960><c> skipping</c>

00:49:03.430 --> 00:49:03.440 align:start position:0%
to form a black hole directly, skipping
 

00:49:03.440 --> 00:49:06.230 align:start position:0%
to form a black hole directly, skipping
the<00:49:03.680><c> star</c><00:49:04.000><c> step</c><00:49:04.319><c> altogether.</c><00:49:05.599><c> If</c><00:49:05.839><c> this</c><00:49:06.000><c> is</c>

00:49:06.230 --> 00:49:06.240 align:start position:0%
the star step altogether. If this is
 

00:49:06.240 --> 00:49:09.190 align:start position:0%
the star step altogether. If this is
true,<00:49:07.280><c> and</c><00:49:07.599><c> there</c><00:49:07.920><c> is</c><00:49:08.160><c> some</c><00:49:08.480><c> evidence</c><00:49:08.880><c> to</c>

00:49:09.190 --> 00:49:09.200 align:start position:0%
true, and there is some evidence to
 

00:49:09.200 --> 00:49:11.910 align:start position:0%
true, and there is some evidence to
support<00:49:09.440><c> the</c><00:49:09.680><c> theory,</c><00:49:10.640><c> then</c><00:49:11.040><c> perhaps</c><00:49:11.599><c> super</c>

00:49:11.910 --> 00:49:11.920 align:start position:0%
support the theory, then perhaps super
 

00:49:11.920 --> 00:49:14.470 align:start position:0%
support the theory, then perhaps super
massive<00:49:12.319><c> black</c><00:49:12.480><c> holes</c><00:49:12.880><c> were</c><00:49:13.119><c> once</c><00:49:13.520><c> capable</c><00:49:14.079><c> of</c>

00:49:14.470 --> 00:49:14.480 align:start position:0%
massive black holes were once capable of
 

00:49:14.480 --> 00:49:17.990 align:start position:0%
massive black holes were once capable of
simply<00:49:15.119><c> being</c><00:49:15.520><c> born</c><00:49:15.839><c> that</c><00:49:16.160><c> size</c><00:49:16.720><c> or</c><00:49:17.119><c> near</c><00:49:17.440><c> it</c>

00:49:17.990 --> 00:49:18.000 align:start position:0%
simply being born that size or near it
 

00:49:18.000 --> 00:49:20.549 align:start position:0%
simply being born that size or near it
right<00:49:18.240><c> from</c><00:49:18.400><c> the</c><00:49:18.640><c> offset,</c><00:49:19.599><c> even</c><00:49:19.839><c> if</c><00:49:20.160><c> such</c><00:49:20.400><c> a</c>

00:49:20.549 --> 00:49:20.559 align:start position:0%
right from the offset, even if such a
 

00:49:20.559 --> 00:49:23.190 align:start position:0%
right from the offset, even if such a
thing<00:49:20.800><c> is</c><00:49:21.040><c> no</c><00:49:21.359><c> longer</c><00:49:21.680><c> possible</c><00:49:22.160><c> in</c><00:49:22.400><c> our</c><00:49:22.720><c> more</c>

00:49:23.190 --> 00:49:23.200 align:start position:0%
thing is no longer possible in our more
 

00:49:23.200 --> 00:49:26.230 align:start position:0%
thing is no longer possible in our more
spread<00:49:23.680><c> out</c><00:49:23.920><c> universe</c><00:49:24.480><c> today.</c><00:49:25.520><c> But</c><00:49:25.760><c> this</c><00:49:26.000><c> is</c>

00:49:26.230 --> 00:49:26.240 align:start position:0%
spread out universe today. But this is
 

00:49:26.240 --> 00:49:32.230 align:start position:0%
spread out universe today. But this is
by<00:49:26.800><c> no</c><00:49:27.119><c> means</c><00:49:27.680><c> certain.</c><00:49:29.119><c> But</c><00:49:29.280><c> then</c><00:49:30.160><c> lid</c><00:49:30.880><c> 568</c>

00:49:32.230 --> 00:49:32.240 align:start position:0%
by no means certain. But then lid 568
 

00:49:32.240 --> 00:49:34.950 align:start position:0%
by no means certain. But then lid 568
came<00:49:32.480><c> onto</c><00:49:32.800><c> the</c><00:49:32.960><c> scene</c><00:49:33.839><c> and</c><00:49:34.079><c> the</c><00:49:34.319><c> pendulum</c>

00:49:34.950 --> 00:49:34.960 align:start position:0%
came onto the scene and the pendulum
 

00:49:34.960 --> 00:49:38.950 align:start position:0%
came onto the scene and the pendulum
swung<00:49:35.520><c> the</c><00:49:35.760><c> other</c><00:49:36.000><c> way</c><00:49:36.319><c> again.</c>

00:49:38.950 --> 00:49:38.960 align:start position:0%
swung the other way again.
 

00:49:38.960 --> 00:49:40.390 align:start position:0%
swung the other way again.
Lid<00:49:39.440><c> 568</c><00:49:39.629><c> [music]</c>

00:49:40.390 --> 00:49:40.400 align:start position:0%
Lid 568 [music]
 

00:49:40.400 --> 00:49:43.030 align:start position:0%
Lid 568 [music]
is<00:49:40.720><c> a</c><00:49:40.960><c> very</c><00:49:41.280><c> distant</c><00:49:41.680><c> black</c><00:49:41.920><c> hole</c><00:49:42.480><c> between</c>

00:49:43.030 --> 00:49:43.040 align:start position:0%
is a very distant black hole between
 

00:49:43.040 --> 00:49:47.510 align:start position:0%
is a very distant black hole between
12.1<00:49:44.000><c> and</c><00:49:44.319><c> 12.3</c><00:49:45.359><c> billion</c><00:49:45.839><c> lightyears</c><00:49:46.400><c> away.</c>

00:49:47.510 --> 00:49:47.520 align:start position:0%
12.1 and 12.3 billion lightyears away.
 

00:49:47.520 --> 00:49:50.230 align:start position:0%
12.1 and 12.3 billion lightyears away.
It's<00:49:48.160><c> so</c><00:49:48.480><c> far</c><00:49:48.800><c> away</c><00:49:49.040><c> from</c><00:49:49.200><c> us</c><00:49:49.440><c> that</c><00:49:49.680><c> we</c><00:49:50.000><c> can't</c>

00:49:50.230 --> 00:49:50.240 align:start position:0%
It's so far away from us that we can't
 

00:49:50.240 --> 00:49:53.030 align:start position:0%
It's so far away from us that we can't
see<00:49:50.480><c> it</c><00:49:50.720><c> at</c><00:49:50.960><c> all</c><00:49:51.440><c> using</c><00:49:51.760><c> visible</c><00:49:52.160><c> light.</c><00:49:52.800><c> The</c>

00:49:53.030 --> 00:49:53.040 align:start position:0%
see it at all using visible light. The
 

00:49:53.040 --> 00:49:55.109 align:start position:0%
see it at all using visible light. The
expansion<00:49:53.440><c> of</c><00:49:53.599><c> the</c><00:49:53.760><c> universe</c><00:49:54.079><c> has</c><00:49:54.480><c> redshifted</c>

00:49:55.109 --> 00:49:55.119 align:start position:0%
expansion of the universe has redshifted
 

00:49:55.119 --> 00:49:58.069 align:start position:0%
expansion of the universe has redshifted
it<00:49:55.359><c> all</c><00:49:55.599><c> into</c><00:49:55.920><c> infrared</c><00:49:56.480><c> ranges.</c><00:49:57.599><c> But</c><00:49:57.839><c> even</c>

00:49:58.069 --> 00:49:58.079 align:start position:0%
it all into infrared ranges. But even
 

00:49:58.079 --> 00:50:00.390 align:start position:0%
it all into infrared ranges. But even
its<00:49:58.400><c> infrared</c><00:49:58.960><c> emissions</c><00:49:59.520><c> were</c><00:49:59.760><c> too</c><00:49:59.920><c> dim</c><00:50:00.240><c> to</c>

00:50:00.390 --> 00:50:00.400 align:start position:0%
its infrared emissions were too dim to
 

00:50:00.400 --> 00:50:02.150 align:start position:0%
its infrared emissions were too dim to
be<00:50:00.480><c> picked</c><00:50:00.720><c> up</c><00:50:00.960><c> by</c><00:50:01.280><c> heavy</c><00:50:01.599><c> hitters</c><00:50:01.920><c> like</c>

00:50:02.150 --> 00:50:02.160 align:start position:0%
be picked up by heavy hitters like
 

00:50:02.160 --> 00:50:05.430 align:start position:0%
be picked up by heavy hitters like
Hubble<00:50:02.559><c> alone.</c><00:50:03.280><c> It</c><00:50:03.520><c> took</c><00:50:03.839><c> the</c><00:50:04.079><c> Chandra</c><00:50:04.800><c> Cosmos</c>

00:50:05.430 --> 00:50:05.440 align:start position:0%
Hubble alone. It took the Chandra Cosmos
 

00:50:05.440 --> 00:50:08.150 align:start position:0%
Hubble alone. It took the Chandra Cosmos
Legacy<00:50:05.920><c> Surveys</c><00:50:06.400><c> combined</c><00:50:06.880><c> telescopes</c><00:50:07.760><c> and</c>

00:50:08.150 --> 00:50:08.160 align:start position:0%
Legacy Surveys combined telescopes and
 

00:50:08.160 --> 00:50:10.309 align:start position:0%
Legacy Surveys combined telescopes and
the<00:50:08.319><c> incredible</c><00:50:08.880><c> resolution</c><00:50:09.520><c> of</c><00:50:09.760><c> the</c><00:50:10.000><c> James</c>

00:50:10.309 --> 00:50:10.319 align:start position:0%
the incredible resolution of the James
 

00:50:10.319 --> 00:50:13.750 align:start position:0%
the incredible resolution of the James
Web<00:50:10.640><c> Space</c><00:50:10.960><c> Telescope</c><00:50:11.680><c> to</c><00:50:11.920><c> see</c><00:50:12.079><c> it</c><00:50:12.319><c> at</c><00:50:12.480><c> all.</c>

00:50:13.750 --> 00:50:13.760 align:start position:0%
Web Space Telescope to see it at all.
 

00:50:13.760 --> 00:50:17.990 align:start position:0%
Web Space Telescope to see it at all.
Even<00:50:14.079><c> then,</c><00:50:14.800><c> LID</c><00:50:15.359><c> 568's</c><00:50:16.480><c> whole</c><00:50:16.800><c> galaxy</c><00:50:17.520><c> is</c><00:50:17.839><c> a</c>

00:50:17.990 --> 00:50:18.000 align:start position:0%
Even then, LID 568's whole galaxy is a
 

00:50:18.000 --> 00:50:21.349 align:start position:0%
Even then, LID 568's whole galaxy is a
little<00:50:18.240><c> more</c><00:50:18.559><c> than</c><00:50:18.800><c> a</c><00:50:19.040><c> faint</c><00:50:19.839><c> red</c><00:50:20.400><c> and</c><00:50:20.720><c> compact</c>

00:50:21.349 --> 00:50:21.359 align:start position:0%
little more than a faint red and compact
 

00:50:21.359 --> 00:50:24.159 align:start position:0%
little more than a faint red and compact
dot.<00:50:22.720><c> But</c><00:50:22.880><c> the</c><00:50:23.040><c> light</c><00:50:23.359><c> emissions</c><00:50:23.839><c> from</c><00:50:24.000><c> this</c>

00:50:24.159 --> 00:50:24.169 align:start position:0%
dot. But the light emissions from this
 

00:50:24.169 --> 00:50:26.870 align:start position:0%
dot. But the light emissions from this
[music]<00:50:24.240><c> red</c><00:50:24.480><c> dot</c><00:50:24.800><c> are</c><00:50:25.119><c> revealing.</c>

00:50:26.870 --> 00:50:26.880 align:start position:0%
[music] red dot are revealing.
 

00:50:26.880 --> 00:50:29.990 align:start position:0%
[music] red dot are revealing.
X-rays<00:50:27.440><c> given</c><00:50:27.680><c> off</c><00:50:27.920><c> by</c><00:50:28.160><c> lid</c><00:50:28.720><c> 568's</c><00:50:29.520><c> accretion</c>

00:50:29.990 --> 00:50:30.000 align:start position:0%
X-rays given off by lid 568's accretion
 

00:50:30.000 --> 00:50:32.549 align:start position:0%
X-rays given off by lid 568's accretion
disc<00:50:30.559><c> reveal</c><00:50:30.960><c> that</c><00:50:31.200><c> it</c><00:50:31.520><c> was</c><00:50:31.920><c> actively</c>

00:50:32.549 --> 00:50:32.559 align:start position:0%
disc reveal that it was actively
 

00:50:32.559 --> 00:50:35.190 align:start position:0%
disc reveal that it was actively
consuming<00:50:33.119><c> matter</c><00:50:33.680><c> in</c><00:50:33.920><c> its</c><00:50:34.160><c> galaxy's</c><00:50:34.720><c> heart</c>

00:50:35.190 --> 00:50:35.200 align:start position:0%
consuming matter in its galaxy's heart
 

00:50:35.200 --> 00:50:38.870 align:start position:0%
consuming matter in its galaxy's heart
in<00:50:35.440><c> a</c><00:50:35.599><c> way</c><00:50:35.839><c> that</c><00:50:36.480><c> no</c><00:50:36.800><c> one</c><00:50:37.119><c> expected.</c>

00:50:38.870 --> 00:50:38.880 align:start position:0%
in a way that no one expected.
 

00:50:38.880 --> 00:50:43.155 align:start position:0%
in a way that no one expected.
You<00:50:39.119><c> see,</c><00:50:39.760><c> LID</c><00:50:40.319><c> 568</c><00:50:41.680><c> crucially</c><00:50:42.559><c> breaks</c><00:50:43.119><c> the</c>

00:50:43.155 --> 00:50:43.165 align:start position:0%
You see, LID 568 crucially breaks the
 

00:50:43.165 --> 00:50:45.750 align:start position:0%
You see, LID 568 crucially breaks the
[music]<00:50:43.359><c> Edington</c><00:50:43.920><c> limit.</c><00:50:44.800><c> And</c><00:50:45.040><c> not</c><00:50:45.280><c> just</c><00:50:45.520><c> by</c>

00:50:45.750 --> 00:50:45.760 align:start position:0%
[music] Edington limit. And not just by
 

00:50:45.760 --> 00:50:49.030 align:start position:0%
[music] Edington limit. And not just by
a<00:50:46.000><c> little,</c><00:50:46.800><c> it's</c><00:50:47.359><c> 40</c><00:50:47.839><c> times</c><00:50:48.400><c> over</c><00:50:48.800><c> the</c>

00:50:49.030 --> 00:50:49.040 align:start position:0%
a little, it's 40 times over the
 

00:50:49.040 --> 00:50:52.710 align:start position:0%
a little, it's 40 times over the
accretion<00:50:49.760><c> speed</c><00:50:50.079><c> limit.</c><00:50:51.440><c> It's</c><00:50:51.920><c> well</c><00:50:52.319><c> on</c><00:50:52.559><c> its</c>

00:50:52.710 --> 00:50:52.720 align:start position:0%
accretion speed limit. It's well on its
 

00:50:52.720 --> 00:50:55.750 align:start position:0%
accretion speed limit. It's well on its
way<00:50:52.880><c> to</c><00:50:53.040><c> having</c><00:50:53.280><c> its</c><00:50:53.599><c> license</c><00:50:53.920><c> revoked.</c><00:50:55.359><c> How</c>

00:50:55.750 --> 00:50:55.760 align:start position:0%
way to having its license revoked. How
 

00:50:55.760 --> 00:50:59.190 align:start position:0%
way to having its license revoked. How
is<00:50:56.000><c> this</c><00:50:56.319><c> possible?</c>

00:50:59.190 --> 00:50:59.200 align:start position:0%
is this possible?
 

00:50:59.200 --> 00:51:01.829 align:start position:0%
is this possible?
It<00:50:59.440><c> turns</c><00:50:59.760><c> out</c><00:51:00.160><c> that</c><00:51:00.640><c> breaking</c><00:51:01.040><c> the</c><00:51:01.280><c> Edington</c>

00:51:01.829 --> 00:51:01.839 align:start position:0%
It turns out that breaking the Edington
 

00:51:01.839 --> 00:51:05.349 align:start position:0%
It turns out that breaking the Edington
limit<00:51:02.480><c> is</c><00:51:03.040><c> in</c><00:51:03.280><c> fact</c><00:51:03.520><c> possible,</c><00:51:04.480><c> but</c><00:51:04.880><c> only</c><00:51:05.119><c> for</c>

00:51:05.349 --> 00:51:05.359 align:start position:0%
limit is in fact possible, but only for
 

00:51:05.359 --> 00:51:08.710 align:start position:0%
limit is in fact possible, but only for
short<00:51:05.680><c> bursts</c><00:51:06.480><c> or</c><00:51:06.720><c> in</c><00:51:06.960><c> sneaky</c><00:51:07.440><c> ways.</c><00:51:08.640><c> For</c>

00:51:08.710 --> 00:51:08.720 align:start position:0%
short bursts or in sneaky ways. For
 

00:51:08.720 --> 00:51:11.109 align:start position:0%
short bursts or in sneaky ways. For
example,<00:51:09.520><c> jets</c><00:51:10.079><c> can</c><00:51:10.319><c> help</c><00:51:10.480><c> you</c><00:51:10.720><c> get</c><00:51:10.880><c> around</c>

00:51:11.109 --> 00:51:11.119 align:start position:0%
example, jets can help you get around
 

00:51:11.119 --> 00:51:13.430 align:start position:0%
example, jets can help you get around
the<00:51:11.280><c> Edington</c><00:51:11.760><c> limit.</c><00:51:12.319><c> If</c><00:51:12.559><c> all</c><00:51:12.720><c> your</c><00:51:12.960><c> photons</c>

00:51:13.430 --> 00:51:13.440 align:start position:0%
the Edington limit. If all your photons
 

00:51:13.440 --> 00:51:15.349 align:start position:0%
the Edington limit. If all your photons
are<00:51:13.599><c> being</c><00:51:13.839><c> blasted</c><00:51:14.319><c> off</c><00:51:14.559><c> in</c><00:51:14.720><c> a</c><00:51:14.960><c> single</c>

00:51:15.349 --> 00:51:15.359 align:start position:0%
are being blasted off in a single
 

00:51:15.359 --> 00:51:17.589 align:start position:0%
are being blasted off in a single
concentrated<00:51:16.079><c> direction,</c><00:51:16.960><c> all</c><00:51:17.119><c> the</c><00:51:17.280><c> other</c>

00:51:17.589 --> 00:51:17.599 align:start position:0%
concentrated direction, all the other
 

00:51:17.599 --> 00:51:19.430 align:start position:0%
concentrated direction, all the other
directions<00:51:18.079><c> can</c><00:51:18.400><c> eat</c><00:51:18.640><c> to</c><00:51:18.800><c> their</c><00:51:18.960><c> heart's</c>

00:51:19.430 --> 00:51:19.440 align:start position:0%
directions can eat to their heart's
 

00:51:19.440 --> 00:51:22.230 align:start position:0%
directions can eat to their heart's
content<00:51:20.240><c> with</c><00:51:20.480><c> no</c><00:51:20.800><c> photon</c><00:51:21.280><c> feedback</c><00:51:21.920><c> getting</c>

00:51:22.230 --> 00:51:22.240 align:start position:0%
content with no photon feedback getting
 

00:51:22.240 --> 00:51:24.870 align:start position:0%
content with no photon feedback getting
in<00:51:22.400><c> the</c><00:51:22.559><c> way</c><00:51:22.720><c> of</c><00:51:22.880><c> a</c><00:51:23.119><c> good</c><00:51:23.280><c> meal.</c><00:51:24.319><c> There</c><00:51:24.559><c> are</c>

00:51:24.870 --> 00:51:24.880 align:start position:0%
in the way of a good meal. There are
 

00:51:24.880 --> 00:51:27.349 align:start position:0%
in the way of a good meal. There are
other<00:51:25.200><c> possibilities.</c><00:51:26.480><c> While</c><00:51:26.720><c> Edington's</c>

00:51:27.349 --> 00:51:27.359 align:start position:0%
other possibilities. While Edington's
 

00:51:27.359 --> 00:51:29.270 align:start position:0%
other possibilities. While Edington's
limit<00:51:27.680><c> says</c><00:51:28.079><c> that</c><00:51:28.400><c> once</c><00:51:28.640><c> the</c><00:51:28.880><c> brightness</c><00:51:29.200><c> of</c>

00:51:29.270 --> 00:51:29.280 align:start position:0%
limit says that once the brightness of
 

00:51:29.280 --> 00:51:32.150 align:start position:0%
limit says that once the brightness of
the<00:51:29.440><c> accretion</c><00:51:29.920><c> disc</c><00:51:30.319><c> becomes</c><00:51:30.880><c> too</c><00:51:31.200><c> high,</c><00:51:32.000><c> all</c>

00:51:32.150 --> 00:51:32.160 align:start position:0%
the accretion disc becomes too high, all
 

00:51:32.160 --> 00:51:34.950 align:start position:0%
the accretion disc becomes too high, all
the<00:51:32.400><c> black</c><00:51:32.559><c> holes</c><00:51:32.960><c> food</c><00:51:33.280><c> will</c><00:51:33.520><c> be</c><00:51:33.599><c> blown</c><00:51:33.920><c> away.</c>

00:51:34.950 --> 00:51:34.960 align:start position:0%
the black holes food will be blown away.
 

00:51:34.960 --> 00:51:37.109 align:start position:0%
the black holes food will be blown away.
There<00:51:35.119><c> is</c><00:51:35.280><c> a</c><00:51:35.440><c> period</c><00:51:35.680><c> of</c><00:51:35.920><c> time</c><00:51:36.240><c> before</c><00:51:36.800><c> this</c>

00:51:37.109 --> 00:51:37.119 align:start position:0%
There is a period of time before this
 

00:51:37.119 --> 00:51:39.510 align:start position:0%
There is a period of time before this
happens<00:51:37.520><c> where</c><00:51:37.920><c> a</c><00:51:38.160><c> greedy</c><00:51:38.640><c> black</c><00:51:38.880><c> hole</c><00:51:39.200><c> can</c>

00:51:39.510 --> 00:51:39.520 align:start position:0%
happens where a greedy black hole can
 

00:51:39.520 --> 00:51:41.910 align:start position:0%
happens where a greedy black hole can
snatch<00:51:40.000><c> at</c><00:51:40.240><c> the</c><00:51:40.400><c> escaping</c><00:51:40.960><c> matter</c><00:51:41.599><c> and</c>

00:51:41.910 --> 00:51:41.920 align:start position:0%
snatch at the escaping matter and
 

00:51:41.920 --> 00:51:44.630 align:start position:0%
snatch at the escaping matter and
potentially<00:51:42.559><c> enter</c><00:51:43.359><c> super</c><00:51:44.000><c> Edington</c>

00:51:44.630 --> 00:51:44.640 align:start position:0%
potentially enter super Edington
 

00:51:44.640 --> 00:51:48.069 align:start position:0%
potentially enter super Edington
territory.<00:51:45.839><c> like</c><00:51:46.079><c> an</c><00:51:46.319><c> overeager</c><00:51:47.040><c> diner,</c><00:51:47.839><c> it</c>

00:51:48.069 --> 00:51:48.079 align:start position:0%
territory. like an overeager diner, it
 

00:51:48.079 --> 00:51:50.630 align:start position:0%
territory. like an overeager diner, it
might<00:51:48.319><c> pay</c><00:51:48.559><c> for</c><00:51:48.720><c> it</c><00:51:48.880><c> later,</c><00:51:49.680><c> but</c><00:51:49.920><c> for</c><00:51:50.160><c> a</c><00:51:50.400><c> short</c>

00:51:50.630 --> 00:51:50.640 align:start position:0%
might pay for it later, but for a short
 

00:51:50.640 --> 00:51:53.190 align:start position:0%
might pay for it later, but for a short
burst,<00:51:51.440><c> that</c><00:51:51.680><c> level</c><00:51:51.839><c> of</c><00:51:52.000><c> accretion</c><00:51:52.720><c> can</c>

00:51:53.190 --> 00:51:53.200 align:start position:0%
burst, that level of accretion can
 

00:51:53.200 --> 00:51:54.710 align:start position:0%
burst, that level of accretion can
occur.

00:51:54.710 --> 00:51:54.720 align:start position:0%
occur.
 

00:51:54.720 --> 00:51:57.190 align:start position:0%
occur.
If<00:51:54.960><c> this</c><00:51:55.119><c> is</c><00:51:55.359><c> true,</c><00:51:55.680><c> it</c><00:51:55.920><c> might</c><00:51:56.240><c> just</c><00:51:56.720><c> explain</c>

00:51:57.190 --> 00:51:57.200 align:start position:0%
If this is true, it might just explain
 

00:51:57.200 --> 00:51:59.190 align:start position:0%
If this is true, it might just explain
how<00:51:57.520><c> super</c><00:51:57.760><c> massive</c><00:51:58.160><c> black</c><00:51:58.400><c> holes</c><00:51:58.800><c> in</c><00:51:59.040><c> the</c>

00:51:59.190 --> 00:51:59.200 align:start position:0%
how super massive black holes in the
 

00:51:59.200 --> 00:52:01.910 align:start position:0%
how super massive black holes in the
early<00:51:59.520><c> universe</c><00:52:00.079><c> came</c><00:52:00.400><c> to</c><00:52:00.559><c> exist.</c><00:52:01.520><c> And</c>

00:52:01.910 --> 00:52:01.920 align:start position:0%
early universe came to exist. And
 

00:52:01.920 --> 00:52:05.430 align:start position:0%
early universe came to exist. And
certainly,<00:52:02.640><c> LID</c><00:52:03.200><c> 568</c><00:52:03.920><c> exists</c><00:52:04.800><c> and</c><00:52:05.040><c> is</c><00:52:05.280><c> the</c>

00:52:05.430 --> 00:52:05.440 align:start position:0%
certainly, LID 568 exists and is the
 

00:52:05.440 --> 00:52:07.670 align:start position:0%
certainly, LID 568 exists and is the
clearest<00:52:05.920><c> example</c><00:52:06.400><c> to</c><00:52:06.640><c> date</c><00:52:06.880><c> of</c><00:52:07.040><c> a</c><00:52:07.280><c> black</c><00:52:07.440><c> hole</c>

00:52:07.670 --> 00:52:07.680 align:start position:0%
clearest example to date of a black hole
 

00:52:07.680 --> 00:52:10.230 align:start position:0%
clearest example to date of a black hole
accreting<00:52:08.160><c> this</c><00:52:08.400><c> quickly.</c><00:52:09.280><c> that</c><00:52:09.520><c> demands</c><00:52:09.920><c> our</c>

00:52:10.230 --> 00:52:10.240 align:start position:0%
accreting this quickly. that demands our
 

00:52:10.240 --> 00:52:13.430 align:start position:0%
accreting this quickly. that demands our
consideration.<00:52:11.440><c> Much</c><00:52:11.760><c> like</c><00:52:12.319><c> the</c><00:52:12.559><c> impossible</c>

00:52:13.430 --> 00:52:13.440 align:start position:0%
consideration. Much like the impossible
 

00:52:13.440 --> 00:52:16.069 align:start position:0%
consideration. Much like the impossible
super<00:52:13.760><c> massive</c><00:52:14.160><c> black</c><00:52:14.400><c> holes</c><00:52:14.880><c> themselves,</c>

00:52:16.069 --> 00:52:16.079 align:start position:0%
super massive black holes themselves,
 

00:52:16.079 --> 00:52:18.870 align:start position:0%
super massive black holes themselves,
they<00:52:16.319><c> are</c><00:52:16.559><c> there.</c><00:52:17.440><c> It's</c><00:52:17.760><c> now</c><00:52:18.000><c> our</c><00:52:18.400><c> job</c><00:52:18.640><c> to</c>

00:52:18.870 --> 00:52:18.880 align:start position:0%
they are there. It's now our job to
 

00:52:18.880 --> 00:52:20.870 align:start position:0%
they are there. It's now our job to
attempt<00:52:19.200><c> to</c><00:52:19.440><c> understand</c><00:52:20.160><c> how</c><00:52:20.559><c> that's</c>

00:52:20.870 --> 00:52:20.880 align:start position:0%
attempt to understand how that's
 

00:52:20.880 --> 00:52:23.829 align:start position:0%
attempt to understand how that's
possible.

00:52:23.829 --> 00:52:23.839 align:start position:0%
possible.
 

00:52:23.839 --> 00:52:28.150 align:start position:0%
possible.
So,<00:52:24.400><c> mysteries</c><00:52:24.960><c> remain.</c><00:52:25.920><c> If</c><00:52:26.240><c> lid</c><00:52:26.800><c> 568</c><00:52:27.760><c> is</c>

00:52:28.150 --> 00:52:28.160 align:start position:0%
So, mysteries remain. If lid 568 is
 

00:52:28.160 --> 00:52:29.990 align:start position:0%
So, mysteries remain. If lid 568 is
increasing<00:52:28.640><c> matter</c><00:52:29.040><c> past</c><00:52:29.359><c> the</c><00:52:29.520><c> Edington</c>

00:52:29.990 --> 00:52:30.000 align:start position:0%
increasing matter past the Edington
 

00:52:30.000 --> 00:52:32.230 align:start position:0%
increasing matter past the Edington
limit,<00:52:30.800><c> it</c><00:52:31.040><c> proves</c><00:52:31.440><c> such</c><00:52:31.680><c> a</c><00:52:31.920><c> thing</c><00:52:32.000><c> is</c>

00:52:32.230 --> 00:52:32.240 align:start position:0%
limit, it proves such a thing is
 

00:52:32.240 --> 00:52:34.790 align:start position:0%
limit, it proves such a thing is
possible.<00:52:33.440><c> But</c><00:52:33.599><c> what</c><00:52:33.760><c> of</c><00:52:33.920><c> the</c><00:52:34.160><c> other</c><00:52:34.400><c> strange</c>

00:52:34.790 --> 00:52:34.800 align:start position:0%
possible. But what of the other strange
 

00:52:34.800 --> 00:52:37.829 align:start position:0%
possible. But what of the other strange
things<00:52:35.280><c> Web</c><00:52:35.599><c> saw?</c><00:52:36.880><c> Where</c><00:52:37.200><c> are</c><00:52:37.440><c> the</c>

00:52:37.829 --> 00:52:37.839 align:start position:0%
things Web saw? Where are the
 

00:52:37.839 --> 00:52:39.990 align:start position:0%
things Web saw? Where are the
intermediate<00:52:38.640><c> black</c><00:52:38.880><c> holes</c><00:52:39.280><c> that</c><00:52:39.599><c> stellar</c>

00:52:39.990 --> 00:52:40.000 align:start position:0%
intermediate black holes that stellar
 

00:52:40.000 --> 00:52:42.549 align:start position:0%
intermediate black holes that stellar
black<00:52:40.160><c> holes</c><00:52:40.720><c> ought</c><00:52:40.800><c> to</c><00:52:40.960><c> grow</c><00:52:41.200><c> into</c><00:52:42.079><c> on</c><00:52:42.319><c> their</c>

00:52:42.549 --> 00:52:42.559 align:start position:0%
black holes ought to grow into on their
 

00:52:42.559 --> 00:52:45.670 align:start position:0%
black holes ought to grow into on their
way<00:52:42.720><c> to</c><00:52:42.960><c> becoming</c><00:52:43.440><c> super</c><00:52:43.680><c> massive?</c><00:52:45.040><c> Why</c><00:52:45.440><c> are</c>

00:52:45.670 --> 00:52:45.680 align:start position:0%
way to becoming super massive? Why are
 

00:52:45.680 --> 00:52:47.990 align:start position:0%
way to becoming super massive? Why are
there<00:52:46.000><c> so</c><00:52:46.400><c> many</c><00:52:46.880><c> galaxies</c><00:52:47.359><c> in</c><00:52:47.599><c> the</c><00:52:47.680><c> early</c>

00:52:47.990 --> 00:52:48.000 align:start position:0%
there so many galaxies in the early
 

00:52:48.000 --> 00:52:50.470 align:start position:0%
there so many galaxies in the early
universe<00:52:48.960><c> more</c><00:52:49.200><c> than</c><00:52:49.520><c> our</c><00:52:49.839><c> model</c><00:52:50.240><c> should</c>

00:52:50.470 --> 00:52:50.480 align:start position:0%
universe more than our model should
 

00:52:50.480 --> 00:52:53.750 align:start position:0%
universe more than our model should
allow?<00:52:51.920><c> Do</c><00:52:52.319><c> direct</c><00:52:52.856><c> [music]</c><00:52:52.880><c> collapse</c><00:52:53.440><c> black</c>

00:52:53.750 --> 00:52:53.760 align:start position:0%
allow? Do direct [music] collapse black
 

00:52:53.760 --> 00:52:56.710 align:start position:0%
allow? Do direct [music] collapse black
holes,<00:52:54.800><c> ones</c><00:52:55.200><c> form</c><00:52:55.520><c> from</c><00:52:55.760><c> the</c><00:52:55.920><c> cosmic</c><00:52:56.400><c> dust</c>

00:52:56.710 --> 00:52:56.720 align:start position:0%
holes, ones form from the cosmic dust
 

00:52:56.720 --> 00:52:59.990 align:start position:0%
holes, ones form from the cosmic dust
itself<00:52:57.280><c> with</c><00:52:57.680><c> no</c><00:52:58.160><c> stellar</c><00:52:58.640><c> intervening</c><00:52:59.280><c> step,</c>

00:52:59.990 --> 00:53:00.000 align:start position:0%
itself with no stellar intervening step,
 

00:53:00.000 --> 00:53:02.069 align:start position:0%
itself with no stellar intervening step,
really<00:53:00.400><c> exist?</c>

00:53:02.069 --> 00:53:02.079 align:start position:0%
really exist?
 

00:53:02.079 --> 00:53:04.950 align:start position:0%
really exist?
Our<00:53:02.559><c> models</c><00:53:03.040><c> might</c><00:53:03.280><c> be</c><00:53:03.440><c> on</c><00:53:03.680><c> the</c><00:53:03.839><c> right</c><00:53:04.079><c> track,</c>

00:53:04.950 --> 00:53:04.960 align:start position:0%
Our models might be on the right track,
 

00:53:04.960 --> 00:53:08.150 align:start position:0%
Our models might be on the right track,
but<00:53:05.359><c> something</c><00:53:05.760><c> is</c><00:53:06.079><c> missing</c><00:53:06.559><c> or</c><00:53:06.880><c> incomplete.</c>

00:53:08.150 --> 00:53:08.160 align:start position:0%
but something is missing or incomplete.
 

00:53:08.160 --> 00:53:10.870 align:start position:0%
but something is missing or incomplete.
Black<00:53:08.480><c> holes</c><00:53:08.880><c> exert</c><00:53:09.359><c> a</c><00:53:09.680><c> phenomenal</c><00:53:10.400><c> influence</c>

00:53:10.870 --> 00:53:10.880 align:start position:0%
Black holes exert a phenomenal influence
 

00:53:10.880 --> 00:53:13.349 align:start position:0%
Black holes exert a phenomenal influence
on<00:53:11.200><c> our</c><00:53:11.440><c> universe,</c><00:53:12.319><c> and</c><00:53:12.559><c> there</c><00:53:12.800><c> are</c><00:53:12.960><c> secrets</c>

00:53:13.349 --> 00:53:13.359 align:start position:0%
on our universe, and there are secrets
 

00:53:13.359 --> 00:53:14.870 align:start position:0%
on our universe, and there are secrets
surrounding<00:53:13.760><c> them</c><00:53:13.920><c> that</c><00:53:14.240><c> they</c><00:53:14.480><c> guard</c>

00:53:14.870 --> 00:53:14.880 align:start position:0%
surrounding them that they guard
 

00:53:14.880 --> 00:53:16.470 align:start position:0%
surrounding them that they guard
jealously.

00:53:16.470 --> 00:53:16.480 align:start position:0%
jealously.
 

00:53:16.480 --> 00:53:19.349 align:start position:0%
jealously.
But<00:53:17.119><c> as</c><00:53:17.520><c> powerful</c><00:53:18.079><c> as</c><00:53:18.319><c> the</c><00:53:18.480><c> James</c><00:53:18.800><c> Web</c><00:53:19.119><c> Space</c>

00:53:19.349 --> 00:53:19.359 align:start position:0%
But as powerful as the James Web Space
 

00:53:19.359 --> 00:53:22.470 align:start position:0%
But as powerful as the James Web Space
Telescope<00:53:20.079><c> is,</c><00:53:21.119><c> it</c><00:53:21.359><c> has</c><00:53:21.676><c> [music]</c><00:53:21.680><c> not</c><00:53:22.079><c> allowed</c>

00:53:22.470 --> 00:53:22.480 align:start position:0%
Telescope is, it has [music] not allowed
 

00:53:22.480 --> 00:53:25.670 align:start position:0%
Telescope is, it has [music] not allowed
us<00:53:22.640><c> to</c><00:53:22.800><c> crack</c><00:53:23.119><c> this</c><00:53:23.359><c> mystery.</c><00:53:24.480><c> Not</c><00:53:24.720><c> yet.</c><00:53:25.520><c> But</c>

00:53:25.670 --> 00:53:25.680 align:start position:0%
us to crack this mystery. Not yet. But
 

00:53:25.680 --> 00:53:27.589 align:start position:0%
us to crack this mystery. Not yet. But
then<00:53:26.240><c> perhaps</c><00:53:26.559><c> we</c><00:53:26.880><c> ought</c><00:53:26.960><c> to</c><00:53:27.040><c> be</c><00:53:27.200><c> pacing</c>

00:53:27.589 --> 00:53:27.599 align:start position:0%
then perhaps we ought to be pacing
 

00:53:27.599 --> 00:53:31.030 align:start position:0%
then perhaps we ought to be pacing
ourselves.<00:53:28.800><c> Thanks</c><00:53:29.200><c> to</c><00:53:29.520><c> our</c><00:53:29.839><c> telescopes,</c><00:53:30.800><c> we</c>

00:53:31.030 --> 00:53:31.040 align:start position:0%
ourselves. Thanks to our telescopes, we
 

00:53:31.040 --> 00:53:34.870 align:start position:0%
ourselves. Thanks to our telescopes, we
have<00:53:31.280><c> seen</c><00:53:32.000><c> billions</c><00:53:32.800><c> of</c><00:53:33.200><c> trillions</c><00:53:33.760><c> of</c><00:53:34.000><c> stars</c>

00:53:34.870 --> 00:53:34.880 align:start position:0%
have seen billions of trillions of stars
 

00:53:34.880 --> 00:53:38.069 align:start position:0%
have seen billions of trillions of stars
and<00:53:35.200><c> that's</c><00:53:35.520><c> a</c><00:53:35.760><c> lot</c><00:53:35.920><c> of</c><00:53:36.079><c> data.</c><00:53:37.200><c> Accrete</c><00:53:37.760><c> too</c>

00:53:38.069 --> 00:53:38.079 align:start position:0%
and that's a lot of data. Accrete too
 

00:53:38.079 --> 00:53:40.390 align:start position:0%
and that's a lot of data. Accrete too
much<00:53:38.240><c> information</c><00:53:38.800><c> all</c><00:53:39.040><c> at</c><00:53:39.200><c> once</c><00:53:39.920><c> and</c><00:53:40.160><c> it</c>

00:53:40.390 --> 00:53:40.400 align:start position:0%
much information all at once and it
 

00:53:40.400 --> 00:53:43.589 align:start position:0%
much information all at once and it
might<00:53:40.640><c> prove</c><00:53:41.040><c> difficult</c><00:53:41.520><c> to</c><00:53:42.079><c> absorb</c><00:53:42.559><c> it</c><00:53:42.800><c> all.</c>

00:53:43.589 --> 00:53:43.599 align:start position:0%
might prove difficult to absorb it all.
 

00:53:43.599 --> 00:53:46.950 align:start position:0%
might prove difficult to absorb it all.
So<00:53:43.839><c> says</c><00:53:44.160><c> Edington</c><00:53:45.359><c> and</c><00:53:45.599><c> his</c><00:53:45.920><c> rule</c><00:53:46.319><c> is</c><00:53:46.640><c> never</c>

00:53:46.950 --> 00:53:46.960 align:start position:0%
So says Edington and his rule is never
 

00:53:46.960 --> 00:53:50.150 align:start position:0%
So says Edington and his rule is never
to<00:53:47.200><c> be</c><00:53:47.359><c> broken</c><00:53:48.480><c> except</c><00:53:49.040><c> of</c><00:53:49.280><c> course</c><00:53:49.680><c> when</c><00:53:49.920><c> it</c>

00:53:50.150 --> 00:53:50.160 align:start position:0%
to be broken except of course when it
 

00:53:50.160 --> 00:53:52.230 align:start position:0%
to be broken except of course when it
is.

00:53:52.230 --> 00:53:52.240 align:start position:0%
is.
 

00:53:52.240 --> 00:53:54.549 align:start position:0%
is.
We<00:53:52.480><c> often</c><00:53:52.880><c> think</c><00:53:53.119><c> of</c><00:53:53.440><c> black</c><00:53:53.760><c> holes</c><00:53:54.160><c> as</c>

00:53:54.549 --> 00:53:54.559 align:start position:0%
We often think of black holes as
 

00:53:54.559 --> 00:53:57.430 align:start position:0%
We often think of black holes as
destroyers.<00:53:55.920><c> They</c><00:53:56.240><c> suck</c><00:53:56.640><c> everything</c><00:53:57.040><c> within</c>

00:53:57.430 --> 00:53:57.440 align:start position:0%
destroyers. They suck everything within
 

00:53:57.440 --> 00:53:59.589 align:start position:0%
destroyers. They suck everything within
their<00:53:57.680><c> reach</c><00:53:57.920><c> into</c><00:53:58.240><c> them</c><00:53:58.559><c> and</c><00:53:58.880><c> give</c><00:53:59.200><c> nothing</c>

00:53:59.589 --> 00:53:59.599 align:start position:0%
their reach into them and give nothing
 

00:53:59.599 --> 00:54:02.309 align:start position:0%
their reach into them and give nothing
back.<00:54:00.559><c> They</c><00:54:00.800><c> are</c><00:54:00.960><c> the</c><00:54:01.200><c> end,</c><00:54:01.680><c> the</c><00:54:01.920><c> final</c>

00:54:02.309 --> 00:54:02.319 align:start position:0%
back. They are the end, the final
 

00:54:02.319 --> 00:54:05.109 align:start position:0%
back. They are the end, the final
destruction<00:54:02.800><c> of</c><00:54:02.960><c> the</c><00:54:03.200><c> universe.</c><00:54:04.319><c> And</c><00:54:04.480><c> yet,</c>

00:54:05.109 --> 00:54:05.119 align:start position:0%
destruction of the universe. And yet,
 

00:54:05.119 --> 00:54:07.190 align:start position:0%
destruction of the universe. And yet,
what<00:54:05.359><c> if</c><00:54:05.520><c> I</c><00:54:05.760><c> said</c><00:54:05.920><c> to</c><00:54:06.079><c> you</c><00:54:06.319><c> that</c><00:54:06.559><c> they</c><00:54:06.800><c> might</c>

00:54:07.190 --> 00:54:07.200 align:start position:0%
what if I said to you that they might
 

00:54:07.200 --> 00:54:10.309 align:start position:0%
what if I said to you that they might
actually<00:54:07.680><c> prove</c><00:54:08.079><c> to</c><00:54:08.319><c> be</c><00:54:08.480><c> our</c><00:54:08.800><c> salvation?</c>

00:54:10.309 --> 00:54:10.319 align:start position:0%
actually prove to be our salvation?
 

00:54:10.319 --> 00:54:12.309 align:start position:0%
actually prove to be our salvation?
Black<00:54:10.559><c> holes</c><00:54:10.960><c> might</c><00:54:11.200><c> provide</c><00:54:11.520><c> the</c><00:54:11.760><c> answer</c><00:54:12.000><c> to</c>

00:54:12.309 --> 00:54:12.319 align:start position:0%
Black holes might provide the answer to
 

00:54:12.319 --> 00:54:14.470 align:start position:0%
Black holes might provide the answer to
traveling<00:54:12.800><c> faster</c><00:54:13.280><c> than</c><00:54:13.440><c> the</c><00:54:13.599><c> speed</c><00:54:13.839><c> of</c><00:54:14.000><c> light</c>

00:54:14.470 --> 00:54:14.480 align:start position:0%
traveling faster than the speed of light
 

00:54:14.480 --> 00:54:17.109 align:start position:0%
traveling faster than the speed of light
and<00:54:14.720><c> solving</c><00:54:15.119><c> the</c><00:54:15.359><c> energy</c><00:54:15.680><c> crisis</c><00:54:16.240><c> in</c><00:54:16.480><c> ways</c><00:54:16.800><c> we</c>

00:54:17.109 --> 00:54:17.119 align:start position:0%
and solving the energy crisis in ways we
 

00:54:17.119 --> 00:54:18.870 align:start position:0%
and solving the energy crisis in ways we
couldn't<00:54:17.440><c> have</c><00:54:17.599><c> even</c><00:54:17.920><c> imagined</c><00:54:18.480><c> until</c>

00:54:18.870 --> 00:54:18.880 align:start position:0%
couldn't have even imagined until
 

00:54:18.880 --> 00:54:21.030 align:start position:0%
couldn't have even imagined until
recently.

00:54:21.030 --> 00:54:21.040 align:start position:0%
recently.
 

00:54:21.040 --> 00:54:24.150 align:start position:0%
recently.
And<00:54:21.599><c> as</c><00:54:21.920><c> by</c><00:54:22.240><c> now</c><00:54:22.480><c> I</c><00:54:22.720><c> have</c><00:54:22.880><c> come</c><00:54:23.119><c> to</c><00:54:23.359><c> expect,</c>

00:54:24.150 --> 00:54:24.160 align:start position:0%
And as by now I have come to expect,
 

00:54:24.160 --> 00:54:26.470 align:start position:0%
And as by now I have come to expect,
they<00:54:24.480><c> do</c><00:54:24.640><c> so</c><00:54:24.880><c> by</c><00:54:25.119><c> messing</c><00:54:25.520><c> with</c><00:54:25.680><c> the</c><00:54:25.920><c> fabric</c><00:54:26.240><c> of</c>

00:54:26.470 --> 00:54:26.480 align:start position:0%
they do so by messing with the fabric of
 

00:54:26.480 --> 00:54:28.710 align:start position:0%
they do so by messing with the fabric of
reality<00:54:26.880><c> itself</c><00:54:27.599><c> and</c><00:54:27.920><c> by</c><00:54:28.160><c> completely</c>

00:54:28.710 --> 00:54:28.720 align:start position:0%
reality itself and by completely
 

00:54:28.720 --> 00:54:30.442 align:start position:0%
reality itself and by completely
countering<00:54:29.280><c> my</c><00:54:29.599><c> expectations</c><00:54:30.160><c> of</c><00:54:30.400><c> physics.</c>

00:54:30.442 --> 00:54:30.452 align:start position:0%
countering my expectations of physics.
 

00:54:30.452 --> 00:54:31.589 align:start position:0%
countering my expectations of physics.
[music]

00:54:31.589 --> 00:54:31.599 align:start position:0%
[music]
 

00:54:31.599 --> 00:54:33.109 align:start position:0%
[music]
Perhaps<00:54:31.920><c> we</c><00:54:32.160><c> have</c><00:54:32.319><c> been</c><00:54:32.559><c> thinking</c><00:54:32.800><c> about</c>

00:54:33.109 --> 00:54:33.119 align:start position:0%
Perhaps we have been thinking about
 

00:54:33.119 --> 00:54:36.390 align:start position:0%
Perhaps we have been thinking about
black<00:54:33.440><c> holes</c><00:54:33.839><c> all</c><00:54:34.160><c> wrong.</c>

00:54:36.390 --> 00:54:36.400 align:start position:0%
black holes all wrong.
 

00:54:36.400 --> 00:54:38.470 align:start position:0%
black holes all wrong.
I'm<00:54:36.640><c> Alex</c><00:54:37.040><c> Mccoan</c><00:54:37.680><c> and</c><00:54:37.920><c> you're</c><00:54:38.240><c> watching</c>

00:54:38.470 --> 00:54:38.480 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
 

00:54:38.480 --> 00:54:40.790 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
Astramm.<00:54:39.359><c> Join</c><00:54:39.680><c> me</c><00:54:39.839><c> again</c><00:54:40.079><c> for</c><00:54:40.319><c> the</c><00:54:40.480><c> fifth</c>

00:54:40.790 --> 00:54:40.800 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join me again for the fifth
 

00:54:40.800 --> 00:54:43.109 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join me again for the fifth
video<00:54:41.040><c> in</c><00:54:41.359><c> my</c><00:54:41.520><c> series</c><00:54:41.839><c> about</c><00:54:42.160><c> black</c><00:54:42.400><c> holes,</c>

00:54:43.109 --> 00:54:43.119 align:start position:0%
video in my series about black holes,
 

00:54:43.119 --> 00:54:45.670 align:start position:0%
video in my series about black holes,
where<00:54:43.359><c> once</c><00:54:43.680><c> again</c><00:54:44.160><c> my</c><00:54:44.400><c> mind</c><00:54:44.720><c> has</c><00:54:44.960><c> been</c><00:54:45.200><c> blown</c>

00:54:45.670 --> 00:54:45.680 align:start position:0%
where once again my mind has been blown
 

00:54:45.680 --> 00:54:47.670 align:start position:0%
where once again my mind has been blown
by<00:54:45.920><c> the</c><00:54:46.160><c> incredible</c><00:54:46.720><c> potential</c><00:54:47.359><c> and</c>

00:54:47.670 --> 00:54:47.680 align:start position:0%
by the incredible potential and
 

00:54:47.680 --> 00:54:49.910 align:start position:0%
by the incredible potential and
implications<00:54:48.319><c> of</c><00:54:48.559><c> these</c><00:54:48.880><c> very</c><00:54:49.200><c> real</c><00:54:49.520><c> objects</c>

00:54:49.910 --> 00:54:49.920 align:start position:0%
implications of these very real objects
 

00:54:49.920 --> 00:54:54.390 align:start position:0%
implications of these very real objects
in<00:54:50.160><c> our</c><00:54:50.400><c> universe.</c>

00:54:54.390 --> 00:54:54.400 align:start position:0%
 
 

00:54:54.400 --> 00:54:56.150 align:start position:0%
 
I've<00:54:54.720><c> talked</c><00:54:54.960><c> before</c><00:54:55.359><c> about</c><00:54:55.599><c> the</c><00:54:55.760><c> formation</c>

00:54:56.150 --> 00:54:56.160 align:start position:0%
I've talked before about the formation
 

00:54:56.160 --> 00:54:58.549 align:start position:0%
I've talked before about the formation
of<00:54:56.319><c> black</c><00:54:56.559><c> holes</c><00:54:56.800><c> in</c><00:54:57.040><c> this</c><00:54:57.200><c> series,</c><00:54:58.000><c> including</c>

00:54:58.549 --> 00:54:58.559 align:start position:0%
of black holes in this series, including
 

00:54:58.559 --> 00:55:01.750 align:start position:0%
of black holes in this series, including
aspects<00:54:59.040><c> about</c><00:54:59.280><c> their</c><00:54:59.520><c> event</c><00:54:59.920><c> horizons,</c>

00:55:01.750 --> 00:55:01.760 align:start position:0%
aspects about their event horizons,
 

00:55:01.760 --> 00:55:04.069 align:start position:0%
aspects about their event horizons,
how<00:55:02.000><c> they</c><00:55:02.160><c> are</c><00:55:02.400><c> created,</c>

00:55:04.069 --> 00:55:04.079 align:start position:0%
how they are created,
 

00:55:04.079 --> 00:55:07.270 align:start position:0%
how they are created,
and<00:55:04.319><c> how</c><00:55:04.559><c> they</c><00:55:04.720><c> might</c><00:55:04.960><c> possibly</c><00:55:05.440><c> end.</c>

00:55:07.270 --> 00:55:07.280 align:start position:0%
and how they might possibly end.
 

00:55:07.280 --> 00:55:09.190 align:start position:0%
and how they might possibly end.
But<00:55:07.440><c> to</c><00:55:07.760><c> understand</c><00:55:08.079><c> how</c><00:55:08.319><c> a</c><00:55:08.559><c> black</c><00:55:08.720><c> hole</c>

00:55:09.190 --> 00:55:09.200 align:start position:0%
But to understand how a black hole
 

00:55:09.200 --> 00:55:11.430 align:start position:0%
But to understand how a black hole
ignores<00:55:09.520><c> the</c><00:55:09.760><c> usual</c><00:55:10.079><c> limitations</c><00:55:10.720><c> on</c><00:55:11.040><c> faster</c>

00:55:11.430 --> 00:55:11.440 align:start position:0%
ignores the usual limitations on faster
 

00:55:11.440 --> 00:55:13.510 align:start position:0%
ignores the usual limitations on faster
than<00:55:11.599><c> light</c><00:55:11.920><c> travel</c><00:55:12.480><c> and</c><00:55:12.720><c> does</c><00:55:12.960><c> so</c><00:55:13.119><c> in</c><00:55:13.280><c> a</c><00:55:13.440><c> way</c>

00:55:13.510 --> 00:55:13.520 align:start position:0%
than light travel and does so in a way
 

00:55:13.520 --> 00:55:15.510 align:start position:0%
than light travel and does so in a way
that<00:55:13.760><c> you</c><00:55:13.920><c> can</c><00:55:14.079><c> benefit</c><00:55:14.480><c> from</c><00:55:14.720><c> it</c><00:55:15.040><c> without</c>

00:55:15.510 --> 00:55:15.520 align:start position:0%
that you can benefit from it without
 

00:55:15.520 --> 00:55:17.349 align:start position:0%
that you can benefit from it without
having<00:55:15.760><c> to</c><00:55:15.920><c> go</c><00:55:16.079><c> inside</c><00:55:16.400><c> a</c><00:55:16.559><c> black</c><00:55:16.720><c> holes</c><00:55:17.040><c> event</c>

00:55:17.349 --> 00:55:17.359 align:start position:0%
having to go inside a black holes event
 

00:55:17.359 --> 00:55:20.630 align:start position:0%
having to go inside a black holes event
horizon<00:55:18.480><c> and</c><00:55:19.040><c> how</c><00:55:19.280><c> it</c><00:55:19.520><c> produces</c><00:55:20.160><c> near</c>

00:55:20.630 --> 00:55:20.640 align:start position:0%
horizon and how it produces near
 

00:55:20.640 --> 00:55:23.270 align:start position:0%
horizon and how it produces near
limitless<00:55:21.200><c> energy</c><00:55:21.680><c> at</c><00:55:21.839><c> the</c><00:55:22.000><c> same</c><00:55:22.240><c> time</c><00:55:23.040><c> then</c>

00:55:23.270 --> 00:55:23.280 align:start position:0%
limitless energy at the same time then
 

00:55:23.280 --> 00:55:25.109 align:start position:0%
limitless energy at the same time then
we<00:55:23.440><c> are</c><00:55:23.599><c> going</c><00:55:23.760><c> to</c><00:55:23.920><c> have</c><00:55:24.079><c> to</c><00:55:24.319><c> understand</c><00:55:24.800><c> more</c>

00:55:25.109 --> 00:55:25.119 align:start position:0%
we are going to have to understand more
 

00:55:25.119 --> 00:55:26.790 align:start position:0%
we are going to have to understand more
about<00:55:25.359><c> the</c><00:55:25.599><c> features</c><00:55:25.920><c> of</c><00:55:26.079><c> black</c><00:55:26.319><c> holes</c><00:55:26.640><c> than</c>

00:55:26.790 --> 00:55:26.800 align:start position:0%
about the features of black holes than
 

00:55:26.800 --> 00:55:30.309 align:start position:0%
about the features of black holes than
we've<00:55:27.040><c> covered</c><00:55:27.359><c> so</c><00:55:27.599><c> far.</c><00:55:28.720><c> So,</c><00:55:29.040><c> a</c><00:55:29.280><c> quick</c><00:55:29.520><c> recap.</c>

00:55:30.309 --> 00:55:30.319 align:start position:0%
we've covered so far. So, a quick recap.
 

00:55:30.319 --> 00:55:32.790 align:start position:0%
we've covered so far. So, a quick recap.
What<00:55:30.480><c> is</c><00:55:30.640><c> a</c><00:55:30.800><c> black</c><00:55:31.040><c> hole?</c><00:55:32.000><c> In</c><00:55:32.160><c> its</c><00:55:32.400><c> simplest</c>

00:55:32.790 --> 00:55:32.800 align:start position:0%
What is a black hole? In its simplest
 

00:55:32.800 --> 00:55:34.950 align:start position:0%
What is a black hole? In its simplest
form,<00:55:33.119><c> a</c><00:55:33.280><c> black</c><00:55:33.440><c> hole</c><00:55:33.760><c> is</c><00:55:33.920><c> an</c><00:55:34.079><c> object</c><00:55:34.400><c> in</c><00:55:34.720><c> space</c>

00:55:34.950 --> 00:55:34.960 align:start position:0%
form, a black hole is an object in space
 

00:55:34.960 --> 00:55:37.670 align:start position:0%
form, a black hole is an object in space
that<00:55:35.280><c> is</c><00:55:35.440><c> so</c><00:55:35.680><c> massive</c><00:55:36.079><c> and</c><00:55:36.319><c> so</c><00:55:36.559><c> dense</c><00:55:37.200><c> that</c><00:55:37.440><c> the</c>

00:55:37.670 --> 00:55:37.680 align:start position:0%
that is so massive and so dense that the
 

00:55:37.680 --> 00:55:39.990 align:start position:0%
that is so massive and so dense that the
gravity<00:55:38.000><c> it</c><00:55:38.240><c> creates</c><00:55:38.640><c> is</c><00:55:38.960><c> too</c><00:55:39.280><c> powerful</c><00:55:39.680><c> for</c>

00:55:39.990 --> 00:55:40.000 align:start position:0%
gravity it creates is too powerful for
 

00:55:40.000 --> 00:55:42.549 align:start position:0%
gravity it creates is too powerful for
anything<00:55:40.240><c> to</c><00:55:40.480><c> escape</c><00:55:40.880><c> it.</c><00:55:41.760><c> We</c><00:55:42.000><c> are</c><00:55:42.160><c> familiar</c>

00:55:42.549 --> 00:55:42.559 align:start position:0%
anything to escape it. We are familiar
 

00:55:42.559 --> 00:55:44.710 align:start position:0%
anything to escape it. We are familiar
with<00:55:42.800><c> the</c><00:55:43.119><c> iconic</c><00:55:43.599><c> black</c><00:55:43.920><c> spherical</c><00:55:44.480><c> zone</c>

00:55:44.710 --> 00:55:44.720 align:start position:0%
with the iconic black spherical zone
 

00:55:44.720 --> 00:55:46.790 align:start position:0%
with the iconic black spherical zone
that<00:55:44.960><c> surrounds</c><00:55:45.280><c> a</c><00:55:45.440><c> black</c><00:55:45.599><c> hole.</c><00:55:46.319><c> This</c><00:55:46.480><c> is</c><00:55:46.559><c> the</c>

00:55:46.790 --> 00:55:46.800 align:start position:0%
that surrounds a black hole. This is the
 

00:55:46.800 --> 00:55:49.589 align:start position:0%
that surrounds a black hole. This is the
black<00:55:46.960><c> hole's</c><00:55:47.359><c> event</c><00:55:47.680><c> horizon.</c><00:55:48.960><c> This</c><00:55:49.200><c> sphere</c>

00:55:49.589 --> 00:55:49.599 align:start position:0%
black hole's event horizon. This sphere
 

00:55:49.599 --> 00:55:51.510 align:start position:0%
black hole's event horizon. This sphere
is<00:55:49.760><c> the</c><00:55:50.000><c> demarcation</c><00:55:50.720><c> point</c><00:55:51.040><c> between</c>

00:55:51.510 --> 00:55:51.520 align:start position:0%
is the demarcation point between
 

00:55:51.520 --> 00:55:53.990 align:start position:0%
is the demarcation point between
escapable<00:55:52.160><c> gravity</c><00:55:52.799><c> and</c><00:55:53.119><c> inescapable</c>

00:55:53.990 --> 00:55:54.000 align:start position:0%
escapable gravity and inescapable
 

00:55:54.000 --> 00:55:55.589 align:start position:0%
escapable gravity and inescapable
gravity.

00:55:55.589 --> 00:55:55.599 align:start position:0%
gravity.
 

00:55:55.599 --> 00:55:57.829 align:start position:0%
gravity.
Because<00:55:55.839><c> the</c><00:55:56.160><c> gravitational</c><00:55:56.720><c> pull</c><00:55:57.200><c> increases</c>

00:55:57.829 --> 00:55:57.839 align:start position:0%
Because the gravitational pull increases
 

00:55:57.839 --> 00:56:00.309 align:start position:0%
Because the gravitational pull increases
the<00:55:58.079><c> closer</c><00:55:58.400><c> you</c><00:55:58.559><c> get</c><00:55:58.720><c> to</c><00:55:58.880><c> a</c><00:55:59.040><c> black</c><00:55:59.280><c> hole.</c><00:56:00.000><c> Once</c>

00:56:00.309 --> 00:56:00.319 align:start position:0%
the closer you get to a black hole. Once
 

00:56:00.319 --> 00:56:02.390 align:start position:0%
the closer you get to a black hole. Once
you<00:56:00.480><c> go</c><00:56:00.640><c> beyond</c><00:56:00.960><c> the</c><00:56:01.119><c> event</c><00:56:01.440><c> horizon,</c>

00:56:02.390 --> 00:56:02.400 align:start position:0%
you go beyond the event horizon,
 

00:56:02.400 --> 00:56:05.030 align:start position:0%
you go beyond the event horizon,
nothing,<00:56:03.200><c> not</c><00:56:03.440><c> even</c><00:56:03.680><c> light,</c><00:56:04.240><c> can</c><00:56:04.480><c> travel</c><00:56:04.799><c> fast</c>

00:56:05.030 --> 00:56:05.040 align:start position:0%
nothing, not even light, can travel fast
 

00:56:05.040 --> 00:56:08.069 align:start position:0%
nothing, not even light, can travel fast
enough<00:56:05.280><c> to</c><00:56:05.520><c> get</c><00:56:05.680><c> away</c><00:56:06.000><c> again.</c><00:56:07.440><c> Beyond</c><00:56:07.760><c> that,</c>

00:56:08.069 --> 00:56:08.079 align:start position:0%
enough to get away again. Beyond that,
 

00:56:08.079 --> 00:56:09.990 align:start position:0%
enough to get away again. Beyond that,
though,<00:56:08.400><c> it's</c><00:56:08.720><c> actually</c><00:56:09.040><c> quite</c><00:56:09.440><c> difficult</c><00:56:09.760><c> to</c>

00:56:09.990 --> 00:56:10.000 align:start position:0%
though, it's actually quite difficult to
 

00:56:10.000 --> 00:56:11.910 align:start position:0%
though, it's actually quite difficult to
say<00:56:10.240><c> much</c><00:56:10.480><c> about</c><00:56:10.799><c> the</c><00:56:10.960><c> black</c><00:56:11.119><c> hole's</c><00:56:11.520><c> features</c>

00:56:11.910 --> 00:56:11.920 align:start position:0%
say much about the black hole's features
 

00:56:11.920 --> 00:56:14.710 align:start position:0%
say much about the black hole's features
at<00:56:12.160><c> all.</c><00:56:13.040><c> Precisely</c><00:56:13.680><c> because</c><00:56:14.000><c> of</c><00:56:14.160><c> the</c><00:56:14.319><c> event</c>

00:56:14.710 --> 00:56:14.720 align:start position:0%
at all. Precisely because of the event
 

00:56:14.720 --> 00:56:16.870 align:start position:0%
at all. Precisely because of the event
horizon,<00:56:15.359><c> we</c><00:56:15.599><c> cannot</c><00:56:15.920><c> see</c><00:56:16.160><c> what</c><00:56:16.400><c> the</c><00:56:16.559><c> inside</c>

00:56:16.870 --> 00:56:16.880 align:start position:0%
horizon, we cannot see what the inside
 

00:56:16.880 --> 00:56:19.670 align:start position:0%
horizon, we cannot see what the inside
of<00:56:16.960><c> a</c><00:56:17.200><c> black</c><00:56:17.359><c> hole</c><00:56:17.680><c> looks</c><00:56:17.920><c> like.</c><00:56:19.040><c> In</c><00:56:19.280><c> fact,</c>

00:56:19.670 --> 00:56:19.680 align:start position:0%
of a black hole looks like. In fact,
 

00:56:19.680 --> 00:56:21.430 align:start position:0%
of a black hole looks like. In fact,
there<00:56:19.839><c> are</c><00:56:20.079><c> only</c><00:56:20.319><c> three</c><00:56:20.640><c> things</c><00:56:20.880><c> we</c><00:56:21.119><c> can</c><00:56:21.280><c> say</c>

00:56:21.430 --> 00:56:21.440 align:start position:0%
there are only three things we can say
 

00:56:21.440 --> 00:56:23.270 align:start position:0%
there are only three things we can say
about<00:56:21.680><c> black</c><00:56:21.920><c> holes</c><00:56:22.319><c> with</c><00:56:22.559><c> any</c><00:56:22.799><c> degree</c><00:56:23.119><c> of</c>

00:56:23.270 --> 00:56:23.280 align:start position:0%
about black holes with any degree of
 

00:56:23.280 --> 00:56:26.309 align:start position:0%
about black holes with any degree of
certainty.<00:56:24.480><c> They</c><00:56:24.799><c> have</c><00:56:24.960><c> mass,</c><00:56:25.920><c> they</c><00:56:26.160><c> have</c>

00:56:26.309 --> 00:56:26.319 align:start position:0%
certainty. They have mass, they have
 

00:56:26.319 --> 00:56:30.390 align:start position:0%
certainty. They have mass, they have
charge,<00:56:27.200><c> and</c><00:56:27.359><c> they</c><00:56:27.520><c> have</c><00:56:27.760><c> angular</c><00:56:28.240><c> momentum.</c>

00:56:30.390 --> 00:56:30.400 align:start position:0%
charge, and they have angular momentum.
 

00:56:30.400 --> 00:56:31.910 align:start position:0%
charge, and they have angular momentum.
You<00:56:30.640><c> might</c><00:56:30.799><c> wonder</c><00:56:31.040><c> how</c><00:56:31.280><c> we</c><00:56:31.520><c> know</c><00:56:31.680><c> these</c>

00:56:31.910 --> 00:56:31.920 align:start position:0%
You might wonder how we know these
 

00:56:31.920 --> 00:56:33.910 align:start position:0%
You might wonder how we know these
things<00:56:32.160><c> about</c><00:56:32.400><c> black</c><00:56:32.640><c> holes</c><00:56:33.200><c> given</c><00:56:33.440><c> that</c><00:56:33.680><c> no</c>

00:56:33.910 --> 00:56:33.920 align:start position:0%
things about black holes given that no
 

00:56:33.920 --> 00:56:35.589 align:start position:0%
things about black holes given that no
light<00:56:34.240><c> can</c><00:56:34.400><c> leave</c><00:56:34.640><c> them</c><00:56:34.799><c> to</c><00:56:35.040><c> tell</c><00:56:35.200><c> us</c><00:56:35.440><c> about</c>

00:56:35.589 --> 00:56:35.599 align:start position:0%
light can leave them to tell us about
 

00:56:35.599 --> 00:56:37.910 align:start position:0%
light can leave them to tell us about
them.<00:56:36.720><c> The</c><00:56:36.960><c> key</c><00:56:37.200><c> to</c><00:56:37.359><c> these</c><00:56:37.680><c> three</c>

00:56:37.910 --> 00:56:37.920 align:start position:0%
them. The key to these three
 

00:56:37.920 --> 00:56:39.990 align:start position:0%
them. The key to these three
characteristics<00:56:38.799><c> is</c><00:56:39.119><c> that</c><00:56:39.359><c> all</c><00:56:39.680><c> three</c><00:56:39.839><c> of</c>

00:56:39.990 --> 00:56:40.000 align:start position:0%
characteristics is that all three of
 

00:56:40.000 --> 00:56:42.069 align:start position:0%
characteristics is that all three of
them<00:56:40.319><c> represent</c><00:56:40.799><c> aspects</c><00:56:41.280><c> of</c><00:56:41.440><c> the</c><00:56:41.599><c> black</c><00:56:41.760><c> hole</c>

00:56:42.069 --> 00:56:42.079 align:start position:0%
them represent aspects of the black hole
 

00:56:42.079 --> 00:56:44.230 align:start position:0%
them represent aspects of the black hole
that<00:56:42.319><c> can</c><00:56:42.480><c> be</c><00:56:42.559><c> felt</c><00:56:42.960><c> outside</c><00:56:43.359><c> the</c><00:56:43.680><c> black</c><00:56:43.839><c> holes</c>

00:56:44.230 --> 00:56:44.240 align:start position:0%
that can be felt outside the black holes
 

00:56:44.240 --> 00:56:47.510 align:start position:0%
that can be felt outside the black holes
event<00:56:44.480><c> horizon.</c><00:56:45.920><c> Charge,</c><00:56:46.559><c> for</c><00:56:46.720><c> instance,</c>

00:56:47.510 --> 00:56:47.520 align:start position:0%
event horizon. Charge, for instance,
 

00:56:47.520 --> 00:56:49.430 align:start position:0%
event horizon. Charge, for instance,
works<00:56:47.839><c> the</c><00:56:48.079><c> same</c><00:56:48.240><c> way</c><00:56:48.480><c> around</c><00:56:48.799><c> a</c><00:56:48.960><c> black</c><00:56:49.119><c> hole</c>

00:56:49.430 --> 00:56:49.440 align:start position:0%
works the same way around a black hole
 

00:56:49.440 --> 00:56:51.190 align:start position:0%
works the same way around a black hole
as<00:56:49.599><c> it</c><00:56:49.760><c> does</c><00:56:50.000><c> around</c><00:56:50.240><c> any</c><00:56:50.480><c> other</c><00:56:50.720><c> charged</c>

00:56:51.190 --> 00:56:51.200 align:start position:0%
as it does around any other charged
 

00:56:51.200 --> 00:56:53.990 align:start position:0%
as it does around any other charged
object.<00:56:52.000><c> That</c><00:56:52.240><c> is</c><00:56:52.400><c> to</c><00:56:52.640><c> say,</c><00:56:53.119><c> if</c><00:56:53.359><c> a</c><00:56:53.520><c> black</c><00:56:53.680><c> hole</c>

00:56:53.990 --> 00:56:54.000 align:start position:0%
object. That is to say, if a black hole
 

00:56:54.000 --> 00:56:56.230 align:start position:0%
object. That is to say, if a black hole
is<00:56:54.240><c> charged,</c><00:56:54.880><c> then</c><00:56:55.119><c> it</c><00:56:55.280><c> will</c><00:56:55.440><c> attract</c><00:56:55.839><c> objects</c>

00:56:56.230 --> 00:56:56.240 align:start position:0%
is charged, then it will attract objects
 

00:56:56.240 --> 00:56:58.470 align:start position:0%
is charged, then it will attract objects
that<00:56:56.480><c> have</c><00:56:56.799><c> different</c><00:56:57.119><c> charge</c><00:56:57.520><c> to</c><00:56:57.760><c> it</c><00:56:58.160><c> and</c>

00:56:58.470 --> 00:56:58.480 align:start position:0%
that have different charge to it and
 

00:56:58.480 --> 00:57:00.950 align:start position:0%
that have different charge to it and
repel<00:56:58.880><c> objects</c><00:56:59.280><c> that</c><00:56:59.520><c> share</c><00:56:59.760><c> its</c><00:57:00.000><c> charge.</c>

00:57:00.950 --> 00:57:00.960 align:start position:0%
repel objects that share its charge.
 

00:57:00.960 --> 00:57:03.349 align:start position:0%
repel objects that share its charge.
Think<00:57:01.200><c> of</c><00:57:01.280><c> it</c><00:57:01.440><c> like</c><00:57:01.680><c> a</c><00:57:01.920><c> giant</c><00:57:02.240><c> magnet</c><00:57:02.880><c> pushing</c>

00:57:03.349 --> 00:57:03.359 align:start position:0%
Think of it like a giant magnet pushing
 

00:57:03.359 --> 00:57:06.230 align:start position:0%
Think of it like a giant magnet pushing
and<00:57:03.599><c> pulling</c><00:57:03.920><c> on</c><00:57:04.079><c> the</c><00:57:04.240><c> universe</c><00:57:04.640><c> around</c><00:57:04.960><c> it.</c>

00:57:06.230 --> 00:57:06.240 align:start position:0%
and pulling on the universe around it.
 

00:57:06.240 --> 00:57:08.069 align:start position:0%
and pulling on the universe around it.
Scientists<00:57:06.799><c> can</c><00:57:07.040><c> track</c><00:57:07.359><c> objects</c><00:57:07.839><c> that</c>

00:57:08.069 --> 00:57:08.079 align:start position:0%
Scientists can track objects that
 

00:57:08.079 --> 00:57:10.309 align:start position:0%
Scientists can track objects that
approach<00:57:08.400><c> a</c><00:57:08.640><c> black</c><00:57:08.799><c> hole</c><00:57:09.359><c> and</c><00:57:09.520><c> by</c><00:57:09.760><c> seeing</c><00:57:10.079><c> how</c>

00:57:10.309 --> 00:57:10.319 align:start position:0%
approach a black hole and by seeing how
 

00:57:10.319 --> 00:57:12.390 align:start position:0%
approach a black hole and by seeing how
quickly<00:57:10.720><c> certain</c><00:57:11.119><c> objects</c><00:57:11.599><c> known</c><00:57:11.920><c> to</c><00:57:12.079><c> have</c><00:57:12.160><c> a</c>

00:57:12.390 --> 00:57:12.400 align:start position:0%
quickly certain objects known to have a
 

00:57:12.400 --> 00:57:14.950 align:start position:0%
quickly certain objects known to have a
charge<00:57:12.720><c> move</c><00:57:12.960><c> towards</c><00:57:13.359><c> it,</c><00:57:14.319><c> scientists</c><00:57:14.799><c> can</c>

00:57:14.950 --> 00:57:14.960 align:start position:0%
charge move towards it, scientists can
 

00:57:14.960 --> 00:57:16.470 align:start position:0%
charge move towards it, scientists can
predict<00:57:15.200><c> the</c><00:57:15.440><c> charge</c><00:57:15.760><c> of</c><00:57:15.920><c> the</c><00:57:16.079><c> black</c><00:57:16.240><c> hole</c>

00:57:16.470 --> 00:57:16.480 align:start position:0%
predict the charge of the black hole
 

00:57:16.480 --> 00:57:18.230 align:start position:0%
predict the charge of the black hole
itself.

00:57:18.230 --> 00:57:18.240 align:start position:0%
itself.
 

00:57:18.240 --> 00:57:21.270 align:start position:0%
itself.
Interplaying<00:57:18.799><c> with</c><00:57:19.040><c> this</c><00:57:19.359><c> is</c><00:57:19.680><c> mass.</c>

00:57:21.270 --> 00:57:21.280 align:start position:0%
Interplaying with this is mass.
 

00:57:21.280 --> 00:57:23.270 align:start position:0%
Interplaying with this is mass.
The<00:57:21.520><c> mass</c><00:57:21.760><c> of</c><00:57:21.920><c> a</c><00:57:22.079><c> black</c><00:57:22.240><c> hole</c><00:57:22.640><c> can</c><00:57:22.880><c> also</c><00:57:23.119><c> be</c>

00:57:23.270 --> 00:57:23.280 align:start position:0%
The mass of a black hole can also be
 

00:57:23.280 --> 00:57:25.270 align:start position:0%
The mass of a black hole can also be
felt<00:57:23.760><c> outside</c><00:57:24.160><c> the</c><00:57:24.400><c> sphere</c><00:57:24.640><c> of</c><00:57:24.799><c> the</c><00:57:24.960><c> event</c>

00:57:25.270 --> 00:57:25.280 align:start position:0%
felt outside the sphere of the event
 

00:57:25.280 --> 00:57:28.150 align:start position:0%
felt outside the sphere of the event
horizon.<00:57:26.319><c> In</c><00:57:26.559><c> fact,</c><00:57:26.880><c> it</c><00:57:27.040><c> is</c><00:57:27.200><c> the</c><00:57:27.440><c> main</c><00:57:27.760><c> creator</c>

00:57:28.150 --> 00:57:28.160 align:start position:0%
horizon. In fact, it is the main creator
 

00:57:28.160 --> 00:57:30.710 align:start position:0%
horizon. In fact, it is the main creator
of<00:57:28.319><c> the</c><00:57:28.480><c> event</c><00:57:28.799><c> horizon</c><00:57:29.200><c> in</c><00:57:29.440><c> the</c><00:57:29.599><c> first</c><00:57:29.760><c> place.</c>

00:57:30.710 --> 00:57:30.720 align:start position:0%
of the event horizon in the first place.
 

00:57:30.720 --> 00:57:33.510 align:start position:0%
of the event horizon in the first place.
This<00:57:30.960><c> is</c><00:57:31.119><c> because</c><00:57:31.520><c> mass</c><00:57:32.000><c> creates</c><00:57:32.480><c> gravity</c><00:57:33.200><c> and</c>

00:57:33.510 --> 00:57:33.520 align:start position:0%
This is because mass creates gravity and
 

00:57:33.520 --> 00:57:35.349 align:start position:0%
This is because mass creates gravity and
does<00:57:33.680><c> so</c><00:57:33.920><c> in</c><00:57:34.160><c> a</c><00:57:34.319><c> linear</c><00:57:34.720><c> fashion</c><00:57:35.119><c> in</c>

00:57:35.349 --> 00:57:35.359 align:start position:0%
does so in a linear fashion in
 

00:57:35.359 --> 00:57:37.109 align:start position:0%
does so in a linear fashion in
accordance<00:57:35.760><c> with</c><00:57:35.920><c> the</c><00:57:36.160><c> same</c><00:57:36.400><c> principles</c><00:57:36.880><c> you</c>

00:57:37.109 --> 00:57:37.119 align:start position:0%
accordance with the same principles you
 

00:57:37.119 --> 00:57:39.910 align:start position:0%
accordance with the same principles you
might<00:57:37.280><c> find</c><00:57:37.520><c> in</c><00:57:37.680><c> Gor's</c><00:57:38.240><c> law,</c><00:57:38.799><c> a</c><00:57:39.040><c> theorem</c><00:57:39.520><c> about</c>

00:57:39.910 --> 00:57:39.920 align:start position:0%
might find in Gor's law, a theorem about
 

00:57:39.920 --> 00:57:41.670 align:start position:0%
might find in Gor's law, a theorem about
electromagnetism,

00:57:41.670 --> 00:57:41.680 align:start position:0%
electromagnetism,
 

00:57:41.680 --> 00:57:44.950 align:start position:0%
electromagnetism,
albeit<00:57:42.240><c> with</c><00:57:42.559><c> a</c><00:57:42.799><c> gravitational</c><00:57:43.440><c> analog.</c>

00:57:44.950 --> 00:57:44.960 align:start position:0%
albeit with a gravitational analog.
 

00:57:44.960 --> 00:57:47.510 align:start position:0%
albeit with a gravitational analog.
So,<00:57:45.599><c> it's</c><00:57:45.920><c> possible</c><00:57:46.319><c> too</c><00:57:46.559><c> to</c><00:57:46.799><c> calculate</c><00:57:47.280><c> the</c>

00:57:47.510 --> 00:57:47.520 align:start position:0%
So, it's possible too to calculate the
 

00:57:47.520 --> 00:57:49.990 align:start position:0%
So, it's possible too to calculate the
mass<00:57:47.680><c> of</c><00:57:47.839><c> an</c><00:57:48.000><c> object</c><00:57:48.480><c> by</c><00:57:48.799><c> seeing</c><00:57:49.119><c> how</c><00:57:49.440><c> far</c><00:57:49.680><c> away</c>

00:57:49.990 --> 00:57:50.000 align:start position:0%
mass of an object by seeing how far away
 

00:57:50.000 --> 00:57:51.670 align:start position:0%
mass of an object by seeing how far away
objects<00:57:50.400><c> are</c><00:57:50.720><c> before</c><00:57:50.960><c> they</c><00:57:51.280><c> start</c><00:57:51.440><c> to</c>

00:57:51.670 --> 00:57:51.680 align:start position:0%
objects are before they start to
 

00:57:51.680 --> 00:57:53.829 align:start position:0%
objects are before they start to
accelerate<00:57:52.240><c> towards</c><00:57:52.640><c> it</c><00:57:53.040><c> and</c><00:57:53.280><c> how</c><00:57:53.520><c> quickly</c>

00:57:53.829 --> 00:57:53.839 align:start position:0%
accelerate towards it and how quickly
 

00:57:53.839 --> 00:57:56.710 align:start position:0%
accelerate towards it and how quickly
they<00:57:54.079><c> accelerate.</c><00:57:55.359><c> Although</c><00:57:55.760><c> obviously</c><00:57:56.480><c> you</c>

00:57:56.710 --> 00:57:56.720 align:start position:0%
they accelerate. Although obviously you
 

00:57:56.720 --> 00:57:58.470 align:start position:0%
they accelerate. Although obviously you
need<00:57:56.880><c> to</c><00:57:56.960><c> factor</c><00:57:57.359><c> in</c><00:57:57.599><c> charge</c><00:57:57.920><c> at</c><00:57:58.160><c> the</c><00:57:58.319><c> same</c>

00:57:58.470 --> 00:57:58.480 align:start position:0%
need to factor in charge at the same
 

00:57:58.480 --> 00:58:02.309 align:start position:0%
need to factor in charge at the same
time<00:57:58.799><c> or</c><00:57:59.040><c> your</c><00:57:59.280><c> results</c><00:57:59.599><c> might</c><00:57:59.760><c> get</c><00:58:00.000><c> skewed.</c>

00:58:02.309 --> 00:58:02.319 align:start position:0%
time or your results might get skewed.
 

00:58:02.319 --> 00:58:06.150 align:start position:0%
time or your results might get skewed.
Finally,<00:58:02.960><c> angular</c><00:58:03.520><c> momentum</c><00:58:04.160><c> or</c><00:58:04.480><c> spin.</c><00:58:05.599><c> It</c><00:58:05.839><c> is</c>

00:58:06.150 --> 00:58:06.160 align:start position:0%
Finally, angular momentum or spin. It is
 

00:58:06.160 --> 00:58:08.150 align:start position:0%
Finally, angular momentum or spin. It is
possible<00:58:06.480><c> to</c><00:58:06.720><c> detect</c><00:58:07.119><c> the</c><00:58:07.359><c> spin</c><00:58:07.599><c> of</c><00:58:07.760><c> a</c><00:58:07.920><c> large</c>

00:58:08.150 --> 00:58:08.160 align:start position:0%
possible to detect the spin of a large
 

00:58:08.160 --> 00:58:10.390 align:start position:0%
possible to detect the spin of a large
mass<00:58:08.480><c> object</c><00:58:09.200><c> and</c><00:58:09.440><c> we</c><00:58:09.680><c> are</c><00:58:09.839><c> going</c><00:58:09.920><c> to</c><00:58:10.160><c> dive</c>

00:58:10.390 --> 00:58:10.400 align:start position:0%
mass object and we are going to dive
 

00:58:10.400 --> 00:58:13.430 align:start position:0%
mass object and we are going to dive
into<00:58:10.640><c> the</c><00:58:10.880><c> how</c><00:58:11.280><c> in</c><00:58:11.520><c> just</c><00:58:11.680><c> a</c><00:58:11.920><c> bit.</c><00:58:12.720><c> For</c><00:58:12.960><c> now,</c>

00:58:13.430 --> 00:58:13.440 align:start position:0%
into the how in just a bit. For now,
 

00:58:13.440 --> 00:58:15.510 align:start position:0%
into the how in just a bit. For now,
let's<00:58:13.680><c> just</c><00:58:13.920><c> accept</c><00:58:14.240><c> it</c><00:58:14.400><c> as</c><00:58:14.559><c> a</c><00:58:14.720><c> given</c><00:58:15.200><c> and</c>

00:58:15.510 --> 00:58:15.520 align:start position:0%
let's just accept it as a given and
 

00:58:15.520 --> 00:58:17.510 align:start position:0%
let's just accept it as a given and
recognize<00:58:16.000><c> that</c><00:58:16.240><c> black</c><00:58:16.480><c> holes</c><00:58:16.799><c> are</c><00:58:17.040><c> certainly</c>

00:58:17.510 --> 00:58:17.520 align:start position:0%
recognize that black holes are certainly
 

00:58:17.520 --> 00:58:20.789 align:start position:0%
recognize that black holes are certainly
very<00:58:18.000><c> high</c><00:58:18.559><c> mass</c><00:58:18.880><c> objects.</c>

00:58:20.789 --> 00:58:20.799 align:start position:0%
very high mass objects.
 

00:58:20.799 --> 00:58:22.789 align:start position:0%
very high mass objects.
There<00:58:21.040><c> are</c><00:58:21.200><c> varying</c><00:58:21.599><c> sizes</c><00:58:22.000><c> of</c><00:58:22.240><c> black</c><00:58:22.480><c> holes</c>

00:58:22.789 --> 00:58:22.799 align:start position:0%
There are varying sizes of black holes
 

00:58:22.799 --> 00:58:25.510 align:start position:0%
There are varying sizes of black holes
in<00:58:23.040><c> existence.</c><00:58:24.079><c> The</c><00:58:24.319><c> smallest</c><00:58:24.960><c> known</c><00:58:25.280><c> as</c>

00:58:25.510 --> 00:58:25.520 align:start position:0%
in existence. The smallest known as
 

00:58:25.520 --> 00:58:27.750 align:start position:0%
in existence. The smallest known as
micro<00:58:26.000><c> black</c><00:58:26.160><c> holes</c><00:58:26.799><c> have</c><00:58:27.040><c> a</c><00:58:27.200><c> mass</c><00:58:27.440><c> that's</c>

00:58:27.750 --> 00:58:27.760 align:start position:0%
micro black holes have a mass that's
 

00:58:27.760 --> 00:58:31.829 align:start position:0%
micro black holes have a mass that's
comparable<00:58:28.240><c> to</c><00:58:28.480><c> that</c><00:58:28.640><c> of</c><00:58:28.799><c> our</c><00:58:29.119><c> moon</c><00:58:29.839><c> or</c><00:58:30.160><c> 7.35</c><00:58:31.599><c> *</c>

00:58:31.829 --> 00:58:31.839 align:start position:0%
comparable to that of our moon or 7.35 *
 

00:58:31.839 --> 00:58:35.430 align:start position:0%
comparable to that of our moon or 7.35 *
10<00:58:32.400><c> ^</c><00:58:32.799><c> 22</c><00:58:33.599><c> kg.</c>

00:58:35.430 --> 00:58:35.440 align:start position:0%
10 ^ 22 kg.
 

00:58:35.440 --> 00:58:38.549 align:start position:0%
10 ^ 22 kg.
They<00:58:35.680><c> fit</c><00:58:36.160><c> all</c><00:58:36.559><c> this</c><00:58:37.359><c> into</c><00:58:37.680><c> a</c><00:58:37.839><c> space</c><00:58:38.240><c> that's</c>

00:58:38.549 --> 00:58:38.559 align:start position:0%
They fit all this into a space that's
 

00:58:38.559 --> 00:58:42.390 align:start position:0%
They fit all this into a space that's
just<00:58:38.960><c> 0.2</c><00:58:39.839><c> 2</c><00:58:40.319><c> mm</c><00:58:40.960><c> in</c><00:58:41.200><c> diameter,</c><00:58:41.839><c> which</c><00:58:42.079><c> is</c>

00:58:42.390 --> 00:58:42.400 align:start position:0%
just 0.2 2 mm in diameter, which is
 

00:58:42.400 --> 00:58:44.950 align:start position:0%
just 0.2 2 mm in diameter, which is
incredible.<00:58:43.680><c> It</c><00:58:43.920><c> really</c><00:58:44.160><c> gives</c><00:58:44.319><c> you</c><00:58:44.480><c> a</c><00:58:44.720><c> sense</c>

00:58:44.950 --> 00:58:44.960 align:start position:0%
incredible. It really gives you a sense
 

00:58:44.960 --> 00:58:47.750 align:start position:0%
incredible. It really gives you a sense
of<00:58:45.200><c> how</c><00:58:45.680><c> dense</c><00:58:46.079><c> a</c><00:58:46.400><c> black</c><00:58:46.559><c> hole</c><00:58:46.880><c> can</c><00:58:47.119><c> be.</c>

00:58:47.750 --> 00:58:47.760 align:start position:0%
of how dense a black hole can be.
 

00:58:47.760 --> 00:58:49.829 align:start position:0%
of how dense a black hole can be.
Something<00:58:48.160><c> thinner</c><00:58:48.640><c> in</c><00:58:48.960><c> size</c><00:58:49.200><c> than</c><00:58:49.440><c> a</c><00:58:49.599><c> human</c>

00:58:49.829 --> 00:58:49.839 align:start position:0%
Something thinner in size than a human
 

00:58:49.839 --> 00:58:53.270 align:start position:0%
Something thinner in size than a human
hair,<00:58:50.480><c> packing</c><00:58:50.880><c> the</c><00:58:51.119><c> mass</c><00:58:51.440><c> of</c><00:58:51.599><c> the</c><00:58:51.839><c> moon.</c><00:58:53.119><c> And</c>

00:58:53.270 --> 00:58:53.280 align:start position:0%
hair, packing the mass of the moon. And
 

00:58:53.280 --> 00:58:55.829 align:start position:0%
hair, packing the mass of the moon. And
that's<00:58:53.599><c> just</c><00:58:53.760><c> the</c><00:58:53.920><c> smallest</c><00:58:54.400><c> ones.</c><00:58:55.359><c> Stellar</c>

00:58:55.829 --> 00:58:55.839 align:start position:0%
that's just the smallest ones. Stellar
 

00:58:55.839 --> 00:58:58.069 align:start position:0%
that's just the smallest ones. Stellar
black<00:58:56.000><c> holes</c><00:58:56.480><c> have</c><00:58:56.640><c> a</c><00:58:56.799><c> mass</c><00:58:57.200><c> equal</c><00:58:57.599><c> to</c><00:58:57.839><c> 10</c>

00:58:58.069 --> 00:58:58.079 align:start position:0%
black holes have a mass equal to 10
 

00:58:58.079 --> 00:59:00.789 align:start position:0%
black holes have a mass equal to 10
times<00:58:58.400><c> our</c><00:58:58.720><c> sun</c><00:58:59.280><c> and</c><00:58:59.520><c> have</c><00:58:59.680><c> a</c><00:58:59.920><c> diameter</c><00:59:00.400><c> equal</c>

00:59:00.789 --> 00:59:00.799 align:start position:0%
times our sun and have a diameter equal
 

00:59:00.799 --> 00:59:04.470 align:start position:0%
times our sun and have a diameter equal
to<00:59:01.040><c> 60</c><00:59:01.440><c> km.</c><00:59:02.880><c> Intermediate</c><00:59:03.680><c> black</c><00:59:03.920><c> holes</c><00:59:04.319><c> are</c>

00:59:04.470 --> 00:59:04.480 align:start position:0%
to 60 km. Intermediate black holes are
 

00:59:04.480 --> 00:59:07.750 align:start position:0%
to 60 km. Intermediate black holes are
the<00:59:04.640><c> mass</c><00:59:04.960><c> of</c><00:59:05.280><c> 1,000</c><00:59:06.000><c> suns</c><00:59:06.720><c> and</c><00:59:06.960><c> fit</c><00:59:07.359><c> all</c><00:59:07.599><c> of</c>

00:59:07.750 --> 00:59:07.760 align:start position:0%
the mass of 1,000 suns and fit all of
 

00:59:07.760 --> 00:59:10.950 align:start position:0%
the mass of 1,000 suns and fit all of
that<00:59:08.000><c> into</c><00:59:08.319><c> a</c><00:59:08.559><c> diameter</c><00:59:08.960><c> of</c><00:59:09.200><c> 2,000</c><00:59:09.760><c> km,</c><00:59:10.720><c> which</c>

00:59:10.950 --> 00:59:10.960 align:start position:0%
that into a diameter of 2,000 km, which
 

00:59:10.960 --> 00:59:13.990 align:start position:0%
that into a diameter of 2,000 km, which
is<00:59:11.200><c> still</c><00:59:11.599><c> much</c><00:59:11.920><c> smaller</c><00:59:12.240><c> than</c><00:59:12.400><c> the</c><00:59:12.559><c> Earth.</c><00:59:13.760><c> It</c>

00:59:13.990 --> 00:59:14.000 align:start position:0%
is still much smaller than the Earth. It
 

00:59:14.000 --> 00:59:16.150 align:start position:0%
is still much smaller than the Earth. It
is<00:59:14.160><c> the</c><00:59:14.400><c> largest</c><00:59:14.880><c> black</c><00:59:15.119><c> holes</c><00:59:15.520><c> that</c><00:59:15.839><c> really</c>

00:59:16.150 --> 00:59:16.160 align:start position:0%
is the largest black holes that really
 

00:59:16.160 --> 00:59:20.150 align:start position:0%
is the largest black holes that really
dwarf<00:59:16.640><c> us</c><00:59:17.040><c> with</c><00:59:17.280><c> masses</c><00:59:17.839><c> between</c><00:59:18.480><c> 100,000</c><00:59:19.839><c> to</c>

00:59:20.150 --> 00:59:20.160 align:start position:0%
dwarf us with masses between 100,000 to
 

00:59:20.160 --> 00:59:23.510 align:start position:0%
dwarf us with masses between 100,000 to
10<00:59:20.720><c> billion</c><00:59:21.280><c> times</c><00:59:21.599><c> the</c><00:59:21.839><c> mass</c><00:59:22.079><c> of</c><00:59:22.240><c> the</c><00:59:22.400><c> sun</c><00:59:23.200><c> and</c>

00:59:23.510 --> 00:59:23.520 align:start position:0%
10 billion times the mass of the sun and
 

00:59:23.520 --> 00:59:26.870 align:start position:0%
10 billion times the mass of the sun and
sizes<00:59:24.000><c> ranging</c><00:59:24.400><c> from</c><00:59:24.880><c> 0.001</c>

00:59:26.870 --> 00:59:26.880 align:start position:0%
sizes ranging from 0.001
 

00:59:26.880 --> 00:59:30.230 align:start position:0%
sizes ranging from 0.001
to<00:59:27.440><c> 400</c><00:59:28.240><c> astronomical</c><00:59:29.119><c> units.</c><00:59:30.000><c> an</c>

00:59:30.230 --> 00:59:30.240 align:start position:0%
to 400 astronomical units. an
 

00:59:30.240 --> 00:59:31.910 align:start position:0%
to 400 astronomical units. an
astronomical<00:59:30.880><c> unit</c><00:59:31.200><c> being</c><00:59:31.440><c> the</c><00:59:31.599><c> distance</c>

00:59:31.910 --> 00:59:31.920 align:start position:0%
astronomical unit being the distance
 

00:59:31.920 --> 00:59:34.710 align:start position:0%
astronomical unit being the distance
from<00:59:32.079><c> the</c><00:59:32.240><c> Earth</c><00:59:32.480><c> to</c><00:59:32.720><c> the</c><00:59:32.880><c> Sun.</c>

00:59:34.710 --> 00:59:34.720 align:start position:0%
from the Earth to the Sun.
 

00:59:34.720 --> 00:59:37.030 align:start position:0%
from the Earth to the Sun.
But<00:59:35.040><c> other</c><00:59:35.280><c> than</c><00:59:35.440><c> those</c><00:59:35.760><c> three</c><00:59:36.079><c> features,</c>

00:59:37.030 --> 00:59:37.040 align:start position:0%
But other than those three features,
 

00:59:37.040 --> 00:59:39.510 align:start position:0%
But other than those three features,
there<00:59:37.280><c> are</c><00:59:37.599><c> in</c><00:59:37.839><c> theory</c><00:59:38.400><c> no</c><00:59:38.720><c> other</c><00:59:39.040><c> differences</c>

00:59:39.510 --> 00:59:39.520 align:start position:0%
there are in theory no other differences
 

00:59:39.520 --> 00:59:42.069 align:start position:0%
there are in theory no other differences
between<00:59:39.839><c> them.</c><00:59:40.799><c> If</c><00:59:40.960><c> you</c><00:59:41.119><c> put</c><00:59:41.359><c> two</c><00:59:41.599><c> black</c><00:59:41.760><c> holes</c>

00:59:42.069 --> 00:59:42.079 align:start position:0%
between them. If you put two black holes
 

00:59:42.079 --> 00:59:43.990 align:start position:0%
between them. If you put two black holes
in<00:59:42.319><c> the</c><00:59:42.480><c> same</c><00:59:42.640><c> room</c><00:59:42.960><c> and</c><00:59:43.280><c> made</c><00:59:43.440><c> sure</c><00:59:43.599><c> they</c><00:59:43.839><c> had</c>

00:59:43.990 --> 00:59:44.000 align:start position:0%
in the same room and made sure they had
 

00:59:44.000 --> 00:59:46.390 align:start position:0%
in the same room and made sure they had
the<00:59:44.160><c> same</c><00:59:44.319><c> mass,</c><00:59:44.880><c> charge,</c><00:59:45.200><c> and</c><00:59:45.440><c> spin,</c><00:59:46.160><c> it</c>

00:59:46.390 --> 00:59:46.400 align:start position:0%
the same mass, charge, and spin, it
 

00:59:46.400 --> 00:59:49.910 align:start position:0%
the same mass, charge, and spin, it
would<00:59:46.559><c> be</c><00:59:46.720><c> impossible</c><00:59:47.359><c> to</c><00:59:47.599><c> tell</c><00:59:47.839><c> them</c><00:59:48.000><c> apart.</c>

00:59:49.910 --> 00:59:49.920 align:start position:0%
would be impossible to tell them apart.
 

00:59:49.920 --> 00:59:52.390 align:start position:0%
would be impossible to tell them apart.
However,<00:59:50.640><c> these</c><00:59:50.960><c> three</c><00:59:51.200><c> features</c><00:59:51.760><c> are</c><00:59:52.079><c> enough</c>

00:59:52.390 --> 00:59:52.400 align:start position:0%
However, these three features are enough
 

00:59:52.400 --> 00:59:54.470 align:start position:0%
However, these three features are enough
to<00:59:52.720><c> have</c><00:59:52.880><c> some</c><00:59:53.200><c> interesting</c><00:59:53.760><c> effects</c><00:59:54.079><c> on</c><00:59:54.319><c> the</c>

00:59:54.470 --> 00:59:54.480 align:start position:0%
to have some interesting effects on the
 

00:59:54.480 --> 00:59:57.990 align:start position:0%
to have some interesting effects on the
area<00:59:54.799><c> of</c><00:59:55.040><c> space</c><00:59:55.440><c> outside</c><00:59:55.920><c> a</c><00:59:56.160><c> black</c><00:59:56.319><c> hole.</c>

00:59:57.990 --> 00:59:58.000 align:start position:0%
area of space outside a black hole.
 

00:59:58.000 --> 00:59:59.670 align:start position:0%
area of space outside a black hole.
Traveling<00:59:58.400><c> inside</c><00:59:58.799><c> a</c><00:59:58.960><c> black</c><00:59:59.200><c> hole</c><00:59:59.440><c> is</c>

00:59:59.670 --> 00:59:59.680 align:start position:0%
Traveling inside a black hole is
 

00:59:59.680 --> 01:00:02.069 align:start position:0%
Traveling inside a black hole is
impossible.<01:00:00.640><c> Space</c><01:00:00.880><c> and</c><01:00:01.119><c> time</c><01:00:01.440><c> break</c><01:00:01.760><c> down</c>

01:00:02.069 --> 01:00:02.079 align:start position:0%
impossible. Space and time break down
 

01:00:02.079 --> 01:00:04.470 align:start position:0%
impossible. Space and time break down
past<01:00:02.319><c> the</c><01:00:02.480><c> event</c><01:00:02.799><c> horizon.</c><01:00:03.680><c> But</c><01:00:03.839><c> we</c><01:00:04.079><c> think</c><01:00:04.240><c> we</c>

01:00:04.470 --> 01:00:04.480 align:start position:0%
past the event horizon. But we think we
 

01:00:04.480 --> 01:00:06.789 align:start position:0%
past the event horizon. But we think we
know<01:00:04.640><c> a</c><01:00:04.960><c> few</c><01:00:05.119><c> things</c><01:00:05.280><c> that</c><01:00:05.680><c> must</c><01:00:06.000><c> exist</c><01:00:06.319><c> inside</c>

01:00:06.789 --> 01:00:06.799 align:start position:0%
know a few things that must exist inside
 

01:00:06.799 --> 01:00:09.510 align:start position:0%
know a few things that must exist inside
one.<01:00:08.240><c> Beating</c><01:00:08.559><c> in</c><01:00:08.720><c> the</c><01:00:08.880><c> heart</c><01:00:09.040><c> of</c><01:00:09.200><c> a</c><01:00:09.359><c> black</c>

01:00:09.510 --> 01:00:09.520 align:start position:0%
one. Beating in the heart of a black
 

01:00:09.520 --> 01:00:11.510 align:start position:0%
one. Beating in the heart of a black
hole,<01:00:10.079><c> there</c><01:00:10.240><c> is</c><01:00:10.480><c> thought</c><01:00:10.720><c> to</c><01:00:10.880><c> lie</c><01:00:11.200><c> the</c>

01:00:11.510 --> 01:00:11.520 align:start position:0%
hole, there is thought to lie the
 

01:00:11.520 --> 01:00:14.789 align:start position:0%
hole, there is thought to lie the
singularity.<01:00:12.960><c> In</c><01:00:13.280><c> truth,</c><01:00:13.839><c> this</c><01:00:14.160><c> actually</c><01:00:14.559><c> is</c>

01:00:14.789 --> 01:00:14.799 align:start position:0%
singularity. In truth, this actually is
 

01:00:14.799 --> 01:00:17.589 align:start position:0%
singularity. In truth, this actually is
the<01:00:15.040><c> black</c><01:00:15.280><c> hole.</c><01:00:16.559><c> When</c><01:00:16.799><c> we</c><01:00:16.960><c> were</c><01:00:17.119><c> discussing</c>

01:00:17.589 --> 01:00:17.599 align:start position:0%
the black hole. When we were discussing
 

01:00:17.599 --> 01:00:19.829 align:start position:0%
the black hole. When we were discussing
diameters<01:00:18.240><c> earlier,</c><01:00:18.960><c> that</c><01:00:19.200><c> is</c><01:00:19.359><c> just</c><01:00:19.599><c> the</c>

01:00:19.829 --> 01:00:19.839 align:start position:0%
diameters earlier, that is just the
 

01:00:19.839 --> 01:00:22.950 align:start position:0%
diameters earlier, that is just the
diameter<01:00:20.240><c> of</c><01:00:20.400><c> the</c><01:00:20.640><c> event</c><01:00:20.960><c> horizon.</c><01:00:22.160><c> Again,</c><01:00:22.720><c> we</c>

01:00:22.950 --> 01:00:22.960 align:start position:0%
diameter of the event horizon. Again, we
 

01:00:22.960 --> 01:00:24.549 align:start position:0%
diameter of the event horizon. Again, we
are<01:00:23.119><c> not</c><01:00:23.359><c> certain</c><01:00:23.680><c> what</c><01:00:23.839><c> a</c><01:00:24.079><c> black</c><01:00:24.240><c> hole</c>

01:00:24.549 --> 01:00:24.559 align:start position:0%
are not certain what a black hole
 

01:00:24.559 --> 01:00:26.549 align:start position:0%
are not certain what a black hole
actually<01:00:24.960><c> looks</c><01:00:25.280><c> like</c><01:00:25.680><c> because</c><01:00:26.079><c> light</c><01:00:26.400><c> can</c>

01:00:26.549 --> 01:00:26.559 align:start position:0%
actually looks like because light can
 

01:00:26.559 --> 01:00:29.190 align:start position:0%
actually looks like because light can
never<01:00:26.799><c> escape</c><01:00:27.119><c> it.</c><01:00:28.000><c> In</c><01:00:28.240><c> a</c><01:00:28.400><c> space</c><01:00:28.640><c> that</c><01:00:28.960><c> is</c>

01:00:29.190 --> 01:00:29.200 align:start position:0%
never escape it. In a space that is
 

01:00:29.200 --> 01:00:31.589 align:start position:0%
never escape it. In a space that is
infinitely<01:00:29.839><c> small,</c><01:00:30.559><c> there</c><01:00:30.720><c> is</c><01:00:30.880><c> a</c><01:00:31.119><c> point</c><01:00:31.280><c> where</c>

01:00:31.589 --> 01:00:31.599 align:start position:0%
infinitely small, there is a point where
 

01:00:31.599 --> 01:00:33.829 align:start position:0%
infinitely small, there is a point where
all<01:00:31.839><c> the</c><01:00:32.000><c> mass</c><01:00:32.240><c> of</c><01:00:32.400><c> the</c><01:00:32.559><c> black</c><01:00:32.720><c> hole</c><01:00:32.960><c> is</c><01:00:33.200><c> packed</c>

01:00:33.829 --> 01:00:33.839 align:start position:0%
all the mass of the black hole is packed
 

01:00:33.839 --> 01:00:37.190 align:start position:0%
all the mass of the black hole is packed
so<01:00:34.160><c> that</c><01:00:34.400><c> it</c><01:00:34.640><c> is</c><01:00:34.880><c> infinitely</c><01:00:35.440><c> dense.</c><01:00:36.799><c> For</c><01:00:37.040><c> the</c>

01:00:37.190 --> 01:00:37.200 align:start position:0%
so that it is infinitely dense. For the
 

01:00:37.200 --> 01:00:39.589 align:start position:0%
so that it is infinitely dense. For the
simplest<01:00:37.680><c> models</c><01:00:38.000><c> of</c><01:00:38.160><c> black</c><01:00:38.400><c> holes,</c><01:00:39.119><c> the</c><01:00:39.359><c> ones</c>

01:00:39.589 --> 01:00:39.599 align:start position:0%
simplest models of black holes, the ones
 

01:00:39.599 --> 01:00:41.670 align:start position:0%
simplest models of black holes, the ones
that<01:00:39.760><c> do</c><01:00:40.000><c> not</c><01:00:40.160><c> spin,</c><01:00:40.880><c> this</c><01:00:41.040><c> is</c><01:00:41.200><c> a</c><01:00:41.440><c> single</c>

01:00:41.670 --> 01:00:41.680 align:start position:0%
that do not spin, this is a single
 

01:00:41.680 --> 01:00:45.270 align:start position:0%
that do not spin, this is a single
point.<01:00:42.880><c> In</c><01:00:43.119><c> a</c><01:00:43.359><c> rotating</c><01:00:43.920><c> black</c><01:00:44.160><c> hole,</c><01:00:44.880><c> this</c><01:00:45.119><c> is</c>

01:00:45.270 --> 01:00:45.280 align:start position:0%
point. In a rotating black hole, this is
 

01:00:45.280 --> 01:00:47.430 align:start position:0%
point. In a rotating black hole, this is
more<01:00:45.520><c> like</c><01:00:45.680><c> a</c><01:00:46.000><c> little</c><01:00:46.319><c> spinning</c><01:00:46.720><c> ring.</c>

01:00:47.430 --> 01:00:47.440 align:start position:0%
more like a little spinning ring.
 

01:00:47.440 --> 01:00:48.870 align:start position:0%
more like a little spinning ring.
Otherwise,<01:00:47.920><c> it</c><01:00:48.079><c> would</c><01:00:48.240><c> be</c><01:00:48.400><c> difficult</c><01:00:48.720><c> to</c>

01:00:48.870 --> 01:00:48.880 align:start position:0%
Otherwise, it would be difficult to
 

01:00:48.880 --> 01:00:50.870 align:start position:0%
Otherwise, it would be difficult to
define<01:00:49.359><c> spin</c><01:00:49.680><c> for</c><01:00:49.839><c> a</c><01:00:50.000><c> point</c><01:00:50.160><c> that</c><01:00:50.400><c> has</c><01:00:50.640><c> no</c>

01:00:50.870 --> 01:00:50.880 align:start position:0%
define spin for a point that has no
 

01:00:50.880 --> 01:00:53.190 align:start position:0%
define spin for a point that has no
volume.<01:00:51.359><c> Our</c>

01:00:53.190 --> 01:00:53.200 align:start position:0%
volume. Our
 

01:00:53.200 --> 01:00:55.270 align:start position:0%
volume. Our
current<01:00:53.440><c> physics</c><01:00:53.920><c> get</c><01:00:54.160><c> very</c><01:00:54.559><c> strange</c><01:00:54.960><c> around</c>

01:00:55.270 --> 01:00:55.280 align:start position:0%
current physics get very strange around
 

01:00:55.280 --> 01:00:58.309 align:start position:0%
current physics get very strange around
such<01:00:55.520><c> a</c><01:00:55.680><c> black</c><01:00:55.920><c> hole.</c><01:00:56.880><c> If</c><01:00:57.119><c> ideal</c><01:00:57.599><c> paths</c><01:00:58.079><c> are</c>

01:00:58.309 --> 01:00:58.319 align:start position:0%
such a black hole. If ideal paths are
 

01:00:58.319 --> 01:01:00.309 align:start position:0%
such a black hole. If ideal paths are
traveled<01:00:58.640><c> around</c><01:00:58.960><c> this</c><01:00:59.200><c> point,</c><01:00:59.760><c> it</c><01:01:00.000><c> becomes</c>

01:01:00.309 --> 01:01:00.319 align:start position:0%
traveled around this point, it becomes
 

01:01:00.319 --> 01:01:02.470 align:start position:0%
traveled around this point, it becomes
mathematically<01:01:01.040><c> possible</c><01:01:01.440><c> to</c><01:01:01.680><c> do</c><01:01:01.839><c> some</c><01:01:02.079><c> very</c>

01:01:02.470 --> 01:01:02.480 align:start position:0%
mathematically possible to do some very
 

01:01:02.480 --> 01:01:04.950 align:start position:0%
mathematically possible to do some very
strange<01:01:02.880><c> things</c><01:01:03.599><c> like</c><01:01:04.000><c> meet</c><01:01:04.319><c> up</c><01:01:04.480><c> with</c><01:01:04.720><c> your</c>

01:01:04.950 --> 01:01:04.960 align:start position:0%
strange things like meet up with your
 

01:01:04.960 --> 01:01:07.589 align:start position:0%
strange things like meet up with your
own<01:01:05.200><c> past.</c><01:01:06.480><c> This</c><01:01:06.720><c> has</c><01:01:06.880><c> some</c><01:01:07.040><c> disturbing</c>

01:01:07.589 --> 01:01:07.599 align:start position:0%
own past. This has some disturbing
 

01:01:07.599 --> 01:01:10.150 align:start position:0%
own past. This has some disturbing
implications<01:01:08.240><c> for</c><01:01:08.480><c> causality</c><01:01:09.359><c> and</c><01:01:09.680><c> gets</c><01:01:09.920><c> into</c>

01:01:10.150 --> 01:01:10.160 align:start position:0%
implications for causality and gets into
 

01:01:10.160 --> 01:01:11.990 align:start position:0%
implications for causality and gets into
time<01:01:10.480><c> travel</c><01:01:10.880><c> paradoxes</c><01:01:11.599><c> like</c><01:01:11.760><c> the</c>

01:01:11.990 --> 01:01:12.000 align:start position:0%
time travel paradoxes like the
 

01:01:12.000 --> 01:01:14.710 align:start position:0%
time travel paradoxes like the
grandfather<01:01:12.559><c> paradox.</c><01:01:13.680><c> So</c><01:01:14.000><c> that</c><01:01:14.319><c> probably</c>

01:01:14.710 --> 01:01:14.720 align:start position:0%
grandfather paradox. So that probably
 

01:01:14.720 --> 01:01:17.270 align:start position:0%
grandfather paradox. So that probably
only<01:01:14.960><c> shows</c><01:01:15.280><c> for</c><01:01:15.520><c> certain</c><01:01:16.000><c> that</c><01:01:16.400><c> our</c><01:01:16.799><c> ideas</c>

01:01:17.270 --> 01:01:17.280 align:start position:0%
only shows for certain that our ideas
 

01:01:17.280 --> 01:01:19.430 align:start position:0%
only shows for certain that our ideas
about<01:01:17.599><c> singularities</c><01:01:18.400><c> are</c><01:01:18.640><c> not</c><01:01:18.880><c> quite</c><01:01:19.200><c> right</c>

01:01:19.430 --> 01:01:19.440 align:start position:0%
about singularities are not quite right
 

01:01:19.440 --> 01:01:22.069 align:start position:0%
about singularities are not quite right
yet.<01:01:20.480><c> Because</c><01:01:20.720><c> the</c><01:01:21.040><c> singularity</c><01:01:21.680><c> is</c><01:01:21.839><c> so</c>

01:01:22.069 --> 01:01:22.079 align:start position:0%
yet. Because the singularity is so
 

01:01:22.079 --> 01:01:24.309 align:start position:0%
yet. Because the singularity is so
small,<01:01:22.640><c> it'll</c><01:01:22.960><c> take</c><01:01:23.119><c> the</c><01:01:23.359><c> successful</c><01:01:23.920><c> merging</c>

01:01:24.309 --> 01:01:24.319 align:start position:0%
small, it'll take the successful merging
 

01:01:24.319 --> 01:01:26.710 align:start position:0%
small, it'll take the successful merging
of<01:01:24.640><c> quantum</c><01:01:25.040><c> theory</c><01:01:25.359><c> and</c><01:01:25.680><c> general</c><01:01:26.079><c> relativity</c>

01:01:26.710 --> 01:01:26.720 align:start position:0%
of quantum theory and general relativity
 

01:01:26.720 --> 01:01:29.109 align:start position:0%
of quantum theory and general relativity
theory<01:01:27.200><c> to</c><01:01:27.520><c> properly</c><01:01:28.079><c> explain</c><01:01:28.559><c> what</c><01:01:28.799><c> is</c><01:01:28.960><c> going</c>

01:01:29.109 --> 01:01:29.119 align:start position:0%
theory to properly explain what is going
 

01:01:29.119 --> 01:01:31.510 align:start position:0%
theory to properly explain what is going
on<01:01:29.280><c> inside</c><01:01:29.599><c> a</c><01:01:29.839><c> black</c><01:01:30.000><c> hole.</c><01:01:30.720><c> And</c><01:01:30.880><c> we</c><01:01:31.119><c> have</c><01:01:31.280><c> not</c>

01:01:31.510 --> 01:01:31.520 align:start position:0%
on inside a black hole. And we have not
 

01:01:31.520 --> 01:01:34.150 align:start position:0%
on inside a black hole. And we have not
yet<01:01:31.760><c> managed</c><01:01:32.079><c> to</c><01:01:32.240><c> do</c><01:01:32.400><c> this.</c><01:01:33.280><c> It</c><01:01:33.520><c> may</c><01:01:33.680><c> one</c><01:01:33.920><c> day</c>

01:01:34.150 --> 01:01:34.160 align:start position:0%
yet managed to do this. It may one day
 

01:01:34.160 --> 01:01:36.069 align:start position:0%
yet managed to do this. It may one day
turn<01:01:34.319><c> out</c><01:01:34.480><c> that</c><01:01:34.720><c> singularities</c><01:01:35.440><c> do</c><01:01:35.680><c> not</c><01:01:35.839><c> exist</c>

01:01:36.069 --> 01:01:36.079 align:start position:0%
turn out that singularities do not exist
 

01:01:36.079 --> 01:01:38.309 align:start position:0%
turn out that singularities do not exist
in<01:01:36.240><c> the</c><01:01:36.319><c> hearts</c><01:01:36.559><c> of</c><01:01:36.720><c> black</c><01:01:36.880><c> holes</c><01:01:37.200><c> at</c><01:01:37.440><c> all.</c><01:01:38.160><c> But</c>

01:01:38.309 --> 01:01:38.319 align:start position:0%
in the hearts of black holes at all. But
 

01:01:38.319 --> 01:01:40.150 align:start position:0%
in the hearts of black holes at all. But
this<01:01:38.480><c> is</c><01:01:38.559><c> the</c><01:01:38.799><c> extent</c><01:01:39.119><c> of</c><01:01:39.280><c> our</c><01:01:39.440><c> knowledge</c><01:01:39.839><c> so</c>

01:01:40.150 --> 01:01:40.160 align:start position:0%
this is the extent of our knowledge so
 

01:01:40.160 --> 01:01:41.510 align:start position:0%
this is the extent of our knowledge so
far.

01:01:41.510 --> 01:01:41.520 align:start position:0%
far.
 

01:01:41.520 --> 01:01:43.670 align:start position:0%
far.
Well,<01:01:41.920><c> whatever</c><01:01:42.240><c> it</c><01:01:42.400><c> is</c><01:01:42.559><c> that</c><01:01:42.799><c> lies</c><01:01:43.119><c> inside</c><01:01:43.440><c> a</c>

01:01:43.670 --> 01:01:43.680 align:start position:0%
Well, whatever it is that lies inside a
 

01:01:43.680 --> 01:01:46.390 align:start position:0%
Well, whatever it is that lies inside a
black<01:01:43.839><c> hole,</c><01:01:44.640><c> it</c><01:01:44.960><c> powers</c><01:01:45.359><c> our</c><01:01:45.760><c> faster</c><01:01:46.160><c> than</c>

01:01:46.390 --> 01:01:46.400 align:start position:0%
black hole, it powers our faster than
 

01:01:46.400 --> 01:01:48.630 align:start position:0%
black hole, it powers our faster than
light<01:01:46.640><c> engine</c><01:01:47.359><c> because</c><01:01:47.760><c> like</c><01:01:48.079><c> most</c><01:01:48.319><c> objects</c>

01:01:48.630 --> 01:01:48.640 align:start position:0%
light engine because like most objects
 

01:01:48.640 --> 01:01:51.670 align:start position:0%
light engine because like most objects
in<01:01:48.880><c> the</c><01:01:49.040><c> universe,</c><01:01:49.520><c> it</c><01:01:49.760><c> spins.</c><01:01:50.799><c> And</c><01:01:51.119><c> oh,</c><01:01:51.440><c> does</c>

01:01:51.670 --> 01:01:51.680 align:start position:0%
in the universe, it spins. And oh, does
 

01:01:51.680 --> 01:01:53.430 align:start position:0%
in the universe, it spins. And oh, does
it<01:01:51.920><c> spin.</c>

01:01:53.430 --> 01:01:53.440 align:start position:0%
it spin.
 

01:01:53.440 --> 01:01:55.349 align:start position:0%
it spin.
As<01:01:53.680><c> we</c><01:01:53.920><c> travel</c><01:01:54.240><c> out</c><01:01:54.480><c> from</c><01:01:54.640><c> the</c><01:01:54.880><c> center</c><01:01:55.040><c> of</c><01:01:55.200><c> the</c>

01:01:55.349 --> 01:01:55.359 align:start position:0%
As we travel out from the center of the
 

01:01:55.359 --> 01:01:57.270 align:start position:0%
As we travel out from the center of the
black<01:01:55.599><c> hole,</c><01:01:56.079><c> we</c><01:01:56.319><c> pass</c><01:01:56.640><c> through</c><01:01:56.799><c> the</c><01:01:57.040><c> event</c>

01:01:57.270 --> 01:01:57.280 align:start position:0%
black hole, we pass through the event
 

01:01:57.280 --> 01:01:59.670 align:start position:0%
black hole, we pass through the event
horizon<01:01:57.760><c> with</c><01:01:58.000><c> little</c><01:01:58.240><c> fanfare.</c><01:01:59.280><c> The</c><01:01:59.440><c> event</c>

01:01:59.670 --> 01:01:59.680 align:start position:0%
horizon with little fanfare. The event
 

01:01:59.680 --> 01:02:01.510 align:start position:0%
horizon with little fanfare. The event
horizon<01:02:00.240><c> actually</c><01:02:00.559><c> cannot</c><01:02:00.960><c> be</c><01:02:01.040><c> detected</c>

01:02:01.510 --> 01:02:01.520 align:start position:0%
horizon actually cannot be detected
 

01:02:01.520 --> 01:02:03.670 align:start position:0%
horizon actually cannot be detected
locally,<01:02:02.319><c> although</c><01:02:02.640><c> a</c><01:02:02.799><c> person</c><01:02:03.119><c> outside</c><01:02:03.440><c> the</c>

01:02:03.670 --> 01:02:03.680 align:start position:0%
locally, although a person outside the
 

01:02:03.680 --> 01:02:05.750 align:start position:0%
locally, although a person outside the
black<01:02:03.839><c> hole</c><01:02:04.160><c> might</c><01:02:04.480><c> watch</c><01:02:04.720><c> you</c><01:02:04.960><c> slow</c><01:02:05.280><c> down</c><01:02:05.520><c> to</c>

01:02:05.750 --> 01:02:05.760 align:start position:0%
black hole might watch you slow down to
 

01:02:05.760 --> 01:02:07.750 align:start position:0%
black hole might watch you slow down to
a<01:02:06.000><c> complete</c><01:02:06.400><c> stop</c><01:02:06.799><c> as</c><01:02:07.040><c> you</c><01:02:07.200><c> travel</c><01:02:07.520><c> through</c>

01:02:07.750 --> 01:02:07.760 align:start position:0%
a complete stop as you travel through
 

01:02:07.760 --> 01:02:09.990 align:start position:0%
a complete stop as you travel through
it.<01:02:08.400><c> From</c><01:02:08.640><c> your</c><01:02:08.880><c> perspective,</c><01:02:09.520><c> it</c><01:02:09.760><c> actually</c>

01:02:09.990 --> 01:02:10.000 align:start position:0%
it. From your perspective, it actually
 

01:02:10.000 --> 01:02:11.430 align:start position:0%
it. From your perspective, it actually
might<01:02:10.240><c> seem</c><01:02:10.480><c> like</c><01:02:10.720><c> time</c><01:02:10.960><c> is</c><01:02:11.119><c> flowing</c>

01:02:11.430 --> 01:02:11.440 align:start position:0%
might seem like time is flowing
 

01:02:11.440 --> 01:02:14.309 align:start position:0%
might seem like time is flowing
normally.<01:02:12.640><c> Normally,</c><01:02:13.119><c> that</c><01:02:13.359><c> is</c><01:02:13.760><c> until</c><01:02:14.160><c> the</c>

01:02:14.309 --> 01:02:14.319 align:start position:0%
normally. Normally, that is until the
 

01:02:14.319 --> 01:02:16.710 align:start position:0%
normally. Normally, that is until the
universe<01:02:14.720><c> outside</c><01:02:15.200><c> the</c><01:02:15.440><c> black</c><01:02:15.599><c> hole</c><01:02:16.160><c> runs</c><01:02:16.480><c> its</c>

01:02:16.710 --> 01:02:16.720 align:start position:0%
universe outside the black hole runs its
 

01:02:16.720 --> 01:02:18.549 align:start position:0%
universe outside the black hole runs its
course<01:02:17.040><c> in</c><01:02:17.280><c> an</c><01:02:17.473><c> [music]</c><01:02:17.520><c> instant</c><01:02:18.160><c> because</c>

01:02:18.549 --> 01:02:18.559 align:start position:0%
course in an [music] instant because
 

01:02:18.559 --> 01:02:20.789 align:start position:0%
course in an [music] instant because
time<01:02:18.880><c> outside</c><01:02:19.280><c> the</c><01:02:19.520><c> black</c><01:02:19.680><c> hole</c><01:02:20.000><c> is</c><01:02:20.319><c> traveling</c>

01:02:20.789 --> 01:02:20.799 align:start position:0%
time outside the black hole is traveling
 

01:02:20.799 --> 01:02:23.990 align:start position:0%
time outside the black hole is traveling
so<01:02:21.119><c> fast</c><01:02:21.599><c> compared</c><01:02:21.920><c> to</c><01:02:22.160><c> you.</c><01:02:23.200><c> This</c><01:02:23.520><c> is</c><01:02:23.680><c> the</c>

01:02:23.990 --> 01:02:24.000 align:start position:0%
so fast compared to you. This is the
 

01:02:24.000 --> 01:02:26.230 align:start position:0%
so fast compared to you. This is the
essence<01:02:24.319><c> of</c><01:02:24.480><c> relativity</c><01:02:25.359><c> and</c><01:02:25.599><c> we</c><01:02:25.839><c> talk</c><01:02:26.000><c> about</c>

01:02:26.230 --> 01:02:26.240 align:start position:0%
essence of relativity and we talk about
 

01:02:26.240 --> 01:02:28.230 align:start position:0%
essence of relativity and we talk about
it<01:02:26.400><c> in</c><01:02:26.640><c> another</c><01:02:26.960><c> of</c><01:02:27.119><c> my</c><01:02:27.359><c> videos</c><01:02:27.760><c> which</c><01:02:27.920><c> you</c><01:02:28.079><c> can</c>

01:02:28.230 --> 01:02:28.240 align:start position:0%
it in another of my videos which you can
 

01:02:28.240 --> 01:02:30.390 align:start position:0%
it in another of my videos which you can
look<01:02:28.400><c> at</c><01:02:28.559><c> here.</c>

01:02:30.390 --> 01:02:30.400 align:start position:0%
look at here.
 

01:02:30.400 --> 01:02:32.950 align:start position:0%
look at here.
In<01:02:30.720><c> fact,</c><01:02:31.200><c> the</c><01:02:31.520><c> only</c><01:02:31.839><c> evidence</c><01:02:32.319><c> you</c><01:02:32.640><c> might</c>

01:02:32.950 --> 01:02:32.960 align:start position:0%
In fact, the only evidence you might
 

01:02:32.960 --> 01:02:34.470 align:start position:0%
In fact, the only evidence you might
have<01:02:33.200><c> that</c><01:02:33.440><c> you've</c><01:02:33.760><c> passed</c><01:02:34.000><c> the</c><01:02:34.160><c> event</c>

01:02:34.470 --> 01:02:34.480 align:start position:0%
have that you've passed the event
 

01:02:34.480 --> 01:02:36.630 align:start position:0%
have that you've passed the event
horizon<01:02:34.960><c> at</c><01:02:35.200><c> all</c><01:02:35.599><c> is</c><01:02:35.920><c> because</c><01:02:36.160><c> of</c><01:02:36.319><c> something</c>

01:02:36.630 --> 01:02:36.640 align:start position:0%
horizon at all is because of something
 

01:02:36.640 --> 01:02:39.430 align:start position:0%
horizon at all is because of something
that<01:02:36.960><c> exists</c><01:02:37.359><c> just</c><01:02:37.680><c> outside</c><01:02:38.160><c> it,</c><01:02:38.720><c> the</c><01:02:38.960><c> photon</c>

01:02:39.430 --> 01:02:39.440 align:start position:0%
that exists just outside it, the photon
 

01:02:39.440 --> 01:02:41.109 align:start position:0%
that exists just outside it, the photon
sphere.

01:02:41.109 --> 01:02:41.119 align:start position:0%
sphere.
 

01:02:41.119 --> 01:02:43.030 align:start position:0%
sphere.
In<01:02:41.280><c> a</c><01:02:41.520><c> zone</c><01:02:41.839><c> just</c><01:02:42.079><c> outside</c><01:02:42.480><c> the</c><01:02:42.720><c> event</c>

01:02:43.030 --> 01:02:43.040 align:start position:0%
In a zone just outside the event
 

01:02:43.040 --> 01:02:45.109 align:start position:0%
In a zone just outside the event
horizon,<01:02:43.839><c> there</c><01:02:44.000><c> exists</c><01:02:44.400><c> a</c><01:02:44.640><c> point</c><01:02:44.799><c> in</c><01:02:44.983><c> [music]</c>

01:02:45.109 --> 01:02:45.119 align:start position:0%
horizon, there exists a point in [music]
 

01:02:45.119 --> 01:02:47.750 align:start position:0%
horizon, there exists a point in [music]
space<01:02:45.760><c> where</c><01:02:46.000><c> if</c><01:02:46.240><c> a</c><01:02:46.400><c> photon</c><01:02:46.880><c> enters</c><01:02:47.200><c> it</c><01:02:47.440><c> at</c>

01:02:47.750 --> 01:02:47.760 align:start position:0%
space where if a photon enters it at
 

01:02:47.760 --> 01:02:50.309 align:start position:0%
space where if a photon enters it at
just<01:02:48.000><c> the</c><01:02:48.240><c> right</c><01:02:48.480><c> angle,</c><01:02:49.280><c> it</c><01:02:49.520><c> will</c><01:02:49.680><c> enter</c><01:02:50.000><c> a</c>

01:02:50.309 --> 01:02:50.319 align:start position:0%
just the right angle, it will enter a
 

01:02:50.319 --> 01:02:52.710 align:start position:0%
just the right angle, it will enter a
perfect<01:02:50.720><c> orbit</c><01:02:51.200><c> around</c><01:02:51.520><c> the</c><01:02:51.680><c> black</c><01:02:51.920><c> hole</c><01:02:52.480><c> in</c>

01:02:52.710 --> 01:02:52.720 align:start position:0%
perfect orbit around the black hole in
 

01:02:52.720 --> 01:02:54.470 align:start position:0%
perfect orbit around the black hole in
much<01:02:52.960><c> the</c><01:02:53.200><c> same</c><01:02:53.359><c> way</c><01:02:53.520><c> the</c><01:02:53.760><c> moon</c><01:02:54.079><c> perfectly</c>

01:02:54.470 --> 01:02:54.480 align:start position:0%
much the same way the moon perfectly
 

01:02:54.480 --> 01:02:57.670 align:start position:0%
much the same way the moon perfectly
orbits<01:02:54.880><c> the</c><01:02:55.040><c> Earth.</c><01:02:56.240><c> This</c><01:02:56.559><c> infiniteesimally</c>

01:02:57.670 --> 01:02:57.680 align:start position:0%
orbits the Earth. This infiniteesimally
 

01:02:57.680 --> 01:03:00.549 align:start position:0%
orbits the Earth. This infiniteesimally
thin<01:02:58.079><c> zone</c><01:02:58.559><c> is</c><01:02:58.799><c> known</c><01:02:59.040><c> as</c><01:02:59.200><c> the</c><01:02:59.359><c> photon</c><01:02:59.839><c> sphere.</c>

01:03:00.549 --> 01:03:00.559 align:start position:0%
thin zone is known as the photon sphere.
 

01:03:00.559 --> 01:03:02.230 align:start position:0%
thin zone is known as the photon sphere.
And<01:03:00.720><c> given</c><01:03:01.040><c> the</c><01:03:01.200><c> number</c><01:03:01.440><c> of</c><01:03:01.599><c> photons</c><01:03:02.000><c> that</c>

01:03:02.230 --> 01:03:02.240 align:start position:0%
And given the number of photons that
 

01:03:02.240 --> 01:03:04.549 align:start position:0%
And given the number of photons that
have<01:03:02.480><c> flown</c><01:03:02.799><c> past</c><01:03:03.200><c> black</c><01:03:03.440><c> holes</c><01:03:03.839><c> in</c><01:03:04.079><c> all</c><01:03:04.319><c> the</c>

01:03:04.549 --> 01:03:04.559 align:start position:0%
have flown past black holes in all the
 

01:03:04.559 --> 01:03:06.710 align:start position:0%
have flown past black holes in all the
millions<01:03:04.960><c> of</c><01:03:05.119><c> years</c><01:03:05.359><c> they</c><01:03:05.599><c> have</c><01:03:05.760><c> existed,</c><01:03:06.480><c> it</c>

01:03:06.710 --> 01:03:06.720 align:start position:0%
millions of years they have existed, it
 

01:03:06.720 --> 01:03:09.670 align:start position:0%
millions of years they have existed, it
is<01:03:06.960><c> probably</c><01:03:07.520><c> filled</c><01:03:07.920><c> with</c><01:03:08.160><c> photons.</c><01:03:09.359><c> It</c><01:03:09.520><c> is</c>

01:03:09.670 --> 01:03:09.680 align:start position:0%
is probably filled with photons. It is
 

01:03:09.680 --> 01:03:11.430 align:start position:0%
is probably filled with photons. It is
quite<01:03:10.000><c> possible</c><01:03:10.400><c> that</c><01:03:10.640><c> you</c><01:03:10.880><c> would</c><01:03:11.119><c> be</c>

01:03:11.430 --> 01:03:11.440 align:start position:0%
quite possible that you would be
 

01:03:11.440 --> 01:03:13.670 align:start position:0%
quite possible that you would be
instantly<01:03:12.079><c> fried</c><01:03:12.480><c> as</c><01:03:12.720><c> you</c><01:03:12.880><c> pass</c><01:03:13.200><c> through</c><01:03:13.440><c> this</c>

01:03:13.670 --> 01:03:13.680 align:start position:0%
instantly fried as you pass through this
 

01:03:13.680 --> 01:03:15.190 align:start position:0%
instantly fried as you pass through this
point.

01:03:15.190 --> 01:03:15.200 align:start position:0%
point.
 

01:03:15.200 --> 01:03:17.910 align:start position:0%
point.
However,<01:03:15.680><c> it</c><01:03:15.920><c> is</c><01:03:16.160><c> just</c><01:03:16.559><c> outside</c><01:03:17.119><c> here</c><01:03:17.520><c> that</c><01:03:17.760><c> we</c>

01:03:17.910 --> 01:03:17.920 align:start position:0%
However, it is just outside here that we
 

01:03:17.920 --> 01:03:20.470 align:start position:0%
However, it is just outside here that we
find<01:03:18.240><c> the</c><01:03:18.400><c> zone</c><01:03:18.720><c> that</c><01:03:18.960><c> interests</c><01:03:19.440><c> us,</c><01:03:20.079><c> the</c>

01:03:20.470 --> 01:03:20.480 align:start position:0%
find the zone that interests us, the
 

01:03:20.480 --> 01:03:22.309 align:start position:0%
find the zone that interests us, the
ergosphere.

01:03:22.309 --> 01:03:22.319 align:start position:0%
ergosphere.
 

01:03:22.319 --> 01:03:23.910 align:start position:0%
ergosphere.
This<01:03:22.559><c> is</c><01:03:22.640><c> the</c><01:03:22.799><c> zone</c><01:03:23.039><c> around</c><01:03:23.280><c> a</c><01:03:23.520><c> black</c><01:03:23.680><c> hole</c>

01:03:23.910 --> 01:03:23.920 align:start position:0%
This is the zone around a black hole
 

01:03:23.920 --> 01:03:25.829 align:start position:0%
This is the zone around a black hole
where<01:03:24.160><c> we</c><01:03:24.400><c> can</c><01:03:24.559><c> most</c><01:03:24.799><c> easily</c><01:03:25.280><c> detect</c><01:03:25.599><c> its</c>

01:03:25.829 --> 01:03:25.839 align:start position:0%
where we can most easily detect its
 

01:03:25.839 --> 01:03:29.109 align:start position:0%
where we can most easily detect its
spin.<01:03:26.720><c> And</c><01:03:26.880><c> this</c><01:03:27.119><c> is</c><01:03:27.280><c> because</c><01:03:28.000><c> in</c><01:03:28.240><c> this</c><01:03:28.480><c> zone,</c>

01:03:29.109 --> 01:03:29.119 align:start position:0%
spin. And this is because in this zone,
 

01:03:29.119 --> 01:03:32.710 align:start position:0%
spin. And this is because in this zone,
it<01:03:29.359><c> is</c><01:03:29.520><c> impossible</c><01:03:30.079><c> for</c><01:03:30.319><c> us</c><01:03:30.640><c> not</c><01:03:30.960><c> to</c><01:03:31.119><c> move.</c><01:03:32.480><c> You</c>

01:03:32.710 --> 01:03:32.720 align:start position:0%
it is impossible for us not to move. You
 

01:03:32.720 --> 01:03:35.750 align:start position:0%
it is impossible for us not to move. You
see,<01:03:33.039><c> mass</c><01:03:33.440><c> affects</c><01:03:33.920><c> space.</c><01:03:34.880><c> We</c><01:03:35.119><c> see</c><01:03:35.280><c> this</c><01:03:35.599><c> in</c>

01:03:35.750 --> 01:03:35.760 align:start position:0%
see, mass affects space. We see this in
 

01:03:35.760 --> 01:03:37.910 align:start position:0%
see, mass affects space. We see this in
the<01:03:36.000><c> curving</c><01:03:36.480><c> effect</c><01:03:36.720><c> of</c><01:03:36.960><c> gravity</c><01:03:37.520><c> on</c><01:03:37.760><c> the</c>

01:03:37.910 --> 01:03:37.920 align:start position:0%
the curving effect of gravity on the
 

01:03:37.920 --> 01:03:39.990 align:start position:0%
the curving effect of gravity on the
travel<01:03:38.160><c> of</c><01:03:38.400><c> objects</c><01:03:38.960><c> through</c><01:03:39.200><c> that</c><01:03:39.520><c> region</c><01:03:39.760><c> of</c>

01:03:39.990 --> 01:03:40.000 align:start position:0%
travel of objects through that region of
 

01:03:40.000 --> 01:03:42.630 align:start position:0%
travel of objects through that region of
space.<01:03:41.200><c> However,</c><01:03:41.680><c> it</c><01:03:42.000><c> might</c><01:03:42.160><c> be</c><01:03:42.319><c> more</c>

01:03:42.630 --> 01:03:42.640 align:start position:0%
space. However, it might be more
 

01:03:42.640 --> 01:03:45.349 align:start position:0%
space. However, it might be more
accurate<01:03:42.960><c> to</c><01:03:43.280><c> say</c><01:03:43.440><c> that</c><01:03:43.680><c> mass</c><01:03:44.400><c> drags</c><01:03:44.880><c> on</c><01:03:45.119><c> the</c>

01:03:45.349 --> 01:03:45.359 align:start position:0%
accurate to say that mass drags on the
 

01:03:45.359 --> 01:03:47.990 align:start position:0%
accurate to say that mass drags on the
space<01:03:45.680><c> around</c><01:03:46.000><c> it.</c><01:03:46.960><c> As</c><01:03:47.200><c> it</c><01:03:47.359><c> moves</c><01:03:47.680><c> through</c>

01:03:47.990 --> 01:03:48.000 align:start position:0%
space around it. As it moves through
 

01:03:48.000 --> 01:03:50.309 align:start position:0%
space around it. As it moves through
space,<01:03:48.720><c> it</c><01:03:48.960><c> brings</c><01:03:49.280><c> a</c><01:03:49.520><c> little</c><01:03:49.760><c> bit</c><01:03:49.920><c> of</c><01:03:50.079><c> that</c>

01:03:50.309 --> 01:03:50.319 align:start position:0%
space, it brings a little bit of that
 

01:03:50.319 --> 01:03:52.870 align:start position:0%
space, it brings a little bit of that
space<01:03:50.640><c> along</c><01:03:50.960><c> with</c><01:03:51.119><c> it</c><01:03:51.359><c> for</c><01:03:51.520><c> the</c><01:03:51.760><c> ride.</c><01:03:52.640><c> And</c>

01:03:52.870 --> 01:03:52.880 align:start position:0%
space along with it for the ride. And
 

01:03:52.880 --> 01:03:54.950 align:start position:0%
space along with it for the ride. And
when<01:03:53.119><c> an</c><01:03:53.280><c> object</c><01:03:53.680><c> as</c><01:03:53.920><c> massive</c><01:03:54.319><c> as</c><01:03:54.480><c> a</c><01:03:54.720><c> black</c>

01:03:54.950 --> 01:03:54.960 align:start position:0%
when an object as massive as a black
 

01:03:54.960 --> 01:03:57.829 align:start position:0%
when an object as massive as a black
hole<01:03:55.359><c> spins,</c><01:03:56.160><c> there</c><01:03:56.400><c> is</c><01:03:56.480><c> an</c><01:03:56.720><c> effect</c><01:03:57.200><c> known</c><01:03:57.520><c> as</c>

01:03:57.829 --> 01:03:57.839 align:start position:0%
hole spins, there is an effect known as
 

01:03:57.839 --> 01:04:00.950 align:start position:0%
hole spins, there is an effect known as
frame<01:03:58.240><c> dragging.</c><01:03:59.520><c> To</c><01:03:59.760><c> put</c><01:03:59.920><c> it</c><01:04:00.079><c> simply,</c>

01:04:00.950 --> 01:04:00.960 align:start position:0%
frame dragging. To put it simply,
 

01:04:00.960 --> 01:04:03.349 align:start position:0%
frame dragging. To put it simply,
reality<01:04:01.599><c> around</c><01:04:01.920><c> the</c><01:04:02.160><c> black</c><01:04:02.319><c> hole</c><01:04:02.799><c> begins</c><01:04:03.119><c> to</c>

01:04:03.349 --> 01:04:03.359 align:start position:0%
reality around the black hole begins to
 

01:04:03.359 --> 01:04:05.990 align:start position:0%
reality around the black hole begins to
spin<01:04:03.680><c> in</c><01:04:03.920><c> a</c><01:04:04.079><c> whirlpool</c><01:04:04.960><c> that</c><01:04:05.359><c> cannot</c><01:04:05.839><c> be</c>

01:04:05.990 --> 01:04:06.000 align:start position:0%
spin in a whirlpool that cannot be
 

01:04:06.000 --> 01:04:08.789 align:start position:0%
spin in a whirlpool that cannot be
fought<01:04:06.319><c> against.</c><01:04:07.760><c> Much</c><01:04:08.079><c> like</c><01:04:08.319><c> a</c><01:04:08.559><c> real</c>

01:04:08.789 --> 01:04:08.799 align:start position:0%
fought against. Much like a real
 

01:04:08.799 --> 01:04:11.029 align:start position:0%
fought against. Much like a real
whirlpool,<01:04:09.760><c> anything</c><01:04:10.160><c> caught</c><01:04:10.480><c> within</c><01:04:10.720><c> the</c>

01:04:11.029 --> 01:04:11.039 align:start position:0%
whirlpool, anything caught within the
 

01:04:11.039 --> 01:04:13.829 align:start position:0%
whirlpool, anything caught within the
ergosphere<01:04:11.760><c> is</c><01:04:12.079><c> spun</c><01:04:12.480><c> around</c><01:04:12.720><c> the</c><01:04:12.960><c> black</c><01:04:13.119><c> hole</c>

01:04:13.829 --> 01:04:13.839 align:start position:0%
ergosphere is spun around the black hole
 

01:04:13.839 --> 01:04:15.750 align:start position:0%
ergosphere is spun around the black hole
because<01:04:14.240><c> the</c><01:04:14.480><c> frame</c><01:04:14.720><c> of</c><01:04:14.880><c> reference</c><01:04:15.280><c> it</c><01:04:15.520><c> sits</c>

01:04:15.750 --> 01:04:15.760 align:start position:0%
because the frame of reference it sits
 

01:04:15.760 --> 01:04:18.309 align:start position:0%
because the frame of reference it sits
in<01:04:16.160><c> is</c><01:04:16.480><c> being</c><01:04:16.799><c> pulled.</c>

01:04:18.309 --> 01:04:18.319 align:start position:0%
in is being pulled.
 

01:04:18.319 --> 01:04:20.549 align:start position:0%
in is being pulled.
Sort<01:04:18.559><c> of</c><01:04:18.640><c> like</c><01:04:18.880><c> how</c><01:04:19.119><c> a</c><01:04:19.359><c> person</c><01:04:19.680><c> moves</c><01:04:20.240><c> because</c>

01:04:20.549 --> 01:04:20.559 align:start position:0%
Sort of like how a person moves because
 

01:04:20.559 --> 01:04:23.829 align:start position:0%
Sort of like how a person moves because
they<01:04:20.799><c> are</c><01:04:21.039><c> standing</c><01:04:21.440><c> on</c><01:04:21.760><c> a</c><01:04:22.079><c> moving</c><01:04:22.400><c> walkway.</c>

01:04:23.829 --> 01:04:23.839 align:start position:0%
they are standing on a moving walkway.
 

01:04:23.839 --> 01:04:25.670 align:start position:0%
they are standing on a moving walkway.
The<01:04:24.079><c> greater</c><01:04:24.400><c> the</c><01:04:24.640><c> spin</c><01:04:24.960><c> of</c><01:04:25.119><c> the</c><01:04:25.280><c> massive</c>

01:04:25.670 --> 01:04:25.680 align:start position:0%
The greater the spin of the massive
 

01:04:25.680 --> 01:04:28.470 align:start position:0%
The greater the spin of the massive
object,<01:04:26.319><c> the</c><01:04:26.559><c> faster</c><01:04:26.960><c> this</c><01:04:27.200><c> happens.</c><01:04:28.079><c> And</c><01:04:28.319><c> in</c>

01:04:28.470 --> 01:04:28.480 align:start position:0%
object, the faster this happens. And in
 

01:04:28.480 --> 01:04:30.789 align:start position:0%
object, the faster this happens. And in
the<01:04:28.720><c> ergosphere,</c><01:04:29.680><c> this</c><01:04:29.920><c> can</c><01:04:30.079><c> occur</c><01:04:30.400><c> at</c><01:04:30.559><c> a</c>

01:04:30.789 --> 01:04:30.799 align:start position:0%
the ergosphere, this can occur at a
 

01:04:30.799 --> 01:04:33.990 align:start position:0%
the ergosphere, this can occur at a
speed<01:04:31.200><c> so</c><01:04:31.520><c> fast</c><01:04:32.160><c> that</c><01:04:32.480><c> by</c><01:04:32.720><c> the</c><01:04:32.880><c> event</c><01:04:33.200><c> horizon,</c>

01:04:33.990 --> 01:04:34.000 align:start position:0%
speed so fast that by the event horizon,
 

01:04:34.000 --> 01:04:36.390 align:start position:0%
speed so fast that by the event horizon,
space<01:04:34.400><c> is</c><01:04:34.640><c> moving</c><01:04:35.119><c> faster</c><01:04:35.599><c> than</c><01:04:35.839><c> the</c><01:04:36.000><c> speed</c><01:04:36.240><c> of</c>

01:04:36.390 --> 01:04:36.400 align:start position:0%
space is moving faster than the speed of
 

01:04:36.400 --> 01:04:38.870 align:start position:0%
space is moving faster than the speed of
light.<01:04:37.359><c> You</c><01:04:37.599><c> would</c><01:04:37.760><c> need</c><01:04:37.839><c> to</c><01:04:38.079><c> travel</c><01:04:38.480><c> faster</c>

01:04:38.870 --> 01:04:38.880 align:start position:0%
light. You would need to travel faster
 

01:04:38.880 --> 01:04:40.710 align:start position:0%
light. You would need to travel faster
than<01:04:39.039><c> the</c><01:04:39.280><c> speed</c><01:04:39.440><c> of</c><01:04:39.599><c> light</c><01:04:39.839><c> in</c><01:04:40.079><c> the</c><01:04:40.240><c> opposite</c>

01:04:40.710 --> 01:04:40.720 align:start position:0%
than the speed of light in the opposite
 

01:04:40.720 --> 01:04:43.109 align:start position:0%
than the speed of light in the opposite
direction<01:04:41.440><c> just</c><01:04:41.760><c> to</c><01:04:42.000><c> stay</c><01:04:42.160><c> at</c><01:04:42.400><c> a</c><01:04:42.640><c> relative</c>

01:04:43.109 --> 01:04:43.119 align:start position:0%
direction just to stay at a relative
 

01:04:43.119 --> 01:04:45.029 align:start position:0%
direction just to stay at a relative
standstill<01:04:43.760><c> from</c><01:04:44.000><c> the</c><01:04:44.240><c> point</c><01:04:44.400><c> of</c><01:04:44.559><c> view</c><01:04:44.720><c> of</c><01:04:44.880><c> the</c>

01:04:45.029 --> 01:04:45.039 align:start position:0%
standstill from the point of view of the
 

01:04:45.039 --> 01:04:47.430 align:start position:0%
standstill from the point of view of the
outside<01:04:45.440><c> observer,</c><01:04:46.400><c> which</c><01:04:46.720><c> of</c><01:04:46.880><c> course</c><01:04:47.200><c> you</c>

01:04:47.430 --> 01:04:47.440 align:start position:0%
outside observer, which of course you
 

01:04:47.440 --> 01:04:49.510 align:start position:0%
outside observer, which of course you
cannot<01:04:47.839><c> do.</c>

01:04:49.510 --> 01:04:49.520 align:start position:0%
cannot do.
 

01:04:49.520 --> 01:04:51.270 align:start position:0%
cannot do.
But<01:04:49.760><c> isn't</c><01:04:50.079><c> this</c><01:04:50.319><c> against</c><01:04:50.640><c> the</c><01:04:50.799><c> laws</c><01:04:51.119><c> of</c>

01:04:51.270 --> 01:04:51.280 align:start position:0%
But isn't this against the laws of
 

01:04:51.280 --> 01:04:53.829 align:start position:0%
But isn't this against the laws of
physics?<01:04:52.079><c> Doesn't</c><01:04:52.480><c> Einstein</c><01:04:53.200><c> say</c><01:04:53.520><c> that</c>

01:04:53.829 --> 01:04:53.839 align:start position:0%
physics? Doesn't Einstein say that
 

01:04:53.839 --> 01:04:55.750 align:start position:0%
physics? Doesn't Einstein say that
nothing<01:04:54.240><c> can</c><01:04:54.480><c> travel</c><01:04:54.799><c> faster</c><01:04:55.200><c> than</c><01:04:55.359><c> the</c><01:04:55.599><c> speed</c>

01:04:55.750 --> 01:04:55.760 align:start position:0%
nothing can travel faster than the speed
 

01:04:55.760 --> 01:04:59.270 align:start position:0%
nothing can travel faster than the speed
of<01:04:55.920><c> light?</c><01:04:57.119><c> The</c><01:04:57.359><c> answer</c><01:04:57.599><c> to</c><01:04:57.760><c> that</c><01:04:58.000><c> is</c><01:04:58.240><c> yes.</c><01:04:59.039><c> But</c>

01:04:59.270 --> 01:04:59.280 align:start position:0%
of light? The answer to that is yes. But
 

01:04:59.280 --> 01:05:00.950 align:start position:0%
of light? The answer to that is yes. But
black<01:04:59.440><c> holes</c><01:04:59.839><c> have</c><01:05:00.000><c> found</c><01:05:00.240><c> an</c><01:05:00.480><c> interesting</c>

01:05:00.950 --> 01:05:00.960 align:start position:0%
black holes have found an interesting
 

01:05:00.960 --> 01:05:03.670 align:start position:0%
black holes have found an interesting
loophole.<01:05:02.079><c> You</c><01:05:02.319><c> see,</c><01:05:02.720><c> this</c><01:05:02.960><c> rule</c><01:05:03.280><c> only</c>

01:05:03.670 --> 01:05:03.680 align:start position:0%
loophole. You see, this rule only
 

01:05:03.680 --> 01:05:06.950 align:start position:0%
loophole. You see, this rule only
applies<01:05:04.160><c> locally.</c><01:05:05.599><c> Right</c><01:05:05.839><c> where</c><01:05:06.079><c> you</c><01:05:06.319><c> are</c><01:05:06.720><c> in</c>

01:05:06.950 --> 01:05:06.960 align:start position:0%
applies locally. Right where you are in
 

01:05:06.960 --> 01:05:09.270 align:start position:0%
applies locally. Right where you are in
your<01:05:07.200><c> frame</c><01:05:07.440><c> of</c><01:05:07.680><c> reference,</c><01:05:08.480><c> nothing</c><01:05:08.799><c> can</c><01:05:09.039><c> go</c>

01:05:09.270 --> 01:05:09.280 align:start position:0%
your frame of reference, nothing can go
 

01:05:09.280 --> 01:05:11.270 align:start position:0%
your frame of reference, nothing can go
faster<01:05:09.599><c> than</c><01:05:09.760><c> the</c><01:05:10.000><c> speed</c><01:05:10.160><c> of</c><01:05:10.319><c> light.</c><01:05:11.119><c> But</c>

01:05:11.270 --> 01:05:11.280 align:start position:0%
faster than the speed of light. But
 

01:05:11.280 --> 01:05:14.309 align:start position:0%
faster than the speed of light. But
thanks<01:05:11.520><c> to</c><01:05:11.760><c> relativity,</c><01:05:12.799><c> it</c><01:05:13.119><c> is</c><01:05:13.440><c> possible</c><01:05:13.920><c> for</c>

01:05:14.309 --> 01:05:14.319 align:start position:0%
thanks to relativity, it is possible for
 

01:05:14.319 --> 01:05:16.710 align:start position:0%
thanks to relativity, it is possible for
frames<01:05:14.799><c> of</c><01:05:15.119><c> reference</c><01:05:15.760><c> to</c><01:05:16.079><c> move</c><01:05:16.240><c> away</c><01:05:16.480><c> from</c>

01:05:16.710 --> 01:05:16.720 align:start position:0%
frames of reference to move away from
 

01:05:16.720 --> 01:05:18.950 align:start position:0%
frames of reference to move away from
each<01:05:16.880><c> other</c><01:05:17.119><c> so</c><01:05:17.440><c> fast</c><01:05:17.920><c> that</c><01:05:18.160><c> objects</c><01:05:18.559><c> in</c><01:05:18.720><c> them</c>

01:05:18.950 --> 01:05:18.960 align:start position:0%
each other so fast that objects in them
 

01:05:18.960 --> 01:05:20.789 align:start position:0%
each other so fast that objects in them
appear<01:05:19.280><c> to</c><01:05:19.440><c> be</c><01:05:19.599><c> breaking</c><01:05:19.920><c> this</c><01:05:20.160><c> light</c><01:05:20.400><c> barrier</c>

01:05:20.789 --> 01:05:20.799 align:start position:0%
appear to be breaking this light barrier
 

01:05:20.799 --> 01:05:23.270 align:start position:0%
appear to be breaking this light barrier
from<01:05:21.039><c> your</c><01:05:21.200><c> point</c><01:05:21.359><c> of</c><01:05:21.599><c> view.</c>

01:05:23.270 --> 01:05:23.280 align:start position:0%
from your point of view.
 

01:05:23.280 --> 01:05:25.510 align:start position:0%
from your point of view.
But<01:05:23.520><c> if</c><01:05:23.760><c> you</c><01:05:24.079><c> move</c><01:05:24.400><c> next</c><01:05:24.559><c> to</c><01:05:24.720><c> them</c><01:05:24.960><c> and</c><01:05:25.200><c> entered</c>

01:05:25.510 --> 01:05:25.520 align:start position:0%
But if you move next to them and entered
 

01:05:25.520 --> 01:05:27.510 align:start position:0%
But if you move next to them and entered
their<01:05:25.839><c> frame</c><01:05:26.079><c> of</c><01:05:26.240><c> reference,</c><01:05:27.119><c> they</c><01:05:27.359><c> would</c>

01:05:27.510 --> 01:05:27.520 align:start position:0%
their frame of reference, they would
 

01:05:27.520 --> 01:05:29.349 align:start position:0%
their frame of reference, they would
seem<01:05:27.839><c> to</c><01:05:28.000><c> slow</c><01:05:28.319><c> down</c><01:05:28.640><c> and</c><01:05:28.880><c> would</c><01:05:29.119><c> start</c>

01:05:29.349 --> 01:05:29.359 align:start position:0%
seem to slow down and would start
 

01:05:29.359 --> 01:05:31.990 align:start position:0%
seem to slow down and would start
obeying<01:05:29.680><c> the</c><01:05:29.839><c> laws</c><01:05:30.079><c> of</c><01:05:30.240><c> physics</c><01:05:30.640><c> again.</c>

01:05:31.990 --> 01:05:32.000 align:start position:0%
obeying the laws of physics again.
 

01:05:32.000 --> 01:05:34.470 align:start position:0%
obeying the laws of physics again.
It's<01:05:32.240><c> a</c><01:05:32.480><c> really</c><01:05:32.799><c> weird</c><01:05:33.200><c> effect,</c><01:05:33.760><c> but</c><01:05:34.079><c> frame</c>

01:05:34.470 --> 01:05:34.480 align:start position:0%
It's a really weird effect, but frame
 

01:05:34.480 --> 01:05:37.109 align:start position:0%
It's a really weird effect, but frame
dragging<01:05:34.960><c> is</c><01:05:35.119><c> an</c><01:05:35.359><c> actual</c><01:05:35.760><c> thing.</c><01:05:36.480><c> It</c><01:05:36.720><c> is</c><01:05:36.880><c> by</c>

01:05:37.109 --> 01:05:37.119 align:start position:0%
dragging is an actual thing. It is by
 

01:05:37.119 --> 01:05:39.510 align:start position:0%
dragging is an actual thing. It is by
measuring<01:05:37.680><c> frame</c><01:05:38.079><c> dragging</c><01:05:38.720><c> that</c><01:05:39.039><c> scientists</c>

01:05:39.510 --> 01:05:39.520 align:start position:0%
measuring frame dragging that scientists
 

01:05:39.520 --> 01:05:42.630 align:start position:0%
measuring frame dragging that scientists
can<01:05:39.760><c> learn</c><01:05:40.000><c> the</c><01:05:40.240><c> spin</c><01:05:40.480><c> of</c><01:05:40.640><c> a</c><01:05:40.880><c> black</c><01:05:41.039><c> hole.</c>

01:05:42.630 --> 01:05:42.640 align:start position:0%
can learn the spin of a black hole.
 

01:05:42.640 --> 01:05:45.109 align:start position:0%
can learn the spin of a black hole.
However,<01:05:43.200><c> according</c><01:05:43.599><c> to</c><01:05:43.839><c> a</c><01:05:44.079><c> man</c><01:05:44.400><c> called</c><01:05:44.640><c> Roger</c>

01:05:45.109 --> 01:05:45.119 align:start position:0%
However, according to a man called Roger
 

01:05:45.119 --> 01:05:47.589 align:start position:0%
However, according to a man called Roger
Penrose,<01:05:46.160><c> there</c><01:05:46.400><c> may</c><01:05:46.559><c> even</c><01:05:46.880><c> be</c><01:05:47.039><c> a</c><01:05:47.200><c> way</c><01:05:47.359><c> of</c>

01:05:47.589 --> 01:05:47.599 align:start position:0%
Penrose, there may even be a way of
 

01:05:47.599 --> 01:05:50.150 align:start position:0%
Penrose, there may even be a way of
exploiting<01:05:48.160><c> it.</c><01:05:49.119><c> If</c><01:05:49.280><c> you</c><01:05:49.440><c> were</c><01:05:49.599><c> to</c><01:05:49.760><c> send</c><01:05:49.920><c> a</c>

01:05:50.150 --> 01:05:50.160 align:start position:0%
exploiting it. If you were to send a
 

01:05:50.160 --> 01:05:51.589 align:start position:0%
exploiting it. If you were to send a
rocket<01:05:50.480><c> into</c><01:05:50.799><c> this</c><01:05:50.960><c> section</c><01:05:51.200><c> of</c><01:05:51.280><c> the</c>

01:05:51.589 --> 01:05:51.599 align:start position:0%
rocket into this section of the
 

01:05:51.599 --> 01:05:53.750 align:start position:0%
rocket into this section of the
ergosphere,<01:05:52.480><c> the</c><01:05:52.640><c> rocket</c><01:05:52.960><c> would</c><01:05:53.200><c> speed</c><01:05:53.520><c> up</c>

01:05:53.750 --> 01:05:53.760 align:start position:0%
ergosphere, the rocket would speed up
 

01:05:53.760 --> 01:05:55.670 align:start position:0%
ergosphere, the rocket would speed up
due<01:05:54.000><c> to</c><01:05:54.240><c> being</c><01:05:54.480><c> caught</c><01:05:54.720><c> in</c><01:05:54.799><c> the</c><01:05:54.960><c> whirlpool</c><01:05:55.520><c> of</c>

01:05:55.670 --> 01:05:55.680 align:start position:0%
due to being caught in the whirlpool of
 

01:05:55.680 --> 01:05:57.829 align:start position:0%
due to being caught in the whirlpool of
reality.<01:05:56.640><c> Once</c><01:05:56.880><c> it</c><01:05:57.039><c> had</c><01:05:57.280><c> gained</c><01:05:57.520><c> enough</c>

01:05:57.829 --> 01:05:57.839 align:start position:0%
reality. Once it had gained enough
 

01:05:57.839 --> 01:05:59.910 align:start position:0%
reality. Once it had gained enough
speed,<01:05:58.400><c> it</c><01:05:58.640><c> could</c><01:05:58.799><c> then</c><01:05:59.039><c> fire</c><01:05:59.280><c> a</c><01:05:59.520><c> propellant</c>

01:05:59.910 --> 01:05:59.920 align:start position:0%
speed, it could then fire a propellant
 

01:05:59.920 --> 01:06:01.670 align:start position:0%
speed, it could then fire a propellant
in<01:06:00.160><c> such</c><01:06:00.319><c> a</c><01:06:00.480><c> direction</c><01:06:00.880><c> that</c><01:06:01.200><c> it</c><01:06:01.359><c> pushed</c>

01:06:01.670 --> 01:06:01.680 align:start position:0%
in such a direction that it pushed
 

01:06:01.680 --> 01:06:03.990 align:start position:0%
in such a direction that it pushed
itself<01:06:02.079><c> out</c><01:06:02.319><c> of</c><01:06:02.480><c> the</c><01:06:02.640><c> whirlpool</c><01:06:03.200><c> again,</c><01:06:03.760><c> but</c>

01:06:03.990 --> 01:06:04.000 align:start position:0%
itself out of the whirlpool again, but
 

01:06:04.000 --> 01:06:07.109 align:start position:0%
itself out of the whirlpool again, but
now<01:06:04.319><c> traveling</c><01:06:04.720><c> at</c><01:06:04.960><c> a</c><01:06:05.200><c> much</c><01:06:05.520><c> faster</c><01:06:06.000><c> speed.</c>

01:06:07.109 --> 01:06:07.119 align:start position:0%
now traveling at a much faster speed.
 

01:06:07.119 --> 01:06:10.069 align:start position:0%
now traveling at a much faster speed.
This<01:06:07.359><c> method,</c><01:06:08.000><c> named</c><01:06:08.319><c> the</c><01:06:08.480><c> Penrose</c><01:06:09.119><c> process,</c>

01:06:10.069 --> 01:06:10.079 align:start position:0%
This method, named the Penrose process,
 

01:06:10.079 --> 01:06:12.069 align:start position:0%
This method, named the Penrose process,
could<01:06:10.400><c> hypothetically</c><01:06:11.119><c> net</c><01:06:11.440><c> you</c><01:06:11.680><c> energy</c>

01:06:12.069 --> 01:06:12.079 align:start position:0%
could hypothetically net you energy
 

01:06:12.079 --> 01:06:14.630 align:start position:0%
could hypothetically net you energy
equal<01:06:12.400><c> to</c><01:06:12.640><c> about</c><01:06:12.960><c> 20%</c><01:06:13.680><c> of</c><01:06:13.839><c> the</c><01:06:14.000><c> mass</c><01:06:14.240><c> of</c><01:06:14.400><c> your</c>

01:06:14.630 --> 01:06:14.640 align:start position:0%
equal to about 20% of the mass of your
 

01:06:14.640 --> 01:06:17.589 align:start position:0%
equal to about 20% of the mass of your
rocket.<01:06:16.000><c> Now</c><01:06:16.640><c> that</c><01:06:16.880><c> might</c><01:06:17.039><c> not</c><01:06:17.200><c> sound</c><01:06:17.440><c> like</c>

01:06:17.589 --> 01:06:17.599 align:start position:0%
rocket. Now that might not sound like
 

01:06:17.599 --> 01:06:19.670 align:start position:0%
rocket. Now that might not sound like
much,<01:06:18.160><c> but</c><01:06:18.480><c> remember</c><01:06:19.200><c> according</c><01:06:19.520><c> to</c>

01:06:19.670 --> 01:06:19.680 align:start position:0%
much, but remember according to
 

01:06:19.680 --> 01:06:23.670 align:start position:0%
much, but remember according to
Einstein's<01:06:20.240><c> E=</c><01:06:20.960><c> MC^²,</c><01:06:22.160><c> your</c><01:06:22.480><c> 20%</c><01:06:23.039><c> mass</c><01:06:23.440><c> would</c>

01:06:23.670 --> 01:06:23.680 align:start position:0%
Einstein's E= MC^², your 20% mass would
 

01:06:23.680 --> 01:06:26.870 align:start position:0%
Einstein's E= MC^², your 20% mass would
produce<01:06:24.079><c> energy</c><01:06:24.480><c> equal</c><01:06:24.880><c> to</c><01:06:25.039><c> itself</c><01:06:25.760><c> times</c><01:06:26.400><c> by</c>

01:06:26.870 --> 01:06:26.880 align:start position:0%
produce energy equal to itself times by
 

01:06:26.880 --> 01:06:31.910 align:start position:0%
produce energy equal to itself times by
299,792,458

01:06:31.910 --> 01:06:31.920 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:06:31.920 --> 01:06:35.670 align:start position:0%
 
squared.<01:06:33.200><c> That's</c><01:06:33.520><c> a</c><01:06:33.760><c> lot</c><01:06:33.920><c> of</c><01:06:34.079><c> energy.</c>

01:06:35.670 --> 01:06:35.680 align:start position:0%
squared. That's a lot of energy.
 

01:06:35.680 --> 01:06:38.390 align:start position:0%
squared. That's a lot of energy.
So<01:06:36.079><c> to</c><01:06:36.319><c> harness</c><01:06:36.799><c> this</c><01:06:37.280><c> colossal</c><01:06:37.920><c> kinetic</c>

01:06:38.390 --> 01:06:38.400 align:start position:0%
So to harness this colossal kinetic
 

01:06:38.400 --> 01:06:40.230 align:start position:0%
So to harness this colossal kinetic
energy,<01:06:39.119><c> all</c><01:06:39.280><c> you</c><01:06:39.440><c> would</c><01:06:39.599><c> need</c><01:06:39.760><c> to</c><01:06:39.839><c> do</c><01:06:40.000><c> is</c>

01:06:40.230 --> 01:06:40.240 align:start position:0%
energy, all you would need to do is
 

01:06:40.240 --> 01:06:41.990 align:start position:0%
energy, all you would need to do is
travel<01:06:40.559><c> to</c><01:06:40.720><c> the</c><01:06:40.799><c> nearest</c><01:06:41.119><c> black</c><01:06:41.359><c> hole,</c><01:06:41.760><c> which</c>

01:06:41.990 --> 01:06:42.000 align:start position:0%
travel to the nearest black hole, which
 

01:06:42.000 --> 01:06:44.549 align:start position:0%
travel to the nearest black hole, which
is<01:06:42.160><c> roughly</c><01:06:42.559><c> 3,000</c><01:06:43.119><c> lightyears</c><01:06:43.599><c> from</c><01:06:43.839><c> us,</c><01:06:44.319><c> and</c>

01:06:44.549 --> 01:06:44.559 align:start position:0%
is roughly 3,000 lightyears from us, and
 

01:06:44.559 --> 01:06:46.549 align:start position:0%
is roughly 3,000 lightyears from us, and
enter<01:06:44.799><c> its</c><01:06:45.119><c> ergosphere</c><01:06:45.760><c> with</c><01:06:46.000><c> a</c><01:06:46.160><c> rocket</c>

01:06:46.549 --> 01:06:46.559 align:start position:0%
enter its ergosphere with a rocket
 

01:06:46.559 --> 01:06:48.309 align:start position:0%
enter its ergosphere with a rocket
capable<01:06:46.960><c> of</c><01:06:47.119><c> surviving</c><01:06:47.599><c> the</c><01:06:47.839><c> intense</c>

01:06:48.309 --> 01:06:48.319 align:start position:0%
capable of surviving the intense
 

01:06:48.319 --> 01:06:51.190 align:start position:0%
capable of surviving the intense
gravitational<01:06:48.960><c> forces</c><01:06:49.440><c> there.</c><01:06:50.480><c> Ideally,</c><01:06:50.960><c> you</c>

01:06:51.190 --> 01:06:51.200 align:start position:0%
gravitational forces there. Ideally, you
 

01:06:51.200 --> 01:06:52.630 align:start position:0%
gravitational forces there. Ideally, you
would<01:06:51.359><c> need</c><01:06:51.440><c> to</c><01:06:51.599><c> find</c><01:06:51.839><c> one</c><01:06:52.000><c> that</c><01:06:52.240><c> was</c><01:06:52.400><c> not</c>

01:06:52.630 --> 01:06:52.640 align:start position:0%
would need to find one that was not
 

01:06:52.640 --> 01:06:54.710 align:start position:0%
would need to find one that was not
surrounded<01:06:53.039><c> by</c><01:06:53.200><c> an</c><01:06:53.359><c> accretion</c><01:06:53.920><c> disc</c><01:06:54.480><c> because</c>

01:06:54.710 --> 01:06:54.720 align:start position:0%
surrounded by an accretion disc because
 

01:06:54.720 --> 01:06:56.630 align:start position:0%
surrounded by an accretion disc because
those<01:06:55.039><c> get</c><01:06:55.280><c> up</c><01:06:55.359><c> to</c><01:06:55.599><c> temperatures</c><01:06:56.000><c> of</c><01:06:56.319><c> millions</c>

01:06:56.630 --> 01:06:56.640 align:start position:0%
those get up to temperatures of millions
 

01:06:56.640 --> 01:06:59.029 align:start position:0%
those get up to temperatures of millions
of<01:06:56.880><c> degrees,</c><01:06:57.520><c> as</c><01:06:57.680><c> they</c><01:06:57.920><c> are</c><01:06:58.079><c> swung</c><01:06:58.480><c> around</c><01:06:58.720><c> at</c>

01:06:59.029 --> 01:06:59.039 align:start position:0%
of degrees, as they are swung around at
 

01:06:59.039 --> 01:07:01.430 align:start position:0%
of degrees, as they are swung around at
near<01:06:59.359><c> light</c><01:06:59.599><c> speeds</c><01:07:00.079><c> and</c><01:07:00.400><c> melt</c><01:07:00.720><c> from</c><01:07:00.960><c> solids</c>

01:07:01.430 --> 01:07:01.440 align:start position:0%
near light speeds and melt from solids
 

01:07:01.440 --> 01:07:03.990 align:start position:0%
near light speeds and melt from solids
down<01:07:01.599><c> to</c><01:07:01.839><c> gas</c><01:07:02.160><c> and</c><01:07:02.400><c> plasma.</c><01:07:03.359><c> But</c><01:07:03.520><c> you</c><01:07:03.680><c> get</c><01:07:03.839><c> the</c>

01:07:03.990 --> 01:07:04.000 align:start position:0%
down to gas and plasma. But you get the
 

01:07:04.000 --> 01:07:06.789 align:start position:0%
down to gas and plasma. But you get the
idea.<01:07:04.480><c> Easy.</c>

01:07:06.789 --> 01:07:06.799 align:start position:0%
idea. Easy.
 

01:07:06.799 --> 01:07:09.109 align:start position:0%
idea. Easy.
Okay,<01:07:07.280><c> maybe</c><01:07:07.599><c> this</c><01:07:07.920><c> is</c><01:07:08.079><c> a</c><01:07:08.319><c> little</c><01:07:08.559><c> impractical</c>

01:07:09.109 --> 01:07:09.119 align:start position:0%
Okay, maybe this is a little impractical
 

01:07:09.119 --> 01:07:11.829 align:start position:0%
Okay, maybe this is a little impractical
for<01:07:09.359><c> us,</c><01:07:10.240><c> but</c><01:07:10.400><c> the</c><01:07:10.640><c> implications</c><01:07:11.200><c> for</c><01:07:11.520><c> faster</c>

01:07:11.829 --> 01:07:11.839 align:start position:0%
for us, but the implications for faster
 

01:07:11.839 --> 01:07:13.670 align:start position:0%
for us, but the implications for faster
than<01:07:12.079><c> light</c><01:07:12.400><c> travel</c><01:07:12.720><c> that</c><01:07:13.039><c> black</c><01:07:13.280><c> holes</c>

01:07:13.670 --> 01:07:13.680 align:start position:0%
than light travel that black holes
 

01:07:13.680 --> 01:07:16.150 align:start position:0%
than light travel that black holes
demonstrate<01:07:14.400><c> through</c><01:07:14.720><c> frame</c><01:07:15.119><c> dragging</c><01:07:15.839><c> might</c>

01:07:16.150 --> 01:07:16.160 align:start position:0%
demonstrate through frame dragging might
 

01:07:16.160 --> 01:07:18.470 align:start position:0%
demonstrate through frame dragging might
just<01:07:16.400><c> offer</c><01:07:16.640><c> us</c><01:07:16.880><c> the</c><01:07:17.119><c> key</c><01:07:17.359><c> to</c><01:07:17.680><c> one</c><01:07:17.920><c> day</c><01:07:18.240><c> beat</c>

01:07:18.470 --> 01:07:18.480 align:start position:0%
just offer us the key to one day beat
 

01:07:18.480 --> 01:07:21.190 align:start position:0%
just offer us the key to one day beat
the<01:07:18.640><c> light</c><01:07:18.880><c> barrier</c><01:07:19.280><c> for</c><01:07:19.520><c> real.</c><01:07:20.480><c> Not</c><01:07:20.720><c> by</c><01:07:20.960><c> going</c>

01:07:21.190 --> 01:07:21.200 align:start position:0%
the light barrier for real. Not by going
 

01:07:21.200 --> 01:07:23.670 align:start position:0%
the light barrier for real. Not by going
faster<01:07:21.599><c> than</c><01:07:21.839><c> light</c><01:07:22.079><c> ourselves,</c><01:07:23.119><c> but</c><01:07:23.359><c> by</c>

01:07:23.670 --> 01:07:23.680 align:start position:0%
faster than light ourselves, but by
 

01:07:23.680 --> 01:07:25.510 align:start position:0%
faster than light ourselves, but by
somehow<01:07:24.319><c> convincing</c><01:07:24.799><c> the</c><01:07:25.039><c> frame</c><01:07:25.280><c> of</c>

01:07:25.510 --> 01:07:25.520 align:start position:0%
somehow convincing the frame of
 

01:07:25.520 --> 01:07:27.829 align:start position:0%
somehow convincing the frame of
reference<01:07:25.839><c> we</c><01:07:26.079><c> are</c><01:07:26.240><c> in</c><01:07:26.720><c> to</c><01:07:27.039><c> travel</c><01:07:27.359><c> at</c><01:07:27.599><c> those</c>

01:07:27.829 --> 01:07:27.839 align:start position:0%
reference we are in to travel at those
 

01:07:27.839 --> 01:07:30.069 align:start position:0%
reference we are in to travel at those
faster<01:07:28.319><c> speeds,</c><01:07:28.960><c> just</c><01:07:29.200><c> like</c><01:07:29.359><c> they</c><01:07:29.599><c> do</c><01:07:29.760><c> around</c>

01:07:30.069 --> 01:07:30.079 align:start position:0%
faster speeds, just like they do around
 

01:07:30.079 --> 01:07:33.349 align:start position:0%
faster speeds, just like they do around
a<01:07:30.240><c> black</c><01:07:30.480><c> hole.</c><01:07:31.359><c> Of</c><01:07:32.319><c> course,</c><01:07:32.880><c> if</c><01:07:33.119><c> this</c>

01:07:33.349 --> 01:07:33.359 align:start position:0%
a black hole. Of course, if this
 

01:07:33.359 --> 01:07:35.190 align:start position:0%
a black hole. Of course, if this
requires<01:07:33.760><c> the</c><01:07:33.920><c> energy</c><01:07:34.240><c> of</c><01:07:34.400><c> a</c><01:07:34.559><c> black</c><01:07:34.720><c> hole</c><01:07:34.960><c> to</c>

01:07:35.190 --> 01:07:35.200 align:start position:0%
requires the energy of a black hole to
 

01:07:35.200 --> 01:07:37.430 align:start position:0%
requires the energy of a black hole to
accomplish,<01:07:35.920><c> we</c><01:07:36.240><c> might</c><01:07:36.480><c> be</c><01:07:36.640><c> out</c><01:07:36.799><c> of</c><01:07:36.960><c> luck</c><01:07:37.200><c> for</c>

01:07:37.430 --> 01:07:37.440 align:start position:0%
accomplish, we might be out of luck for
 

01:07:37.440 --> 01:07:39.910 align:start position:0%
accomplish, we might be out of luck for
now,<01:07:38.160><c> but</c><01:07:38.319><c> it's</c><01:07:38.559><c> an</c><01:07:38.720><c> incredible</c><01:07:39.280><c> glimpse</c><01:07:39.599><c> into</c>

01:07:39.910 --> 01:07:39.920 align:start position:0%
now, but it's an incredible glimpse into
 

01:07:39.920 --> 01:07:42.309 align:start position:0%
now, but it's an incredible glimpse into
what<01:07:40.160><c> is</c><01:07:40.319><c> possible,</c><01:07:41.119><c> and</c><01:07:41.359><c> scientists</c><01:07:41.920><c> are</c>

01:07:42.309 --> 01:07:42.319 align:start position:0%
what is possible, and scientists are
 

01:07:42.319 --> 01:07:44.309 align:start position:0%
what is possible, and scientists are
already<01:07:42.799><c> looking</c><01:07:43.119><c> into</c><01:07:43.359><c> the</c><01:07:43.599><c> power</c><01:07:43.760><c> of</c><01:07:44.000><c> frame</c>

01:07:44.309 --> 01:07:44.319 align:start position:0%
already looking into the power of frame
 

01:07:44.319 --> 01:07:46.789 align:start position:0%
already looking into the power of frame
dragging<01:07:44.640><c> for</c><01:07:44.880><c> future</c><01:07:45.280><c> travel.</c><01:07:46.400><c> But</c><01:07:46.559><c> maybe</c>

01:07:46.789 --> 01:07:46.799 align:start position:0%
dragging for future travel. But maybe
 

01:07:46.799 --> 01:07:49.510 align:start position:0%
dragging for future travel. But maybe
that's<01:07:46.960><c> a</c><01:07:47.200><c> topic</c><01:07:47.359><c> for</c><01:07:47.599><c> another</c><01:07:47.920><c> video.</c>

01:07:49.510 --> 01:07:49.520 align:start position:0%
that's a topic for another video.
 

01:07:49.520 --> 01:07:51.670 align:start position:0%
that's a topic for another video.
Either<01:07:49.839><c> way,</c><01:07:50.319><c> this</c><01:07:50.559><c> all</c><01:07:50.799><c> just</c><01:07:51.039><c> highlights</c>

01:07:51.670 --> 01:07:51.680 align:start position:0%
Either way, this all just highlights
 

01:07:51.680 --> 01:07:54.470 align:start position:0%
Either way, this all just highlights
once<01:07:52.000><c> again</c><01:07:52.559><c> how</c><01:07:52.880><c> our</c><01:07:53.200><c> universe</c><01:07:53.839><c> really</c><01:07:54.240><c> is</c>

01:07:54.470 --> 01:07:54.480 align:start position:0%
once again how our universe really is
 

01:07:54.480 --> 01:07:56.390 align:start position:0%
once again how our universe really is
very<01:07:54.720><c> different</c><01:07:55.119><c> from</c><01:07:55.440><c> what</c><01:07:55.680><c> we</c><01:07:55.920><c> might</c><01:07:56.240><c> have</c>

01:07:56.390 --> 01:07:56.400 align:start position:0%
very different from what we might have
 

01:07:56.400 --> 01:08:03.910 align:start position:0%
very different from what we might have
ever<01:07:56.720><c> imagined.</c>

01:08:03.910 --> 01:08:03.920 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:08:03.920 --> 01:08:06.309 align:start position:0%
 
A<01:08:04.240><c> massive</c><01:08:04.720><c> thank</c><01:08:04.960><c> you</c><01:08:05.119><c> to</c><01:08:05.280><c> our</c><01:08:05.440><c> astronauts</c><01:08:06.079><c> on</c>

01:08:06.309 --> 01:08:06.319 align:start position:0%
A massive thank you to our astronauts on
 

01:08:06.319 --> 01:08:09.589 align:start position:0%
A massive thank you to our astronauts on
Patreon.<01:08:07.280><c> This</c><01:08:07.520><c> video</c><01:08:07.920><c> had</c><01:08:08.319><c> no</c><01:08:08.640><c> sponsors,</c><01:08:09.440><c> but</c>

01:08:09.589 --> 01:08:09.599 align:start position:0%
Patreon. This video had no sponsors, but
 

01:08:09.599 --> 01:08:11.430 align:start position:0%
Patreon. This video had no sponsors, but
it<01:08:09.839><c> was</c><01:08:09.920><c> still</c><01:08:10.160><c> made</c><01:08:10.319><c> possible</c><01:08:10.720><c> thanks</c><01:08:11.039><c> to</c><01:08:11.200><c> the</c>

01:08:11.430 --> 01:08:11.440 align:start position:0%
it was still made possible thanks to the
 

01:08:11.440 --> 01:08:14.069 align:start position:0%
it was still made possible thanks to the
hundreds<01:08:11.839><c> of</c><01:08:12.000><c> members</c><01:08:12.400><c> we</c><01:08:12.720><c> have</c><01:08:12.960><c> there.</c><01:08:13.760><c> Link</c>

01:08:14.069 --> 01:08:14.079 align:start position:0%
hundreds of members we have there. Link
 

01:08:14.079 --> 01:08:15.910 align:start position:0%
hundreds of members we have there. Link
is<01:08:14.240><c> in</c><01:08:14.480><c> the</c><01:08:14.640><c> description</c><01:08:15.039><c> to</c><01:08:15.280><c> join</c><01:08:15.599><c> our</c>

01:08:15.910 --> 01:08:15.920 align:start position:0%
is in the description to join our
 

01:08:15.920 --> 01:08:18.630 align:start position:0%
is in the description to join our
growing<01:08:16.480><c> community.</c><01:08:17.839><c> Patreon</c><01:08:18.319><c> is</c><01:08:18.480><c> where</c>

01:08:18.630 --> 01:08:18.640 align:start position:0%
growing community. Patreon is where
 

01:08:18.640 --> 01:08:21.110 align:start position:0%
growing community. Patreon is where
Astramm<01:08:19.279><c> truly</c><01:08:19.679><c> takes</c><01:08:19.920><c> shape.</c><01:08:20.560><c> A</c><01:08:20.719><c> place</c><01:08:20.880><c> for</c>

01:08:21.110 --> 01:08:21.120 align:start position:0%
Astramm truly takes shape. A place for
 

01:08:21.120 --> 01:08:23.110 align:start position:0%
Astramm truly takes shape. A place for
people<01:08:21.279><c> who</c><01:08:21.520><c> love</c><01:08:21.759><c> space,</c><01:08:22.400><c> who</c><01:08:22.640><c> want</c><01:08:22.799><c> to</c><01:08:22.960><c> see</c>

01:08:23.110 --> 01:08:23.120 align:start position:0%
people who love space, who want to see
 

01:08:23.120 --> 01:08:25.829 align:start position:0%
people who love space, who want to see
these<01:08:23.440><c> videos</c><01:08:23.920><c> keep</c><01:08:24.159><c> improving</c><01:08:25.120><c> and</c><01:08:25.440><c> reaching</c>

01:08:25.829 --> 01:08:25.839 align:start position:0%
these videos keep improving and reaching
 

01:08:25.839 --> 01:08:28.709 align:start position:0%
these videos keep improving and reaching
more<01:08:26.319><c> curious</c><01:08:26.799><c> minds.</c><01:08:27.839><c> Every</c><01:08:28.080><c> new</c><01:08:28.400><c> member</c>

01:08:28.709 --> 01:08:28.719 align:start position:0%
more curious minds. Every new member
 

01:08:28.719 --> 01:08:30.630 align:start position:0%
more curious minds. Every new member
keeps<01:08:28.960><c> the</c><01:08:29.120><c> channel</c><01:08:29.359><c> focused</c><01:08:29.759><c> on</c><01:08:30.000><c> what</c><01:08:30.319><c> really</c>

01:08:30.630 --> 01:08:30.640 align:start position:0%
keeps the channel focused on what really
 

01:08:30.640 --> 01:08:33.349 align:start position:0%
keeps the channel focused on what really
matters,<01:08:31.440><c> making</c><01:08:31.759><c> the</c><01:08:32.080><c> complexity</c><01:08:32.560><c> of</c><01:08:32.799><c> space</c>

01:08:33.349 --> 01:08:33.359 align:start position:0%
matters, making the complexity of space
 

01:08:33.359 --> 01:08:36.070 align:start position:0%
matters, making the complexity of space
available<01:08:33.920><c> to</c><01:08:34.159><c> everyone.</c><01:08:35.120><c> If</c><01:08:35.359><c> you</c><01:08:35.520><c> enjoy</c><01:08:35.839><c> what</c>

01:08:36.070 --> 01:08:36.080 align:start position:0%
available to everyone. If you enjoy what
 

01:08:36.080 --> 01:08:38.630 align:start position:0%
available to everyone. If you enjoy what
we<01:08:36.239><c> do,</c><01:08:36.880><c> come</c><01:08:37.199><c> join</c><01:08:37.520><c> the</c><01:08:37.679><c> Astramm</c><01:08:38.239><c> community</c>

01:08:38.630 --> 01:08:38.640 align:start position:0%
we do, come join the Astramm community
 

01:08:38.640 --> 01:08:41.199 align:start position:0%
we do, come join the Astramm community
today.