WEBVTT Kind: captions Language: en 00:00:00.000 --> 00:00:03.190 align:start position:0% Meteors<00:00:00.720> have<00:00:01.080> the<00:00:01.200> power<00:00:01.720> to<00:00:01.880> transform<00:00:02.960> our 00:00:03.190 --> 00:00:03.200 align:start position:0% Meteors have the power to transform our 00:00:03.200 --> 00:00:06.310 align:start position:0% Meteors have the power to transform our planet,<00:00:04.160> to<00:00:04.280> wipe<00:00:04.560> out<00:00:04.880> huge<00:00:05.320> swaths<00:00:05.840> of<00:00:06.000> life 00:00:06.310 --> 00:00:06.320 align:start position:0% planet, to wipe out huge swaths of life 00:00:06.320 --> 00:00:08.870 align:start position:0% planet, to wipe out huge swaths of life on<00:00:06.560> Earth<00:00:07.160> in<00:00:07.320> one<00:00:07.560> impact. 00:00:08.870 --> 00:00:08.880 align:start position:0% on Earth in one impact. 00:00:08.880 --> 00:00:11.310 align:start position:0% on Earth in one impact. But,<00:00:09.360> not<00:00:09.640> all<00:00:09.840> of<00:00:09.920> that<00:00:10.120> dramatic.<00:00:11.040> We<00:00:11.200> are 00:00:11.310 --> 00:00:11.320 align:start position:0% But, not all of that dramatic. We are 00:00:11.320 --> 00:00:14.310 align:start position:0% But, not all of that dramatic. We are hit<00:00:11.640> by<00:00:11.840> more<00:00:12.080> than<00:00:12.320> 100<00:00:13.200> tons<00:00:13.560> of<00:00:13.720> small, 00:00:14.310 --> 00:00:14.320 align:start position:0% hit by more than 100 tons of small, 00:00:14.320 --> 00:00:17.670 align:start position:0% hit by more than 100 tons of small, sand-sized<00:00:15.120> particles<00:00:15.800> every<00:00:16.160> day,<00:00:17.200> and<00:00:17.400> they 00:00:17.670 --> 00:00:17.680 align:start position:0% sand-sized particles every day, and they 00:00:17.680 --> 00:00:20.630 align:start position:0% sand-sized particles every day, and they are<00:00:18.040> essentially<00:00:18.880> unnoticeable. 00:00:20.630 --> 00:00:20.640 align:start position:0% are essentially unnoticeable. 00:00:20.640 --> 00:00:22.950 align:start position:0% are essentially unnoticeable. About<00:00:20.920> once<00:00:21.200> a<00:00:21.240> year,<00:00:21.560> a<00:00:21.680> car-sized<00:00:22.520> meteor 00:00:22.950 --> 00:00:22.960 align:start position:0% About once a year, a car-sized meteor 00:00:22.960 --> 00:00:25.510 align:start position:0% About once a year, a car-sized meteor comes<00:00:23.280> crashing<00:00:23.960> through<00:00:24.280> our<00:00:24.480> atmosphere, 00:00:25.510 --> 00:00:25.520 align:start position:0% comes crashing through our atmosphere, 00:00:25.520 --> 00:00:27.710 align:start position:0% comes crashing through our atmosphere, but<00:00:25.640> the<00:00:25.720> resultant<00:00:26.480> impressive<00:00:27.320> fiery 00:00:27.710 --> 00:00:27.720 align:start position:0% but the resultant impressive fiery 00:00:27.720 --> 00:00:30.390 align:start position:0% but the resultant impressive fiery streak<00:00:28.480> burns<00:00:28.840> up<00:00:29.240> long<00:00:29.600> before<00:00:30.040> hitting<00:00:30.320> the 00:00:30.390 --> 00:00:30.400 align:start position:0% streak burns up long before hitting the 00:00:30.400 --> 00:00:32.109 align:start position:0% streak burns up long before hitting the ground. 00:00:32.109 --> 00:00:32.119 align:start position:0% ground. 00:00:32.119 --> 00:00:34.550 align:start position:0% ground. It's<00:00:32.439> only<00:00:32.759> on<00:00:32.920> the<00:00:33.000> scale<00:00:33.440> of<00:00:33.720> millions<00:00:34.400> of 00:00:34.550 --> 00:00:34.560 align:start position:0% It's only on the scale of millions of 00:00:34.560 --> 00:00:36.950 align:start position:0% It's only on the scale of millions of years<00:00:35.320> that<00:00:35.480> we<00:00:35.640> are<00:00:35.800> in<00:00:35.920> danger<00:00:36.360> of<00:00:36.480> being<00:00:36.720> hit 00:00:36.950 --> 00:00:36.960 align:start position:0% years that we are in danger of being hit 00:00:36.960 --> 00:00:39.870 align:start position:0% years that we are in danger of being hit by<00:00:37.120> meteors<00:00:37.880> a<00:00:37.960> kilometer<00:00:38.480> or<00:00:38.600> two<00:00:38.840> wide,<00:00:39.680> big 00:00:39.870 --> 00:00:39.880 align:start position:0% by meteors a kilometer or two wide, big 00:00:39.880 --> 00:00:42.390 align:start position:0% by meteors a kilometer or two wide, big enough<00:00:40.280> to<00:00:40.400> do<00:00:40.600> some<00:00:40.760> serious<00:00:41.160> damage. 00:00:42.390 --> 00:00:42.400 align:start position:0% enough to do some serious damage. 00:00:42.400 --> 00:00:43.990 align:start position:0% enough to do some serious damage. But,<00:00:42.520> we've<00:00:42.680> not<00:00:42.920> seen<00:00:43.160> one<00:00:43.320> of<00:00:43.400> those<00:00:43.680> since 00:00:43.990 --> 00:00:44.000 align:start position:0% But, we've not seen one of those since 00:00:44.000 --> 00:00:47.030 align:start position:0% But, we've not seen one of those since the<00:00:44.120> dinosaurs,<00:00:45.320> lucky<00:00:45.640> for<00:00:45.840> us. 00:00:47.030 --> 00:00:47.040 align:start position:0% the dinosaurs, lucky for us. 00:00:47.040 --> 00:00:49.750 align:start position:0% the dinosaurs, lucky for us. But,<00:00:47.320> size<00:00:47.760> isn't<00:00:48.000> everything.<00:00:49.040> In<00:00:49.200> fact,<00:00:49.600> the 00:00:49.750 --> 00:00:49.760 align:start position:0% But, size isn't everything. In fact, the 00:00:49.760 --> 00:00:52.470 align:start position:0% But, size isn't everything. In fact, the biggest<00:00:50.400> impacts<00:00:50.920> may<00:00:51.120> not<00:00:51.560> even<00:00:51.800> be<00:00:52.120> from<00:00:52.320> the 00:00:52.470 --> 00:00:52.480 align:start position:0% biggest impacts may not even be from the 00:00:52.480 --> 00:00:54.350 align:start position:0% biggest impacts may not even be from the largest<00:00:53.080> objects. 00:00:54.350 --> 00:00:54.360 align:start position:0% largest objects. 00:00:54.360 --> 00:00:57.030 align:start position:0% largest objects. If<00:00:54.560> one<00:00:55.120> particularly<00:00:56.120> interesting<00:00:56.680> theory 00:00:57.030 --> 00:00:57.040 align:start position:0% If one particularly interesting theory 00:00:57.040 --> 00:01:01.310 align:start position:0% If one particularly interesting theory is<00:00:57.200> true,<00:00:58.120> some<00:00:58.600> very<00:00:59.160> rare<00:00:59.680> meteors<00:01:00.600> may<00:01:01.120> be 00:01:01.310 --> 00:01:01.320 align:start position:0% is true, some very rare meteors may be 00:01:01.320 --> 00:01:03.590 align:start position:0% is true, some very rare meteors may be made<00:01:01.600> of<00:01:01.680> something<00:01:02.400> a<00:01:02.480> little<00:01:02.760> more<00:01:02.920> exotic 00:01:03.590 --> 00:01:03.600 align:start position:0% made of something a little more exotic 00:01:03.600 --> 00:01:05.270 align:start position:0% made of something a little more exotic than<00:01:03.880> rock. 00:01:05.270 --> 00:01:05.280 align:start position:0% than rock. 00:01:05.280 --> 00:01:07.470 align:start position:0% than rock. Externally,<00:01:06.440> there<00:01:06.560> would<00:01:06.680> be<00:01:06.920> not<00:01:07.160> much<00:01:07.360> to 00:01:07.470 --> 00:01:07.480 align:start position:0% Externally, there would be not much to 00:01:07.480 --> 00:01:10.470 align:start position:0% Externally, there would be not much to differentiate<00:01:08.280> these<00:01:08.720> rarer<00:01:09.240> meteors.<00:01:10.360> In 00:01:10.470 --> 00:01:10.480 align:start position:0% differentiate these rarer meteors. In 00:01:10.480 --> 00:01:12.190 align:start position:0% differentiate these rarer meteors. In the<00:01:10.560> vacuum<00:01:10.920> of<00:01:11.040> space,<00:01:11.480> they<00:01:11.640> would<00:01:11.800> appear 00:01:12.190 --> 00:01:12.200 align:start position:0% the vacuum of space, they would appear 00:01:12.200 --> 00:01:14.430 align:start position:0% the vacuum of space, they would appear exactly<00:01:12.760> the<00:01:12.840> same<00:01:13.200> as<00:01:13.560> any<00:01:13.840> other<00:01:14.080> space 00:01:14.430 --> 00:01:14.440 align:start position:0% exactly the same as any other space 00:01:14.440 --> 00:01:15.390 align:start position:0% exactly the same as any other space rock. 00:01:15.390 --> 00:01:15.400 align:start position:0% rock. 00:01:15.400 --> 00:01:17.870 align:start position:0% rock. But,<00:01:15.600> while<00:01:15.960> regular<00:01:16.440> meteors<00:01:17.280> might<00:01:17.520> create 00:01:17.870 --> 00:01:17.880 align:start position:0% But, while regular meteors might create 00:01:17.880 --> 00:01:20.150 align:start position:0% But, while regular meteors might create a<00:01:18.000> fiery<00:01:18.480> streak<00:01:18.800> in<00:01:18.880> the<00:01:18.960> sky,<00:01:19.880> these 00:01:20.150 --> 00:01:20.160 align:start position:0% a fiery streak in the sky, these 00:01:20.160 --> 00:01:22.870 align:start position:0% a fiery streak in the sky, these outliers<00:01:20.880> would<00:01:21.080> have<00:01:21.360> impacts<00:01:21.960> that<00:01:22.120> exceed 00:01:22.870 --> 00:01:22.880 align:start position:0% outliers would have impacts that exceed 00:01:22.880 --> 00:01:26.030 align:start position:0% outliers would have impacts that exceed the<00:01:23.160> largest<00:01:23.920> of<00:01:24.160> nuclear<00:01:24.720> bombs. 00:01:26.030 --> 00:01:26.040 align:start position:0% the largest of nuclear bombs. 00:01:26.040 --> 00:01:28.670 align:start position:0% the largest of nuclear bombs. And<00:01:26.480> those<00:01:26.880> are<00:01:26.960> just<00:01:27.240> the<00:01:27.320> small<00:01:27.680> ones. 00:01:28.670 --> 00:01:28.680 align:start position:0% And those are just the small ones. 00:01:28.680 --> 00:01:31.310 align:start position:0% And those are just the small ones. If<00:01:28.880> a<00:01:28.960> kilometer-sized<00:01:30.160> meteor<00:01:30.800> of<00:01:31.040> this 00:01:31.310 --> 00:01:31.320 align:start position:0% If a kilometer-sized meteor of this 00:01:31.320 --> 00:01:34.230 align:start position:0% If a kilometer-sized meteor of this variety<00:01:32.080> hit<00:01:32.360> the<00:01:32.600> Earth,<00:01:33.280> similar<00:01:33.680> in<00:01:33.840> size 00:01:34.230 --> 00:01:34.240 align:start position:0% variety hit the Earth, similar in size 00:01:34.240 --> 00:01:35.990 align:start position:0% variety hit the Earth, similar in size to<00:01:34.320> the<00:01:34.440> normal<00:01:34.880> meteor<00:01:35.360> that<00:01:35.640> killed<00:01:35.920> the 00:01:35.990 --> 00:01:36.000 align:start position:0% to the normal meteor that killed the 00:01:36.000 --> 00:01:39.030 align:start position:0% to the normal meteor that killed the dinosaurs,<00:01:37.160> we<00:01:37.360> might<00:01:37.840> not<00:01:38.080> have<00:01:38.520> a<00:01:38.600> planet 00:01:39.030 --> 00:01:39.040 align:start position:0% dinosaurs, we might not have a planet 00:01:39.040 --> 00:01:40.470 align:start position:0% dinosaurs, we might not have a planet anymore. 00:01:40.470 --> 00:01:40.480 align:start position:0% anymore. 00:01:40.480 --> 00:01:44.430 align:start position:0% anymore. That<00:01:40.800> is<00:01:41.040> the<00:01:41.160> power<00:01:41.960> of<00:01:42.080> a<00:01:42.160> meteor<00:01:42.880> made<00:01:43.480> of 00:01:44.430 --> 00:01:44.440 align:start position:0% That is the power of a meteor made of 00:01:44.440 --> 00:01:46.710 align:start position:0% That is the power of a meteor made of antimatter. 00:01:46.710 --> 00:01:46.720 align:start position:0% antimatter. 00:01:46.720 --> 00:01:49.670 align:start position:0% antimatter. Could<00:01:46.960> antimatter<00:01:47.520> meteors<00:01:48.280> really<00:01:48.640> exist? 00:01:49.670 --> 00:01:49.680 align:start position:0% Could antimatter meteors really exist? 00:01:49.680 --> 00:01:51.550 align:start position:0% Could antimatter meteors really exist? What<00:01:49.920> clues<00:01:50.200> would<00:01:50.360> help<00:01:50.560> us<00:01:50.680> identify<00:01:51.280> them 00:01:51.550 --> 00:01:51.560 align:start position:0% What clues would help us identify them 00:01:51.560 --> 00:01:54.830 align:start position:0% What clues would help us identify them from<00:01:52.000> regular<00:01:52.640> matter<00:01:53.040> meteors?<00:01:54.200> And<00:01:54.360> how<00:01:54.600> big 00:01:54.830 --> 00:01:54.840 align:start position:0% from regular matter meteors? And how big 00:01:54.840 --> 00:01:57.470 align:start position:0% from regular matter meteors? And how big would<00:01:55.000> they<00:01:55.120> have<00:01:55.440> to<00:01:55.520> be<00:01:56.160> to<00:01:56.280> become<00:01:56.920> a<00:01:57.040> major 00:01:57.470 --> 00:01:57.480 align:start position:0% would they have to be to become a major 00:01:57.480 --> 00:01:59.430 align:start position:0% would they have to be to become a major problem. 00:01:59.430 --> 00:01:59.440 align:start position:0% problem. 00:01:59.440 --> 00:02:01.230 align:start position:0% problem. I'm<00:01:59.600> Alex<00:01:59.880> McCollum<00:02:00.680> and<00:02:00.800> you're<00:02:00.920> watching 00:02:01.230 --> 00:02:01.240 align:start position:0% I'm Alex McCollum and you're watching 00:02:01.240 --> 00:02:04.070 align:start position:0% I'm Alex McCollum and you're watching Astro.<00:02:02.120> Join<00:02:02.320> me<00:02:02.440> today<00:02:03.080> as<00:02:03.240> we<00:02:03.360> test<00:02:04.000> the 00:02:04.070 --> 00:02:04.080 align:start position:0% Astro. Join me today as we test the 00:02:04.080 --> 00:02:06.670 align:start position:0% Astro. Join me today as we test the scientific<00:02:04.720> theory<00:02:05.200> behind<00:02:05.960> antimatter 00:02:06.670 --> 00:02:06.680 align:start position:0% scientific theory behind antimatter 00:02:06.680 --> 00:02:09.669 align:start position:0% scientific theory behind antimatter meteors<00:02:07.680> and<00:02:07.800> explore<00:02:08.200> the<00:02:08.399> odds<00:02:08.840> of<00:02:09.360> such 00:02:09.669 --> 00:02:09.679 align:start position:0% meteors and explore the odds of such 00:02:09.679 --> 00:02:13.590 align:start position:0% meteors and explore the odds of such objects<00:02:10.360> lurking<00:02:11.120> in<00:02:11.360> our<00:02:11.560> solar<00:02:11.880> system. 00:02:13.590 --> 00:02:13.600 align:start position:0% objects lurking in our solar system. 00:02:13.600 --> 00:02:16.590 align:start position:0% objects lurking in our solar system. Antimatter<00:02:14.400> is<00:02:14.800> a<00:02:14.959> funny<00:02:15.480> substance.<00:02:16.480> The 00:02:16.590 --> 00:02:16.600 align:start position:0% Antimatter is a funny substance. The 00:02:16.600 --> 00:02:19.110 align:start position:0% Antimatter is a funny substance. The fact<00:02:16.920> that<00:02:17.080> it<00:02:17.200> exists<00:02:17.880> means<00:02:18.280> that<00:02:18.520> we 00:02:19.110 --> 00:02:19.120 align:start position:0% fact that it exists means that we 00:02:19.120 --> 00:02:21.150 align:start position:0% fact that it exists means that we shouldn't<00:02:19.440> be<00:02:19.680> here.<00:02:20.320> It<00:02:20.480> is<00:02:20.840> almost 00:02:21.150 --> 00:02:21.160 align:start position:0% shouldn't be here. It is almost 00:02:21.160 --> 00:02:23.550 align:start position:0% shouldn't be here. It is almost identical<00:02:21.680> to<00:02:21.840> regular<00:02:22.200> matter<00:02:22.920> with<00:02:23.040> a<00:02:23.120> few 00:02:23.550 --> 00:02:23.560 align:start position:0% identical to regular matter with a few 00:02:23.560 --> 00:02:25.150 align:start position:0% identical to regular matter with a few key<00:02:23.840> differences. 00:02:25.150 --> 00:02:25.160 align:start position:0% key differences. 00:02:25.160 --> 00:02:28.750 align:start position:0% key differences. One<00:02:25.640> is<00:02:25.800> that<00:02:26.040> it<00:02:26.240> has<00:02:26.680> an<00:02:26.800> inverted<00:02:27.520> charge. 00:02:28.750 --> 00:02:28.760 align:start position:0% One is that it has an inverted charge. 00:02:28.760 --> 00:02:31.510 align:start position:0% One is that it has an inverted charge. Another<00:02:29.480> is<00:02:29.640> that<00:02:29.959> when<00:02:30.240> antimatter<00:02:30.840> meets 00:02:31.510 --> 00:02:31.520 align:start position:0% Another is that when antimatter meets 00:02:31.520 --> 00:02:34.430 align:start position:0% Another is that when antimatter meets regular<00:02:32.120> matter,<00:02:33.000> the<00:02:33.120> two<00:02:33.560> annihilate<00:02:34.240> each 00:02:34.430 --> 00:02:34.440 align:start position:0% regular matter, the two annihilate each 00:02:34.440 --> 00:02:36.830 align:start position:0% regular matter, the two annihilate each other<00:02:34.600> completely<00:02:35.720> converting<00:02:36.360> almost 00:02:36.830 --> 00:02:36.840 align:start position:0% other completely converting almost 00:02:36.840 --> 00:02:40.230 align:start position:0% other completely converting almost entirely<00:02:37.840> into<00:02:38.120> energy. 00:02:40.230 --> 00:02:40.240 align:start position:0% entirely into energy. 00:02:40.240 --> 00:02:42.270 align:start position:0% entirely into energy. Now,<00:02:40.600> in<00:02:40.840> the<00:02:41.000> early<00:02:41.200> universe,<00:02:41.840> it<00:02:42.000> wasn't 00:02:42.270 --> 00:02:42.280 align:start position:0% Now, in the early universe, it wasn't 00:02:42.280 --> 00:02:45.150 align:start position:0% Now, in the early universe, it wasn't just<00:02:42.760> matter<00:02:43.240> that<00:02:43.400> was<00:02:43.560> created.<00:02:44.480> In<00:02:44.640> theory, 00:02:45.150 --> 00:02:45.160 align:start position:0% just matter that was created. In theory, 00:02:45.160 --> 00:02:47.016 align:start position:0% just matter that was created. In theory, an<00:02:45.480> equal<00:02:45.920> amount<00:02:46.320> of<00:02:46.520> antimatter<00:02:47.000> came 00:02:47.016 --> 00:02:47.026 align:start position:0% an equal amount of antimatter came 00:02:47.026 --> 00:02:49.310 align:start position:0% an equal amount of antimatter came [music]<00:02:47.280> into<00:02:47.480> being,<00:02:47.800> too. 00:02:49.310 --> 00:02:49.320 align:start position:0% [music] into being, too. 00:02:49.320 --> 00:02:51.550 align:start position:0% [music] into being, too. All<00:02:49.600> the<00:02:49.760> matter<00:02:50.320> should<00:02:50.600> have<00:02:50.959> bumped<00:02:51.320> into 00:02:51.550 --> 00:02:51.560 align:start position:0% All the matter should have bumped into 00:02:51.560 --> 00:02:54.310 align:start position:0% All the matter should have bumped into the<00:02:51.720> antimatter<00:02:52.800> and<00:02:53.200> everything<00:02:53.840> would<00:02:54.080> have 00:02:54.310 --> 00:02:54.320 align:start position:0% the antimatter and everything would have 00:02:54.320 --> 00:02:56.750 align:start position:0% the antimatter and everything would have canceled<00:02:54.920> each<00:02:55.120> other<00:02:55.400> out.<00:02:56.240> This<00:02:56.440> would<00:02:56.600> have 00:02:56.750 --> 00:02:56.760 align:start position:0% canceled each other out. This would have 00:02:56.760 --> 00:02:59.310 align:start position:0% canceled each other out. This would have left<00:02:57.160> no<00:02:57.400> universe<00:02:57.880> for<00:02:58.080> us<00:02:58.640> as<00:02:58.920> there<00:02:59.120> would 00:02:59.310 --> 00:02:59.320 align:start position:0% left no universe for us as there would 00:02:59.320 --> 00:03:02.550 align:start position:0% left no universe for us as there would be<00:02:59.600> nothing<00:03:00.080> to<00:03:00.200> make<00:03:00.400> the<00:03:00.480> universe<00:03:01.040> out<00:03:01.360> of. 00:03:02.550 --> 00:03:02.560 align:start position:0% be nothing to make the universe out of. 00:03:02.560 --> 00:03:04.270 align:start position:0% be nothing to make the universe out of. It<00:03:02.680> is<00:03:02.959> one<00:03:03.160> of<00:03:03.239> the<00:03:03.320> mysteries<00:03:03.760> of<00:03:03.880> science 00:03:04.270 --> 00:03:04.280 align:start position:0% It is one of the mysteries of science 00:03:04.280 --> 00:03:06.670 align:start position:0% It is one of the mysteries of science that<00:03:04.400> this<00:03:04.600> did<00:03:04.880> not<00:03:05.200> happen<00:03:06.160> and<00:03:06.320> for<00:03:06.440> some 00:03:06.670 --> 00:03:06.680 align:start position:0% that this did not happen and for some 00:03:06.680 --> 00:03:08.830 align:start position:0% that this did not happen and for some reason,<00:03:07.120> a<00:03:07.200> slightly<00:03:07.880> larger<00:03:08.360> amount<00:03:08.720> of 00:03:08.830 --> 00:03:08.840 align:start position:0% reason, a slightly larger amount of 00:03:08.840 --> 00:03:10.949 align:start position:0% reason, a slightly larger amount of matter<00:03:09.360> coalesced<00:03:09.840> into<00:03:10.040> existence<00:03:10.640> than 00:03:10.949 --> 00:03:10.959 align:start position:0% matter coalesced into existence than 00:03:10.959 --> 00:03:13.710 align:start position:0% matter coalesced into existence than antimatter.<00:03:12.080> Perhaps<00:03:12.600> as<00:03:13.000> small<00:03:13.680> a 00:03:13.710 --> 00:03:13.720 align:start position:0% antimatter. Perhaps as small a 00:03:13.720 --> 00:03:16.509 align:start position:0% antimatter. Perhaps as small a discrepancy<00:03:14.600> as<00:03:15.080> a<00:03:15.160> billion<00:03:15.600> and<00:03:15.920> one<00:03:16.239> matter 00:03:16.509 --> 00:03:16.519 align:start position:0% discrepancy as a billion and one matter 00:03:16.519 --> 00:03:19.509 align:start position:0% discrepancy as a billion and one matter particles<00:03:17.440> to<00:03:17.560> every<00:03:18.120> billion<00:03:18.959> antimatter 00:03:19.509 --> 00:03:19.519 align:start position:0% particles to every billion antimatter 00:03:19.519 --> 00:03:20.949 align:start position:0% particles to every billion antimatter ones. 00:03:20.949 --> 00:03:20.959 align:start position:0% ones. 00:03:20.959 --> 00:03:22.470 align:start position:0% ones. Scientists<00:03:21.440> are<00:03:21.519> still<00:03:21.840> trying<00:03:22.080> to<00:03:22.160> figure 00:03:22.470 --> 00:03:22.480 align:start position:0% Scientists are still trying to figure 00:03:22.480 --> 00:03:24.550 align:start position:0% Scientists are still trying to figure out<00:03:22.720> why<00:03:23.040> this<00:03:23.280> might<00:03:23.480> have<00:03:23.600> occurred,<00:03:24.400> but 00:03:24.550 --> 00:03:24.560 align:start position:0% out why this might have occurred, but 00:03:24.560 --> 00:03:26.972 align:start position:0% out why this might have occurred, but the<00:03:24.640> mystery<00:03:25.160> remains<00:03:25.720> unsolved<00:03:26.239> for<00:03:26.320> now. 00:03:26.972 --> 00:03:26.982 align:start position:0% the mystery remains unsolved for now. 00:03:26.982 --> 00:03:27.030 align:start position:0% the mystery remains unsolved for now. >> [music] 00:03:27.030 --> 00:03:27.040 align:start position:0% >> [music] 00:03:27.040 --> 00:03:29.030 align:start position:0% >> [music] >> Perhaps<00:03:27.519> there<00:03:27.760> is<00:03:27.920> some<00:03:28.160> rule<00:03:28.360> at<00:03:28.440> play<00:03:28.800> that 00:03:29.030 --> 00:03:29.040 align:start position:0% >> Perhaps there is some rule at play that 00:03:29.040 --> 00:03:31.670 align:start position:0% >> Perhaps there is some rule at play that we've<00:03:29.360> not<00:03:29.680> yet<00:03:29.920> identified. 00:03:31.670 --> 00:03:31.680 align:start position:0% we've not yet identified. 00:03:31.680 --> 00:03:33.830 align:start position:0% we've not yet identified. Whatever<00:03:32.000> caused<00:03:32.440> it,<00:03:33.040> this<00:03:33.239> imbalance<00:03:33.720> is 00:03:33.830 --> 00:03:33.840 align:start position:0% Whatever caused it, this imbalance is 00:03:33.840 --> 00:03:35.830 align:start position:0% Whatever caused it, this imbalance is the<00:03:33.959> reason<00:03:34.400> the<00:03:34.480> universe<00:03:34.959> we<00:03:35.080> see<00:03:35.239> around<00:03:35.640> us 00:03:35.830 --> 00:03:35.840 align:start position:0% the reason the universe we see around us 00:03:35.840 --> 00:03:38.190 align:start position:0% the reason the universe we see around us is<00:03:36.080> almost<00:03:36.480> entirely<00:03:37.120> made<00:03:37.560> of<00:03:37.800> regular 00:03:38.190 --> 00:03:38.200 align:start position:0% is almost entirely made of regular 00:03:38.200 --> 00:03:41.030 align:start position:0% is almost entirely made of regular matter<00:03:39.120> and<00:03:39.239> the<00:03:39.480> only<00:03:39.760> place<00:03:40.239> we<00:03:40.440> reliably 00:03:41.030 --> 00:03:41.040 align:start position:0% matter and the only place we reliably 00:03:41.040 --> 00:03:43.670 align:start position:0% matter and the only place we reliably see<00:03:41.400> antimatter<00:03:42.400> is<00:03:42.560> when<00:03:42.760> they<00:03:42.880> make<00:03:43.160> tiny 00:03:43.670 --> 00:03:43.680 align:start position:0% see antimatter is when they make tiny 00:03:43.680 --> 00:03:46.150 align:start position:0% see antimatter is when they make tiny amounts<00:03:44.080> of<00:03:44.160> it<00:03:44.360> in<00:03:44.480> experiments<00:03:45.160> at<00:03:45.280> CERN<00:03:46.000> and 00:03:46.150 --> 00:03:46.160 align:start position:0% amounts of it in experiments at CERN and 00:03:46.160 --> 00:03:48.390 align:start position:0% amounts of it in experiments at CERN and in<00:03:46.320> other<00:03:46.519> particle<00:03:47.000> accelerators. 00:03:48.390 --> 00:03:48.400 align:start position:0% in other particle accelerators. 00:03:48.400 --> 00:03:50.750 align:start position:0% in other particle accelerators. Some<00:03:48.560> hospitals<00:03:49.360> even<00:03:49.640> have<00:03:49.920> small<00:03:50.320> particle 00:03:50.750 --> 00:03:50.760 align:start position:0% Some hospitals even have small particle 00:03:50.760 --> 00:03:54.550 align:start position:0% Some hospitals even have small particle accelerators<00:03:51.840> to<00:03:52.040> create<00:03:52.480> positrons<00:03:53.320> for<00:03:53.840> PET 00:03:54.550 --> 00:03:54.560 align:start position:0% accelerators to create positrons for PET 00:03:54.560 --> 00:03:59.030 align:start position:0% accelerators to create positrons for PET or<00:03:55.080> positron<00:03:55.920> emission<00:03:56.560> tomography<00:03:57.160> scans. 00:03:59.030 --> 00:03:59.040 align:start position:0% or positron emission tomography scans. 00:03:59.040 --> 00:04:01.590 align:start position:0% or positron emission tomography scans. However,<00:03:59.760> just<00:04:00.000> because<00:04:00.360> we<00:04:00.480> don't<00:04:00.760> see<00:04:00.960> it, 00:04:01.590 --> 00:04:01.600 align:start position:0% However, just because we don't see it, 00:04:01.600 --> 00:04:03.470 align:start position:0% However, just because we don't see it, doesn't<00:04:01.920> mean<00:04:02.160> that<00:04:02.520> tiny<00:04:02.920> pockets<00:04:03.360> of 00:04:03.470 --> 00:04:03.480 align:start position:0% doesn't mean that tiny pockets of 00:04:03.480 --> 00:04:04.307 align:start position:0% doesn't mean that tiny pockets of antimatter 00:04:04.307 --> 00:04:04.310 align:start position:0% antimatter 00:04:04.310 --> 00:04:04.317 align:start position:0% 00:04:04.317 --> 00:04:04.320 align:start position:0% >> [music] 00:04:04.320 --> 00:04:06.310 align:start position:0% >> [music] >> couldn't<00:04:04.760> exist. 00:04:06.310 --> 00:04:06.320 align:start position:0% >> couldn't exist. 00:04:06.320 --> 00:04:09.550 align:start position:0% >> couldn't exist. When<00:04:06.480> the<00:04:06.600> raw<00:04:07.200> primordial<00:04:07.920> soup<00:04:08.520> quark-gluon 00:04:09.550 --> 00:04:09.560 align:start position:0% When the raw primordial soup quark-gluon 00:04:09.560 --> 00:04:11.590 align:start position:0% When the raw primordial soup quark-gluon plasma<00:04:10.080> of<00:04:10.200> the<00:04:10.280> Big<00:04:10.480> Bang<00:04:10.800> began<00:04:11.040> to<00:04:11.200> form 00:04:11.590 --> 00:04:11.600 align:start position:0% plasma of the Big Bang began to form 00:04:11.600 --> 00:04:14.510 align:start position:0% plasma of the Big Bang began to form into<00:04:11.800> particles,<00:04:12.920> while<00:04:13.600> overall<00:04:14.080> there 00:04:14.510 --> 00:04:14.520 align:start position:0% into particles, while overall there 00:04:14.520 --> 00:04:15.949 align:start position:0% into particles, while overall there would<00:04:14.640> have<00:04:14.760> been<00:04:15.080> more<00:04:15.400> matter<00:04:15.720> than 00:04:15.949 --> 00:04:15.959 align:start position:0% would have been more matter than 00:04:15.959 --> 00:04:18.590 align:start position:0% would have been more matter than antimatter,<00:04:17.040> in<00:04:17.200> local<00:04:17.600> areas<00:04:18.079> there<00:04:18.320> were 00:04:18.590 --> 00:04:18.600 align:start position:0% antimatter, in local areas there were 00:04:18.600 --> 00:04:20.150 align:start position:0% antimatter, in local areas there were fluctuations.<00:04:18.727> [music] 00:04:20.150 --> 00:04:20.160 align:start position:0% fluctuations. [music] 00:04:20.160 --> 00:04:22.550 align:start position:0% fluctuations. [music] So,<00:04:20.359> it's<00:04:20.640> logical<00:04:21.160> that<00:04:21.359> clumps<00:04:21.720> of<00:04:22.240> matter 00:04:22.550 --> 00:04:22.560 align:start position:0% So, it's logical that clumps of matter 00:04:22.560 --> 00:04:25.310 align:start position:0% So, it's logical that clumps of matter could<00:04:22.960> have<00:04:23.120> emerged<00:04:23.720> and<00:04:24.080> dominated<00:04:25.120> as 00:04:25.310 --> 00:04:25.320 align:start position:0% could have emerged and dominated as 00:04:25.320 --> 00:04:27.470 align:start position:0% could have emerged and dominated as gravity<00:04:25.840> pulled<00:04:26.120> them<00:04:26.240> together. 00:04:27.470 --> 00:04:27.480 align:start position:0% gravity pulled them together. 00:04:27.480 --> 00:04:29.350 align:start position:0% gravity pulled them together. After<00:04:27.800> all,<00:04:28.280> if<00:04:28.400> you<00:04:28.520> flip<00:04:28.760> a<00:04:28.800> coin<00:04:29.120> enough 00:04:29.350 --> 00:04:29.360 align:start position:0% After all, if you flip a coin enough 00:04:29.360 --> 00:04:31.590 align:start position:0% After all, if you flip a coin enough times,<00:04:30.200> you'll<00:04:30.400> inevitably<00:04:31.000> end<00:04:31.240> up<00:04:31.360> with 00:04:31.590 --> 00:04:31.600 align:start position:0% times, you'll inevitably end up with 00:04:31.600 --> 00:04:34.190 align:start position:0% times, you'll inevitably end up with runs<00:04:32.040> where<00:04:32.280> you<00:04:32.440> flip<00:04:32.800> nothing<00:04:33.080> but<00:04:33.280> heads<00:04:33.840> or 00:04:34.190 --> 00:04:34.200 align:start position:0% runs where you flip nothing but heads or 00:04:34.200 --> 00:04:36.070 align:start position:0% runs where you flip nothing but heads or nothing<00:04:34.480> but<00:04:34.680> tails. 00:04:36.070 --> 00:04:36.080 align:start position:0% nothing but tails. 00:04:36.080 --> 00:04:37.950 align:start position:0% nothing but tails. If<00:04:36.280> these<00:04:36.520> clumps<00:04:36.919> were<00:04:37.160> large<00:04:37.560> enough<00:04:37.840> in 00:04:37.950 --> 00:04:37.960 align:start position:0% If these clumps were large enough in 00:04:37.960 --> 00:04:40.430 align:start position:0% If these clumps were large enough in scale,<00:04:38.760> they<00:04:39.040> wouldn't<00:04:39.440> annihilate<00:04:39.880> away<00:04:40.240> in 00:04:40.430 --> 00:04:40.440 align:start position:0% scale, they wouldn't annihilate away in 00:04:40.440 --> 00:04:43.390 align:start position:0% scale, they wouldn't annihilate away in a<00:04:40.520> burgeoning<00:04:41.040> solar<00:04:41.320> system.<00:04:42.240> Instead,<00:04:43.120> they 00:04:43.390 --> 00:04:43.400 align:start position:0% a burgeoning solar system. Instead, they 00:04:43.400 --> 00:04:46.110 align:start position:0% a burgeoning solar system. Instead, they would<00:04:43.880> be<00:04:44.480> the<00:04:44.600> solar<00:04:44.919> system,<00:04:45.760> and<00:04:45.919> it<00:04:46.000> would 00:04:46.110 --> 00:04:46.120 align:start position:0% would be the solar system, and it would 00:04:46.120 --> 00:04:48.350 align:start position:0% would be the solar system, and it would be<00:04:46.560> pockets<00:04:47.000> of<00:04:47.240> matter<00:04:48.080> that<00:04:48.240> would 00:04:48.350 --> 00:04:48.360 align:start position:0% be pockets of matter that would 00:04:48.360 --> 00:04:50.510 align:start position:0% be pockets of matter that would eventually<00:04:48.960> annihilate<00:04:49.560> out,<00:04:50.200> leaving 00:04:50.510 --> 00:04:50.520 align:start position:0% eventually annihilate out, leaving 00:04:50.520 --> 00:04:53.670 align:start position:0% eventually annihilate out, leaving behind<00:04:50.919> stars<00:04:51.680> and<00:04:52.040> protoplanetary<00:04:52.800> disks 00:04:53.670 --> 00:04:53.680 align:start position:0% behind stars and protoplanetary disks 00:04:53.680 --> 00:04:57.230 align:start position:0% behind stars and protoplanetary disks made<00:04:54.040> entirely<00:04:54.919> of<00:04:55.440> antimatter. 00:04:57.230 --> 00:04:57.240 align:start position:0% made entirely of antimatter. 00:04:57.240 --> 00:05:00.110 align:start position:0% made entirely of antimatter. This<00:04:57.400> seems<00:04:57.919> highly<00:04:58.280> theoretical,<00:04:59.400> but<00:04:59.720> could 00:05:00.110 --> 00:05:00.120 align:start position:0% This seems highly theoretical, but could 00:05:00.120 --> 00:05:01.830 align:start position:0% This seems highly theoretical, but could such<00:05:00.480> solar<00:05:00.800> systems<00:05:01.303> [music]<00:05:01.360> actually 00:05:01.830 --> 00:05:01.840 align:start position:0% such solar systems [music] actually 00:05:01.840 --> 00:05:04.190 align:start position:0% such solar systems [music] actually exist? 00:05:04.190 --> 00:05:04.200 align:start position:0% exist? 00:05:04.200 --> 00:05:06.790 align:start position:0% exist? For<00:05:04.240> the<00:05:04.360> most<00:05:04.600> part,<00:05:05.320> an<00:05:05.440> antistar<00:05:06.080> would<00:05:06.280> be 00:05:06.790 --> 00:05:06.800 align:start position:0% For the most part, an antistar would be 00:05:06.800 --> 00:05:09.750 align:start position:0% For the most part, an antistar would be visually<00:05:07.400> identical<00:05:08.080> to<00:05:08.240> a<00:05:08.320> regular<00:05:08.800> one<00:05:09.520> as 00:05:09.750 --> 00:05:09.760 align:start position:0% visually identical to a regular one as 00:05:09.760 --> 00:05:11.630 align:start position:0% visually identical to a regular one as antimatter<00:05:10.240> behaves<00:05:10.720> in<00:05:10.960> all<00:05:11.160> the<00:05:11.240> ways<00:05:11.520> you 00:05:11.630 --> 00:05:11.640 align:start position:0% antimatter behaves in all the ways you 00:05:11.640 --> 00:05:14.110 align:start position:0% antimatter behaves in all the ways you might<00:05:11.880> expect<00:05:12.400> matter<00:05:12.760> to.<00:05:13.520> It<00:05:13.640> obeys<00:05:14.000> the 00:05:14.110 --> 00:05:14.120 align:start position:0% might expect matter to. It obeys the 00:05:14.120 --> 00:05:16.909 align:start position:0% might expect matter to. It obeys the same<00:05:14.480> laws<00:05:14.800> of<00:05:14.880> gravity<00:05:15.840> and<00:05:16.200> mostly<00:05:16.680> looks 00:05:16.909 --> 00:05:16.919 align:start position:0% same laws of gravity and mostly looks 00:05:16.919 --> 00:05:19.790 align:start position:0% same laws of gravity and mostly looks the<00:05:17.040> same.<00:05:17.840> The<00:05:18.000> only<00:05:18.360> telltale<00:05:18.919> giveaway 00:05:19.790 --> 00:05:19.800 align:start position:0% the same. The only telltale giveaway 00:05:19.800 --> 00:05:22.150 align:start position:0% the same. The only telltale giveaway would<00:05:20.000> be<00:05:20.280> when<00:05:20.640> regular<00:05:21.120> matter<00:05:21.520> interacted 00:05:22.150 --> 00:05:22.160 align:start position:0% would be when regular matter interacted 00:05:22.160 --> 00:05:24.230 align:start position:0% would be when regular matter interacted with<00:05:22.320> it,<00:05:22.840> such<00:05:23.120> as<00:05:23.280> when<00:05:23.680> the<00:05:23.760> interstellar 00:05:24.230 --> 00:05:24.240 align:start position:0% with it, such as when the interstellar 00:05:24.240 --> 00:05:26.630 align:start position:0% with it, such as when the interstellar winds<00:05:24.880> met<00:05:25.120> the<00:05:25.360> edge<00:05:25.720> of<00:05:25.840> the<00:05:26.120> fledgling 00:05:26.630 --> 00:05:26.640 align:start position:0% winds met the edge of the fledgling 00:05:26.640 --> 00:05:29.310 align:start position:0% winds met the edge of the fledgling solar<00:05:26.919> system<00:05:27.720> and<00:05:28.120> resulting<00:05:28.600> annihilations 00:05:29.310 --> 00:05:29.320 align:start position:0% solar system and resulting annihilations 00:05:29.320 --> 00:05:31.750 align:start position:0% solar system and resulting annihilations would<00:05:29.480> emit<00:05:29.960> gamma<00:05:30.240> radiation.<00:05:31.600> And 00:05:31.750 --> 00:05:31.760 align:start position:0% would emit gamma radiation. And 00:05:31.760 --> 00:05:34.630 align:start position:0% would emit gamma radiation. And curiously,<00:05:32.919> there<00:05:33.200> are<00:05:33.400> some<00:05:33.880> systems<00:05:34.480> that 00:05:34.630 --> 00:05:34.640 align:start position:0% curiously, there are some systems that 00:05:34.640 --> 00:05:36.390 align:start position:0% curiously, there are some systems that seem<00:05:34.919> to<00:05:35.040> do<00:05:35.240> this. 00:05:36.390 --> 00:05:36.400 align:start position:0% seem to do this. 00:05:36.400 --> 00:05:38.990 align:start position:0% seem to do this. 14<00:05:37.280> such<00:05:37.640> gamma-ray<00:05:38.320> emitting<00:05:38.720> star 00:05:38.990 --> 00:05:39.000 align:start position:0% 14 such gamma-ray emitting star 00:05:39.000 --> 00:05:41.110 align:start position:0% 14 such gamma-ray emitting star candidates<00:05:39.560> were<00:05:39.680> found<00:05:40.000> in<00:05:40.080> the<00:05:40.200> Milky<00:05:40.480> Way 00:05:41.110 --> 00:05:41.120 align:start position:0% candidates were found in the Milky Way 00:05:41.120 --> 00:05:43.630 align:start position:0% candidates were found in the Milky Way thanks<00:05:41.400> to<00:05:41.520> the<00:05:41.640> Fermi<00:05:42.240> Large<00:05:42.720> Area<00:05:43.040> Telescope 00:05:43.630 --> 00:05:43.640 align:start position:0% thanks to the Fermi Large Area Telescope 00:05:43.640 --> 00:05:45.870 align:start position:0% thanks to the Fermi Large Area Telescope in<00:05:43.800> 2021. 00:05:45.870 --> 00:05:45.880 align:start position:0% in 2021. 00:05:45.880 --> 00:05:48.710 align:start position:0% in 2021. If<00:05:46.240> these<00:05:46.760> are<00:05:47.320> antistars 00:05:48.710 --> 00:05:48.720 align:start position:0% If these are antistars 00:05:48.720 --> 00:05:50.990 align:start position:0% If these are antistars and<00:05:49.000> their<00:05:49.160> profiles<00:05:49.760> do<00:05:50.160> match<00:05:50.680> what<00:05:50.840> we 00:05:50.990 --> 00:05:51.000 align:start position:0% and their profiles do match what we 00:05:51.000 --> 00:05:53.510 align:start position:0% and their profiles do match what we would<00:05:51.160> expect<00:05:51.960> out<00:05:52.120> of<00:05:52.200> anti-stars,<00:05:53.080> so<00:05:53.360> this 00:05:53.510 --> 00:05:53.520 align:start position:0% would expect out of anti-stars, so this 00:05:53.520 --> 00:05:55.590 align:start position:0% would expect out of anti-stars, so this is<00:05:53.640> not<00:05:53.840> ruled<00:05:54.120> out,<00:05:54.880> and<00:05:55.014> [music]<00:05:55.440> they're 00:05:55.590 --> 00:05:55.600 align:start position:0% is not ruled out, and [music] they're 00:05:55.600 --> 00:05:58.230 align:start position:0% is not ruled out, and [music] they're not<00:05:56.120> other<00:05:56.480> objects<00:05:56.880> that<00:05:57.000> emit<00:05:57.360> gamma<00:05:57.720> rays 00:05:58.230 --> 00:05:58.240 align:start position:0% not other objects that emit gamma rays 00:05:58.240 --> 00:06:01.030 align:start position:0% not other objects that emit gamma rays like<00:05:58.520> pulsars<00:05:59.200> or<00:05:59.320> black<00:05:59.680> holes,<00:06:00.680> then 00:06:01.030 --> 00:06:01.040 align:start position:0% like pulsars or black holes, then 00:06:01.040 --> 00:06:03.990 align:start position:0% like pulsars or black holes, then systems<00:06:01.560> made<00:06:01.920> of<00:06:02.040> antimatter<00:06:02.800> with<00:06:03.160> planets 00:06:03.990 --> 00:06:04.000 align:start position:0% systems made of antimatter with planets 00:06:04.000 --> 00:06:07.590 align:start position:0% systems made of antimatter with planets and<00:06:04.240> asteroids<00:06:05.400> do<00:06:05.600> exist.<00:06:06.840> The<00:06:06.920> ratio<00:06:07.400> of 00:06:07.590 --> 00:06:07.600 align:start position:0% and asteroids do exist. The ratio of 00:06:07.600 --> 00:06:11.030 align:start position:0% and asteroids do exist. The ratio of anti-stars<00:06:08.280> to<00:06:08.400> stars<00:06:09.160> would<00:06:09.360> be<00:06:09.640> about<00:06:10.080> 1<00:06:10.880> in 00:06:11.030 --> 00:06:11.040 align:start position:0% anti-stars to stars would be about 1 in 00:06:11.040 --> 00:06:13.270 align:start position:0% anti-stars to stars would be about 1 in 400,000. 00:06:13.270 --> 00:06:13.280 align:start position:0% 400,000. 00:06:13.280 --> 00:06:15.870 align:start position:0% 400,000. So,<00:06:13.520> the<00:06:13.640> stage<00:06:14.080> is<00:06:14.200> set.<00:06:15.160> If<00:06:15.320> anti-star 00:06:15.870 --> 00:06:15.880 align:start position:0% So, the stage is set. If anti-star 00:06:15.880 --> 00:06:18.550 align:start position:0% So, the stage is set. If anti-star systems<00:06:16.320> could<00:06:16.720> exist,<00:06:17.560> it's<00:06:17.760> not<00:06:18.000> illogical 00:06:18.550 --> 00:06:18.560 align:start position:0% systems could exist, it's not illogical 00:06:18.560 --> 00:06:20.909 align:start position:0% systems could exist, it's not illogical to<00:06:18.680> think<00:06:18.960> that<00:06:19.320> antimatter<00:06:19.960> meteors<00:06:20.640> do, 00:06:20.909 --> 00:06:20.919 align:start position:0% to think that antimatter meteors do, 00:06:20.919 --> 00:06:22.150 align:start position:0% to think that antimatter meteors do, too. 00:06:22.150 --> 00:06:22.160 align:start position:0% too. 00:06:22.160 --> 00:06:24.710 align:start position:0% too. And<00:06:22.600> that<00:06:22.840> leads<00:06:23.080> us<00:06:23.280> to<00:06:23.400> the<00:06:23.520> question,<00:06:24.560> what 00:06:24.710 --> 00:06:24.720 align:start position:0% And that leads us to the question, what 00:06:24.720 --> 00:06:29.270 align:start position:0% And that leads us to the question, what are<00:06:24.760> the<00:06:24.880> chances<00:06:25.480> of<00:06:25.640> them<00:06:26.040> coming<00:06:26.440> to<00:06:26.680> Earth? 00:06:29.270 --> 00:06:29.280 align:start position:0% 00:06:29.280 --> 00:06:31.710 align:start position:0% The<00:06:29.400> idea<00:06:29.919> of<00:06:30.240> antimatter<00:06:30.840> meteors<00:06:31.320> striking 00:06:31.710 --> 00:06:31.720 align:start position:0% The idea of antimatter meteors striking 00:06:31.720 --> 00:06:33.750 align:start position:0% The idea of antimatter meteors striking our<00:06:31.840> planet<00:06:32.200> is<00:06:32.480> not<00:06:32.720> a<00:06:32.760> new<00:06:32.960> one. 00:06:33.750 --> 00:06:33.760 align:start position:0% our planet is not a new one. 00:06:33.760 --> 00:06:36.790 align:start position:0% our planet is not a new one. Even<00:06:33.960> back<00:06:34.240> in<00:06:34.360> 1940,<00:06:35.560> only<00:06:35.760> a<00:06:35.840> decade<00:06:36.400> or<00:06:36.480> so 00:06:36.790 --> 00:06:36.800 align:start position:0% Even back in 1940, only a decade or so 00:06:36.800 --> 00:06:38.510 align:start position:0% Even back in 1940, only a decade or so after<00:06:37.080> the<00:06:37.160> discovery<00:06:37.680> of<00:06:37.800> antimatter<00:06:38.320> as<00:06:38.440> a 00:06:38.510 --> 00:06:38.520 align:start position:0% after the discovery of antimatter as a 00:06:38.520 --> 00:06:41.470 align:start position:0% after the discovery of antimatter as a concept,<00:06:39.640> Russian-American<00:06:40.600> physicist 00:06:41.470 --> 00:06:41.480 align:start position:0% concept, Russian-American physicist 00:06:41.480 --> 00:06:44.310 align:start position:0% concept, Russian-American physicist Vladimir<00:06:42.200> Rojansky<00:06:43.120> began<00:06:43.480> to<00:06:43.640> speculate 00:06:44.310 --> 00:06:44.320 align:start position:0% Vladimir Rojansky began to speculate 00:06:44.320 --> 00:06:46.190 align:start position:0% Vladimir Rojansky began to speculate about<00:06:44.600> their<00:06:44.720> existence. 00:06:46.190 --> 00:06:46.200 align:start position:0% about their existence. 00:06:46.200 --> 00:06:48.150 align:start position:0% about their existence. All<00:06:46.560> it<00:06:46.720> would<00:06:46.840> take<00:06:47.360> was<00:06:47.520> for<00:06:47.720> our<00:06:47.919> solar 00:06:48.150 --> 00:06:48.160 align:start position:0% All it would take was for our solar 00:06:48.160 --> 00:06:49.990 align:start position:0% All it would take was for our solar system<00:06:48.560> to<00:06:48.680> have<00:06:48.840> passed<00:06:49.400> one<00:06:49.560> of<00:06:49.680> these 00:06:49.990 --> 00:06:50.000 align:start position:0% system to have passed one of these 00:06:50.000 --> 00:06:51.909 align:start position:0% system to have passed one of these antimatter<00:06:50.640> solar<00:06:50.880> systems<00:06:51.360> at<00:06:51.480> some<00:06:51.680> point 00:06:51.909 --> 00:06:51.919 align:start position:0% antimatter solar systems at some point 00:06:51.919 --> 00:06:54.070 align:start position:0% antimatter solar systems at some point in<00:06:52.000> the<00:06:52.080> past.<00:06:53.160> The<00:06:53.200> sun's<00:06:53.440> gravity<00:06:53.919> would 00:06:54.070 --> 00:06:54.080 align:start position:0% in the past. The sun's gravity would 00:06:54.080 --> 00:06:56.390 align:start position:0% in the past. The sun's gravity would then<00:06:54.520> knock<00:06:54.840> a<00:06:54.919> few<00:06:55.280> outlying<00:06:55.880> antimatter 00:06:56.390 --> 00:06:56.400 align:start position:0% then knock a few outlying antimatter 00:06:56.400 --> 00:06:59.230 align:start position:0% then knock a few outlying antimatter meteors<00:06:57.280> out<00:06:57.520> of<00:06:57.600> their<00:06:57.800> precarious<00:06:58.400> orbits 00:06:59.230 --> 00:06:59.240 align:start position:0% meteors out of their precarious orbits 00:06:59.240 --> 00:07:01.150 align:start position:0% meteors out of their precarious orbits and<00:06:59.480> into<00:06:59.880> ours. 00:07:01.150 --> 00:07:01.160 align:start position:0% and into ours. 00:07:01.160 --> 00:07:03.030 align:start position:0% and into ours. Antimatter<00:07:01.680> meteors<00:07:02.200> may<00:07:02.440> not<00:07:02.800> have<00:07:02.919> been 00:07:03.030 --> 00:07:03.040 align:start position:0% Antimatter meteors may not have been 00:07:03.040 --> 00:07:05.110 align:start position:0% Antimatter meteors may not have been able<00:07:03.200> to<00:07:03.320> form<00:07:03.640> in<00:07:03.760> our<00:07:03.880> solar<00:07:04.200> system,<00:07:04.960> their 00:07:05.110 --> 00:07:05.120 align:start position:0% able to form in our solar system, their 00:07:05.120 --> 00:07:06.830 align:start position:0% able to form in our solar system, their particles<00:07:05.680> would<00:07:05.760> have<00:07:05.880> been<00:07:06.000> annihilated<00:07:06.640> by 00:07:06.830 --> 00:07:06.840 align:start position:0% particles would have been annihilated by 00:07:06.840 --> 00:07:08.670 align:start position:0% particles would have been annihilated by interaction<00:07:07.440> with<00:07:07.600> matter<00:07:07.919> far<00:07:08.240> too<00:07:08.400> early 00:07:08.670 --> 00:07:08.680 align:start position:0% interaction with matter far too early 00:07:08.680 --> 00:07:11.909 align:start position:0% interaction with matter far too early for<00:07:08.800> that.<00:07:09.600> But<00:07:09.919> in<00:07:10.080> space,<00:07:11.080> just<00:07:11.280> an<00:07:11.560> empty 00:07:11.909 --> 00:07:11.919 align:start position:0% for that. But in space, just an empty 00:07:11.919 --> 00:07:14.590 align:start position:0% for that. But in space, just an empty vacuum<00:07:12.560> somewhat<00:07:13.040> devoid<00:07:13.520> of<00:07:13.640> matter,<00:07:14.480> there 00:07:14.590 --> 00:07:14.600 align:start position:0% vacuum somewhat devoid of matter, there 00:07:14.600 --> 00:07:16.909 align:start position:0% vacuum somewhat devoid of matter, there would<00:07:14.760> be<00:07:15.320> nothing<00:07:15.919> for<00:07:16.040> them<00:07:16.280> to<00:07:16.400> annihilate 00:07:16.909 --> 00:07:16.919 align:start position:0% would be nothing for them to annihilate 00:07:16.919 --> 00:07:17.534 align:start position:0% would be nothing for them to annihilate with. 00:07:17.534 --> 00:07:17.544 align:start position:0% with. 00:07:17.544 --> 00:07:17.909 align:start position:0% with. >> [music] 00:07:17.909 --> 00:07:17.919 align:start position:0% >> [music] 00:07:17.919 --> 00:07:20.110 align:start position:0% >> [music] >> So,<00:07:18.360> there's<00:07:18.520> a<00:07:18.600> chance<00:07:19.160> they<00:07:19.360> could<00:07:19.680> be<00:07:19.800> among 00:07:20.110 --> 00:07:20.120 align:start position:0% >> So, there's a chance they could be among 00:07:20.120 --> 00:07:20.950 align:start position:0% >> So, there's a chance they could be among us. 00:07:20.950 --> 00:07:20.960 align:start position:0% us. 00:07:20.960 --> 00:07:24.870 align:start position:0% us. And<00:07:21.080> if<00:07:21.200> they<00:07:21.360> were,<00:07:22.200> would<00:07:22.560> we<00:07:22.800> even<00:07:23.080> notice? 00:07:24.870 --> 00:07:24.880 align:start position:0% And if they were, would we even notice? 00:07:24.880 --> 00:07:27.550 align:start position:0% And if they were, would we even notice? Soon<00:07:25.280> after<00:07:25.600> Rojansky,<00:07:26.520> American<00:07:26.960> astronomer 00:07:27.550 --> 00:07:27.560 align:start position:0% Soon after Rojansky, American astronomer 00:07:27.560 --> 00:07:30.310 align:start position:0% Soon after Rojansky, American astronomer Lincoln<00:07:28.040> LaPaz<00:07:29.160> began<00:07:29.440> to<00:07:29.560> wonder<00:07:29.960> whether 00:07:30.310 --> 00:07:30.320 align:start position:0% Lincoln LaPaz began to wonder whether 00:07:30.320 --> 00:07:32.310 align:start position:0% Lincoln LaPaz began to wonder whether any<00:07:30.600> of<00:07:30.680> the<00:07:30.800> craters<00:07:31.200> on<00:07:31.440> Earth<00:07:32.000> could<00:07:32.160> be 00:07:32.310 --> 00:07:32.320 align:start position:0% any of the craters on Earth could be 00:07:32.320 --> 00:07:35.190 align:start position:0% any of the craters on Earth could be attributed<00:07:32.960> to<00:07:33.240> antimatter<00:07:33.880> meteors.<00:07:35.040> So, 00:07:35.190 --> 00:07:35.200 align:start position:0% attributed to antimatter meteors. So, 00:07:35.200 --> 00:07:36.950 align:start position:0% attributed to antimatter meteors. So, perhaps<00:07:35.600> this<00:07:35.800> is<00:07:35.919> the<00:07:36.040> time<00:07:36.320> to<00:07:36.440> consider 00:07:36.950 --> 00:07:36.960 align:start position:0% perhaps this is the time to consider 00:07:36.960 --> 00:07:40.030 align:start position:0% perhaps this is the time to consider what<00:07:37.400> an<00:07:37.600> antimatter<00:07:38.320> meteor<00:07:38.800> could<00:07:39.240> do<00:07:39.800> if<00:07:39.919> it 00:07:40.030 --> 00:07:40.040 align:start position:0% what an antimatter meteor could do if it 00:07:40.040 --> 00:07:42.430 align:start position:0% what an antimatter meteor could do if it came<00:07:40.320> in<00:07:40.440> contact<00:07:40.960> with<00:07:41.080> the<00:07:41.280> Earth,<00:07:41.880> so<00:07:42.280> we 00:07:42.430 --> 00:07:42.440 align:start position:0% came in contact with the Earth, so we 00:07:42.440 --> 00:07:44.350 align:start position:0% came in contact with the Earth, so we know<00:07:42.680> what<00:07:42.880> to<00:07:42.960> look<00:07:43.160> out<00:07:43.360> for. 00:07:44.350 --> 00:07:44.360 align:start position:0% know what to look out for. 00:07:44.360 --> 00:07:46.750 align:start position:0% know what to look out for. Thankfully,<00:07:45.320> it's<00:07:45.480> not<00:07:45.720> necessarily<00:07:46.680> a 00:07:46.750 --> 00:07:46.760 align:start position:0% Thankfully, it's not necessarily a 00:07:46.760 --> 00:07:48.670 align:start position:0% Thankfully, it's not necessarily a simple<00:07:47.280> journey. 00:07:48.670 --> 00:07:48.680 align:start position:0% simple journey. 00:07:48.680 --> 00:07:49.870 align:start position:0% simple journey. The<00:07:48.760> first<00:07:49.040> issue<00:07:49.480> such<00:07:49.640> [music]<00:07:49.720> an 00:07:49.870 --> 00:07:49.880 align:start position:0% The first issue such [music] an 00:07:49.880 --> 00:07:52.310 align:start position:0% The first issue such [music] an antimatter<00:07:50.480> meteor<00:07:50.880> would<00:07:51.080> encounter<00:07:51.680> before 00:07:52.310 --> 00:07:52.320 align:start position:0% antimatter meteor would encounter before 00:07:52.320 --> 00:07:55.270 align:start position:0% antimatter meteor would encounter before reaching<00:07:52.760> earth<00:07:53.160> would<00:07:53.280> be<00:07:53.560> our<00:07:53.960> atmosphere. 00:07:55.270 --> 00:07:55.280 align:start position:0% reaching earth would be our atmosphere. 00:07:55.280 --> 00:07:56.870 align:start position:0% reaching earth would be our atmosphere. To<00:07:55.360> be<00:07:55.480> fair,<00:07:55.840> this<00:07:56.080> is<00:07:56.200> a<00:07:56.240> problem<00:07:56.680> for 00:07:56.870 --> 00:07:56.880 align:start position:0% To be fair, this is a problem for 00:07:56.880 --> 00:07:59.510 align:start position:0% To be fair, this is a problem for regular<00:07:57.320> meteors,<00:07:57.840> too.<00:07:58.640> When<00:07:58.800> one<00:07:58.960> of<00:07:59.040> those 00:07:59.510 --> 00:07:59.520 align:start position:0% regular meteors, too. When one of those 00:07:59.520 --> 00:08:02.390 align:start position:0% regular meteors, too. When one of those trades<00:08:00.040> vacuum<00:08:00.680> for<00:08:00.960> air,<00:08:01.680> the<00:08:01.760> speed<00:08:02.280> at 00:08:02.390 --> 00:08:02.400 align:start position:0% trades vacuum for air, the speed at 00:08:02.400 --> 00:08:03.870 align:start position:0% trades vacuum for air, the speed at which<00:08:02.640> it's<00:08:02.760> traveling<00:08:03.240> causes<00:08:03.600> it<00:08:03.760> to 00:08:03.870 --> 00:08:03.880 align:start position:0% which it's traveling causes it to 00:08:03.880 --> 00:08:06.430 align:start position:0% which it's traveling causes it to generate<00:08:04.440> incredible<00:08:05.200> friction, 00:08:06.430 --> 00:08:06.440 align:start position:0% generate incredible friction, 00:08:06.440 --> 00:08:08.830 align:start position:0% generate incredible friction, causing<00:08:06.760> some<00:08:07.440> or<00:08:07.720> all<00:08:07.920> of<00:08:08.000> the<00:08:08.080> meteor<00:08:08.600> to 00:08:08.830 --> 00:08:08.840 align:start position:0% causing some or all of the meteor to 00:08:08.840 --> 00:08:11.230 align:start position:0% causing some or all of the meteor to burn<00:08:09.320> up<00:08:09.720> on<00:08:09.800> the<00:08:09.920> way<00:08:10.040> down,<00:08:10.760> depending<00:08:11.160> on 00:08:11.230 --> 00:08:11.240 align:start position:0% burn up on the way down, depending on 00:08:11.240 --> 00:08:13.430 align:start position:0% burn up on the way down, depending on its<00:08:11.360> starting<00:08:11.720> size,<00:08:12.480> leading<00:08:12.800> to<00:08:12.919> the<00:08:13.000> fiery 00:08:13.430 --> 00:08:13.440 align:start position:0% its starting size, leading to the fiery 00:08:13.440 --> 00:08:15.909 align:start position:0% its starting size, leading to the fiery streak<00:08:13.919> I<00:08:13.960> mentioned<00:08:14.360> at<00:08:14.440> the<00:08:14.520> start. 00:08:15.909 --> 00:08:15.919 align:start position:0% streak I mentioned at the start. 00:08:15.919 --> 00:08:18.270 align:start position:0% streak I mentioned at the start. However,<00:08:16.400> antimatter<00:08:17.040> meteors<00:08:17.800> would<00:08:18.040> have 00:08:18.270 --> 00:08:18.280 align:start position:0% However, antimatter meteors would have 00:08:18.280 --> 00:08:19.990 align:start position:0% However, antimatter meteors would have it<00:08:18.560> much<00:08:18.960> worse. 00:08:19.990 --> 00:08:20.000 align:start position:0% it much worse. 00:08:20.000 --> 00:08:21.550 align:start position:0% it much worse. Each<00:08:20.240> particle<00:08:20.680> of<00:08:20.800> atmosphere<00:08:21.320> that<00:08:21.480> the 00:08:21.550 --> 00:08:21.560 align:start position:0% Each particle of atmosphere that the 00:08:21.560 --> 00:08:23.350 align:start position:0% Each particle of atmosphere that the antimatter<00:08:22.040> meteor<00:08:22.480> encountered<00:08:23.040> on<00:08:23.120> the<00:08:23.200> way 00:08:23.350 --> 00:08:23.360 align:start position:0% antimatter meteor encountered on the way 00:08:23.360 --> 00:08:25.909 align:start position:0% antimatter meteor encountered on the way down<00:08:24.120> would<00:08:24.240> annihilate<00:08:24.880> a<00:08:24.960> similar<00:08:25.480> amount 00:08:25.909 --> 00:08:25.919 align:start position:0% down would annihilate a similar amount 00:08:25.919 --> 00:08:27.310 align:start position:0% down would annihilate a similar amount of<00:08:26.040> the<00:08:26.160> meteor. 00:08:27.310 --> 00:08:27.320 align:start position:0% of the meteor. 00:08:27.320 --> 00:08:29.550 align:start position:0% of the meteor. So,<00:08:27.560> to<00:08:27.680> understand<00:08:28.120> what<00:08:28.280> happens<00:08:28.640> next,<00:08:29.440> we 00:08:29.550 --> 00:08:29.560 align:start position:0% So, to understand what happens next, we 00:08:29.560 --> 00:08:31.190 align:start position:0% So, to understand what happens next, we need<00:08:29.720> to<00:08:29.840> turn<00:08:30.160> to<00:08:30.320> Einstein's<00:08:30.840> famous 00:08:31.190 --> 00:08:31.200 align:start position:0% need to turn to Einstein's famous 00:08:31.200 --> 00:08:34.790 align:start position:0% need to turn to Einstein's famous equation<00:08:32.159> E<00:08:32.520> =<00:08:33.000> mc<00:08:33.360> squared. 00:08:34.790 --> 00:08:34.800 align:start position:0% equation E = mc squared. 00:08:34.800 --> 00:08:36.750 align:start position:0% equation E = mc squared. The<00:08:34.880> meteor's<00:08:35.320> mass,<00:08:35.960> multiplied<00:08:36.520> by<00:08:36.640> the 00:08:36.750 --> 00:08:36.760 align:start position:0% The meteor's mass, multiplied by the 00:08:36.760 --> 00:08:39.630 align:start position:0% The meteor's mass, multiplied by the speed<00:08:37.120> of<00:08:37.280> light<00:08:37.680> squared,<00:08:38.960> tells<00:08:39.280> us<00:08:39.440> how 00:08:39.630 --> 00:08:39.640 align:start position:0% speed of light squared, tells us how 00:08:39.640 --> 00:08:41.350 align:start position:0% speed of light squared, tells us how much<00:08:40.000> energy<00:08:40.440> would<00:08:40.599> be<00:08:40.760> released<00:08:41.120> by<00:08:41.240> the 00:08:41.350 --> 00:08:41.360 align:start position:0% much energy would be released by the 00:08:41.360 --> 00:08:44.270 align:start position:0% much energy would be released by the meteor<00:08:41.919> on<00:08:42.080> the<00:08:42.159> way<00:08:42.360> down.<00:08:43.360> Technically, 00:08:44.270 --> 00:08:44.280 align:start position:0% meteor on the way down. Technically, 00:08:44.280 --> 00:08:46.630 align:start position:0% meteor on the way down. Technically, twice<00:08:44.640> that,<00:08:45.360> as<00:08:45.560> for<00:08:45.720> each<00:08:45.960> particle<00:08:46.440> of<00:08:46.520> the 00:08:46.630 --> 00:08:46.640 align:start position:0% twice that, as for each particle of the 00:08:46.640 --> 00:08:49.070 align:start position:0% twice that, as for each particle of the meteor<00:08:47.040> that's<00:08:47.240> annihilating,<00:08:48.440> a<00:08:48.520> particle 00:08:49.070 --> 00:08:49.080 align:start position:0% meteor that's annihilating, a particle 00:08:49.080 --> 00:08:51.910 align:start position:0% meteor that's annihilating, a particle of<00:08:49.280> atmosphere<00:08:49.920> is<00:08:50.080> doing<00:08:50.400> so,<00:08:50.640> too. 00:08:51.910 --> 00:08:51.920 align:start position:0% of atmosphere is doing so, too. 00:08:51.920 --> 00:08:54.829 align:start position:0% of atmosphere is doing so, too. This<00:08:52.240> is<00:08:52.760> potentially<00:08:53.480> a<00:08:53.600> huge<00:08:54.400> amount<00:08:54.760> of 00:08:54.829 --> 00:08:54.839 align:start position:0% This is potentially a huge amount of 00:08:54.839 --> 00:08:56.470 align:start position:0% This is potentially a huge amount of energy<00:08:55.160> being<00:08:55.400> released. 00:08:56.470 --> 00:08:56.480 align:start position:0% energy being released. 00:08:56.480 --> 00:08:58.110 align:start position:0% energy being released. Let's<00:08:56.640> do<00:08:56.760> a<00:08:56.839> bit<00:08:57.040> of<00:08:57.160> a<00:08:57.200> thought<00:08:57.560> experiment 00:08:58.110 --> 00:08:58.120 align:start position:0% Let's do a bit of a thought experiment 00:08:58.120 --> 00:09:01.310 align:start position:0% Let's do a bit of a thought experiment to<00:08:58.200> work<00:08:58.440> out<00:08:58.680> how<00:08:59.000> much. 00:09:01.310 --> 00:09:01.320 align:start position:0% to work out how much. 00:09:01.320 --> 00:09:02.670 align:start position:0% to work out how much. While<00:09:01.520> the<00:09:01.600> dividing<00:09:02.040> line<00:09:02.240> between<00:09:02.560> the 00:09:02.670 --> 00:09:02.680 align:start position:0% While the dividing line between the 00:09:02.680 --> 00:09:05.030 align:start position:0% While the dividing line between the atmosphere<00:09:03.160> and<00:09:03.320> space<00:09:03.680> is<00:09:03.839> either<00:09:04.080> 100<00:09:04.560> km 00:09:05.030 --> 00:09:05.040 align:start position:0% atmosphere and space is either 100 km 00:09:05.040 --> 00:09:07.829 align:start position:0% atmosphere and space is either 100 km up,<00:09:05.600> if<00:09:05.760> you're<00:09:05.839> talking<00:09:06.120> to<00:09:06.240> Europeans,<00:09:07.240> or 00:09:07.829 --> 00:09:07.839 align:start position:0% up, if you're talking to Europeans, or 00:09:07.839 --> 00:09:09.390 align:start position:0% up, if you're talking to Europeans, or 80<00:09:08.120> km<00:09:08.560> up,<00:09:08.800> if<00:09:08.920> you're<00:09:09.000> talking<00:09:09.280> to 00:09:09.390 --> 00:09:09.400 align:start position:0% 80 km up, if you're talking to 00:09:09.400 --> 00:09:11.670 align:start position:0% 80 km up, if you're talking to Americans,<00:09:10.480> as<00:09:10.640> the<00:09:10.760> two<00:09:11.000> haven't<00:09:11.320> reached<00:09:11.640> a 00:09:11.670 --> 00:09:11.680 align:start position:0% Americans, as the two haven't reached a 00:09:11.680 --> 00:09:14.670 align:start position:0% Americans, as the two haven't reached a consensus<00:09:12.320> on<00:09:12.440> that<00:09:12.600> point<00:09:12.880> yet,<00:09:13.400> over<00:09:13.760> 90%<00:09:14.600> of 00:09:14.670 --> 00:09:14.680 align:start position:0% consensus on that point yet, over 90% of 00:09:14.680 --> 00:09:16.070 align:start position:0% consensus on that point yet, over 90% of the<00:09:14.760> mass<00:09:15.000> of<00:09:15.160> Earth's<00:09:15.360> atmosphere<00:09:15.800> is 00:09:16.070 --> 00:09:16.080 align:start position:0% the mass of Earth's atmosphere is 00:09:16.080 --> 00:09:19.350 align:start position:0% the mass of Earth's atmosphere is actually<00:09:16.520> clumped<00:09:16.960> below<00:09:17.320> 16<00:09:18.040> km,<00:09:19.000> clinging 00:09:19.350 --> 00:09:19.360 align:start position:0% actually clumped below 16 km, clinging 00:09:19.360 --> 00:09:21.150 align:start position:0% actually clumped below 16 km, clinging to<00:09:19.480> the<00:09:19.560> planet<00:09:20.000> as<00:09:20.160> closely<00:09:20.560> as<00:09:20.680> possible 00:09:21.150 --> 00:09:21.160 align:start position:0% to the planet as closely as possible 00:09:21.160 --> 00:09:23.310 align:start position:0% to the planet as closely as possible thanks<00:09:21.480> to<00:09:21.560> the<00:09:21.680> pull<00:09:21.880> of<00:09:22.000> gravity. 00:09:23.310 --> 00:09:23.320 align:start position:0% thanks to the pull of gravity. 00:09:23.320 --> 00:09:25.630 align:start position:0% thanks to the pull of gravity. So,<00:09:23.560> by<00:09:23.720> working<00:09:24.120> out<00:09:24.400> how<00:09:24.640> much<00:09:24.960> air<00:09:25.120> exists 00:09:25.630 --> 00:09:25.640 align:start position:0% So, by working out how much air exists 00:09:25.640 --> 00:09:27.110 align:start position:0% So, by working out how much air exists between<00:09:26.120> this<00:09:26.360> line<00:09:26.680> and<00:09:26.800> the<00:09:26.920> Earth's 00:09:27.110 --> 00:09:27.120 align:start position:0% between this line and the Earth's 00:09:27.120 --> 00:09:29.510 align:start position:0% between this line and the Earth's surface,<00:09:28.000> we<00:09:28.120> can<00:09:28.200> get<00:09:28.360> a<00:09:28.440> rough<00:09:28.760> idea<00:09:29.200> of<00:09:29.360> how 00:09:29.510 --> 00:09:29.520 align:start position:0% surface, we can get a rough idea of how 00:09:29.520 --> 00:09:31.630 align:start position:0% surface, we can get a rough idea of how much<00:09:29.839> antimatter<00:09:30.480> you'd<00:09:30.720> need<00:09:30.880> to<00:09:31.000> have 00:09:31.630 --> 00:09:31.640 align:start position:0% much antimatter you'd need to have 00:09:31.640 --> 00:09:33.590 align:start position:0% much antimatter you'd need to have before<00:09:32.040> an<00:09:32.200> antimatter<00:09:32.800> meteor<00:09:33.280> hits<00:09:33.520> the 00:09:33.590 --> 00:09:33.600 align:start position:0% before an antimatter meteor hits the 00:09:33.600 --> 00:09:34.870 align:start position:0% before an antimatter meteor hits the ground. 00:09:34.870 --> 00:09:34.880 align:start position:0% ground. 00:09:34.880 --> 00:09:37.030 align:start position:0% ground. This<00:09:35.040> is<00:09:35.200> a<00:09:35.240> little<00:09:35.600> tricky<00:09:35.920> to<00:09:36.040> calculate, 00:09:37.030 --> 00:09:37.040 align:start position:0% This is a little tricky to calculate, 00:09:37.040 --> 00:09:38.670 align:start position:0% This is a little tricky to calculate, but<00:09:37.240> thanks<00:09:37.520> to<00:09:37.640> a<00:09:37.720> chart<00:09:38.120> released<00:09:38.440> by<00:09:38.560> the 00:09:38.670 --> 00:09:38.680 align:start position:0% but thanks to a chart released by the 00:09:38.680 --> 00:09:40.110 align:start position:0% but thanks to a chart released by the International<00:09:39.320> Standardization 00:09:40.110 --> 00:09:40.120 align:start position:0% International Standardization 00:09:40.120 --> 00:09:42.470 align:start position:0% International Standardization Organization,<00:09:41.240> I<00:09:41.320> was<00:09:41.480> able<00:09:41.720> to<00:09:41.920> add<00:09:42.200> up<00:09:42.360> the 00:09:42.470 --> 00:09:42.480 align:start position:0% Organization, I was able to add up the 00:09:42.480 --> 00:09:44.190 align:start position:0% Organization, I was able to add up the sum<00:09:42.720> total<00:09:43.120> of<00:09:43.200> the<00:09:43.280> atmosphere<00:09:43.800> at<00:09:43.880> different 00:09:44.190 --> 00:09:44.200 align:start position:0% sum total of the atmosphere at different 00:09:44.200 --> 00:09:47.070 align:start position:0% sum total of the atmosphere at different elevations<00:09:45.080> between<00:09:45.400> the<00:09:45.480> surface<00:09:46.080> and<00:09:46.280> 20<00:09:46.640> km 00:09:47.070 --> 00:09:47.080 align:start position:0% elevations between the surface and 20 km 00:09:47.080 --> 00:09:49.950 align:start position:0% elevations between the surface and 20 km high,<00:09:47.880> and<00:09:48.000> found<00:09:48.320> that<00:09:48.520> in<00:09:48.680> a<00:09:48.800> 1<00:09:49.040> m<00:09:49.320> by<00:09:49.520> 1<00:09:49.720> m 00:09:49.950 --> 00:09:49.960 align:start position:0% high, and found that in a 1 m by 1 m 00:09:49.960 --> 00:09:52.630 align:start position:0% high, and found that in a 1 m by 1 m corridor<00:09:50.440> between<00:09:50.800> space<00:09:51.400> and<00:09:51.520> the<00:09:51.600> surface, 00:09:52.630 --> 00:09:52.640 align:start position:0% corridor between space and the surface, 00:09:52.640 --> 00:09:55.870 align:start position:0% corridor between space and the surface, you'd<00:09:52.880> have<00:09:53.160> roughly<00:09:53.720> 10,132 00:09:55.870 --> 00:09:55.880 align:start position:0% you'd have roughly 10,132 00:09:55.880 --> 00:09:58.150 align:start position:0% you'd have roughly 10,132 kg<00:09:56.520> worth<00:09:56.720> of<00:09:56.840> atmosphere. 00:09:58.150 --> 00:09:58.160 align:start position:0% kg worth of atmosphere. 00:09:58.160 --> 00:10:00.310 align:start position:0% kg worth of atmosphere. A<00:09:58.240> meteor<00:09:58.720> would<00:09:58.920> need<00:09:59.120> to<00:09:59.200> be<00:09:59.360> roughly<00:09:59.920> this 00:10:00.310 --> 00:10:00.320 align:start position:0% A meteor would need to be roughly this 00:10:00.320 --> 00:10:03.030 align:start position:0% A meteor would need to be roughly this large<00:10:01.120> to<00:10:01.200> even<00:10:01.440> hit<00:10:01.640> the<00:10:01.720> surface,<00:10:02.520> assuming 00:10:03.030 --> 00:10:03.040 align:start position:0% large to even hit the surface, assuming 00:10:03.040 --> 00:10:04.870 align:start position:0% large to even hit the surface, assuming it<00:10:03.160> traveled<00:10:03.720> the<00:10:03.800> most<00:10:04.040> direct<00:10:04.640> route 00:10:04.870 --> 00:10:04.880 align:start position:0% it traveled the most direct route 00:10:04.880 --> 00:10:06.750 align:start position:0% it traveled the most direct route straight<00:10:05.440> down. 00:10:06.750 --> 00:10:06.760 align:start position:0% straight down. 00:10:06.760 --> 00:10:09.510 align:start position:0% straight down. Now,<00:10:07.400> antimatter<00:10:08.000> is<00:10:08.440> similar<00:10:09.000> in<00:10:09.120> mass<00:10:09.400> to 00:10:09.510 --> 00:10:09.520 align:start position:0% Now, antimatter is similar in mass to 00:10:09.520 --> 00:10:11.710 align:start position:0% Now, antimatter is similar in mass to matter,<00:10:10.400> so<00:10:10.520> we<00:10:10.640> can<00:10:10.760> assume<00:10:11.160> that<00:10:11.320> they<00:10:11.520> would 00:10:11.710 --> 00:10:11.720 align:start position:0% matter, so we can assume that they would 00:10:11.720 --> 00:10:14.350 align:start position:0% matter, so we can assume that they would have<00:10:11.960> comparable<00:10:12.680> compositions,<00:10:13.280> too. 00:10:14.350 --> 00:10:14.360 align:start position:0% have comparable compositions, too. 00:10:14.360 --> 00:10:17.230 align:start position:0% have comparable compositions, too. Most<00:10:14.600> meteors<00:10:15.160> are<00:10:15.280> made<00:10:15.600> of<00:10:16.040> chondrites,<00:10:17.080> so 00:10:17.230 --> 00:10:17.240 align:start position:0% Most meteors are made of chondrites, so 00:10:17.240 --> 00:10:19.350 align:start position:0% Most meteors are made of chondrites, so assuming<00:10:17.720> an<00:10:17.920> average<00:10:18.280> antimatter<00:10:18.800> meteor 00:10:19.350 --> 00:10:19.360 align:start position:0% assuming an average antimatter meteor 00:10:19.360 --> 00:10:21.390 align:start position:0% assuming an average antimatter meteor made<00:10:19.840> of<00:10:20.040> the<00:10:20.320> antimatter<00:10:20.840> version<00:10:21.200> of<00:10:21.320> the 00:10:21.390 --> 00:10:21.400 align:start position:0% made of the antimatter version of the 00:10:21.400 --> 00:10:23.950 align:start position:0% made of the antimatter version of the same<00:10:21.640> stuff,<00:10:22.480> we<00:10:22.600> can<00:10:22.760> put<00:10:23.160> the<00:10:23.280> density<00:10:23.720> of 00:10:23.950 --> 00:10:23.960 align:start position:0% same stuff, we can put the density of 00:10:23.960 --> 00:10:27.790 align:start position:0% same stuff, we can put the density of our<00:10:24.320> antimatter<00:10:24.840> meteor<00:10:25.640> at<00:10:25.800> around<00:10:26.160> 3,400<00:10:27.280> kg 00:10:27.790 --> 00:10:27.800 align:start position:0% our antimatter meteor at around 3,400 kg 00:10:27.800 --> 00:10:29.470 align:start position:0% our antimatter meteor at around 3,400 kg per<00:10:27.920> cubic<00:10:28.280> meter. 00:10:29.470 --> 00:10:29.480 align:start position:0% per cubic meter. 00:10:29.480 --> 00:10:31.630 align:start position:0% per cubic meter. Of<00:10:29.600> course,<00:10:30.440> there's<00:10:30.680> then<00:10:30.880> a<00:10:30.920> balancing<00:10:31.440> act 00:10:31.630 --> 00:10:31.640 align:start position:0% Of course, there's then a balancing act 00:10:31.640 --> 00:10:33.910 align:start position:0% Of course, there's then a balancing act you<00:10:31.720> need<00:10:31.880> to<00:10:31.960> do.<00:10:32.680> The<00:10:32.800> bigger<00:10:33.080> the<00:10:33.160> meteor, 00:10:33.910 --> 00:10:33.920 align:start position:0% you need to do. The bigger the meteor, 00:10:33.920 --> 00:10:35.710 align:start position:0% you need to do. The bigger the meteor, the<00:10:34.040> larger<00:10:34.360> the<00:10:34.440> surface<00:10:34.880> area,<00:10:35.520> and<00:10:35.640> the 00:10:35.710 --> 00:10:35.720 align:start position:0% the larger the surface area, and the 00:10:35.720 --> 00:10:37.590 align:start position:0% the larger the surface area, and the more<00:10:36.040> air<00:10:36.360> it<00:10:36.520> doesn't<00:10:36.840> counters<00:10:37.240> before<00:10:37.520> it 00:10:37.590 --> 00:10:37.600 align:start position:0% more air it doesn't counters before it 00:10:37.600 --> 00:10:39.270 align:start position:0% more air it doesn't counters before it reaches<00:10:37.920> the<00:10:38.000> surface. 00:10:39.270 --> 00:10:39.280 align:start position:0% reaches the surface. 00:10:39.280 --> 00:10:41.710 align:start position:0% reaches the surface. However,<00:10:39.680> as<00:10:40.000> volume<00:10:40.400> scales<00:10:40.800> up<00:10:40.920> in<00:10:41.040> cubes, 00:10:41.710 --> 00:10:41.720 align:start position:0% However, as volume scales up in cubes, 00:10:41.720 --> 00:10:43.750 align:start position:0% However, as volume scales up in cubes, while<00:10:41.920> surface<00:10:42.240> area<00:10:42.520> is<00:10:42.680> only<00:10:42.839> squared, 00:10:43.750 --> 00:10:43.760 align:start position:0% while surface area is only squared, 00:10:43.760 --> 00:10:45.390 align:start position:0% while surface area is only squared, there<00:10:43.920> is<00:10:44.040> a<00:10:44.120> sweet<00:10:44.440> spot<00:10:44.720> you<00:10:44.839> can<00:10:44.960> hit<00:10:45.240> where 00:10:45.390 --> 00:10:45.400 align:start position:0% there is a sweet spot you can hit where 00:10:45.400 --> 00:10:47.150 align:start position:0% there is a sweet spot you can hit where the<00:10:45.520> amount<00:10:45.839> of<00:10:46.000> air<00:10:46.160> being<00:10:46.440> annihilated<00:10:47.040> by 00:10:47.150 --> 00:10:47.160 align:start position:0% the amount of air being annihilated by 00:10:47.160 --> 00:10:49.630 align:start position:0% the amount of air being annihilated by the<00:10:47.280> meteor<00:10:48.120> would<00:10:48.360> theoretically<00:10:49.080> perfectly 00:10:49.630 --> 00:10:49.640 align:start position:0% the meteor would theoretically perfectly 00:10:49.640 --> 00:10:51.710 align:start position:0% the meteor would theoretically perfectly match<00:10:50.160> the<00:10:50.280> amount<00:10:50.640> of<00:10:50.760> mass<00:10:51.200> the<00:10:51.320> meteor 00:10:51.710 --> 00:10:51.720 align:start position:0% match the amount of mass the meteor 00:10:51.720 --> 00:10:54.270 align:start position:0% match the amount of mass the meteor possesses.<00:10:52.920> And<00:10:53.040> then<00:10:53.320> we<00:10:53.440> know<00:10:53.800> that<00:10:54.080> any 00:10:54.270 --> 00:10:54.280 align:start position:0% possesses. And then we know that any 00:10:54.280 --> 00:10:56.710 align:start position:0% possesses. And then we know that any mass<00:10:54.600> of<00:10:54.720> meteor<00:10:55.200> above<00:10:55.520> that<00:10:56.120> would<00:10:56.280> make<00:10:56.520> it 00:10:56.710 --> 00:10:56.720 align:start position:0% mass of meteor above that would make it 00:10:56.720 --> 00:10:58.350 align:start position:0% mass of meteor above that would make it through<00:10:57.080> the<00:10:57.240> atmosphere<00:10:57.960> to<00:10:58.080> hit<00:10:58.280> the 00:10:58.350 --> 00:10:58.360 align:start position:0% through the atmosphere to hit the 00:10:58.360 --> 00:11:01.630 align:start position:0% through the atmosphere to hit the ground.<00:10:59.320> Using<00:10:59.760> very<00:11:00.120> rough<00:11:00.440> math,<00:11:01.200> I<00:11:01.320> found 00:11:01.630 --> 00:11:01.640 align:start position:0% ground. Using very rough math, I found 00:11:01.640 --> 00:11:05.350 align:start position:0% ground. Using very rough math, I found that<00:11:01.920> a<00:11:02.040> 3<00:11:02.360> by<00:11:02.520> 3<00:11:02.760> by<00:11:02.920> 3<00:11:03.160> m<00:11:03.480> meteor,<00:11:04.280> or<00:11:04.400> 27<00:11:05.000> cubic 00:11:05.350 --> 00:11:05.360 align:start position:0% that a 3 by 3 by 3 m meteor, or 27 cubic 00:11:05.360 --> 00:11:06.910 align:start position:0% that a 3 by 3 by 3 m meteor, or 27 cubic meters,<00:11:06.080> worked<00:11:06.360> best<00:11:06.680> for<00:11:06.760> this 00:11:06.910 --> 00:11:06.920 align:start position:0% meters, worked best for this 00:11:06.920 --> 00:11:11.270 align:start position:0% meters, worked best for this calculation,<00:11:08.000> which<00:11:08.200> had<00:11:08.360> a<00:11:08.400> mass<00:11:08.920> of<00:11:09.360> 91,800 00:11:11.270 --> 00:11:11.280 align:start position:0% calculation, which had a mass of 91,800 00:11:11.280 --> 00:11:16.910 align:start position:0% calculation, which had a mass of 91,800 kg,<00:11:12.320> or<00:11:12.640> 3,400<00:11:13.800> kg<00:11:14.600> per<00:11:14.760> cubic<00:11:15.120> meter<00:11:15.680> *<00:11:16.240> 27 00:11:16.910 --> 00:11:16.920 align:start position:0% kg, or 3,400 kg per cubic meter * 27 00:11:16.920 --> 00:11:18.430 align:start position:0% kg, or 3,400 kg per cubic meter * 27 cubic<00:11:17.240> meters. 00:11:18.430 --> 00:11:18.440 align:start position:0% cubic meters. 00:11:18.440 --> 00:11:22.710 align:start position:0% cubic meters. This<00:11:18.680> would<00:11:19.040> only<00:11:19.440> encounter<00:11:20.160> 91,191 00:11:22.710 --> 00:11:22.720 align:start position:0% This would only encounter 91,191 00:11:22.720 --> 00:11:25.829 align:start position:0% This would only encounter 91,191 kg<00:11:23.280> worth<00:11:23.520> of<00:11:23.720> air<00:11:24.080> on<00:11:24.200> the<00:11:24.280> way<00:11:24.480> down,<00:11:25.240> meaning 00:11:25.829 --> 00:11:25.839 align:start position:0% kg worth of air on the way down, meaning 00:11:25.839 --> 00:11:29.829 align:start position:0% kg worth of air on the way down, meaning 608<00:11:27.240> kg<00:11:27.920> worth<00:11:28.160> of<00:11:28.280> meteor<00:11:29.120> would<00:11:29.360> actually 00:11:29.829 --> 00:11:29.839 align:start position:0% 608 kg worth of meteor would actually 00:11:29.839 --> 00:11:31.390 align:start position:0% 608 kg worth of meteor would actually hit<00:11:30.080> the<00:11:30.160> surface. 00:11:31.390 --> 00:11:31.400 align:start position:0% hit the surface. 00:11:31.400 --> 00:11:33.870 align:start position:0% hit the surface. That's<00:11:31.760> approximately<00:11:32.720> the<00:11:32.880> mass<00:11:33.360> of<00:11:33.480> a<00:11:33.560> large 00:11:33.870 --> 00:11:33.880 align:start position:0% That's approximately the mass of a large 00:11:33.880 --> 00:11:36.950 align:start position:0% That's approximately the mass of a large grand<00:11:34.160> piano.<00:11:35.120> How<00:11:35.240> much<00:11:35.480> damage<00:11:36.000> could<00:11:36.360> 600 00:11:36.950 --> 00:11:36.960 align:start position:0% grand piano. How much damage could 600 00:11:36.960 --> 00:11:39.830 align:start position:0% grand piano. How much damage could 600 kg<00:11:37.480> of<00:11:37.800> antimatter<00:11:38.560> actually<00:11:38.920> do? 00:11:39.830 --> 00:11:39.840 align:start position:0% kg of antimatter actually do? 00:11:39.840 --> 00:11:43.950 align:start position:0% kg of antimatter actually do? It's<00:11:40.040> time<00:11:40.240> for<00:11:40.400> our<00:11:40.560> equation,<00:11:41.480> E<00:11:41.800> =<00:11:42.240> mc². 00:11:43.950 --> 00:11:43.960 align:start position:0% It's time for our equation, E = mc². 00:11:43.960 --> 00:11:46.470 align:start position:0% It's time for our equation, E = mc². Using<00:11:44.240> this<00:11:44.400> calculation,<00:11:45.480> we<00:11:45.640> learn<00:11:46.240> that 00:11:46.470 --> 00:11:46.480 align:start position:0% Using this calculation, we learn that 00:11:46.480 --> 00:11:51.110 align:start position:0% Using this calculation, we learn that 600<00:11:47.080> kg<00:11:47.600> of<00:11:47.760> remaining<00:11:48.240> meteor<00:11:48.840> releases<00:11:49.760> 5.4 00:11:51.110 --> 00:11:51.120 align:start position:0% 600 kg of remaining meteor releases 5.4 00:11:51.120 --> 00:11:57.750 align:start position:0% 600 kg of remaining meteor releases 5.4 *<00:11:51.400> 10<00:11:51.680> ^<00:11:52.480> 19<00:11:53.720> J<00:11:54.040> of<00:11:54.200> energy,<00:11:55.000> or<00:11:55.680> 54<00:11:56.720> quintillion 00:11:57.750 --> 00:11:57.760 align:start position:0% * 10 ^ 19 J of energy, or 54 quintillion 00:11:57.760 --> 00:11:58.990 align:start position:0% * 10 ^ 19 J of energy, or 54 quintillion J. 00:11:58.990 --> 00:11:59.000 align:start position:0% J. 00:11:59.000 --> 00:12:01.190 align:start position:0% J. Then,<00:11:59.440> double<00:11:59.760> that<00:12:00.280> as<00:12:00.480> the<00:12:00.560> ground<00:12:00.960> being 00:12:01.190 --> 00:12:01.200 align:start position:0% Then, double that as the ground being 00:12:01.200 --> 00:12:03.670 align:start position:0% Then, double that as the ground being annihilated<00:12:01.920> releases<00:12:02.480> that<00:12:02.840> amount<00:12:03.240> too. 00:12:03.670 --> 00:12:03.680 align:start position:0% annihilated releases that amount too. 00:12:03.680 --> 00:12:07.510 align:start position:0% annihilated releases that amount too. So,<00:12:04.320> 108<00:12:05.680> quintillion<00:12:06.360> J. 00:12:07.510 --> 00:12:07.520 align:start position:0% So, 108 quintillion J. 00:12:07.520 --> 00:12:10.110 align:start position:0% So, 108 quintillion J. For<00:12:07.640> a<00:12:07.680> point<00:12:07.920> of<00:12:08.040> reference,<00:12:08.880> a<00:12:08.960> 1<00:12:09.440> megaton 00:12:10.110 --> 00:12:10.120 align:start position:0% For a point of reference, a 1 megaton 00:12:10.120 --> 00:12:14.670 align:start position:0% For a point of reference, a 1 megaton nuke<00:12:10.840> gives<00:12:11.200> off<00:12:11.520> 4.18<00:12:12.560> *<00:12:12.840> 10<00:12:13.040> ^<00:12:13.560> 15<00:12:14.280> J<00:12:14.560> of 00:12:14.670 --> 00:12:14.680 align:start position:0% nuke gives off 4.18 * 10 ^ 15 J of 00:12:14.680 --> 00:12:15.950 align:start position:0% nuke gives off 4.18 * 10 ^ 15 J of energy. 00:12:15.950 --> 00:12:15.960 align:start position:0% energy. 00:12:15.960 --> 00:12:18.830 align:start position:0% energy. Even<00:12:16.360> if<00:12:16.680> we<00:12:16.840> scaled<00:12:17.280> up<00:12:17.440> to<00:12:17.520> the<00:12:17.720> largest<00:12:18.320> nuke 00:12:18.830 --> 00:12:18.840 align:start position:0% Even if we scaled up to the largest nuke 00:12:18.840 --> 00:12:21.830 align:start position:0% Even if we scaled up to the largest nuke ever<00:12:19.200> detonated,<00:12:20.160> the<00:12:20.360> Tsar<00:12:20.760> Bomba,<00:12:21.600> which 00:12:21.830 --> 00:12:21.840 align:start position:0% ever detonated, the Tsar Bomba, which 00:12:21.840 --> 00:12:25.590 align:start position:0% ever detonated, the Tsar Bomba, which had<00:12:22.120> a<00:12:22.200> yield<00:12:22.800> of<00:12:23.240> 50<00:12:23.640> megatons,<00:12:24.880> we're<00:12:25.040> still 00:12:25.590 --> 00:12:25.600 align:start position:0% had a yield of 50 megatons, we're still 00:12:25.600 --> 00:12:30.990 align:start position:0% had a yield of 50 megatons, we're still only<00:12:25.840> looking<00:12:26.200> at<00:12:26.440> 2.09<00:12:27.360> *<00:12:27.640> 10<00:12:27.840> ^<00:12:28.280> 17<00:12:29.320> J.<00:12:30.240> A<00:12:30.360> full 00:12:30.990 --> 00:12:31.000 align:start position:0% only looking at 2.09 * 10 ^ 17 J. A full 00:12:31.000 --> 00:12:34.110 align:start position:0% only looking at 2.09 * 10 ^ 17 J. A full 5,000<00:12:32.120> times<00:12:32.560> weaker<00:12:33.080> than<00:12:33.280> our<00:12:33.520> antimatter 00:12:34.110 --> 00:12:34.120 align:start position:0% 5,000 times weaker than our antimatter 00:12:34.120 --> 00:12:36.829 align:start position:0% 5,000 times weaker than our antimatter grand<00:12:34.400> piano.<00:12:35.360> And<00:12:35.680> the<00:12:35.800> Tsar<00:12:36.120> Bomba<00:12:36.440> blast 00:12:36.829 --> 00:12:36.839 align:start position:0% grand piano. And the Tsar Bomba blast 00:12:36.839 --> 00:12:41.270 align:start position:0% grand piano. And the Tsar Bomba blast was<00:12:37.000> so<00:12:37.280> great,<00:12:38.000> towns<00:12:38.520> within<00:12:39.200> 55<00:12:40.080> km,<00:12:40.960> like 00:12:41.270 --> 00:12:41.280 align:start position:0% was so great, towns within 55 km, like 00:12:41.280 --> 00:12:45.590 align:start position:0% was so great, towns within 55 km, like 70,<00:12:42.280> were<00:12:42.480> leveled.<00:12:43.680> Wooden<00:12:44.040> buildings<00:12:44.560> 160 00:12:45.590 --> 00:12:45.600 align:start position:0% 70, were leveled. Wooden buildings 160 00:12:45.600 --> 00:12:48.750 align:start position:0% 70, were leveled. Wooden buildings 160 km<00:12:46.040> away<00:12:46.520> were<00:12:46.640> reportedly<00:12:47.400> damaged.<00:12:48.640> The 00:12:48.750 --> 00:12:48.760 align:start position:0% km away were reportedly damaged. The 00:12:48.760 --> 00:12:51.750 align:start position:0% km away were reportedly damaged. The light<00:12:49.240> from<00:12:49.440> the<00:12:49.520> blast<00:12:49.960> was<00:12:50.120> seen<00:12:50.520> 1,000<00:12:51.320> km 00:12:51.750 --> 00:12:51.760 align:start position:0% light from the blast was seen 1,000 km 00:12:51.760 --> 00:12:52.710 align:start position:0% light from the blast was seen 1,000 km away. 00:12:52.710 --> 00:12:52.720 align:start position:0% away. 00:12:52.720 --> 00:12:55.230 align:start position:0% away. Windows<00:12:53.080> in<00:12:53.200> Norway<00:12:53.960> and<00:12:54.160> Finland<00:12:55.080> were 00:12:55.230 --> 00:12:55.240 align:start position:0% Windows in Norway and Finland were 00:12:55.240 --> 00:12:57.990 align:start position:0% Windows in Norway and Finland were shattered<00:12:55.880> by<00:12:56.040> the<00:12:56.160> explosion. 00:12:57.990 --> 00:12:58.000 align:start position:0% shattered by the explosion. 00:12:58.000 --> 00:13:01.910 align:start position:0% shattered by the explosion. If<00:12:58.280> just<00:12:58.880> 600<00:12:59.600> kg<00:13:00.200> of<00:13:00.400> our<00:13:00.680> antimatter<00:13:01.360> meteor 00:13:01.910 --> 00:13:01.920 align:start position:0% If just 600 kg of our antimatter meteor 00:13:01.920 --> 00:13:03.870 align:start position:0% If just 600 kg of our antimatter meteor impacted<00:13:02.560> in<00:13:02.680> the<00:13:02.760> middle<00:13:03.040> of<00:13:03.120> a<00:13:03.160> state<00:13:03.600> like 00:13:03.870 --> 00:13:03.880 align:start position:0% impacted in the middle of a state like 00:13:03.880 --> 00:13:05.030 align:start position:0% impacted in the middle of a state like Texas, 00:13:05.030 --> 00:13:05.040 align:start position:0% Texas, 00:13:05.040 --> 00:13:08.110 align:start position:0% Texas, the<00:13:05.200> whole<00:13:05.880> state<00:13:06.560> would<00:13:06.640> be<00:13:06.880> destroyed.<00:13:08.000> The 00:13:08.110 --> 00:13:08.120 align:start position:0% the whole state would be destroyed. The 00:13:08.120 --> 00:13:12.710 align:start position:0% the whole state would be destroyed. The center<00:13:08.800> vaporized,<00:13:10.120> the<00:13:10.240> rest<00:13:11.000> devastated. 00:13:12.710 --> 00:13:12.720 align:start position:0% center vaporized, the rest devastated. 00:13:12.720 --> 00:13:14.590 align:start position:0% center vaporized, the rest devastated. This<00:13:12.920> is<00:13:13.080> just<00:13:13.400> the<00:13:13.560> energy<00:13:13.920> released<00:13:14.360> from 00:13:14.590 --> 00:13:14.600 align:start position:0% This is just the energy released from 00:13:14.600 --> 00:13:17.350 align:start position:0% This is just the energy released from our<00:13:14.920> antimatter<00:13:15.640> meteor<00:13:16.280> annihilating<00:13:17.160> on 00:13:17.350 --> 00:13:17.360 align:start position:0% our antimatter meteor annihilating on 00:13:17.360 --> 00:13:20.230 align:start position:0% our antimatter meteor annihilating on the<00:13:17.480> ground,<00:13:18.600> not<00:13:19.000> even<00:13:19.360> going<00:13:19.680> into<00:13:19.920> things 00:13:20.230 --> 00:13:20.240 align:start position:0% the ground, not even going into things 00:13:20.240 --> 00:13:22.230 align:start position:0% the ground, not even going into things like<00:13:20.640> kinetic<00:13:21.120> energy. 00:13:22.230 --> 00:13:22.240 align:start position:0% like kinetic energy. 00:13:22.240 --> 00:13:24.670 align:start position:0% like kinetic energy. But<00:13:22.360> even<00:13:22.600> then,<00:13:23.160> it's<00:13:23.360> actually<00:13:23.800> not<00:13:24.400> just 00:13:24.670 --> 00:13:24.680 align:start position:0% But even then, it's actually not just 00:13:24.680 --> 00:13:26.630 align:start position:0% But even then, it's actually not just the<00:13:24.760> 600<00:13:25.200> kg<00:13:25.720> that<00:13:25.839> hits<00:13:26.040> the<00:13:26.120> ground<00:13:26.400> we<00:13:26.480> need 00:13:26.630 --> 00:13:26.640 align:start position:0% the 600 kg that hits the ground we need 00:13:26.640 --> 00:13:28.070 align:start position:0% the 600 kg that hits the ground we need to<00:13:26.720> worry<00:13:26.920> about. 00:13:28.070 --> 00:13:28.080 align:start position:0% to worry about. 00:13:28.080 --> 00:13:29.950 align:start position:0% to worry about. When<00:13:28.200> you<00:13:28.280> consider<00:13:28.680> the<00:13:28.840> rest<00:13:29.360> of<00:13:29.520> that 00:13:29.950 --> 00:13:29.960 align:start position:0% When you consider the rest of that 00:13:29.960 --> 00:13:32.510 align:start position:0% When you consider the rest of that 91,200 00:13:32.510 --> 00:13:32.520 align:start position:0% 91,200 00:13:32.520 --> 00:13:34.990 align:start position:0% 91,200 kg<00:13:33.000> of<00:13:33.120> mass<00:13:33.440> that<00:13:33.600> was<00:13:33.720> annihilated<00:13:34.640> in<00:13:34.760> the 00:13:34.990 --> 00:13:35.000 align:start position:0% kg of mass that was annihilated in the 00:13:35.000 --> 00:13:38.190 align:start position:0% kg of mass that was annihilated in the atmosphere,<00:13:36.280> the<00:13:36.360> blast<00:13:36.720> radius<00:13:37.360> becomes<00:13:38.080> a 00:13:38.190 --> 00:13:38.200 align:start position:0% atmosphere, the blast radius becomes a 00:13:38.200 --> 00:13:40.150 align:start position:0% atmosphere, the blast radius becomes a lot<00:13:39.000> bigger. 00:13:40.150 --> 00:13:40.160 align:start position:0% lot bigger. 00:13:40.160 --> 00:13:41.790 align:start position:0% lot bigger. While<00:13:40.320> some<00:13:40.520> of<00:13:40.600> that<00:13:40.800> energy<00:13:41.160> will<00:13:41.280> travel 00:13:41.790 --> 00:13:41.800 align:start position:0% While some of that energy will travel 00:13:41.800 --> 00:13:44.230 align:start position:0% While some of that energy will travel upwards<00:13:42.400> into<00:13:42.640> space,<00:13:43.560> minimizing<00:13:44.160> the 00:13:44.230 --> 00:13:44.240 align:start position:0% upwards into space, minimizing the 00:13:44.240 --> 00:13:45.670 align:start position:0% upwards into space, minimizing the damage<00:13:44.600> below, 00:13:45.670 --> 00:13:45.680 align:start position:0% damage below, 00:13:45.680 --> 00:13:47.550 align:start position:0% damage below, suddenly,<00:13:46.440> you're<00:13:46.560> not<00:13:46.760> just<00:13:46.960> worrying<00:13:47.280> about 00:13:47.550 --> 00:13:47.560 align:start position:0% suddenly, you're not just worrying about 00:13:47.560 --> 00:13:49.870 align:start position:0% suddenly, you're not just worrying about Texas.<00:13:48.640> You're<00:13:48.800> worrying<00:13:49.440> about<00:13:49.760> the 00:13:49.870 --> 00:13:49.880 align:start position:0% Texas. You're worrying about the 00:13:49.880 --> 00:13:52.750 align:start position:0% Texas. You're worrying about the entirety<00:13:50.760> of<00:13:50.880> the<00:13:50.960> USA. 00:13:52.750 --> 00:13:52.760 align:start position:0% entirety of the USA. 00:13:52.760 --> 00:13:54.950 align:start position:0% entirety of the USA. All<00:13:53.040> that's<00:13:53.560> just<00:13:53.840> from<00:13:54.000> an<00:13:54.200> antimatter 00:13:54.950 --> 00:13:54.960 align:start position:0% All that's just from an antimatter 00:13:54.960 --> 00:13:57.630 align:start position:0% All that's just from an antimatter meteor<00:13:55.840> that's<00:13:56.000> comparable<00:13:56.760> in<00:13:56.920> size<00:13:57.400> to<00:13:57.560> a 00:13:57.630 --> 00:13:57.640 align:start position:0% meteor that's comparable in size to a 00:13:57.640 --> 00:13:59.110 align:start position:0% meteor that's comparable in size to a car. 00:13:59.110 --> 00:13:59.120 align:start position:0% car. 00:13:59.120 --> 00:14:01.870 align:start position:0% car. We<00:13:59.280> really<00:13:59.920> do<00:14:00.160> not<00:14:00.360> want<00:14:00.560> to<00:14:00.640> get<00:14:00.840> hit<00:14:01.480> by<00:14:01.680> an 00:14:01.870 --> 00:14:01.880 align:start position:0% We really do not want to get hit by an 00:14:01.880 --> 00:14:04.630 align:start position:0% We really do not want to get hit by an antimatter<00:14:02.680> meteor. 00:14:04.630 --> 00:14:04.640 align:start position:0% antimatter meteor. 00:14:04.640 --> 00:14:07.350 align:start position:0% antimatter meteor. So,<00:14:05.000> what<00:14:05.440> actually<00:14:05.880> are<00:14:06.080> the<00:14:06.200> risks<00:14:06.560> here? 00:14:07.350 --> 00:14:07.360 align:start position:0% So, what actually are the risks here? 00:14:07.360 --> 00:14:09.590 align:start position:0% So, what actually are the risks here? Let's<00:14:07.520> say<00:14:07.720> that<00:14:07.880> an<00:14:08.000> antimatter<00:14:08.560> meteor<00:14:09.120> had 00:14:09.590 --> 00:14:09.600 align:start position:0% Let's say that an antimatter meteor had 00:14:09.600 --> 00:14:11.470 align:start position:0% Let's say that an antimatter meteor had got<00:14:09.800> swept<00:14:10.120> up<00:14:10.240> in<00:14:10.320> the<00:14:10.400> sun's<00:14:10.640> gravity<00:14:11.080> well 00:14:11.470 --> 00:14:11.480 align:start position:0% got swept up in the sun's gravity well 00:14:11.480 --> 00:14:14.350 align:start position:0% got swept up in the sun's gravity well millions<00:14:12.080> to<00:14:12.360> billions<00:14:13.040> of<00:14:13.160> years<00:14:13.400> ago. 00:14:14.350 --> 00:14:14.360 align:start position:0% millions to billions of years ago. 00:14:14.360 --> 00:14:18.230 align:start position:0% millions to billions of years ago. Could<00:14:14.520> it<00:14:14.680> now<00:14:14.960> be<00:14:15.360> one<00:14:15.560> of<00:14:15.680> the<00:14:15.840> 40,155 00:14:18.230 --> 00:14:18.240 align:start position:0% Could it now be one of the 40,155 00:14:18.240 --> 00:14:21.390 align:start position:0% Could it now be one of the 40,155 near-Earth<00:14:18.880> asteroids<00:14:19.440> that<00:14:19.640> NASA<00:14:19.920> tracks? 00:14:21.390 --> 00:14:21.400 align:start position:0% near-Earth asteroids that NASA tracks? 00:14:21.400 --> 00:14:24.510 align:start position:0% near-Earth asteroids that NASA tracks? The<00:14:21.440> good<00:14:21.640> news<00:14:22.000> is<00:14:22.960> no. 00:14:24.510 --> 00:14:24.520 align:start position:0% The good news is no. 00:14:24.520 --> 00:14:26.910 align:start position:0% The good news is no. For<00:14:24.600> one<00:14:24.960> simple<00:14:25.400> reason. 00:14:26.910 --> 00:14:26.920 align:start position:0% For one simple reason. 00:14:26.920 --> 00:14:29.710 align:start position:0% For one simple reason. Space<00:14:27.680> isn't<00:14:28.000> actually<00:14:28.440> empty. 00:14:29.710 --> 00:14:29.720 align:start position:0% Space isn't actually empty. 00:14:29.720 --> 00:14:32.350 align:start position:0% Space isn't actually empty. While<00:14:29.920> we<00:14:30.040> talk<00:14:30.480> of<00:14:30.680> space<00:14:31.040> being<00:14:31.280> a<00:14:31.320> vacuum, 00:14:32.350 --> 00:14:32.360 align:start position:0% While we talk of space being a vacuum, 00:14:32.360 --> 00:14:35.070 align:start position:0% While we talk of space being a vacuum, even<00:14:32.800> in<00:14:33.040> space,<00:14:33.720> there<00:14:33.920> are<00:14:34.000> trace<00:14:34.560> amounts 00:14:35.070 --> 00:14:35.080 align:start position:0% even in space, there are trace amounts 00:14:35.080 --> 00:14:38.550 align:start position:0% even in space, there are trace amounts of<00:14:35.280> dust<00:14:35.760> floating<00:14:36.280> in<00:14:36.480> the<00:14:36.600> void.<00:14:37.680> As<00:14:37.880> such, 00:14:38.550 --> 00:14:38.560 align:start position:0% of dust floating in the void. As such, 00:14:38.560 --> 00:14:40.950 align:start position:0% of dust floating in the void. As such, an<00:14:38.760> antimatter<00:14:39.320> asteroid<00:14:40.000> traveling<00:14:40.680> even 00:14:40.950 --> 00:14:40.960 align:start position:0% an antimatter asteroid traveling even 00:14:40.960 --> 00:14:43.190 align:start position:0% an antimatter asteroid traveling even through<00:14:41.240> the<00:14:41.360> interstellar<00:14:41.960> medium<00:14:42.960> would 00:14:43.190 --> 00:14:43.200 align:start position:0% through the interstellar medium would 00:14:43.200 --> 00:14:45.670 align:start position:0% through the interstellar medium would not<00:14:43.640> likely<00:14:44.120> have<00:14:44.440> a<00:14:44.480> survival<00:14:45.000> rate<00:14:45.520> of 00:14:45.670 --> 00:14:45.680 align:start position:0% not likely have a survival rate of 00:14:45.680 --> 00:14:48.470 align:start position:0% not likely have a survival rate of longer<00:14:46.040> than<00:14:46.200> around<00:14:46.560> 300<00:14:47.200> years. 00:14:48.470 --> 00:14:48.480 align:start position:0% longer than around 300 years. 00:14:48.480 --> 00:14:51.030 align:start position:0% longer than around 300 years. As<00:14:48.640> we<00:14:48.800> last<00:14:49.120> clipped<00:14:49.440> another<00:14:49.680> star<00:14:50.120> 70,000 00:14:51.030 --> 00:14:51.040 align:start position:0% As we last clipped another star 70,000 00:14:51.040 --> 00:14:53.110 align:start position:0% As we last clipped another star 70,000 years<00:14:51.200> ago,<00:14:51.760> Scholz's<00:14:52.200> star,<00:14:52.640> in<00:14:52.760> case<00:14:53.000> you're 00:14:53.110 --> 00:14:53.120 align:start position:0% years ago, Scholz's star, in case you're 00:14:53.120 --> 00:14:55.630 align:start position:0% years ago, Scholz's star, in case you're interested,<00:14:54.120> it<00:14:54.360> would<00:14:54.640> have<00:14:55.000> to<00:14:55.200> have<00:14:55.320> been 00:14:55.630 --> 00:14:55.640 align:start position:0% interested, it would have to have been 00:14:55.640 --> 00:14:58.950 align:start position:0% interested, it would have to have been an<00:14:55.760> exceptionally<00:14:56.839> lucky<00:14:57.400> antimatter<00:14:58.000> meteor 00:14:58.950 --> 00:14:58.960 align:start position:0% an exceptionally lucky antimatter meteor 00:14:58.960 --> 00:15:00.670 align:start position:0% an exceptionally lucky antimatter meteor to<00:14:59.120> not<00:14:59.520> only<00:14:59.760> dodge<00:15:00.200> all<00:15:00.320> the<00:15:00.440> other 00:15:00.670 --> 00:15:00.680 align:start position:0% to not only dodge all the other 00:15:00.680 --> 00:15:03.510 align:start position:0% to not only dodge all the other asteroids<00:15:01.240> in<00:15:01.320> that<00:15:01.520> time,<00:15:02.280> but<00:15:02.520> also<00:15:02.960> to<00:15:03.160> have 00:15:03.510 --> 00:15:03.520 align:start position:0% asteroids in that time, but also to have 00:15:03.520 --> 00:15:06.350 align:start position:0% asteroids in that time, but also to have not<00:15:03.800> encountered<00:15:04.400> enough<00:15:04.760> dust<00:15:05.400> since<00:15:05.720> then 00:15:06.350 --> 00:15:06.360 align:start position:0% not encountered enough dust since then 00:15:06.360 --> 00:15:08.190 align:start position:0% not encountered enough dust since then that<00:15:06.480> it<00:15:06.560> would<00:15:06.680> have<00:15:06.839> disintegrated<00:15:07.960> into 00:15:08.190 --> 00:15:08.200 align:start position:0% that it would have disintegrated into 00:15:08.200 --> 00:15:10.270 align:start position:0% that it would have disintegrated into gamma<00:15:08.520> radiation. 00:15:10.270 --> 00:15:10.280 align:start position:0% gamma radiation. 00:15:10.280 --> 00:15:12.510 align:start position:0% gamma radiation. For<00:15:10.400> this<00:15:10.640> same<00:15:11.000> reason,<00:15:11.720> an<00:15:11.960> interstellar 00:15:12.510 --> 00:15:12.520 align:start position:0% For this same reason, an interstellar 00:15:12.520 --> 00:15:14.150 align:start position:0% For this same reason, an interstellar antimatter<00:15:13.080> comet<00:15:13.600> coming<00:15:13.839> through<00:15:14.040> our 00:15:14.150 --> 00:15:14.160 align:start position:0% antimatter comet coming through our 00:15:14.160 --> 00:15:15.035 align:start position:0% antimatter comet coming through our solar<00:15:14.440> system 00:15:15.035 --> 00:15:15.045 align:start position:0% solar system 00:15:15.045 --> 00:15:15.070 align:start position:0% solar system >> [music] 00:15:15.070 --> 00:15:15.080 align:start position:0% >> [music] 00:15:15.080 --> 00:15:16.829 align:start position:0% >> [music] >> would<00:15:15.280> be<00:15:15.520> unlikely. 00:15:16.829 --> 00:15:16.839 align:start position:0% >> would be unlikely. 00:15:16.839 --> 00:15:19.070 align:start position:0% >> would be unlikely. Small<00:15:17.120> ones<00:15:17.400> would<00:15:17.680> burn<00:15:18.040> up<00:15:18.320> before<00:15:18.680> reaching 00:15:19.070 --> 00:15:19.080 align:start position:0% Small ones would burn up before reaching 00:15:19.080 --> 00:15:20.750 align:start position:0% Small ones would burn up before reaching us,<00:15:19.640> and<00:15:19.800> large<00:15:20.080> masses<00:15:20.480> would<00:15:20.640> be 00:15:20.750 --> 00:15:20.760 align:start position:0% us, and large masses would be 00:15:20.760 --> 00:15:23.310 align:start position:0% us, and large masses would be noticeable.<00:15:21.800> They<00:15:21.960> would<00:15:22.120> emit<00:15:22.720> a<00:15:22.840> steady 00:15:23.310 --> 00:15:23.320 align:start position:0% noticeable. They would emit a steady 00:15:23.320 --> 00:15:25.430 align:start position:0% noticeable. They would emit a steady stream<00:15:23.720> of<00:15:23.840> gamma<00:15:24.120> rays<00:15:24.400> as<00:15:24.520> they<00:15:24.640> traveled, 00:15:25.430 --> 00:15:25.440 align:start position:0% stream of gamma rays as they traveled, 00:15:25.440 --> 00:15:26.870 align:start position:0% stream of gamma rays as they traveled, making<00:15:25.800> them<00:15:25.960> detectable<00:15:26.640> to<00:15:26.760> our 00:15:26.870 --> 00:15:26.880 align:start position:0% making them detectable to our 00:15:26.880 --> 00:15:28.150 align:start position:0% making them detectable to our telescopes. 00:15:28.150 --> 00:15:28.160 align:start position:0% telescopes. 00:15:28.160 --> 00:15:30.870 align:start position:0% telescopes. No<00:15:28.360> such<00:15:28.800> sparkling<00:15:29.440> asteroids<00:15:30.000> have<00:15:30.400> ever 00:15:30.870 --> 00:15:30.880 align:start position:0% No such sparkling asteroids have ever 00:15:30.880 --> 00:15:32.550 align:start position:0% No such sparkling asteroids have ever been<00:15:31.120> detected. 00:15:32.550 --> 00:15:32.560 align:start position:0% been detected. 00:15:32.560 --> 00:15:34.790 align:start position:0% been detected. So,<00:15:33.160> all<00:15:33.360> in<00:15:33.520> all,<00:15:34.240> while<00:15:34.440> it<00:15:34.560> would<00:15:34.680> be 00:15:34.790 --> 00:15:34.800 align:start position:0% So, all in all, while it would be 00:15:34.800 --> 00:15:36.790 align:start position:0% So, all in all, while it would be devastating<00:15:35.600> to<00:15:35.720> be<00:15:35.840> hit<00:15:36.040> by<00:15:36.160> an<00:15:36.320> antimatter 00:15:36.790 --> 00:15:36.800 align:start position:0% devastating to be hit by an antimatter 00:15:36.800 --> 00:15:39.790 align:start position:0% devastating to be hit by an antimatter meteor,<00:15:37.760> it<00:15:37.920> is<00:15:38.520> unlikely<00:15:39.320> that<00:15:39.480> one<00:15:39.640> would 00:15:39.790 --> 00:15:39.800 align:start position:0% meteor, it is unlikely that one would 00:15:39.800 --> 00:15:42.030 align:start position:0% meteor, it is unlikely that one would survive<00:15:40.200> long<00:15:40.400> enough<00:15:40.640> to<00:15:40.800> reach<00:15:41.040> our<00:15:41.240> planet, 00:15:42.030 --> 00:15:42.040 align:start position:0% survive long enough to reach our planet, 00:15:42.040 --> 00:15:45.030 align:start position:0% survive long enough to reach our planet, assuming<00:15:42.440> they<00:15:43.120> and<00:15:43.400> antimatter<00:15:43.840> stars<00:15:44.600> exist 00:15:45.030 --> 00:15:45.040 align:start position:0% assuming they and antimatter stars exist 00:15:45.040 --> 00:15:46.710 align:start position:0% assuming they and antimatter stars exist in<00:15:45.120> the<00:15:45.200> first<00:15:45.480> place. 00:15:46.710 --> 00:15:46.720 align:start position:0% in the first place. 00:15:46.720 --> 00:15:48.990 align:start position:0% in the first place. We<00:15:46.840> are<00:15:46.960> probably<00:15:47.680> quite<00:15:48.000> safe. 00:15:48.990 --> 00:15:49.000 align:start position:0% We are probably quite safe. 00:15:49.000 --> 00:15:51.910 align:start position:0% We are probably quite safe. Besides,<00:15:49.840> if<00:15:50.000> antimatter<00:15:50.480> meteors<00:15:50.920> existed, 00:15:51.910 --> 00:15:51.920 align:start position:0% Besides, if antimatter meteors existed, 00:15:51.920 --> 00:15:53.390 align:start position:0% Besides, if antimatter meteors existed, we<00:15:52.040> might<00:15:52.280> have<00:15:52.400> seen<00:15:52.600> some<00:15:52.760> evidence<00:15:53.120> of<00:15:53.200> them 00:15:53.390 --> 00:15:53.400 align:start position:0% we might have seen some evidence of them 00:15:53.400 --> 00:15:56.550 align:start position:0% we might have seen some evidence of them before.<00:15:54.480> Meteor<00:15:54.840> impacts<00:15:55.400> with<00:15:55.720> unusual 00:15:56.550 --> 00:15:56.560 align:start position:0% before. Meteor impacts with unusual 00:15:56.560 --> 00:15:58.870 align:start position:0% before. Meteor impacts with unusual destructive<00:15:57.120> capacity,<00:15:58.160> but<00:15:58.360> leaving<00:15:58.720> no 00:15:58.870 --> 00:15:58.880 align:start position:0% destructive capacity, but leaving no 00:15:58.880 --> 00:16:01.190 align:start position:0% destructive capacity, but leaving no traces<00:15:59.400> of<00:15:59.480> the<00:15:59.600> meteor<00:16:00.000> that<00:16:00.200> caused<00:16:00.560> it. 00:16:01.190 --> 00:16:01.200 align:start position:0% traces of the meteor that caused it. 00:16:01.200 --> 00:16:03.550 align:start position:0% traces of the meteor that caused it. We've<00:16:01.480> not<00:16:01.640> seen<00:16:01.920> anything<00:16:02.320> like<00:16:02.520> that. 00:16:03.550 --> 00:16:03.560 align:start position:0% We've not seen anything like that. 00:16:03.560 --> 00:16:05.670 align:start position:0% We've not seen anything like that. Have<00:16:03.720> we? 00:16:05.670 --> 00:16:05.680 align:start position:0% Have we? 00:16:05.680 --> 00:16:09.390 align:start position:0% Have we? In<00:16:05.920> June<00:16:06.520> 1908,<00:16:07.880> a<00:16:07.960> fireball<00:16:08.560> lit<00:16:08.760> up<00:16:08.880> the<00:16:08.960> sky 00:16:09.390 --> 00:16:09.400 align:start position:0% In June 1908, a fireball lit up the sky 00:16:09.400 --> 00:16:12.070 align:start position:0% In June 1908, a fireball lit up the sky in<00:16:09.560> a<00:16:09.600> remote<00:16:09.960> part<00:16:10.240> of<00:16:10.320> Siberia.<00:16:11.560> The<00:16:11.640> meteor 00:16:12.070 --> 00:16:12.080 align:start position:0% in a remote part of Siberia. The meteor 00:16:12.080 --> 00:16:14.590 align:start position:0% in a remote part of Siberia. The meteor exploded<00:16:12.880> before<00:16:13.160> hitting<00:16:13.400> the<00:16:13.480> ground,<00:16:14.280> its 00:16:14.590 --> 00:16:14.600 align:start position:0% exploded before hitting the ground, its 00:16:14.600 --> 00:16:17.350 align:start position:0% exploded before hitting the ground, its detonation<00:16:15.280> causing<00:16:15.840> massive<00:16:16.320> forest<00:16:16.680> fires 00:16:17.350 --> 00:16:17.360 align:start position:0% detonation causing massive forest fires 00:16:17.360 --> 00:16:19.310 align:start position:0% detonation causing massive forest fires and<00:16:17.560> sending<00:16:17.880> trees<00:16:18.360> crashing<00:16:18.800> to<00:16:18.880> the<00:16:18.960> ground 00:16:19.310 --> 00:16:19.320 align:start position:0% and sending trees crashing to the ground 00:16:19.320 --> 00:16:21.710 align:start position:0% and sending trees crashing to the ground like<00:16:19.520> bowling<00:16:20.040> pins<00:16:20.680> in<00:16:20.800> an<00:16:21.000> area<00:16:21.600> of 00:16:21.710 --> 00:16:21.720 align:start position:0% like bowling pins in an area of 00:16:21.720 --> 00:16:24.270 align:start position:0% like bowling pins in an area of destruction<00:16:22.400> kilometers<00:16:23.160> wide. 00:16:24.270 --> 00:16:24.280 align:start position:0% destruction kilometers wide. 00:16:24.280 --> 00:16:27.350 align:start position:0% destruction kilometers wide. Witnesses<00:16:24.839> more<00:16:25.120> than<00:16:25.360> 30<00:16:25.880> km<00:16:26.440> away<00:16:26.800> reported 00:16:27.350 --> 00:16:27.360 align:start position:0% Witnesses more than 30 km away reported 00:16:27.360 --> 00:16:29.990 align:start position:0% Witnesses more than 30 km away reported seeing<00:16:27.640> a<00:16:27.800> flash<00:16:28.440> brighter<00:16:28.960> than<00:16:29.080> the<00:16:29.200> sun 00:16:29.990 --> 00:16:30.000 align:start position:0% seeing a flash brighter than the sun 00:16:30.000 --> 00:16:33.070 align:start position:0% seeing a flash brighter than the sun followed<00:16:30.520> by<00:16:30.880> a<00:16:31.040> roar<00:16:31.640> of<00:16:31.800> thunder.<00:16:32.800> Due<00:16:33.000> to 00:16:33.070 --> 00:16:33.080 align:start position:0% followed by a roar of thunder. Due to 00:16:33.080 --> 00:16:35.630 align:start position:0% followed by a roar of thunder. Due to its<00:16:33.240> remoteness,<00:16:34.200> scientific<00:16:34.720> teams<00:16:35.120> did<00:16:35.320> not 00:16:35.630 --> 00:16:35.640 align:start position:0% its remoteness, scientific teams did not 00:16:35.640 --> 00:16:38.390 align:start position:0% its remoteness, scientific teams did not arrive<00:16:36.000> at<00:16:36.040> the<00:16:36.120> site<00:16:36.440> until<00:16:36.839> 1927, 00:16:38.390 --> 00:16:38.400 align:start position:0% arrive at the site until 1927, 00:16:38.400 --> 00:16:40.590 align:start position:0% arrive at the site until 1927, but<00:16:38.560> even<00:16:38.800> then,<00:16:39.360> the<00:16:39.440> destruction<00:16:40.040> caused<00:16:40.480> by 00:16:40.590 --> 00:16:40.600 align:start position:0% but even then, the destruction caused by 00:16:40.600 --> 00:16:42.950 align:start position:0% but even then, the destruction caused by the<00:16:40.720> blast<00:16:41.120> was<00:16:41.400> easy<00:16:41.760> to<00:16:41.880> see. 00:16:42.950 --> 00:16:42.960 align:start position:0% the blast was easy to see. 00:16:42.960 --> 00:16:44.771 align:start position:0% the blast was easy to see. Strangely,<00:16:43.760> for<00:16:43.880> an<00:16:44.040> object<00:16:44.400> that<00:16:44.520> caused 00:16:44.771 --> 00:16:44.781 align:start position:0% Strangely, for an object that caused 00:16:44.781 --> 00:16:47.630 align:start position:0% Strangely, for an object that caused [music]<00:16:45.080> such<00:16:45.480> destruction,<00:16:46.800> almost<00:16:47.280> no 00:16:47.630 --> 00:16:47.640 align:start position:0% [music] such destruction, almost no 00:16:47.640 --> 00:16:50.310 align:start position:0% [music] such destruction, almost no trace<00:16:48.160> of<00:16:48.320> the<00:16:48.440> meteor<00:16:48.880> was<00:16:49.160> ever<00:16:49.480> found 00:16:50.310 --> 00:16:50.320 align:start position:0% trace of the meteor was ever found 00:16:50.320 --> 00:16:53.950 align:start position:0% trace of the meteor was ever found beyond<00:16:50.800> a<00:16:50.960> few<00:16:51.760> microparticles. 00:16:53.950 --> 00:16:53.960 align:start position:0% beyond a few microparticles. 00:16:53.960 --> 00:16:56.110 align:start position:0% beyond a few microparticles. But<00:16:54.040> the<00:16:54.160> Tunguska<00:16:54.839> event<00:16:55.600> couldn't<00:16:56.000> have 00:16:56.110 --> 00:16:56.120 align:start position:0% But the Tunguska event couldn't have 00:16:56.120 --> 00:16:59.070 align:start position:0% But the Tunguska event couldn't have been<00:16:56.280> caused<00:16:56.640> by<00:16:56.839> an<00:16:57.040> antimatter<00:16:57.720> meteor, 00:16:59.070 --> 00:16:59.080 align:start position:0% been caused by an antimatter meteor, 00:16:59.080 --> 00:17:01.390 align:start position:0% been caused by an antimatter meteor, could<00:16:59.280> it? 00:17:01.390 --> 00:17:01.400 align:start position:0% could it? 00:17:01.400 --> 00:17:03.350 align:start position:0% could it? Don't<00:17:01.600> worry,<00:17:02.240> we<00:17:02.360> know<00:17:02.680> that<00:17:02.839> it<00:17:02.960> probably 00:17:03.350 --> 00:17:03.360 align:start position:0% Don't worry, we know that it probably 00:17:03.360 --> 00:17:05.550 align:start position:0% Don't worry, we know that it probably wasn't<00:17:03.800> an<00:17:03.960> antimatter<00:17:04.439> meteor, 00:17:05.550 --> 00:17:05.560 align:start position:0% wasn't an antimatter meteor, 00:17:05.560 --> 00:17:06.949 align:start position:0% wasn't an antimatter meteor, but<00:17:05.680> there<00:17:05.760> was<00:17:05.920> a<00:17:05.959> lot<00:17:06.160> of<00:17:06.240> debate<00:17:06.600> about<00:17:06.839> the 00:17:06.949 --> 00:17:06.959 align:start position:0% but there was a lot of debate about the 00:17:06.959 --> 00:17:08.790 align:start position:0% but there was a lot of debate about the topic<00:17:07.280> in<00:17:07.400> the<00:17:07.480> past,<00:17:08.360> and<00:17:08.480> we<00:17:08.600> couldn't 00:17:08.790 --> 00:17:08.800 align:start position:0% topic in the past, and we couldn't 00:17:08.800 --> 00:17:15.030 align:start position:0% topic in the past, and we couldn't resist<00:17:09.319> being<00:17:09.560> a<00:17:09.640> little<00:17:09.959> spooky. 00:17:15.030 --> 00:17:15.040 align:start position:0% 00:17:15.040 --> 00:17:17.590 align:start position:0% Have<00:17:15.240> a<00:17:15.319> look<00:17:15.720> around<00:17:16.240> you. 00:17:17.590 --> 00:17:17.600 align:start position:0% Have a look around you. 00:17:17.600 --> 00:17:19.829 align:start position:0% Have a look around you. Everything<00:17:18.120> you<00:17:18.280> see,<00:17:19.000> from<00:17:19.160> the<00:17:19.280> skin<00:17:19.720> of 00:17:19.829 --> 00:17:19.839 align:start position:0% Everything you see, from the skin of 00:17:19.839 --> 00:17:22.030 align:start position:0% Everything you see, from the skin of your<00:17:20.040> hands<00:17:20.839> to<00:17:20.959> the<00:17:21.079> screen<00:17:21.520> you're<00:17:21.680> watching 00:17:22.030 --> 00:17:22.040 align:start position:0% your hands to the screen you're watching 00:17:22.040 --> 00:17:24.230 align:start position:0% your hands to the screen you're watching this<00:17:22.199> video<00:17:22.640> on,<00:17:23.360> is<00:17:23.600> a<00:17:23.680> different 00:17:24.230 --> 00:17:24.240 align:start position:0% this video on, is a different 00:17:24.240 --> 00:17:27.069 align:start position:0% this video on, is a different combination<00:17:25.040> of<00:17:25.199> the<00:17:25.319> same<00:17:25.959> three<00:17:26.640> building 00:17:27.069 --> 00:17:27.079 align:start position:0% combination of the same three building 00:17:27.079 --> 00:17:28.670 align:start position:0% combination of the same three building blocks<00:17:27.480> of<00:17:27.600> matter: 00:17:28.670 --> 00:17:28.680 align:start position:0% blocks of matter: 00:17:28.680 --> 00:17:32.350 align:start position:0% blocks of matter: protons,<00:17:29.720> neutrons,<00:17:30.680> and<00:17:30.800> electrons. 00:17:32.350 --> 00:17:32.360 align:start position:0% protons, neutrons, and electrons. 00:17:32.360 --> 00:17:35.190 align:start position:0% protons, neutrons, and electrons. Now,<00:17:33.120> let's<00:17:33.400> look<00:17:33.760> a<00:17:33.840> little<00:17:34.120> farther.<00:17:34.880> Say<00:17:35.080> at 00:17:35.190 --> 00:17:35.200 align:start position:0% Now, let's look a little farther. Say at 00:17:35.200 --> 00:17:38.750 align:start position:0% Now, let's look a little farther. Say at Mars<00:17:35.960> or<00:17:36.120> the<00:17:36.240> Andromeda<00:17:36.720> galaxy,<00:17:37.840> or<00:17:38.400> even 00:17:38.750 --> 00:17:38.760 align:start position:0% Mars or the Andromeda galaxy, or even 00:17:38.760 --> 00:17:42.110 align:start position:0% Mars or the Andromeda galaxy, or even halfway<00:17:39.560> across<00:17:40.040> the<00:17:40.200> observable<00:17:40.960> universe, 00:17:42.110 --> 00:17:42.120 align:start position:0% halfway across the observable universe, 00:17:42.120 --> 00:17:45.070 align:start position:0% halfway across the observable universe, and<00:17:42.320> still<00:17:43.160> there<00:17:43.440> is<00:17:43.640> matter<00:17:44.320> made<00:17:44.640> of 00:17:45.070 --> 00:17:45.080 align:start position:0% and still there is matter made of 00:17:45.080 --> 00:17:48.910 align:start position:0% and still there is matter made of protons,<00:17:46.000> neutrons,<00:17:46.800> and<00:17:46.920> electrons<00:17:48.000> as<00:17:48.280> far 00:17:48.910 --> 00:17:48.920 align:start position:0% protons, neutrons, and electrons as far 00:17:48.920 --> 00:17:51.270 align:start position:0% protons, neutrons, and electrons as far as<00:17:49.120> the<00:17:49.360> eye<00:17:49.560> can<00:17:49.800> see. 00:17:51.270 --> 00:17:51.280 align:start position:0% as the eye can see. 00:17:51.280 --> 00:17:53.630 align:start position:0% as the eye can see. At<00:17:51.520> first,<00:17:51.880> this<00:17:52.120> might<00:17:52.480> not<00:17:52.720> sound<00:17:53.240> all<00:17:53.440> that 00:17:53.630 --> 00:17:53.640 align:start position:0% At first, this might not sound all that 00:17:53.640 --> 00:17:54.910 align:start position:0% At first, this might not sound all that surprising. 00:17:54.910 --> 00:17:54.920 align:start position:0% surprising. 00:17:54.920 --> 00:17:57.550 align:start position:0% surprising. But<00:17:55.080> for<00:17:55.240> once,<00:17:55.920> the<00:17:56.000> mystery<00:17:56.440> here<00:17:57.160> isn't 00:17:57.550 --> 00:17:57.560 align:start position:0% But for once, the mystery here isn't 00:17:57.560 --> 00:17:59.110 align:start position:0% But for once, the mystery here isn't that<00:17:57.680> we've<00:17:57.920> seen<00:17:58.200> something<00:17:58.600> we<00:17:58.760> can't 00:17:59.110 --> 00:17:59.120 align:start position:0% that we've seen something we can't 00:17:59.120 --> 00:18:02.390 align:start position:0% that we've seen something we can't explain,<00:18:00.440> but<00:18:00.680> rather<00:18:01.440> that<00:18:01.600> we<00:18:01.760> haven't<00:18:02.160> seen 00:18:02.390 --> 00:18:02.400 align:start position:0% explain, but rather that we haven't seen 00:18:02.400 --> 00:18:04.870 align:start position:0% explain, but rather that we haven't seen something<00:18:02.960> we<00:18:03.160> were<00:18:03.360> expecting:<00:18:04.037> [music] 00:18:04.870 --> 00:18:04.880 align:start position:0% something we were expecting: [music] 00:18:04.880 --> 00:18:09.630 align:start position:0% something we were expecting: [music] a<00:18:05.080> universe<00:18:05.800> just<00:18:06.120> as<00:18:06.280> full<00:18:06.840> of<00:18:07.160> antimatter. 00:18:09.630 --> 00:18:09.640 align:start position:0% a universe just as full of antimatter. 00:18:09.640 --> 00:18:11.790 align:start position:0% a universe just as full of antimatter. I'm<00:18:10.000> Alex<00:18:10.240> McColgan,<00:18:11.040> and<00:18:11.240> you're<00:18:11.440> watching 00:18:11.790 --> 00:18:11.800 align:start position:0% I'm Alex McColgan, and you're watching 00:18:11.800 --> 00:18:14.790 align:start position:0% I'm Alex McColgan, and you're watching Astrium.<00:18:12.800> Join<00:18:13.080> me<00:18:13.200> today<00:18:13.600> as<00:18:13.800> we<00:18:13.920> explore<00:18:14.640> the 00:18:14.790 --> 00:18:14.800 align:start position:0% Astrium. Join me today as we explore the 00:18:14.800 --> 00:18:17.670 align:start position:0% Astrium. Join me today as we explore the world<00:18:15.280> of<00:18:15.520> antimatter<00:18:16.720> and<00:18:16.960> learn<00:18:17.240> about<00:18:17.560> its 00:18:17.670 --> 00:18:17.680 align:start position:0% world of antimatter and learn about its 00:18:17.680 --> 00:18:20.310 align:start position:0% world of antimatter and learn about its interactions<00:18:18.480> with<00:18:18.800> other<00:18:19.000> particles<00:18:20.040> and 00:18:20.310 --> 00:18:20.320 align:start position:0% interactions with other particles and 00:18:20.320 --> 00:18:22.190 align:start position:0% interactions with other particles and even<00:18:20.640> with<00:18:20.840> gravity. 00:18:22.190 --> 00:18:22.200 align:start position:0% even with gravity. 00:18:22.200 --> 00:18:23.830 align:start position:0% even with gravity. By<00:18:22.400> the<00:18:22.520> end<00:18:22.680> of<00:18:22.760> this<00:18:22.920> video,<00:18:23.640> you'll 00:18:23.830 --> 00:18:23.840 align:start position:0% By the end of this video, you'll 00:18:23.840 --> 00:18:26.910 align:start position:0% By the end of this video, you'll probably<00:18:24.400> agree<00:18:24.960> that<00:18:25.200> antimatter<00:18:25.920> is<00:18:26.240> a<00:18:26.400> bit 00:18:26.910 --> 00:18:26.920 align:start position:0% probably agree that antimatter is a bit 00:18:26.920 --> 00:18:29.390 align:start position:0% probably agree that antimatter is a bit weird,<00:18:27.880> but<00:18:28.080> you'll<00:18:28.280> also<00:18:28.600> see<00:18:28.840> why<00:18:29.040> some 00:18:29.390 --> 00:18:29.400 align:start position:0% weird, but you'll also see why some 00:18:29.400 --> 00:18:31.990 align:start position:0% weird, but you'll also see why some physicists<00:18:30.040> are<00:18:30.200> frustrated<00:18:31.280> that<00:18:31.400> it<00:18:31.560> isn't 00:18:31.990 --> 00:18:32.000 align:start position:0% physicists are frustrated that it isn't 00:18:32.000 --> 00:18:35.910 align:start position:0% physicists are frustrated that it isn't weird<00:18:32.400> enough. 00:18:35.910 --> 00:18:35.920 align:start position:0% 00:18:35.920 --> 00:18:37.790 align:start position:0% Let's<00:18:36.240> get<00:18:36.520> one<00:18:36.800> thing<00:18:37.200> out<00:18:37.400> of<00:18:37.480> the<00:18:37.600> way 00:18:37.790 --> 00:18:37.800 align:start position:0% Let's get one thing out of the way 00:18:37.800 --> 00:18:40.030 align:start position:0% Let's get one thing out of the way first.<00:18:38.840> Although<00:18:39.080> it<00:18:39.160> might<00:18:39.400> sound<00:18:39.840> like 00:18:40.030 --> 00:18:40.040 align:start position:0% first. Although it might sound like 00:18:40.040 --> 00:18:41.470 align:start position:0% first. Although it might sound like something<00:18:40.400> straight<00:18:40.920> out<00:18:41.080> of<00:18:41.160> science 00:18:41.470 --> 00:18:41.480 align:start position:0% something straight out of science 00:18:41.480 --> 00:18:45.230 align:start position:0% something straight out of science fiction,<00:18:42.240> antimatter<00:18:42.960> is<00:18:43.560> very<00:18:44.040> real. 00:18:45.230 --> 00:18:45.240 align:start position:0% fiction, antimatter is very real. 00:18:45.240 --> 00:18:47.710 align:start position:0% fiction, antimatter is very real. It<00:18:45.520> forms<00:18:45.880> a<00:18:45.960> critical<00:18:46.520> part<00:18:46.920> of<00:18:47.000> the<00:18:47.120> standard 00:18:47.710 --> 00:18:47.720 align:start position:0% It forms a critical part of the standard 00:18:47.720 --> 00:18:50.230 align:start position:0% It forms a critical part of the standard model<00:18:48.120> of<00:18:48.240> particle<00:18:48.680> physics,<00:18:49.560> and<00:18:49.720> particles 00:18:50.230 --> 00:18:50.240 align:start position:0% model of particle physics, and particles 00:18:50.240 --> 00:18:52.270 align:start position:0% model of particle physics, and particles of<00:18:50.400> antimatter<00:18:51.000> have<00:18:51.320> been<00:18:51.520> observed<00:18:52.120> in 00:18:52.270 --> 00:18:52.280 align:start position:0% of antimatter have been observed in 00:18:52.280 --> 00:18:56.270 align:start position:0% of antimatter have been observed in experiments<00:18:52.920> going<00:18:53.240> back<00:18:53.560> nearly<00:18:54.000> a<00:18:54.120> century. 00:18:56.270 --> 00:18:56.280 align:start position:0% experiments going back nearly a century. 00:18:56.280 --> 00:18:58.030 align:start position:0% experiments going back nearly a century. The<00:18:56.400> very<00:18:56.640> first<00:18:56.920> detection<00:18:57.400> of<00:18:57.520> antimatter 00:18:58.030 --> 00:18:58.040 align:start position:0% The very first detection of antimatter 00:18:58.040 --> 00:19:00.830 align:start position:0% The very first detection of antimatter dates<00:18:58.400> back<00:18:58.720> to<00:18:58.840> a<00:18:58.920> 1932<00:18:59.960> experiment 00:19:00.830 --> 00:19:00.840 align:start position:0% dates back to a 1932 experiment 00:19:00.840 --> 00:19:04.030 align:start position:0% dates back to a 1932 experiment conducted<00:19:01.320> by<00:19:01.520> Carl<00:19:01.960> D.<00:19:02.200> Anderson<00:19:02.880> at<00:19:03.000> Caltech 00:19:04.030 --> 00:19:04.040 align:start position:0% conducted by Carl D. Anderson at Caltech 00:19:04.040 --> 00:19:06.110 align:start position:0% conducted by Carl D. Anderson at Caltech using<00:19:04.440> a<00:19:04.520> cloud<00:19:04.920> chamber<00:19:05.400> immersed<00:19:05.960> in<00:19:06.080> a 00:19:06.110 --> 00:19:06.120 align:start position:0% using a cloud chamber immersed in a 00:19:06.120 --> 00:19:08.470 align:start position:0% using a cloud chamber immersed in a magnetic<00:19:06.680> field. 00:19:08.470 --> 00:19:08.480 align:start position:0% magnetic field. 00:19:08.480 --> 00:19:11.110 align:start position:0% magnetic field. When<00:19:08.880> charged<00:19:09.200> particles<00:19:09.800> from<00:19:10.080> outer<00:19:10.320> space, 00:19:11.110 --> 00:19:11.120 align:start position:0% When charged particles from outer space, 00:19:11.120 --> 00:19:13.910 align:start position:0% When charged particles from outer space, broadly<00:19:11.560> called<00:19:12.000> cosmic<00:19:12.480> rays,<00:19:13.360> intercept 00:19:13.910 --> 00:19:13.920 align:start position:0% broadly called cosmic rays, intercept 00:19:13.920 --> 00:19:16.030 align:start position:0% broadly called cosmic rays, intercept the<00:19:14.080> Earth's<00:19:14.360> orbit<00:19:14.880> and<00:19:15.120> fly<00:19:15.480> through<00:19:15.840> this 00:19:16.030 --> 00:19:16.040 align:start position:0% the Earth's orbit and fly through this 00:19:16.040 --> 00:19:18.670 align:start position:0% the Earth's orbit and fly through this chamber,<00:19:17.000> the<00:19:17.120> magnetic<00:19:17.640> field<00:19:18.000> curves<00:19:18.480> their 00:19:18.670 --> 00:19:18.680 align:start position:0% chamber, the magnetic field curves their 00:19:18.680 --> 00:19:21.110 align:start position:0% chamber, the magnetic field curves their paths<00:19:19.200> according<00:19:19.840> to<00:19:19.920> the<00:19:20.080> charge<00:19:20.560> and<00:19:20.760> mass 00:19:21.110 --> 00:19:21.120 align:start position:0% paths according to the charge and mass 00:19:21.120 --> 00:19:22.710 align:start position:0% paths according to the charge and mass of<00:19:21.320> each<00:19:21.520> particle. 00:19:22.710 --> 00:19:22.720 align:start position:0% of each particle. 00:19:22.720 --> 00:19:25.070 align:start position:0% of each particle. And<00:19:22.840> the<00:19:22.920> clouds<00:19:23.320> show<00:19:23.680> a<00:19:23.840> visible<00:19:24.360> imprint<00:19:24.920> of 00:19:25.070 --> 00:19:25.080 align:start position:0% And the clouds show a visible imprint of 00:19:25.080 --> 00:19:27.470 align:start position:0% And the clouds show a visible imprint of their<00:19:25.280> resulting<00:19:25.800> trajectories. 00:19:27.470 --> 00:19:27.480 align:start position:0% their resulting trajectories. 00:19:27.480 --> 00:19:29.430 align:start position:0% their resulting trajectories. Anderson<00:19:27.840> was<00:19:28.000> hoping<00:19:28.600> this<00:19:28.800> experiment 00:19:29.430 --> 00:19:29.440 align:start position:0% Anderson was hoping this experiment 00:19:29.440 --> 00:19:31.470 align:start position:0% Anderson was hoping this experiment would<00:19:29.600> help<00:19:29.880> determine<00:19:30.520> just<00:19:30.760> what<00:19:31.000> kinds<00:19:31.360> of 00:19:31.470 --> 00:19:31.480 align:start position:0% would help determine just what kinds of 00:19:31.480 --> 00:19:33.430 align:start position:0% would help determine just what kinds of particles<00:19:32.040> were<00:19:32.160> streaming<00:19:32.720> into<00:19:33.000> the<00:19:33.160> Earth 00:19:33.430 --> 00:19:33.440 align:start position:0% particles were streaming into the Earth 00:19:33.440 --> 00:19:36.030 align:start position:0% particles were streaming into the Earth from<00:19:33.680> the<00:19:33.760> cosmos,<00:19:34.880> and<00:19:35.040> he<00:19:35.200> may<00:19:35.560> have<00:19:35.760> found 00:19:36.030 --> 00:19:36.040 align:start position:0% from the cosmos, and he may have found 00:19:36.040 --> 00:19:37.670 align:start position:0% from the cosmos, and he may have found just<00:19:36.240> a<00:19:36.280> little<00:19:36.560> bit<00:19:36.720> more<00:19:36.960> than<00:19:37.120> he<00:19:37.240> bargained 00:19:37.670 --> 00:19:37.680 align:start position:0% just a little bit more than he bargained 00:19:37.680 --> 00:19:38.910 align:start position:0% just a little bit more than he bargained for. 00:19:38.910 --> 00:19:38.920 align:start position:0% for. 00:19:38.920 --> 00:19:41.310 align:start position:0% for. What<00:19:39.120> Anderson<00:19:39.600> saw<00:19:40.080> was<00:19:40.280> that<00:19:40.520> these<00:19:40.840> cosmic 00:19:41.310 --> 00:19:41.320 align:start position:0% What Anderson saw was that these cosmic 00:19:41.320 --> 00:19:44.510 align:start position:0% What Anderson saw was that these cosmic rays<00:19:41.840> included<00:19:42.520> both<00:19:42.840> positively<00:19:43.960> and 00:19:44.510 --> 00:19:44.520 align:start position:0% rays included both positively and 00:19:44.520 --> 00:19:46.910 align:start position:0% rays included both positively and negatively<00:19:45.240> charged<00:19:45.560> particles. 00:19:46.910 --> 00:19:46.920 align:start position:0% negatively charged particles. 00:19:46.920 --> 00:19:48.590 align:start position:0% negatively charged particles. The<00:19:47.000> masses<00:19:47.520> of<00:19:47.640> the<00:19:47.760> negatively<00:19:48.280> charged 00:19:48.590 --> 00:19:48.600 align:start position:0% The masses of the negatively charged 00:19:48.600 --> 00:19:50.590 align:start position:0% The masses of the negatively charged particles<00:19:49.160> lined<00:19:49.440> up<00:19:49.600> exactly<00:19:50.280> with<00:19:50.480> the 00:19:50.590 --> 00:19:50.600 align:start position:0% particles lined up exactly with the 00:19:50.600 --> 00:19:52.710 align:start position:0% particles lined up exactly with the known<00:19:50.880> mass<00:19:51.160> of<00:19:51.280> an<00:19:51.400> electron, 00:19:52.710 --> 00:19:52.720 align:start position:0% known mass of an electron, 00:19:52.720 --> 00:19:54.550 align:start position:0% known mass of an electron, but<00:19:52.920> some<00:19:53.120> of<00:19:53.240> the<00:19:53.400> positively<00:19:54.200> charged 00:19:54.550 --> 00:19:54.560 align:start position:0% but some of the positively charged 00:19:54.560 --> 00:19:57.110 align:start position:0% but some of the positively charged particles<00:19:55.360> were<00:19:55.600> far<00:19:56.080> too<00:19:56.400> light<00:19:56.880> to<00:19:57.000> be 00:19:57.110 --> 00:19:57.120 align:start position:0% particles were far too light to be 00:19:57.120 --> 00:19:58.590 align:start position:0% particles were far too light to be protons. 00:19:58.590 --> 00:19:58.600 align:start position:0% protons. 00:19:58.600 --> 00:20:00.670 align:start position:0% protons. Instead,<00:19:59.200> they<00:19:59.400> appeared<00:19:59.800> to<00:19:59.960> have<00:20:00.240> the<00:20:00.360> mass 00:20:00.670 --> 00:20:00.680 align:start position:0% Instead, they appeared to have the mass 00:20:00.680 --> 00:20:03.310 align:start position:0% Instead, they appeared to have the mass of<00:20:00.800> an<00:20:00.880> electron<00:20:01.880> despite<00:20:02.520> having<00:20:03.080> the 00:20:03.310 --> 00:20:03.320 align:start position:0% of an electron despite having the 00:20:03.320 --> 00:20:04.910 align:start position:0% of an electron despite having the opposite<00:20:03.760> charge. 00:20:04.910 --> 00:20:04.920 align:start position:0% opposite charge. 00:20:04.920 --> 00:20:07.270 align:start position:0% opposite charge. And<00:20:05.080> so,<00:20:05.480> these<00:20:05.920> never-before-seen 00:20:07.270 --> 00:20:07.280 align:start position:0% And so, these never-before-seen 00:20:07.280 --> 00:20:08.510 align:start position:0% And so, these never-before-seen particles 00:20:08.510 --> 00:20:08.520 align:start position:0% particles 00:20:08.520 --> 00:20:11.550 align:start position:0% particles came<00:20:08.760> to<00:20:08.840> be<00:20:08.960> known<00:20:09.560> as<00:20:09.880> antielectrons, 00:20:11.550 --> 00:20:11.560 align:start position:0% came to be known as antielectrons, 00:20:11.560 --> 00:20:14.510 align:start position:0% came to be known as antielectrons, or<00:20:11.760> later,<00:20:12.440> positrons<00:20:13.080> for<00:20:13.200> short. 00:20:14.510 --> 00:20:14.520 align:start position:0% or later, positrons for short. 00:20:14.520 --> 00:20:17.150 align:start position:0% or later, positrons for short. In<00:20:14.600> 1936,<00:20:15.760> Anderson<00:20:16.160> would<00:20:16.360> win<00:20:16.640> the<00:20:16.720> Nobel 00:20:17.150 --> 00:20:17.160 align:start position:0% In 1936, Anderson would win the Nobel 00:20:17.160 --> 00:20:20.870 align:start position:0% In 1936, Anderson would win the Nobel Prize<00:20:17.640> in<00:20:17.800> physics<00:20:18.240> for<00:20:18.360> this<00:20:18.600> discovery. 00:20:20.870 --> 00:20:20.880 align:start position:0% Prize in physics for this discovery. 00:20:20.880 --> 00:20:23.470 align:start position:0% Prize in physics for this discovery. Meanwhile,<00:20:21.800> a<00:20:21.920> British<00:20:22.320> physicist,<00:20:23.080> who<00:20:23.240> was 00:20:23.470 --> 00:20:23.480 align:start position:0% Meanwhile, a British physicist, who was 00:20:23.480 --> 00:20:25.710 align:start position:0% Meanwhile, a British physicist, who was also<00:20:23.760> destined<00:20:24.200> to<00:20:24.320> win<00:20:24.440> a<00:20:24.520> Nobel, 00:20:25.710 --> 00:20:25.720 align:start position:0% also destined to win a Nobel, 00:20:25.720 --> 00:20:27.750 align:start position:0% also destined to win a Nobel, had<00:20:26.080> been<00:20:26.320> developing<00:20:26.920> a<00:20:26.960> description<00:20:27.640> of 00:20:27.750 --> 00:20:27.760 align:start position:0% had been developing a description of 00:20:27.760 --> 00:20:29.950 align:start position:0% had been developing a description of electrons<00:20:28.360> that<00:20:28.520> would<00:20:28.720> fit<00:20:29.000> nicely<00:20:29.600> within 00:20:29.950 --> 00:20:29.960 align:start position:0% electrons that would fit nicely within 00:20:29.960 --> 00:20:33.110 align:start position:0% electrons that would fit nicely within the<00:20:30.040> framework<00:20:30.640> of<00:20:30.800> quantum<00:20:31.160> field<00:20:31.480> theory. 00:20:33.110 --> 00:20:33.120 align:start position:0% the framework of quantum field theory. 00:20:33.120 --> 00:20:35.790 align:start position:0% the framework of quantum field theory. His<00:20:33.280> name<00:20:33.720> was<00:20:34.000> Paul<00:20:34.360> Dirac. 00:20:35.790 --> 00:20:35.800 align:start position:0% His name was Paul Dirac. 00:20:35.800 --> 00:20:38.590 align:start position:0% His name was Paul Dirac. By<00:20:35.920> 1928,<00:20:37.080> Dirac<00:20:37.440> had<00:20:37.600> realized<00:20:38.240> that<00:20:38.440> in 00:20:38.590 --> 00:20:38.600 align:start position:0% By 1928, Dirac had realized that in 00:20:38.600 --> 00:20:40.830 align:start position:0% By 1928, Dirac had realized that in order<00:20:38.840> to<00:20:38.960> describe<00:20:39.560> electrons<00:20:40.240> as<00:20:40.440> quantum 00:20:40.830 --> 00:20:40.840 align:start position:0% order to describe electrons as quantum 00:20:40.840 --> 00:20:42.630 align:start position:0% order to describe electrons as quantum fields<00:20:41.400> in<00:20:41.520> a<00:20:41.600> way<00:20:41.800> that<00:20:41.960> was<00:20:42.160> physically 00:20:42.630 --> 00:20:42.640 align:start position:0% fields in a way that was physically 00:20:42.640 --> 00:20:45.270 align:start position:0% fields in a way that was physically consistent<00:20:43.320> with<00:20:43.480> special<00:20:43.840> relativity, 00:20:45.270 --> 00:20:45.280 align:start position:0% consistent with special relativity, 00:20:45.280 --> 00:20:46.830 align:start position:0% consistent with special relativity, they<00:20:45.400> had<00:20:45.640> to<00:20:45.720> be<00:20:45.840> part<00:20:46.120> of<00:20:46.240> a<00:20:46.320> larger 00:20:46.830 --> 00:20:46.840 align:start position:0% they had to be part of a larger 00:20:46.840 --> 00:20:49.630 align:start position:0% they had to be part of a larger mathematical<00:20:47.560> structure,<00:20:48.640> later<00:20:48.920> known<00:20:49.440> as<00:20:49.600> a 00:20:49.630 --> 00:20:49.640 align:start position:0% mathematical structure, later known as a 00:20:49.640 --> 00:20:52.550 align:start position:0% mathematical structure, later known as a Dirac<00:20:50.160> spinner,<00:20:51.080> that<00:20:51.240> inevitably<00:20:51.880> gave<00:20:52.240> rise 00:20:52.550 --> 00:20:52.560 align:start position:0% Dirac spinner, that inevitably gave rise 00:20:52.560 --> 00:20:54.830 align:start position:0% Dirac spinner, that inevitably gave rise to<00:20:52.680> both<00:20:52.960> positively<00:20:53.880> and<00:20:54.240> negatively 00:20:54.830 --> 00:20:54.840 align:start position:0% to both positively and negatively 00:20:54.840 --> 00:20:58.230 align:start position:0% to both positively and negatively charged<00:20:55.240> versions<00:20:55.840> of<00:20:55.960> the<00:20:56.080> same<00:20:56.440> particle. 00:20:58.230 --> 00:20:58.240 align:start position:0% charged versions of the same particle. 00:20:58.240 --> 00:21:00.390 align:start position:0% charged versions of the same particle. In<00:20:58.400> this<00:20:58.600> way,<00:20:58.920> Dirac<00:20:59.440> had<00:20:59.640> predicted<00:21:00.280> the 00:21:00.390 --> 00:21:00.400 align:start position:0% In this way, Dirac had predicted the 00:21:00.400 --> 00:21:02.870 align:start position:0% In this way, Dirac had predicted the existence<00:21:00.920> of<00:21:01.120> positrons<00:21:02.040> before<00:21:02.400> Anderson 00:21:02.870 --> 00:21:02.880 align:start position:0% existence of positrons before Anderson 00:21:02.880 --> 00:21:04.670 align:start position:0% existence of positrons before Anderson had<00:21:03.120> even<00:21:03.400> built<00:21:03.680> the<00:21:03.760> cloud<00:21:04.080> chamber<00:21:04.480> that 00:21:04.670 --> 00:21:04.680 align:start position:0% had even built the cloud chamber that 00:21:04.680 --> 00:21:07.870 align:start position:0% had even built the cloud chamber that would<00:21:04.800> detect<00:21:05.200> them<00:21:05.520> 4<00:21:05.880> years<00:21:06.200> later. 00:21:07.870 --> 00:21:07.880 align:start position:0% would detect them 4 years later. 00:21:07.880 --> 00:21:09.670 align:start position:0% would detect them 4 years later. What's<00:21:08.120> even<00:21:08.360> more<00:21:08.600> incredible<00:21:09.360> is<00:21:09.480> that 00:21:09.670 --> 00:21:09.680 align:start position:0% What's even more incredible is that 00:21:09.680 --> 00:21:11.710 align:start position:0% What's even more incredible is that electrons<00:21:10.400> aren't<00:21:10.680> the<00:21:10.880> only<00:21:11.160> fundamental 00:21:11.710 --> 00:21:11.720 align:start position:0% electrons aren't the only fundamental 00:21:11.720 --> 00:21:14.670 align:start position:0% electrons aren't the only fundamental particle<00:21:12.280> to<00:21:12.480> come<00:21:12.880> in<00:21:13.040> a<00:21:13.160> two-for-one<00:21:14.200> Dirac 00:21:14.670 --> 00:21:14.680 align:start position:0% particle to come in a two-for-one Dirac 00:21:14.680 --> 00:21:16.670 align:start position:0% particle to come in a two-for-one Dirac spinner<00:21:15.120> package. 00:21:16.670 --> 00:21:16.680 align:start position:0% spinner package. 00:21:16.680 --> 00:21:18.510 align:start position:0% spinner package. Other<00:21:16.880> particles<00:21:17.400> of<00:21:17.440> matter,<00:21:18.080> like<00:21:18.320> the 00:21:18.510 --> 00:21:18.520 align:start position:0% Other particles of matter, like the 00:21:18.520 --> 00:21:20.270 align:start position:0% Other particles of matter, like the quarks<00:21:19.120> that<00:21:19.280> make<00:21:19.440> up<00:21:19.560> protons<00:21:20.160> and 00:21:20.270 --> 00:21:20.280 align:start position:0% quarks that make up protons and 00:21:20.280 --> 00:21:23.910 align:start position:0% quarks that make up protons and neutrons,<00:21:21.240> each<00:21:21.600> have<00:21:21.840> their<00:21:22.200> own<00:21:22.960> antiquark 00:21:23.910 --> 00:21:23.920 align:start position:0% neutrons, each have their own antiquark 00:21:23.920 --> 00:21:26.030 align:start position:0% neutrons, each have their own antiquark counterparts. 00:21:26.030 --> 00:21:26.040 align:start position:0% counterparts. 00:21:26.040 --> 00:21:28.230 align:start position:0% counterparts. These<00:21:26.280> antiquarks<00:21:27.080> can<00:21:27.360> come<00:21:27.680> together<00:21:28.120> to 00:21:28.230 --> 00:21:28.240 align:start position:0% These antiquarks can come together to 00:21:28.240 --> 00:21:31.710 align:start position:0% These antiquarks can come together to form<00:21:28.800> antiprotons<00:21:29.920> and<00:21:30.160> antineutrons, 00:21:31.710 --> 00:21:31.720 align:start position:0% form antiprotons and antineutrons, 00:21:31.720 --> 00:21:33.990 align:start position:0% form antiprotons and antineutrons, which<00:21:31.880> can<00:21:32.120> then<00:21:32.560> bond<00:21:33.000> with<00:21:33.200> positrons<00:21:33.880> to 00:21:33.990 --> 00:21:34.000 align:start position:0% which can then bond with positrons to 00:21:34.000 --> 00:21:35.750 align:start position:0% which can then bond with positrons to form<00:21:34.520> antiatoms<00:21:34.949> [music] 00:21:35.750 --> 00:21:35.760 align:start position:0% form antiatoms [music] 00:21:35.760 --> 00:21:38.150 align:start position:0% form antiatoms [music] and<00:21:36.120> antimolecules. 00:21:38.150 --> 00:21:38.160 align:start position:0% and antimolecules. 00:21:38.160 --> 00:21:40.110 align:start position:0% and antimolecules. You<00:21:38.320> could<00:21:38.640> make<00:21:38.880> a<00:21:39.000> whole<00:21:39.400> planet<00:21:39.880> out<00:21:40.000> of 00:21:40.110 --> 00:21:40.120 align:start position:0% You could make a whole planet out of 00:21:40.120 --> 00:21:42.550 align:start position:0% You could make a whole planet out of antimatter,<00:21:41.120> and<00:21:41.240> from<00:21:41.360> the<00:21:41.520> outside,<00:21:42.360> it 00:21:42.550 --> 00:21:42.560 align:start position:0% antimatter, and from the outside, it 00:21:42.560 --> 00:21:44.790 align:start position:0% antimatter, and from the outside, it would<00:21:42.840> look<00:21:43.240> quite<00:21:43.640> similar<00:21:44.000> to<00:21:44.160> an<00:21:44.360> ordinary 00:21:44.790 --> 00:21:44.800 align:start position:0% would look quite similar to an ordinary 00:21:44.800 --> 00:21:48.350 align:start position:0% would look quite similar to an ordinary planet<00:21:45.400> made<00:21:45.840> of<00:21:46.080> ordinary<00:21:46.640> matter. 00:21:48.350 --> 00:21:48.360 align:start position:0% planet made of ordinary matter. 00:21:48.360 --> 00:21:50.430 align:start position:0% planet made of ordinary matter. But,<00:21:48.705> [music]<00:21:48.760> if<00:21:49.040> antimatter<00:21:49.640> were<00:21:49.960> too 00:21:50.430 --> 00:21:50.440 align:start position:0% But, [music] if antimatter were too 00:21:50.440 --> 00:21:52.710 align:start position:0% But, [music] if antimatter were too similar<00:21:50.840> to<00:21:50.960> matter,<00:21:51.760> if<00:21:51.960> the<00:21:52.280> only 00:21:52.710 --> 00:21:52.720 align:start position:0% similar to matter, if the only 00:21:52.720 --> 00:21:55.110 align:start position:0% similar to matter, if the only difference<00:21:53.200> were<00:21:53.320> the<00:21:53.440> sign<00:21:53.760> of<00:21:53.880> its<00:21:54.040> charge, 00:21:55.110 --> 00:21:55.120 align:start position:0% difference were the sign of its charge, 00:21:55.120 --> 00:21:57.270 align:start position:0% difference were the sign of its charge, then<00:21:55.280> it<00:21:55.440> would<00:21:55.680> be<00:21:55.840> impossible<00:21:56.600> to<00:21:56.720> explain 00:21:57.270 --> 00:21:57.280 align:start position:0% then it would be impossible to explain 00:21:57.280 --> 00:22:00.230 align:start position:0% then it would be impossible to explain why<00:21:57.680> our<00:21:57.880> universe<00:21:58.400> contains<00:21:58.920> so<00:21:59.120> much<00:21:59.360> of<00:21:59.520> one 00:22:00.230 --> 00:22:00.240 align:start position:0% why our universe contains so much of one 00:22:00.240 --> 00:22:02.430 align:start position:0% why our universe contains so much of one and<00:22:00.440> so<00:22:00.640> little<00:22:01.040> of<00:22:01.160> the<00:22:01.320> other. 00:22:02.430 --> 00:22:02.440 align:start position:0% and so little of the other. 00:22:02.440 --> 00:22:05.150 align:start position:0% and so little of the other. This<00:22:02.880> cosmic<00:22:03.480> mystery,<00:22:04.400> known<00:22:04.800> as<00:22:05.000> the 00:22:05.150 --> 00:22:05.160 align:start position:0% This cosmic mystery, known as the 00:22:05.160 --> 00:22:08.190 align:start position:0% This cosmic mystery, known as the baryonic<00:22:05.920> asymmetry<00:22:06.640> of<00:22:06.760> the<00:22:06.880> universe,<00:22:07.880> sent 00:22:08.190 --> 00:22:08.200 align:start position:0% baryonic asymmetry of the universe, sent 00:22:08.200 --> 00:22:10.790 align:start position:0% baryonic asymmetry of the universe, sent physicists<00:22:08.880> on<00:22:09.040> a<00:22:09.120> decades-long<00:22:10.200> quest<00:22:10.680> to 00:22:10.790 --> 00:22:10.800 align:start position:0% physicists on a decades-long quest to 00:22:10.800 --> 00:22:13.270 align:start position:0% physicists on a decades-long quest to try<00:22:11.200> and<00:22:11.440> find<00:22:11.760> as<00:22:11.920> many<00:22:12.320> differences<00:22:12.960> as<00:22:13.120> they 00:22:13.270 --> 00:22:13.280 align:start position:0% try and find as many differences as they 00:22:13.280 --> 00:22:16.270 align:start position:0% try and find as many differences as they could<00:22:13.640> between<00:22:14.040> matter<00:22:14.520> and<00:22:14.720> antimatter. 00:22:16.270 --> 00:22:16.280 align:start position:0% could between matter and antimatter. 00:22:16.280 --> 00:22:18.990 align:start position:0% could between matter and antimatter. That<00:22:16.440> quest<00:22:16.800> lives<00:22:17.120> on<00:22:17.280> today,<00:22:18.160> spearheaded 00:22:18.990 --> 00:22:19.000 align:start position:0% That quest lives on today, spearheaded 00:22:19.000 --> 00:22:21.590 align:start position:0% That quest lives on today, spearheaded by<00:22:19.160> particle<00:22:19.800> colliders<00:22:20.320> at<00:22:20.520> CERN<00:22:21.360> that<00:22:21.520> are 00:22:21.590 --> 00:22:21.600 align:start position:0% by particle colliders at CERN that are 00:22:21.600 --> 00:22:24.630 align:start position:0% by particle colliders at CERN that are capable<00:22:22.120> of<00:22:22.240> producing,<00:22:23.320> trapping,<00:22:24.280> and 00:22:24.630 --> 00:22:24.640 align:start position:0% capable of producing, trapping, and 00:22:24.640 --> 00:22:29.150 align:start position:0% capable of producing, trapping, and studying<00:22:25.320> both<00:22:25.680> positrons<00:22:26.640> and<00:22:27.080> antiprotons. 00:22:29.150 --> 00:22:29.160 align:start position:0% studying both positrons and antiprotons. 00:22:29.160 --> 00:22:30.910 align:start position:0% studying both positrons and antiprotons. But,<00:22:29.680> before<00:22:30.040> we<00:22:30.200> talk<00:22:30.520> about<00:22:30.760> these 00:22:30.910 --> 00:22:30.920 align:start position:0% But, before we talk about these 00:22:30.920 --> 00:22:33.390 align:start position:0% But, before we talk about these experiments,<00:22:32.000> let's<00:22:32.200> try<00:22:32.440> to<00:22:32.560> summarize<00:22:33.240> what 00:22:33.390 --> 00:22:33.400 align:start position:0% experiments, let's try to summarize what 00:22:33.400 --> 00:22:35.710 align:start position:0% experiments, let's try to summarize what we<00:22:33.640> already<00:22:34.160> know<00:22:34.480> about<00:22:34.880> the<00:22:34.960> properties<00:22:35.600> of 00:22:35.710 --> 00:22:35.720 align:start position:0% we already know about the properties of 00:22:35.720 --> 00:22:38.190 align:start position:0% we already know about the properties of antimatter. 00:22:38.190 --> 00:22:38.200 align:start position:0% antimatter. 00:22:38.200 --> 00:22:39.870 align:start position:0% antimatter. When<00:22:38.400> studying<00:22:38.920> antiparticles<00:22:39.720> in 00:22:39.870 --> 00:22:39.880 align:start position:0% When studying antiparticles in 00:22:39.880 --> 00:22:42.230 align:start position:0% When studying antiparticles in isolation,<00:22:40.880> experiments<00:22:41.520> have<00:22:41.680> confirmed 00:22:42.230 --> 00:22:42.240 align:start position:0% isolation, experiments have confirmed 00:22:42.240 --> 00:22:44.710 align:start position:0% isolation, experiments have confirmed with<00:22:42.640> ever-greater<00:22:43.320> precision<00:22:44.280> that<00:22:44.480> their 00:22:44.710 --> 00:22:44.720 align:start position:0% with ever-greater precision that their 00:22:44.720 --> 00:22:47.190 align:start position:0% with ever-greater precision that their intrinsic<00:22:45.440> properties,<00:22:46.480> namely<00:22:46.920> their 00:22:47.190 --> 00:22:47.200 align:start position:0% intrinsic properties, namely their 00:22:47.200 --> 00:22:50.390 align:start position:0% intrinsic properties, namely their masses,<00:22:48.320> are<00:22:48.560> exactly<00:22:49.080> the<00:22:49.200> same<00:22:49.760> as<00:22:50.080> for 00:22:50.390 --> 00:22:50.400 align:start position:0% masses, are exactly the same as for 00:22:50.400 --> 00:22:52.350 align:start position:0% masses, are exactly the same as for ordinary<00:22:50.840> particles. 00:22:52.350 --> 00:22:52.360 align:start position:0% ordinary particles. 00:22:52.360 --> 00:22:54.790 align:start position:0% ordinary particles. And<00:22:52.640> when<00:22:52.840> studying<00:22:53.440> how<00:22:53.720> antiparticles<00:22:54.680> are 00:22:54.790 --> 00:22:54.800 align:start position:0% And when studying how antiparticles are 00:22:54.800 --> 00:22:57.430 align:start position:0% And when studying how antiparticles are affected<00:22:55.280> by<00:22:55.480> electromagnetic<00:22:56.400> forces, 00:22:57.430 --> 00:22:57.440 align:start position:0% affected by electromagnetic forces, 00:22:57.440 --> 00:22:59.350 align:start position:0% affected by electromagnetic forces, experiments<00:22:57.960> have<00:22:58.080> again<00:22:58.560> found<00:22:59.120> that<00:22:59.240> they 00:22:59.350 --> 00:22:59.360 align:start position:0% experiments have again found that they 00:22:59.360 --> 00:23:00.590 align:start position:0% experiments have again found that they behave<00:22:59.880> the<00:23:00.000> the 00:23:00.590 --> 00:23:00.600 align:start position:0% behave the the 00:23:00.600 --> 00:23:04.030 align:start position:0% behave the the exact<00:23:01.200> way<00:23:01.720> as<00:23:02.000> ordinary<00:23:02.360> particles,<00:23:03.520> except 00:23:04.030 --> 00:23:04.040 align:start position:0% exact way as ordinary particles, except 00:23:04.040 --> 00:23:06.510 align:start position:0% exact way as ordinary particles, except with<00:23:04.160> the<00:23:04.360> opposite<00:23:04.800> electric<00:23:05.240> charge,<00:23:06.160> just 00:23:06.510 --> 00:23:06.520 align:start position:0% with the opposite electric charge, just 00:23:06.520 --> 00:23:08.270 align:start position:0% with the opposite electric charge, just as<00:23:06.720> Anderson<00:23:07.080> had<00:23:07.240> observed<00:23:07.760> in<00:23:07.840> his<00:23:07.960> cloud 00:23:08.270 --> 00:23:08.280 align:start position:0% as Anderson had observed in his cloud 00:23:08.280 --> 00:23:11.670 align:start position:0% as Anderson had observed in his cloud chamber.<00:23:09.160> But,<00:23:09.680> electromagnetism<00:23:11.000> is<00:23:11.240> just 00:23:11.670 --> 00:23:11.680 align:start position:0% chamber. But, electromagnetism is just 00:23:11.680 --> 00:23:14.110 align:start position:0% chamber. But, electromagnetism is just one<00:23:12.080> of<00:23:12.240> the<00:23:12.400> four<00:23:12.880> fundamental<00:23:13.640> forces<00:23:14.040> of 00:23:14.110 --> 00:23:14.120 align:start position:0% one of the four fundamental forces of 00:23:14.120 --> 00:23:17.230 align:start position:0% one of the four fundamental forces of nature,<00:23:15.040> alongside<00:23:15.560> gravity<00:23:16.520> and<00:23:16.640> the<00:23:16.760> weak 00:23:17.230 --> 00:23:17.240 align:start position:0% nature, alongside gravity and the weak 00:23:17.240 --> 00:23:20.310 align:start position:0% nature, alongside gravity and the weak and<00:23:17.400> strong<00:23:17.960> nuclear<00:23:18.440> forces. 00:23:20.310 --> 00:23:20.320 align:start position:0% and strong nuclear forces. 00:23:20.320 --> 00:23:22.510 align:start position:0% and strong nuclear forces. And<00:23:20.840> as<00:23:21.200> physicists<00:23:21.680> began<00:23:22.040> to<00:23:22.160> better 00:23:22.510 --> 00:23:22.520 align:start position:0% And as physicists began to better 00:23:22.520 --> 00:23:24.990 align:start position:0% And as physicists began to better understand<00:23:23.160> the<00:23:23.280> weak<00:23:23.520> force<00:23:23.920> in<00:23:24.040> the<00:23:24.120> 1950s 00:23:24.990 --> 00:23:25.000 align:start position:0% understand the weak force in the 1950s 00:23:25.000 --> 00:23:27.910 align:start position:0% understand the weak force in the 1950s and<00:23:25.160> '60s,<00:23:26.200> they<00:23:26.360> realized<00:23:26.960> that<00:23:27.160> particles 00:23:27.910 --> 00:23:27.920 align:start position:0% and '60s, they realized that particles 00:23:27.920 --> 00:23:30.790 align:start position:0% and '60s, they realized that particles and<00:23:28.320> antiparticles<00:23:29.560> are<00:23:29.840> actually<00:23:30.280> affected 00:23:30.790 --> 00:23:30.800 align:start position:0% and antiparticles are actually affected 00:23:30.800 --> 00:23:34.510 align:start position:0% and antiparticles are actually affected by<00:23:31.000> it<00:23:31.360> quite<00:23:31.680> differently. 00:23:34.510 --> 00:23:34.520 align:start position:0% 00:23:34.520 --> 00:23:36.630 align:start position:0% The<00:23:34.560> first<00:23:34.840> surprise<00:23:35.440> was<00:23:35.760> that<00:23:36.160> ordinary 00:23:36.630 --> 00:23:36.640 align:start position:0% The first surprise was that ordinary 00:23:36.640 --> 00:23:39.070 align:start position:0% The first surprise was that ordinary particles<00:23:37.280> could<00:23:37.520> only<00:23:37.800> feel<00:23:38.120> the<00:23:38.280> weak<00:23:38.600> force 00:23:39.070 --> 00:23:39.080 align:start position:0% particles could only feel the weak force 00:23:39.080 --> 00:23:41.390 align:start position:0% particles could only feel the weak force if<00:23:39.320> they<00:23:39.520> were<00:23:39.800> left-handed. 00:23:41.390 --> 00:23:41.400 align:start position:0% if they were left-handed. 00:23:41.400 --> 00:23:43.430 align:start position:0% if they were left-handed. And<00:23:41.560> antiparticles<00:23:42.320> could<00:23:42.560> only<00:23:42.800> feel<00:23:43.040> it<00:23:43.240> if 00:23:43.430 --> 00:23:43.440 align:start position:0% And antiparticles could only feel it if 00:23:43.440 --> 00:23:45.750 align:start position:0% And antiparticles could only feel it if they<00:23:43.640> were<00:23:43.920> right-handed. 00:23:45.750 --> 00:23:45.760 align:start position:0% they were right-handed. 00:23:45.760 --> 00:23:49.750 align:start position:0% they were right-handed. The<00:23:45.840> concept<00:23:46.400> of<00:23:46.800> handedness,<00:23:48.080> or<00:23:48.520> chirality, 00:23:49.750 --> 00:23:49.760 align:start position:0% The concept of handedness, or chirality, 00:23:49.760 --> 00:23:52.550 align:start position:0% The concept of handedness, or chirality, is<00:23:49.960> subtle<00:23:50.640> and<00:23:50.960> difficult<00:23:51.560> to<00:23:51.680> conceptualize 00:23:52.550 --> 00:23:52.560 align:start position:0% is subtle and difficult to conceptualize 00:23:52.560 --> 00:23:54.310 align:start position:0% is subtle and difficult to conceptualize for<00:23:52.680> particles<00:23:53.200> with<00:23:53.360> mass. 00:23:54.310 --> 00:23:54.320 align:start position:0% for particles with mass. 00:23:54.320 --> 00:23:56.550 align:start position:0% for particles with mass. But,<00:23:54.720> a<00:23:54.800> loose<00:23:55.080> analogy<00:23:55.600> can<00:23:55.760> be<00:23:55.840> drawn<00:23:56.320> with<00:23:56.480> a 00:23:56.550 --> 00:23:56.560 align:start position:0% But, a loose analogy can be drawn with a 00:23:56.560 --> 00:23:58.950 align:start position:0% But, a loose analogy can be drawn with a particle's<00:23:57.120> helicity,<00:23:58.120> which<00:23:58.320> describes 00:23:58.950 --> 00:23:58.960 align:start position:0% particle's helicity, which describes 00:23:58.960 --> 00:24:01.590 align:start position:0% particle's helicity, which describes whether<00:23:59.200> a<00:23:59.280> particle<00:23:59.880> is<00:24:00.160> spin<00:24:00.520> up<00:24:01.040> or<00:24:01.280> spin 00:24:01.590 --> 00:24:01.600 align:start position:0% whether a particle is spin up or spin 00:24:01.600 --> 00:24:04.030 align:start position:0% whether a particle is spin up or spin down<00:24:02.120> along<00:24:02.440> its<00:24:02.600> direction<00:24:03.080> of<00:24:03.200> motion.<00:24:03.920> In 00:24:04.030 --> 00:24:04.040 align:start position:0% down along its direction of motion. In 00:24:04.040 --> 00:24:06.150 align:start position:0% down along its direction of motion. In this<00:24:04.280> analogy,<00:24:05.000> a<00:24:05.080> spin<00:24:05.400> up<00:24:05.520> particle<00:24:06.040> is 00:24:06.150 --> 00:24:06.160 align:start position:0% this analogy, a spin up particle is 00:24:06.160 --> 00:24:08.510 align:start position:0% this analogy, a spin up particle is called<00:24:06.480> right-handed,<00:24:07.480> while<00:24:07.680> a<00:24:07.760> spin<00:24:08.200> down 00:24:08.510 --> 00:24:08.520 align:start position:0% called right-handed, while a spin down 00:24:08.520 --> 00:24:12.190 align:start position:0% called right-handed, while a spin down particle<00:24:09.160> is<00:24:09.320> called<00:24:09.600> left-handed. 00:24:12.190 --> 00:24:12.200 align:start position:0% particle is called left-handed. 00:24:12.200 --> 00:24:15.270 align:start position:0% particle is called left-handed. The<00:24:12.280> second,<00:24:13.080> and<00:24:13.520> even<00:24:13.840> crazier,<00:24:14.360> surprise 00:24:15.270 --> 00:24:15.280 align:start position:0% The second, and even crazier, surprise 00:24:15.280 --> 00:24:17.870 align:start position:0% The second, and even crazier, surprise was<00:24:15.480> that<00:24:15.840> right-handed<00:24:16.800> antiparticles 00:24:17.870 --> 00:24:17.880 align:start position:0% was that right-handed antiparticles 00:24:17.880 --> 00:24:20.150 align:start position:0% was that right-handed antiparticles experienced<00:24:18.680> a<00:24:18.760> different<00:24:19.240> strength<00:24:19.880> of<00:24:20.040> the 00:24:20.150 --> 00:24:20.160 align:start position:0% experienced a different strength of the 00:24:20.160 --> 00:24:23.270 align:start position:0% experienced a different strength of the weak<00:24:20.400> force<00:24:21.200> as<00:24:21.360> compared<00:24:21.840> to<00:24:22.240> left-handed 00:24:23.270 --> 00:24:23.280 align:start position:0% weak force as compared to left-handed 00:24:23.280 --> 00:24:25.430 align:start position:0% weak force as compared to left-handed ordinary<00:24:23.800> particles. 00:24:25.430 --> 00:24:25.440 align:start position:0% ordinary particles. 00:24:25.440 --> 00:24:27.590 align:start position:0% ordinary particles. In<00:24:25.560> practice,<00:24:26.240> this<00:24:26.480> means<00:24:26.840> that<00:24:27.000> the<00:24:27.120> quantum 00:24:27.590 --> 00:24:27.600 align:start position:0% In practice, this means that the quantum 00:24:27.600 --> 00:24:30.190 align:start position:0% In practice, this means that the quantum probabilities<00:24:28.400> for<00:24:28.600> radioactive<00:24:29.280> decay<00:24:29.960> in 00:24:30.190 --> 00:24:30.200 align:start position:0% probabilities for radioactive decay in 00:24:30.200 --> 00:24:32.750 align:start position:0% probabilities for radioactive decay in ordinary<00:24:30.600> nuclei<00:24:31.520> are<00:24:31.640> somewhat<00:24:32.160> different 00:24:32.750 --> 00:24:32.760 align:start position:0% ordinary nuclei are somewhat different 00:24:32.760 --> 00:24:35.030 align:start position:0% ordinary nuclei are somewhat different from<00:24:32.920> the<00:24:33.000> probabilities<00:24:34.040> of<00:24:34.200> the<00:24:34.440> analogous 00:24:35.030 --> 00:24:35.040 align:start position:0% from the probabilities of the analogous 00:24:35.040 --> 00:24:38.470 align:start position:0% from the probabilities of the analogous decay<00:24:35.360> processes<00:24:36.160> in<00:24:36.480> antinuclei. 00:24:38.470 --> 00:24:38.480 align:start position:0% decay processes in antinuclei. 00:24:38.480 --> 00:24:40.790 align:start position:0% decay processes in antinuclei. This<00:24:38.800> fundamental<00:24:39.760> asymmetry<00:24:40.440> between 00:24:40.790 --> 00:24:40.800 align:start position:0% This fundamental asymmetry between 00:24:40.800 --> 00:24:43.190 align:start position:0% This fundamental asymmetry between particles<00:24:41.440> and<00:24:41.640> antiparticles<00:24:42.720> was<00:24:42.920> first 00:24:43.190 --> 00:24:43.200 align:start position:0% particles and antiparticles was first 00:24:43.200 --> 00:24:46.110 align:start position:0% particles and antiparticles was first observed<00:24:43.720> in<00:24:43.880> a<00:24:43.920> 1963<00:24:45.000> experiment<00:24:45.720> run<00:24:45.920> by 00:24:46.110 --> 00:24:46.120 align:start position:0% observed in a 1963 experiment run by 00:24:46.120 --> 00:24:48.550 align:start position:0% observed in a 1963 experiment run by James<00:24:46.520> Cronin<00:24:47.200> and<00:24:47.320> Val<00:24:47.600> Fitch<00:24:48.000> of<00:24:48.120> Princeton 00:24:48.550 --> 00:24:48.560 align:start position:0% James Cronin and Val Fitch of Princeton 00:24:48.560 --> 00:24:51.070 align:start position:0% James Cronin and Val Fitch of Princeton University,<00:24:49.680> who<00:24:49.880> would<00:24:50.120> be<00:24:50.240> awarded<00:24:50.840> yet 00:24:51.070 --> 00:24:51.080 align:start position:0% University, who would be awarded yet 00:24:51.080 --> 00:24:54.630 align:start position:0% University, who would be awarded yet another<00:24:51.560> Nobel<00:24:51.960> Prize<00:24:52.320> for<00:24:52.440> their<00:24:52.560> discovery. 00:24:54.630 --> 00:24:54.640 align:start position:0% another Nobel Prize for their discovery. 00:24:54.640 --> 00:24:56.790 align:start position:0% another Nobel Prize for their discovery. When<00:24:54.800> this<00:24:55.080> asymmetry<00:24:55.800> was<00:24:55.960> discovered, 00:24:56.790 --> 00:24:56.800 align:start position:0% When this asymmetry was discovered, 00:24:56.800 --> 00:24:58.630 align:start position:0% When this asymmetry was discovered, there<00:24:57.040> was<00:24:57.320> some<00:24:57.680> hope<00:24:58.280> that<00:24:58.400> it<00:24:58.520> would 00:24:58.630 --> 00:24:58.640 align:start position:0% there was some hope that it would 00:24:58.640 --> 00:25:00.830 align:start position:0% there was some hope that it would explain<00:24:59.160> the<00:24:59.280> baryonic<00:24:59.960> asymmetry<00:25:00.600> of<00:25:00.720> the 00:25:00.830 --> 00:25:00.840 align:start position:0% explain the baryonic asymmetry of the 00:25:00.840 --> 00:25:01.950 align:start position:0% explain the baryonic asymmetry of the universe. 00:25:01.950 --> 00:25:01.960 align:start position:0% universe. 00:25:01.960 --> 00:25:03.670 align:start position:0% universe. Perhaps<00:25:02.360> these<00:25:02.600> differences<00:25:03.240> in<00:25:03.320> the<00:25:03.440> weak 00:25:03.670 --> 00:25:03.680 align:start position:0% Perhaps these differences in the weak 00:25:03.680 --> 00:25:05.710 align:start position:0% Perhaps these differences in the weak force<00:25:04.080> were<00:25:04.240> responsible<00:25:05.000> for<00:25:05.080> the<00:25:05.200> abundance 00:25:05.710 --> 00:25:05.720 align:start position:0% force were responsible for the abundance 00:25:05.720 --> 00:25:08.510 align:start position:0% force were responsible for the abundance of<00:25:05.840> matter<00:25:06.640> and<00:25:06.920> utter<00:25:07.280> lack<00:25:07.760> of<00:25:07.920> antimatter 00:25:08.510 --> 00:25:08.520 align:start position:0% of matter and utter lack of antimatter 00:25:08.520 --> 00:25:09.990 align:start position:0% of matter and utter lack of antimatter around<00:25:08.920> us. 00:25:09.990 --> 00:25:10.000 align:start position:0% around us. 00:25:10.000 --> 00:25:12.870 align:start position:0% around us. But<00:25:10.200> the<00:25:10.320> math<00:25:10.840> didn't<00:25:11.160> quite<00:25:11.520> work<00:25:11.800> out. 00:25:12.870 --> 00:25:12.880 align:start position:0% But the math didn't quite work out. 00:25:12.880 --> 00:25:14.630 align:start position:0% But the math didn't quite work out. There<00:25:13.080> simply<00:25:13.560> wasn't<00:25:14.080> enough<00:25:14.480> of<00:25:14.600> a 00:25:14.630 --> 00:25:14.640 align:start position:0% There simply wasn't enough of a 00:25:14.640 --> 00:25:16.110 align:start position:0% There simply wasn't enough of a difference<00:25:15.120> between<00:25:15.480> the<00:25:15.560> strength<00:25:15.920> of<00:25:16.040> the 00:25:16.110 --> 00:25:16.120 align:start position:0% difference between the strength of the 00:25:16.120 --> 00:25:18.630 align:start position:0% difference between the strength of the weak<00:25:16.360> force<00:25:16.760> acting<00:25:17.120> on<00:25:17.200> particles<00:25:18.160> versus 00:25:18.630 --> 00:25:18.640 align:start position:0% weak force acting on particles versus 00:25:18.640 --> 00:25:20.750 align:start position:0% weak force acting on particles versus antiparticles. 00:25:20.750 --> 00:25:20.760 align:start position:0% antiparticles. 00:25:20.760 --> 00:25:23.190 align:start position:0% antiparticles. That<00:25:21.160> was<00:25:21.360> when<00:25:21.760> physicists<00:25:22.400> began<00:25:22.760> to<00:25:22.880> turn 00:25:23.190 --> 00:25:23.200 align:start position:0% That was when physicists began to turn 00:25:23.200 --> 00:25:25.550 align:start position:0% That was when physicists began to turn their<00:25:23.400> attention<00:25:23.920> to<00:25:24.120> the<00:25:24.320> strong<00:25:25.120> nuclear 00:25:25.550 --> 00:25:25.560 align:start position:0% their attention to the strong nuclear 00:25:25.560 --> 00:25:27.470 align:start position:0% their attention to the strong nuclear force. 00:25:27.470 --> 00:25:27.480 align:start position:0% force. 00:25:27.480 --> 00:25:29.950 align:start position:0% force. Theoretical<00:25:28.120> models<00:25:28.480> predicted<00:25:28.960> that,<00:25:29.680> just 00:25:29.950 --> 00:25:29.960 align:start position:0% Theoretical models predicted that, just 00:25:29.960 --> 00:25:32.110 align:start position:0% Theoretical models predicted that, just like<00:25:30.280> in<00:25:30.440> the<00:25:30.560> weak<00:25:30.840> interaction,<00:25:31.920> there 00:25:32.110 --> 00:25:32.120 align:start position:0% like in the weak interaction, there 00:25:32.120 --> 00:25:34.230 align:start position:0% like in the weak interaction, there should<00:25:32.480> be<00:25:32.680> some<00:25:33.120> differences<00:25:33.800> in<00:25:33.960> how 00:25:34.230 --> 00:25:34.240 align:start position:0% should be some differences in how 00:25:34.240 --> 00:25:36.390 align:start position:0% should be some differences in how left-handed<00:25:34.840> particles<00:25:35.680> and<00:25:35.840> right-handed 00:25:36.390 --> 00:25:36.400 align:start position:0% left-handed particles and right-handed 00:25:36.400 --> 00:25:40.190 align:start position:0% left-handed particles and right-handed particles<00:25:37.320> feel<00:25:37.840> the<00:25:37.920> strong<00:25:38.360> force. 00:25:40.190 --> 00:25:40.200 align:start position:0% particles feel the strong force. 00:25:40.200 --> 00:25:44.790 align:start position:0% particles feel the strong force. But<00:25:40.880> antimatter<00:25:42.000> just<00:25:42.560> keeps<00:25:43.080> surprising<00:25:43.720> us. 00:25:44.790 --> 00:25:44.800 align:start position:0% But antimatter just keeps surprising us. 00:25:44.800 --> 00:25:46.870 align:start position:0% But antimatter just keeps surprising us. Every<00:25:45.280> experiment<00:25:45.880> to<00:25:45.960> date<00:25:46.240> suggests<00:25:46.760> that 00:25:46.870 --> 00:25:46.880 align:start position:0% Every experiment to date suggests that 00:25:46.880 --> 00:25:49.470 align:start position:0% Every experiment to date suggests that the<00:25:47.000> strong<00:25:47.440> force<00:25:47.960> treats<00:25:48.400> particles<00:25:49.160> and 00:25:49.470 --> 00:25:49.480 align:start position:0% the strong force treats particles and 00:25:49.480 --> 00:25:53.110 align:start position:0% the strong force treats particles and antiparticles<00:25:50.680> just<00:25:51.200> the<00:25:51.320> same. 00:25:53.110 --> 00:25:53.120 align:start position:0% antiparticles just the same. 00:25:53.120 --> 00:25:55.350 align:start position:0% antiparticles just the same. This<00:25:53.400> brings<00:25:53.800> us<00:25:53.960> to<00:25:54.080> the<00:25:54.240> last<00:25:54.760> of<00:25:54.880> the<00:25:55.000> four 00:25:55.350 --> 00:25:55.360 align:start position:0% This brings us to the last of the four 00:25:55.360 --> 00:25:57.510 align:start position:0% This brings us to the last of the four fundamental<00:25:56.000> forces<00:25:56.760> and<00:25:56.880> the<00:25:56.960> subject<00:25:57.440> of 00:25:57.510 --> 00:25:57.520 align:start position:0% fundamental forces and the subject of 00:25:57.520 --> 00:26:00.270 align:start position:0% fundamental forces and the subject of today's<00:25:58.000> ongoing<00:25:58.600> experiments<00:25:59.200> at<00:25:59.320> CERN, 00:26:00.270 --> 00:26:00.280 align:start position:0% today's ongoing experiments at CERN, 00:26:00.280 --> 00:26:02.310 align:start position:0% today's ongoing experiments at CERN, gravity. 00:26:02.310 --> 00:26:02.320 align:start position:0% gravity. 00:26:02.320 --> 00:26:04.310 align:start position:0% gravity. To<00:26:02.440> be<00:26:02.560> honest,<00:26:03.080> suggesting<00:26:03.680> that<00:26:03.840> gravity 00:26:04.310 --> 00:26:04.320 align:start position:0% To be honest, suggesting that gravity 00:26:04.320 --> 00:26:06.150 align:start position:0% To be honest, suggesting that gravity might<00:26:04.640> treat<00:26:04.960> matter<00:26:05.320> and<00:26:05.600> antimatter 00:26:06.150 --> 00:26:06.160 align:start position:0% might treat matter and antimatter 00:26:06.160 --> 00:26:08.990 align:start position:0% might treat matter and antimatter differently<00:26:07.080> is<00:26:07.240> kind<00:26:07.520> of<00:26:07.600> a<00:26:07.640> long<00:26:07.880> shot. 00:26:08.990 --> 00:26:09.000 align:start position:0% differently is kind of a long shot. 00:26:09.000 --> 00:26:10.830 align:start position:0% differently is kind of a long shot. Think<00:26:09.240> back<00:26:09.520> to<00:26:09.600> the<00:26:09.720> popular<00:26:10.240> legend<00:26:10.720> of 00:26:10.830 --> 00:26:10.840 align:start position:0% Think back to the popular legend of 00:26:10.840 --> 00:26:12.750 align:start position:0% Think back to the popular legend of Galileo<00:26:11.440> tossing<00:26:11.840> stones<00:26:12.360> of<00:26:12.440> different 00:26:12.750 --> 00:26:12.760 align:start position:0% Galileo tossing stones of different 00:26:12.760 --> 00:26:14.630 align:start position:0% Galileo tossing stones of different sizes<00:26:13.240> and<00:26:13.320> materials<00:26:14.000> from<00:26:14.160> the<00:26:14.240> Tower<00:26:14.560> of 00:26:14.630 --> 00:26:14.640 align:start position:0% sizes and materials from the Tower of 00:26:14.640 --> 00:26:17.390 align:start position:0% sizes and materials from the Tower of Pisa.<00:26:15.560> They<00:26:15.720> all<00:26:15.880> fell<00:26:16.240> at<00:26:16.360> the<00:26:16.440> same<00:26:16.760> rate 00:26:17.390 --> 00:26:17.400 align:start position:0% Pisa. They all fell at the same rate 00:26:17.400 --> 00:26:19.150 align:start position:0% Pisa. They all fell at the same rate because<00:26:17.760> the<00:26:17.840> gravitational<00:26:18.480> acceleration 00:26:19.150 --> 00:26:19.160 align:start position:0% because the gravitational acceleration 00:26:19.160 --> 00:26:22.550 align:start position:0% because the gravitational acceleration on<00:26:19.360> Earth<00:26:19.800> is<00:26:20.000> 9.8<00:26:20.840> m/s² 00:26:22.550 --> 00:26:22.560 align:start position:0% on Earth is 9.8 m/s² 00:26:22.560 --> 00:26:25.590 align:start position:0% on Earth is 9.8 m/s² regardless<00:26:23.240> of<00:26:23.400> which<00:26:23.640> object<00:26:24.000> is<00:26:24.160> falling. 00:26:25.590 --> 00:26:25.600 align:start position:0% regardless of which object is falling. 00:26:25.600 --> 00:26:27.670 align:start position:0% regardless of which object is falling. Of<00:26:25.760> course,<00:26:26.280> the<00:26:26.440> experiment<00:26:27.120> works<00:26:27.400> even 00:26:27.670 --> 00:26:27.680 align:start position:0% Of course, the experiment works even 00:26:27.680 --> 00:26:30.350 align:start position:0% Of course, the experiment works even better<00:26:28.120> in<00:26:28.240> a<00:26:28.320> vacuum<00:26:28.800> chamber<00:26:29.720> where<00:26:30.040> air 00:26:30.350 --> 00:26:30.360 align:start position:0% better in a vacuum chamber where air 00:26:30.360 --> 00:26:33.390 align:start position:0% better in a vacuum chamber where air resistance<00:26:30.840> is<00:26:30.960> taken<00:26:31.400> out<00:26:31.680> of<00:26:31.760> the<00:26:31.880> equation. 00:26:33.390 --> 00:26:33.400 align:start position:0% resistance is taken out of the equation. 00:26:33.400 --> 00:26:36.110 align:start position:0% resistance is taken out of the equation. Newton<00:26:33.880> expanded<00:26:34.600> on<00:26:34.720> this<00:26:34.920> idea<00:26:35.600> and<00:26:35.760> showed 00:26:36.110 --> 00:26:36.120 align:start position:0% Newton expanded on this idea and showed 00:26:36.120 --> 00:26:37.950 align:start position:0% Newton expanded on this idea and showed in<00:26:36.280> the<00:26:36.360> 17th<00:26:36.880> century<00:26:37.640> that<00:26:37.840> your 00:26:37.950 --> 00:26:37.960 align:start position:0% in the 17th century that your 00:26:37.960 --> 00:26:40.350 align:start position:0% in the 17th century that your gravitational<00:26:38.640> acceleration<00:26:39.600> anywhere<00:26:40.160> in 00:26:40.350 --> 00:26:40.360 align:start position:0% gravitational acceleration anywhere in 00:26:40.360 --> 00:26:43.070 align:start position:0% gravitational acceleration anywhere in space<00:26:41.240> depends<00:26:41.840> only<00:26:42.240> on<00:26:42.400> the<00:26:42.480> mass<00:26:42.800> of<00:26:42.920> the 00:26:43.070 --> 00:26:43.080 align:start position:0% space depends only on the mass of the 00:26:43.080 --> 00:26:45.190 align:start position:0% space depends only on the mass of the object<00:26:43.560> pulling<00:26:43.920> you<00:26:44.480> and<00:26:44.680> your<00:26:44.800> distance 00:26:45.190 --> 00:26:45.200 align:start position:0% object pulling you and your distance 00:26:45.200 --> 00:26:48.070 align:start position:0% object pulling you and your distance from<00:26:45.480> it,<00:26:46.000> but<00:26:46.240> not<00:26:46.680> on<00:26:46.920> any<00:26:47.280> of<00:26:47.480> your<00:26:47.640> personal 00:26:48.070 --> 00:26:48.080 align:start position:0% from it, but not on any of your personal 00:26:48.080 --> 00:26:52.230 align:start position:0% from it, but not on any of your personal properties,<00:26:49.080> not<00:26:49.400> even<00:26:50.000> your<00:26:50.440> own<00:26:50.680> mass. 00:26:52.230 --> 00:26:52.240 align:start position:0% properties, not even your own mass. 00:26:52.240 --> 00:26:54.590 align:start position:0% properties, not even your own mass. This<00:26:52.640> famous<00:26:53.160> result,<00:26:54.080> known<00:26:54.360> as<00:26:54.480> the 00:26:54.590 --> 00:26:54.600 align:start position:0% This famous result, known as the 00:26:54.600 --> 00:26:57.030 align:start position:0% This famous result, known as the equivalence<00:26:55.200> principle,<00:26:56.120> is<00:26:56.280> the<00:26:56.400> foundation 00:26:57.030 --> 00:26:57.040 align:start position:0% equivalence principle, is the foundation 00:26:57.040 --> 00:26:58.670 align:start position:0% equivalence principle, is the foundation of<00:26:57.240> Einstein's<00:26:57.760> theory<00:26:58.120> of<00:26:58.240> general 00:26:58.670 --> 00:26:58.680 align:start position:0% of Einstein's theory of general 00:26:58.680 --> 00:27:01.150 align:start position:0% of Einstein's theory of general relativity,<00:26:59.720> our<00:26:59.920> most<00:27:00.240> accurate<00:27:00.920> and 00:27:01.150 --> 00:27:01.160 align:start position:0% relativity, our most accurate and 00:27:01.160 --> 00:27:05.070 align:start position:0% relativity, our most accurate and successful<00:27:01.840> model<00:27:02.240> of<00:27:02.320> gravity<00:27:02.760> to<00:27:02.920> date. 00:27:05.070 --> 00:27:05.080 align:start position:0% successful model of gravity to date. 00:27:05.080 --> 00:27:07.710 align:start position:0% successful model of gravity to date. With<00:27:05.240> that<00:27:05.480> in<00:27:05.600> mind,<00:27:06.600> physics<00:27:07.040> is<00:27:07.200> still<00:27:07.600> an 00:27:07.710 --> 00:27:07.720 align:start position:0% With that in mind, physics is still an 00:27:07.720 --> 00:27:10.510 align:start position:0% With that in mind, physics is still an experimental<00:27:08.680> science<00:27:09.120> at<00:27:09.240> its<00:27:09.400> core,<00:27:10.280> and<00:27:10.400> we 00:27:10.510 --> 00:27:10.520 align:start position:0% experimental science at its core, and we 00:27:10.520 --> 00:27:12.870 align:start position:0% experimental science at its core, and we can't<00:27:10.840> know<00:27:11.000> for<00:27:11.160> sure<00:27:11.680> whether<00:27:12.040> matter<00:27:12.640> and 00:27:12.870 --> 00:27:12.880 align:start position:0% can't know for sure whether matter and 00:27:12.880 --> 00:27:15.710 align:start position:0% can't know for sure whether matter and antimatter<00:27:13.560> obey<00:27:13.960> the<00:27:14.080> same<00:27:14.400> laws<00:27:14.720> of<00:27:14.840> gravity 00:27:15.710 --> 00:27:15.720 align:start position:0% antimatter obey the same laws of gravity 00:27:15.720 --> 00:27:18.030 align:start position:0% antimatter obey the same laws of gravity unless<00:27:16.040> we<00:27:16.120> check<00:27:16.400> for<00:27:16.560> ourselves. 00:27:18.030 --> 00:27:18.040 align:start position:0% unless we check for ourselves. 00:27:18.040 --> 00:27:20.070 align:start position:0% unless we check for ourselves. The<00:27:18.160> physicists<00:27:18.720> at<00:27:18.840> CERN<00:27:19.160> set<00:27:19.480> out<00:27:19.680> to<00:27:19.760> do 00:27:20.070 --> 00:27:20.080 align:start position:0% The physicists at CERN set out to do 00:27:20.080 --> 00:27:22.790 align:start position:0% The physicists at CERN set out to do just<00:27:20.440> that,<00:27:21.280> motivated<00:27:21.880> not<00:27:22.200> only<00:27:22.520> by<00:27:22.680> the 00:27:22.790 --> 00:27:22.800 align:start position:0% just that, motivated not only by the 00:27:22.800 --> 00:27:25.390 align:start position:0% just that, motivated not only by the baryonic<00:27:23.440> asymmetry<00:27:24.040> of<00:27:24.120> the<00:27:24.240> universe,<00:27:25.160> but 00:27:25.390 --> 00:27:25.400 align:start position:0% baryonic asymmetry of the universe, but 00:27:25.400 --> 00:27:28.230 align:start position:0% baryonic asymmetry of the universe, but also<00:27:25.840> by<00:27:26.080> a<00:27:26.200> few<00:27:26.560> speculative<00:27:27.520> papers 00:27:28.230 --> 00:27:28.240 align:start position:0% also by a few speculative papers 00:27:28.240 --> 00:27:30.030 align:start position:0% also by a few speculative papers suggesting<00:27:28.960> that<00:27:29.080> the<00:27:29.200> cosmological 00:27:30.030 --> 00:27:30.040 align:start position:0% suggesting that the cosmological 00:27:30.040 --> 00:27:31.910 align:start position:0% suggesting that the cosmological properties<00:27:30.560> of<00:27:30.680> dark<00:27:31.040> matter<00:27:31.440> and<00:27:31.600> dark 00:27:31.910 --> 00:27:31.920 align:start position:0% properties of dark matter and dark 00:27:31.920 --> 00:27:35.110 align:start position:0% properties of dark matter and dark energy<00:27:32.680> could<00:27:32.960> be<00:27:33.120> more<00:27:33.440> easily<00:27:33.800> explained<00:27:34.720> if 00:27:35.110 --> 00:27:35.120 align:start position:0% energy could be more easily explained if 00:27:35.120 --> 00:27:37.670 align:start position:0% energy could be more easily explained if antimatter<00:27:35.840> were<00:27:36.040> to<00:27:36.240> have<00:27:36.640> a<00:27:36.720> negative 00:27:37.670 --> 00:27:37.680 align:start position:0% antimatter were to have a negative 00:27:37.680 --> 00:27:39.670 align:start position:0% antimatter were to have a negative gravitational<00:27:38.520> charge, 00:27:39.670 --> 00:27:39.680 align:start position:0% gravitational charge, 00:27:39.680 --> 00:27:42.670 align:start position:0% gravitational charge, or<00:27:40.120> to<00:27:40.240> put<00:27:40.440> it<00:27:40.560> simply,<00:27:41.480> if<00:27:41.720> antimatter<00:27:42.480> were 00:27:42.670 --> 00:27:42.680 align:start position:0% or to put it simply, if antimatter were 00:27:42.680 --> 00:27:46.550 align:start position:0% or to put it simply, if antimatter were to<00:27:42.840> fall<00:27:43.400> up<00:27:44.120> rather<00:27:44.600> than<00:27:44.800> down. 00:27:46.550 --> 00:27:46.560 align:start position:0% to fall up rather than down. 00:27:46.560 --> 00:27:49.110 align:start position:0% to fall up rather than down. There<00:27:46.920> are<00:27:47.200> several<00:27:47.920> ongoing<00:27:48.400> experiments<00:27:49.000> at 00:27:49.110 --> 00:27:49.120 align:start position:0% There are several ongoing experiments at 00:27:49.120 --> 00:27:50.790 align:start position:0% There are several ongoing experiments at CERN<00:27:49.440> testing<00:27:50.000> the<00:27:50.120> gravitational 00:27:50.790 --> 00:27:50.800 align:start position:0% CERN testing the gravitational 00:27:50.800 --> 00:27:53.190 align:start position:0% CERN testing the gravitational properties<00:27:51.240> of<00:27:51.360> antimatter,<00:27:52.320> including 00:27:53.190 --> 00:27:53.200 align:start position:0% properties of antimatter, including 00:27:53.200 --> 00:27:54.350 align:start position:0% properties of antimatter, including AEgIS, 00:27:54.350 --> 00:27:54.360 align:start position:0% AEgIS, 00:27:54.360 --> 00:27:57.150 align:start position:0% AEgIS, GBAR,<00:27:55.320> and<00:27:55.600> ALPHA. 00:27:57.150 --> 00:27:57.160 align:start position:0% GBAR, and ALPHA. 00:27:57.160 --> 00:27:59.310 align:start position:0% GBAR, and ALPHA. Today,<00:27:57.520> we<00:27:57.680> will<00:27:57.840> focus<00:27:58.280> specifically<00:27:59.120> on<00:27:59.280> a 00:27:59.310 --> 00:27:59.320 align:start position:0% Today, we will focus specifically on a 00:27:59.320 --> 00:28:01.350 align:start position:0% Today, we will focus specifically on a key<00:27:59.560> experiment<00:28:00.280> coming<00:28:00.600> out<00:28:00.760> of<00:28:00.840> the<00:28:01.040> ALPHA 00:28:01.350 --> 00:28:01.360 align:start position:0% key experiment coming out of the ALPHA 00:28:01.360 --> 00:28:03.110 align:start position:0% key experiment coming out of the ALPHA group<00:28:01.840> that<00:28:01.960> was<00:28:02.080> published<00:28:02.520> in<00:28:02.600> the<00:28:02.720> journal 00:28:03.110 --> 00:28:03.120 align:start position:0% group that was published in the journal 00:28:03.120 --> 00:28:05.910 align:start position:0% group that was published in the journal Nature<00:28:03.600> this<00:28:03.840> past<00:28:04.120> September. 00:28:05.910 --> 00:28:05.920 align:start position:0% Nature this past September. 00:28:05.920 --> 00:28:08.310 align:start position:0% Nature this past September. After<00:28:06.240> decades<00:28:06.960> of<00:28:07.080> assumptions,<00:28:08.120> this 00:28:08.310 --> 00:28:08.320 align:start position:0% After decades of assumptions, this 00:28:08.320 --> 00:28:10.470 align:start position:0% After decades of assumptions, this experiment<00:28:08.960> has<00:28:09.120> brought<00:28:09.480> us<00:28:09.760> real-world 00:28:10.470 --> 00:28:10.480 align:start position:0% experiment has brought us real-world 00:28:10.480 --> 00:28:12.750 align:start position:0% experiment has brought us real-world data<00:28:11.000> on<00:28:11.160> the<00:28:11.240> gravitational<00:28:11.960> acceleration 00:28:12.750 --> 00:28:12.760 align:start position:0% data on the gravitational acceleration 00:28:12.760 --> 00:28:15.710 align:start position:0% data on the gravitational acceleration of<00:28:12.960> antimatter<00:28:13.760> on<00:28:14.040> Earth's<00:28:14.280> surface. 00:28:15.710 --> 00:28:15.720 align:start position:0% of antimatter on Earth's surface. 00:28:15.720 --> 00:28:18.270 align:start position:0% of antimatter on Earth's surface. But,<00:28:16.160> before<00:28:16.600> we<00:28:16.760> show<00:28:17.000> you<00:28:17.120> the<00:28:17.240> results, 00:28:18.270 --> 00:28:18.280 align:start position:0% But, before we show you the results, 00:28:18.280 --> 00:28:20.790 align:start position:0% But, before we show you the results, let's<00:28:18.640> take<00:28:18.840> a<00:28:18.880> moment<00:28:19.280> to<00:28:19.400> appreciate<00:28:20.320> just 00:28:20.790 --> 00:28:20.800 align:start position:0% let's take a moment to appreciate just 00:28:20.800 --> 00:28:22.990 align:start position:0% let's take a moment to appreciate just how<00:28:21.000> intricately<00:28:21.920> this<00:28:22.120> experiment<00:28:22.800> was 00:28:22.990 --> 00:28:23.000 align:start position:0% how intricately this experiment was 00:28:23.000 --> 00:28:25.990 align:start position:0% how intricately this experiment was designed<00:28:23.920> in<00:28:24.120> order<00:28:24.400> to<00:28:24.640> isolate<00:28:25.440> and<00:28:25.600> measure 00:28:25.990 --> 00:28:26.000 align:start position:0% designed in order to isolate and measure 00:28:26.000 --> 00:28:28.790 align:start position:0% designed in order to isolate and measure the<00:28:26.160> effects<00:28:26.640> of<00:28:26.760> gravity. 00:28:28.790 --> 00:28:28.800 align:start position:0% the effects of gravity. 00:28:28.800 --> 00:28:30.710 align:start position:0% the effects of gravity. The<00:28:28.920> first<00:28:29.160> step<00:28:29.480> in<00:28:29.600> the<00:28:29.680> experiment<00:28:30.360> is<00:28:30.600> to 00:28:30.710 --> 00:28:30.720 align:start position:0% The first step in the experiment is to 00:28:30.720 --> 00:28:33.590 align:start position:0% The first step in the experiment is to secure<00:28:31.480> a<00:28:31.640> beam<00:28:32.160> of<00:28:32.360> several<00:28:33.080> million 00:28:33.590 --> 00:28:33.600 align:start position:0% secure a beam of several million 00:28:33.600 --> 00:28:36.430 align:start position:0% secure a beam of several million positrons<00:28:34.360> per<00:28:34.600> second<00:28:35.520> emitted<00:28:36.040> from<00:28:36.320> a 00:28:36.430 --> 00:28:36.440 align:start position:0% positrons per second emitted from a 00:28:36.440 --> 00:28:39.910 align:start position:0% positrons per second emitted from a radioactive<00:28:37.280> isotope<00:28:37.800> of<00:28:37.960> sodium. 00:28:39.910 --> 00:28:39.920 align:start position:0% radioactive isotope of sodium. 00:28:39.920 --> 00:28:42.470 align:start position:0% radioactive isotope of sodium. Most<00:28:40.240> of<00:28:40.360> these<00:28:40.640> positrons<00:28:41.400> end<00:28:41.640> up<00:28:41.800> colliding 00:28:42.470 --> 00:28:42.480 align:start position:0% Most of these positrons end up colliding 00:28:42.480 --> 00:28:44.630 align:start position:0% Most of these positrons end up colliding with<00:28:42.720> ordinary<00:28:43.160> matter<00:28:43.520> in<00:28:43.640> the<00:28:43.720> experiment, 00:28:44.630 --> 00:28:44.640 align:start position:0% with ordinary matter in the experiment, 00:28:44.640 --> 00:28:47.230 align:start position:0% with ordinary matter in the experiment, causing<00:28:45.240> miniature<00:28:45.640> explosions<00:28:46.840> in<00:28:46.960> which 00:28:47.230 --> 00:28:47.240 align:start position:0% causing miniature explosions in which 00:28:47.240 --> 00:28:49.670 align:start position:0% causing miniature explosions in which positrons<00:28:47.960> and<00:28:48.080> electrons<00:28:48.760> annihilate<00:28:49.480> each 00:28:49.670 --> 00:28:49.680 align:start position:0% positrons and electrons annihilate each 00:28:49.680 --> 00:28:51.830 align:start position:0% positrons and electrons annihilate each other<00:28:50.160> and<00:28:50.280> release<00:28:50.640> a<00:28:50.720> small<00:28:51.320> burst<00:28:51.680> of 00:28:51.830 --> 00:28:51.840 align:start position:0% other and release a small burst of 00:28:51.840 --> 00:28:54.150 align:start position:0% other and release a small burst of energy<00:28:52.280> in<00:28:52.400> the<00:28:52.480> form<00:28:52.760> of<00:28:52.880> light. 00:28:54.150 --> 00:28:54.160 align:start position:0% energy in the form of light. 00:28:54.160 --> 00:28:56.030 align:start position:0% energy in the form of light. But,<00:28:54.360> a<00:28:54.440> small<00:28:54.800> fraction<00:28:55.240> of<00:28:55.360> the<00:28:55.440> positrons 00:28:56.030 --> 00:28:56.040 align:start position:0% But, a small fraction of the positrons 00:28:56.040 --> 00:28:58.390 align:start position:0% But, a small fraction of the positrons survive<00:28:56.880> as<00:28:57.040> they<00:28:57.160> are<00:28:57.280> guided<00:28:58.000> through<00:28:58.280> the 00:28:58.390 --> 00:28:58.400 align:start position:0% survive as they are guided through the 00:28:58.400 --> 00:29:00.870 align:start position:0% survive as they are guided through the experimental<00:28:59.160> apparatus<00:29:00.440> where<00:29:00.600> they<00:29:00.800> are 00:29:00.870 --> 00:29:00.880 align:start position:0% experimental apparatus where they are 00:29:00.880 --> 00:29:03.990 align:start position:0% experimental apparatus where they are cooled<00:29:01.400> by<00:29:01.600> low-pressure<00:29:02.440> gases<00:29:03.440> and<00:29:03.600> trapped 00:29:03.990 --> 00:29:04.000 align:start position:0% cooled by low-pressure gases and trapped 00:29:04.000 --> 00:29:07.030 align:start position:0% cooled by low-pressure gases and trapped by<00:29:04.240> electric<00:29:04.880> and<00:29:05.000> magnetic<00:29:05.480> fields. 00:29:07.030 --> 00:29:07.040 align:start position:0% by electric and magnetic fields. 00:29:07.040 --> 00:29:09.550 align:start position:0% by electric and magnetic fields. But,<00:29:07.360> observing<00:29:08.000> the<00:29:08.120> effects<00:29:08.640> of<00:29:08.800> gravity<00:29:09.360> on 00:29:09.550 --> 00:29:09.560 align:start position:0% But, observing the effects of gravity on 00:29:09.560 --> 00:29:11.630 align:start position:0% But, observing the effects of gravity on these<00:29:09.760> positrons<00:29:10.720> would<00:29:11.000> be<00:29:11.160> nearly 00:29:11.630 --> 00:29:11.640 align:start position:0% these positrons would be nearly 00:29:11.640 --> 00:29:14.750 align:start position:0% these positrons would be nearly impossible.<00:29:12.840> Their<00:29:12.960> masses<00:29:13.400> are<00:29:13.480> so<00:29:13.720> small 00:29:14.750 --> 00:29:14.760 align:start position:0% impossible. Their masses are so small 00:29:14.760 --> 00:29:16.870 align:start position:0% impossible. Their masses are so small that<00:29:14.880> the<00:29:14.960> tiny<00:29:15.400> force<00:29:15.680> of<00:29:15.800> gravity<00:29:16.240> felt<00:29:16.640> by 00:29:16.870 --> 00:29:16.880 align:start position:0% that the tiny force of gravity felt by 00:29:16.880 --> 00:29:19.230 align:start position:0% that the tiny force of gravity felt by each<00:29:17.160> particle<00:29:17.960> is<00:29:18.160> overshadowed<00:29:18.840> by<00:29:19.000> even 00:29:19.230 --> 00:29:19.240 align:start position:0% each particle is overshadowed by even 00:29:19.240 --> 00:29:21.110 align:start position:0% each particle is overshadowed by even the<00:29:19.320> smallest<00:29:20.040> fluctuations<00:29:20.920> in<00:29:21.040> the 00:29:21.110 --> 00:29:21.120 align:start position:0% the smallest fluctuations in the 00:29:21.120 --> 00:29:24.030 align:start position:0% the smallest fluctuations in the surrounding<00:29:21.760> electromagnetic<00:29:22.560> fields. 00:29:24.030 --> 00:29:24.040 align:start position:0% surrounding electromagnetic fields. 00:29:24.040 --> 00:29:26.510 align:start position:0% surrounding electromagnetic fields. That's<00:29:24.360> why<00:29:24.880> this<00:29:25.200> collection<00:29:25.600> of<00:29:25.720> positrons 00:29:26.510 --> 00:29:26.520 align:start position:0% That's why this collection of positrons 00:29:26.520 --> 00:29:28.990 align:start position:0% That's why this collection of positrons is<00:29:26.760> merged<00:29:27.320> with<00:29:27.480> a<00:29:27.560> separate<00:29:28.120> container<00:29:28.720> of 00:29:28.990 --> 00:29:29.000 align:start position:0% is merged with a separate container of 00:29:29.000 --> 00:29:32.110 align:start position:0% is merged with a separate container of antiprotons<00:29:30.440> where<00:29:30.560> they<00:29:30.760> bond<00:29:31.520> and<00:29:31.720> form 00:29:32.110 --> 00:29:32.120 align:start position:0% antiprotons where they bond and form 00:29:32.120 --> 00:29:35.110 align:start position:0% antiprotons where they bond and form neutral<00:29:32.720> antihydrogen<00:29:33.720> atoms<00:29:34.600> that<00:29:34.720> are<00:29:34.800> much 00:29:35.110 --> 00:29:35.120 align:start position:0% neutral antihydrogen atoms that are much 00:29:35.120 --> 00:29:37.430 align:start position:0% neutral antihydrogen atoms that are much less<00:29:35.360> responsive<00:29:36.000> to<00:29:36.120> stray<00:29:36.640> electromagnetic 00:29:37.430 --> 00:29:37.440 align:start position:0% less responsive to stray electromagnetic 00:29:37.440 --> 00:29:38.870 align:start position:0% less responsive to stray electromagnetic fields. 00:29:38.870 --> 00:29:38.880 align:start position:0% fields. 00:29:38.880 --> 00:29:41.830 align:start position:0% fields. And<00:29:39.360> where<00:29:39.520> did<00:29:39.680> the<00:29:39.800> antiprotons<00:29:40.640> come<00:29:40.800> from? 00:29:41.830 --> 00:29:41.840 align:start position:0% And where did the antiprotons come from? 00:29:41.840 --> 00:29:43.310 align:start position:0% And where did the antiprotons come from? Suffice<00:29:42.240> it<00:29:42.360> to<00:29:42.480> say<00:29:42.720> that<00:29:42.960> they<00:29:43.200> were 00:29:43.310 --> 00:29:43.320 align:start position:0% Suffice it to say that they were 00:29:43.320 --> 00:29:46.190 align:start position:0% Suffice it to say that they were produced<00:29:43.880> by<00:29:44.040> firing<00:29:44.640> ordinary<00:29:45.080> protons<00:29:45.760> into 00:29:46.190 --> 00:29:46.200 align:start position:0% produced by firing ordinary protons into 00:29:46.200 --> 00:29:50.390 align:start position:0% produced by firing ordinary protons into a<00:29:46.280> block<00:29:46.760> of<00:29:46.920> metal<00:29:47.720> really,<00:29:48.640> really<00:29:49.120> fast. 00:29:50.390 --> 00:29:50.400 align:start position:0% a block of metal really, really fast. 00:29:50.400 --> 00:29:54.830 align:start position:0% a block of metal really, really fast. Yes,<00:29:51.160> physics<00:29:51.720> is<00:29:52.120> awesome<00:29:52.520> like<00:29:52.720> that. 00:29:54.830 --> 00:29:54.840 align:start position:0% Yes, physics is awesome like that. 00:29:54.840 --> 00:29:57.750 align:start position:0% Yes, physics is awesome like that. Once<00:29:55.080> the<00:29:55.320> antihydrogen<00:29:56.320> atoms<00:29:56.680> are<00:29:56.800> created, 00:29:57.750 --> 00:29:57.760 align:start position:0% Once the antihydrogen atoms are created, 00:29:57.760 --> 00:30:00.790 align:start position:0% Once the antihydrogen atoms are created, they<00:29:57.880> behave<00:29:58.400> like<00:29:58.720> tiny,<00:29:59.600> weak<00:29:59.920> magnets<00:30:00.680> that 00:30:00.790 --> 00:30:00.800 align:start position:0% they behave like tiny, weak magnets that 00:30:00.800 --> 00:30:02.790 align:start position:0% they behave like tiny, weak magnets that can<00:30:01.000> remain<00:30:01.360> trapped<00:30:01.840> by<00:30:02.040> complicated 00:30:02.790 --> 00:30:02.800 align:start position:0% can remain trapped by complicated 00:30:02.800 --> 00:30:04.710 align:start position:0% can remain trapped by complicated arrangements<00:30:03.480> of<00:30:03.600> external<00:30:04.280> magnetic 00:30:04.710 --> 00:30:04.720 align:start position:0% arrangements of external magnetic 00:30:04.720 --> 00:30:06.270 align:start position:0% arrangements of external magnetic fields. 00:30:06.270 --> 00:30:06.280 align:start position:0% fields. 00:30:06.280 --> 00:30:08.710 align:start position:0% fields. Now,<00:30:06.920> this<00:30:07.200> magnetic<00:30:07.760> interaction<00:30:08.320> is<00:30:08.480> weak 00:30:08.710 --> 00:30:08.720 align:start position:0% Now, this magnetic interaction is weak 00:30:08.720 --> 00:30:10.710 align:start position:0% Now, this magnetic interaction is weak enough<00:30:09.240> that<00:30:09.400> it<00:30:09.520> no<00:30:09.760> longer<00:30:10.120> overwhelms<00:30:10.640> the 00:30:10.710 --> 00:30:10.720 align:start position:0% enough that it no longer overwhelms the 00:30:10.720 --> 00:30:12.590 align:start position:0% enough that it no longer overwhelms the gravitational<00:30:11.360> effects<00:30:11.800> that<00:30:11.960> we<00:30:12.080> are<00:30:12.200> trying 00:30:12.590 --> 00:30:12.600 align:start position:0% gravitational effects that we are trying 00:30:12.600 --> 00:30:14.230 align:start position:0% gravitational effects that we are trying to<00:30:12.720> measure. 00:30:14.230 --> 00:30:14.240 align:start position:0% to measure. 00:30:14.240 --> 00:30:15.510 align:start position:0% to measure. The<00:30:14.320> chamber<00:30:14.760> containing<00:30:15.240> these 00:30:15.510 --> 00:30:15.520 align:start position:0% The chamber containing these 00:30:15.520 --> 00:30:18.950 align:start position:0% The chamber containing these antihydrogen<00:30:16.440> atoms<00:30:17.080> is<00:30:17.280> nearly<00:30:17.600> a<00:30:17.680> vacuum. 00:30:18.950 --> 00:30:18.960 align:start position:0% antihydrogen atoms is nearly a vacuum. 00:30:18.960 --> 00:30:22.470 align:start position:0% antihydrogen atoms is nearly a vacuum. There<00:30:19.160> are<00:30:19.360> just<00:30:19.840> about<00:30:20.560> 200,000<00:30:21.920> atoms<00:30:22.280> of 00:30:22.470 --> 00:30:22.480 align:start position:0% There are just about 200,000 atoms of 00:30:22.480 --> 00:30:25.150 align:start position:0% There are just about 200,000 atoms of ordinary<00:30:22.920> gas<00:30:23.280> per<00:30:23.560> cubic<00:30:23.960> centimeter 00:30:25.150 --> 00:30:25.160 align:start position:0% ordinary gas per cubic centimeter 00:30:25.160 --> 00:30:27.070 align:start position:0% ordinary gas per cubic centimeter compared<00:30:25.520> to<00:30:25.680> a<00:30:25.760> typical<00:30:26.360> atmospheric 00:30:27.070 --> 00:30:27.080 align:start position:0% compared to a typical atmospheric 00:30:27.080 --> 00:30:30.710 align:start position:0% compared to a typical atmospheric density<00:30:27.960> of<00:30:28.120> 20<00:30:28.800> quintillion<00:30:30.040> atoms<00:30:30.560> per 00:30:30.710 --> 00:30:30.720 align:start position:0% density of 20 quintillion atoms per 00:30:30.720 --> 00:30:32.750 align:start position:0% density of 20 quintillion atoms per cubic<00:30:31.080> centimeter.<00:30:32.240> Under<00:30:32.480> these 00:30:32.750 --> 00:30:32.760 align:start position:0% cubic centimeter. Under these 00:30:32.760 --> 00:30:35.110 align:start position:0% cubic centimeter. Under these conditions,<00:30:33.680> the<00:30:33.800> trapped<00:30:34.280> antihydrogen 00:30:35.110 --> 00:30:35.120 align:start position:0% conditions, the trapped antihydrogen 00:30:35.120 --> 00:30:37.790 align:start position:0% conditions, the trapped antihydrogen atoms<00:30:35.760> almost<00:30:36.120> never<00:30:36.560> collide<00:30:37.160> or<00:30:37.240> annihilate 00:30:37.790 --> 00:30:37.800 align:start position:0% atoms almost never collide or annihilate 00:30:37.800 --> 00:30:39.870 align:start position:0% atoms almost never collide or annihilate with<00:30:38.000> atoms<00:30:38.360> of<00:30:38.480> ordinary<00:30:38.840> matter. 00:30:39.870 --> 00:30:39.880 align:start position:0% with atoms of ordinary matter. 00:30:39.880 --> 00:30:42.390 align:start position:0% with atoms of ordinary matter. Instead,<00:30:40.680> they<00:30:40.840> can<00:30:41.160> more<00:30:41.480> or<00:30:41.600> less<00:30:42.000> just 00:30:42.390 --> 00:30:42.400 align:start position:0% Instead, they can more or less just 00:30:42.400 --> 00:30:44.510 align:start position:0% Instead, they can more or less just float<00:30:42.760> around<00:30:43.080> the<00:30:43.200> chamber<00:30:43.680> for<00:30:43.920> minutes<00:30:44.400> or 00:30:44.510 --> 00:30:44.520 align:start position:0% float around the chamber for minutes or 00:30:44.520 --> 00:30:45.950 align:start position:0% float around the chamber for minutes or longer. 00:30:45.950 --> 00:30:45.960 align:start position:0% longer. 00:30:45.960 --> 00:30:48.430 align:start position:0% longer. But,<00:30:46.720> as<00:30:46.960> the<00:30:47.080> magnetic<00:30:47.520> fields<00:30:47.920> used<00:30:48.320> to 00:30:48.430 --> 00:30:48.440 align:start position:0% But, as the magnetic fields used to 00:30:48.440 --> 00:30:50.750 align:start position:0% But, as the magnetic fields used to vertically<00:30:49.000> trap<00:30:49.360> the<00:30:49.520> antihydrogen<00:30:50.360> atoms 00:30:50.750 --> 00:30:50.760 align:start position:0% vertically trap the antihydrogen atoms 00:30:50.760 --> 00:30:52.070 align:start position:0% vertically trap the antihydrogen atoms are<00:30:50.920> weakened, 00:30:52.070 --> 00:30:52.080 align:start position:0% are weakened, 00:30:52.080 --> 00:30:54.430 align:start position:0% are weakened, this<00:30:52.280> random<00:30:52.760> floating<00:30:53.320> eventually<00:30:54.000> allows 00:30:54.430 --> 00:30:54.440 align:start position:0% this random floating eventually allows 00:30:54.440 --> 00:30:57.350 align:start position:0% this random floating eventually allows the<00:30:54.640> antihydrogen<00:30:55.640> atoms<00:30:56.440> to<00:30:56.560> escape<00:30:57.040> through 00:30:57.350 --> 00:30:57.360 align:start position:0% the antihydrogen atoms to escape through 00:30:57.360 --> 00:30:59.310 align:start position:0% the antihydrogen atoms to escape through either<00:30:57.640> the<00:30:57.800> top<00:30:58.480> or<00:30:58.600> the<00:30:58.720> bottom<00:30:59.080> of<00:30:59.200> the 00:30:59.310 --> 00:30:59.320 align:start position:0% either the top or the bottom of the 00:30:59.320 --> 00:31:01.310 align:start position:0% either the top or the bottom of the chamber,<00:31:00.120> where<00:31:00.280> they<00:31:00.440> can<00:31:00.640> collide<00:31:01.120> with<00:31:01.280> a 00:31:01.310 --> 00:31:01.320 align:start position:0% chamber, where they can collide with a 00:31:01.320 --> 00:31:03.870 align:start position:0% chamber, where they can collide with a wall<00:31:01.680> of<00:31:01.840> apparatus,<00:31:02.760> annihilate<00:31:03.400> with<00:31:03.560> some 00:31:03.870 --> 00:31:03.880 align:start position:0% wall of apparatus, annihilate with some 00:31:03.880 --> 00:31:06.310 align:start position:0% wall of apparatus, annihilate with some ordinary<00:31:04.360> atoms,<00:31:05.240> and<00:31:05.360> release<00:31:05.720> a<00:31:05.800> small 00:31:06.310 --> 00:31:06.320 align:start position:0% ordinary atoms, and release a small 00:31:06.320 --> 00:31:08.070 align:start position:0% ordinary atoms, and release a small burst<00:31:06.640> of<00:31:06.760> light. 00:31:08.070 --> 00:31:08.080 align:start position:0% burst of light. 00:31:08.080 --> 00:31:10.350 align:start position:0% burst of light. In<00:31:08.280> the<00:31:08.360> ALPHA<00:31:08.680> experiment,<00:31:09.520> this<00:31:09.760> happens 00:31:10.350 --> 00:31:10.360 align:start position:0% In the ALPHA experiment, this happens 00:31:10.360 --> 00:31:14.150 align:start position:0% In the ALPHA experiment, this happens over<00:31:10.520> the<00:31:10.640> course<00:31:11.440> of<00:31:11.560> about<00:31:11.680> 20<00:31:12.040> seconds. 00:31:14.150 --> 00:31:14.160 align:start position:0% over the course of about 20 seconds. 00:31:14.160 --> 00:31:16.150 align:start position:0% over the course of about 20 seconds. The<00:31:14.200> theory<00:31:14.520> behind<00:31:14.880> the<00:31:14.960> experiment<00:31:15.640> is<00:31:15.840> that 00:31:16.150 --> 00:31:16.160 align:start position:0% The theory behind the experiment is that 00:31:16.160 --> 00:31:18.430 align:start position:0% The theory behind the experiment is that if<00:31:16.400> gravity<00:31:16.920> really<00:31:17.480> pulls<00:31:17.960> antimatter 00:31:18.430 --> 00:31:18.440 align:start position:0% if gravity really pulls antimatter 00:31:18.440 --> 00:31:20.990 align:start position:0% if gravity really pulls antimatter downwards,<00:31:19.480> more<00:31:19.840> of<00:31:19.960> the<00:31:20.120> antihydrogen 00:31:20.990 --> 00:31:21.000 align:start position:0% downwards, more of the antihydrogen 00:31:21.000 --> 00:31:23.430 align:start position:0% downwards, more of the antihydrogen atoms<00:31:21.480> escape<00:31:21.920> through<00:31:22.160> the<00:31:22.320> bottom<00:31:23.160> than<00:31:23.320> the 00:31:23.430 --> 00:31:23.440 align:start position:0% atoms escape through the bottom than the 00:31:23.440 --> 00:31:24.510 align:start position:0% atoms escape through the bottom than the top. 00:31:24.510 --> 00:31:24.520 align:start position:0% top. 00:31:24.520 --> 00:31:26.590 align:start position:0% top. The<00:31:24.600> stronger<00:31:25.040> the<00:31:25.160> gravitational<00:31:25.800> force, 00:31:26.590 --> 00:31:26.600 align:start position:0% The stronger the gravitational force, 00:31:26.600 --> 00:31:27.950 align:start position:0% The stronger the gravitational force, the<00:31:26.680> more<00:31:26.960> atoms<00:31:27.320> escape<00:31:27.680> through<00:31:27.880> the 00:31:27.950 --> 00:31:27.960 align:start position:0% the more atoms escape through the 00:31:27.960 --> 00:31:29.670 align:start position:0% the more atoms escape through the bottom. 00:31:29.670 --> 00:31:29.680 align:start position:0% bottom. 00:31:29.680 --> 00:31:31.630 align:start position:0% bottom. The<00:31:29.760> simulations<00:31:30.480> the<00:31:30.600> ALPHA<00:31:30.840> team<00:31:31.080> ran 00:31:31.630 --> 00:31:31.640 align:start position:0% The simulations the ALPHA team ran 00:31:31.640 --> 00:31:33.790 align:start position:0% The simulations the ALPHA team ran showed<00:31:32.160> that<00:31:32.440> under<00:31:32.640> normal<00:31:33.080> gravitational 00:31:33.790 --> 00:31:33.800 align:start position:0% showed that under normal gravitational 00:31:33.800 --> 00:31:36.630 align:start position:0% showed that under normal gravitational attraction,<00:31:34.760> about<00:31:35.200> 85%<00:31:36.400> of<00:31:36.480> the 00:31:36.630 --> 00:31:36.640 align:start position:0% attraction, about 85% of the 00:31:36.640 --> 00:31:39.150 align:start position:0% attraction, about 85% of the antihydrogen<00:31:37.440> atoms<00:31:38.120> should<00:31:38.520> escape<00:31:38.920> through 00:31:39.150 --> 00:31:39.160 align:start position:0% antihydrogen atoms should escape through 00:31:39.160 --> 00:31:40.310 align:start position:0% antihydrogen atoms should escape through the<00:31:39.240> bottom. 00:31:40.310 --> 00:31:40.320 align:start position:0% the bottom. 00:31:40.320 --> 00:31:42.590 align:start position:0% the bottom. Whereas,<00:31:40.840> only<00:31:41.080> 20%<00:31:41.880> of<00:31:41.960> them<00:31:42.120> would<00:31:42.240> escape 00:31:42.590 --> 00:31:42.600 align:start position:0% Whereas, only 20% of them would escape 00:31:42.600 --> 00:31:44.670 align:start position:0% Whereas, only 20% of them would escape through<00:31:42.800> the<00:31:42.880> bottom<00:31:43.600> if<00:31:43.760> gravity<00:31:44.280> pulled 00:31:44.670 --> 00:31:44.680 align:start position:0% through the bottom if gravity pulled 00:31:44.680 --> 00:31:47.270 align:start position:0% through the bottom if gravity pulled antimatter<00:31:45.240> upwards. 00:31:47.270 --> 00:31:47.280 align:start position:0% antimatter upwards. 00:31:47.280 --> 00:31:49.550 align:start position:0% antimatter upwards. If<00:31:47.440> there<00:31:47.680> were<00:31:47.920> no<00:31:48.320> gravitational<00:31:49.000> force<00:31:49.320> at 00:31:49.550 --> 00:31:49.560 align:start position:0% If there were no gravitational force at 00:31:49.560 --> 00:31:52.230 align:start position:0% If there were no gravitational force at all,<00:31:50.280> the<00:31:50.360> simulation<00:31:51.040> showed<00:31:51.480> a<00:31:51.560> more<00:31:52.000> even 00:31:52.230 --> 00:31:52.240 align:start position:0% all, the simulation showed a more even 00:31:52.240 --> 00:31:54.590 align:start position:0% all, the simulation showed a more even distribution<00:31:52.880> of<00:31:53.000> 55%<00:31:54.000> escape<00:31:54.360> through<00:31:54.520> the 00:31:54.590 --> 00:31:54.600 align:start position:0% distribution of 55% escape through the 00:31:54.600 --> 00:31:57.870 align:start position:0% distribution of 55% escape through the bottom,<00:31:55.480> probably<00:31:56.160> only<00:31:56.480> differing<00:31:56.960> from<00:31:57.200> 50% 00:31:57.870 --> 00:31:57.880 align:start position:0% bottom, probably only differing from 50% 00:31:57.880 --> 00:31:59.990 align:start position:0% bottom, probably only differing from 50% due<00:31:58.040> to<00:31:58.280> asymmetries<00:31:59.080> in<00:31:59.200> the<00:31:59.280> experimental 00:31:59.990 --> 00:32:00.000 align:start position:0% due to asymmetries in the experimental 00:32:00.000 --> 00:32:02.030 align:start position:0% due to asymmetries in the experimental apparatus<00:32:00.520> itself. 00:32:02.030 --> 00:32:02.040 align:start position:0% apparatus itself. 00:32:02.040 --> 00:32:06.550 align:start position:0% apparatus itself. What<00:32:02.680> did<00:32:03.240> the<00:32:03.480> actual<00:32:03.920> experiment<00:32:04.600> find? 00:32:06.550 --> 00:32:06.560 align:start position:0% What did the actual experiment find? 00:32:06.560 --> 00:32:09.350 align:start position:0% What did the actual experiment find? Well,<00:32:07.320> roughly<00:32:07.760> 75% 00:32:09.350 --> 00:32:09.360 align:start position:0% Well, roughly 75% 00:32:09.360 --> 00:32:12.030 align:start position:0% Well, roughly 75% of<00:32:09.560> antihydrogen<00:32:10.440> atoms<00:32:11.120> escaped<00:32:11.760> through 00:32:12.030 --> 00:32:12.040 align:start position:0% of antihydrogen atoms escaped through 00:32:12.040 --> 00:32:14.350 align:start position:0% of antihydrogen atoms escaped through the<00:32:12.160> bottom<00:32:12.760> of<00:32:12.840> the<00:32:12.960> chamber,<00:32:13.920> showing<00:32:14.280> a 00:32:14.350 --> 00:32:14.360 align:start position:0% the bottom of the chamber, showing a 00:32:14.360 --> 00:32:16.670 align:start position:0% the bottom of the chamber, showing a clear<00:32:14.800> preference<00:32:15.440> for<00:32:15.640> downward<00:32:16.280> pulling 00:32:16.670 --> 00:32:16.680 align:start position:0% clear preference for downward pulling 00:32:16.680 --> 00:32:19.270 align:start position:0% clear preference for downward pulling gravity. 00:32:19.270 --> 00:32:19.280 align:start position:0% gravity. 00:32:19.280 --> 00:32:22.030 align:start position:0% gravity. As<00:32:19.840> any<00:32:20.200> thorough<00:32:20.520> scientist<00:32:21.080> would,<00:32:21.960> the 00:32:22.030 --> 00:32:22.040 align:start position:0% As any thorough scientist would, the 00:32:22.040 --> 00:32:23.950 align:start position:0% As any thorough scientist would, the ALPHA<00:32:22.360> team<00:32:22.680> repeated<00:32:23.120> this<00:32:23.280> experiment<00:32:23.840> to 00:32:23.950 --> 00:32:23.960 align:start position:0% ALPHA team repeated this experiment to 00:32:23.960 --> 00:32:25.950 align:start position:0% ALPHA team repeated this experiment to collect<00:32:24.320> a<00:32:24.360> variety<00:32:24.960> of<00:32:25.040> data<00:32:25.320> points<00:32:25.760> that 00:32:25.950 --> 00:32:25.960 align:start position:0% collect a variety of data points that 00:32:25.960 --> 00:32:28.390 align:start position:0% collect a variety of data points that could<00:32:26.080> tell<00:32:26.400> a<00:32:26.480> more<00:32:26.680> complete<00:32:27.160> story. 00:32:28.390 --> 00:32:28.400 align:start position:0% could tell a more complete story. 00:32:28.400 --> 00:32:30.230 align:start position:0% could tell a more complete story. They<00:32:28.560> redid<00:32:28.960> the<00:32:29.040> procedure<00:32:29.560> under<00:32:29.800> various 00:32:30.230 --> 00:32:30.240 align:start position:0% They redid the procedure under various 00:32:30.240 --> 00:32:32.390 align:start position:0% They redid the procedure under various levels<00:32:30.640> of<00:32:30.720> magnetic<00:32:31.200> field<00:32:31.440> bias,<00:32:32.240> which 00:32:32.390 --> 00:32:32.400 align:start position:0% levels of magnetic field bias, which 00:32:32.400 --> 00:32:34.390 align:start position:0% levels of magnetic field bias, which applied<00:32:32.880> external<00:32:33.440> upward<00:32:33.880> or<00:32:34.000> downward 00:32:34.390 --> 00:32:34.400 align:start position:0% applied external upward or downward 00:32:34.400 --> 00:32:36.270 align:start position:0% applied external upward or downward magnetic<00:32:34.840> forces<00:32:35.320> on<00:32:35.440> the<00:32:35.520> antihydrogen 00:32:36.270 --> 00:32:36.280 align:start position:0% magnetic forces on the antihydrogen 00:32:36.280 --> 00:32:37.630 align:start position:0% magnetic forces on the antihydrogen atoms. 00:32:37.630 --> 00:32:37.640 align:start position:0% atoms. 00:32:37.640 --> 00:32:41.030 align:start position:0% atoms. On<00:32:37.760> this<00:32:37.960> graph,<00:32:38.680> a<00:32:38.760> bias<00:32:39.200> of<00:32:39.480> -1g 00:32:41.030 --> 00:32:41.040 align:start position:0% On this graph, a bias of -1g 00:32:41.040 --> 00:32:42.670 align:start position:0% On this graph, a bias of -1g means<00:32:41.280> that<00:32:41.440> enough<00:32:41.800> magnetic<00:32:42.240> force<00:32:42.560> is 00:32:42.670 --> 00:32:42.680 align:start position:0% means that enough magnetic force is 00:32:42.680 --> 00:32:45.390 align:start position:0% means that enough magnetic force is applied<00:32:43.280> to<00:32:43.440> counteract<00:32:44.120> normal<00:32:44.440> gravity, 00:32:45.390 --> 00:32:45.400 align:start position:0% applied to counteract normal gravity, 00:32:45.400 --> 00:32:47.830 align:start position:0% applied to counteract normal gravity, while<00:32:45.560> a<00:32:45.640> bias<00:32:45.960> of<00:32:46.120> +1g<00:32:47.160> means<00:32:47.440> there's<00:32:47.600> an 00:32:47.830 --> 00:32:47.840 align:start position:0% while a bias of +1g means there's an 00:32:47.840 --> 00:32:50.550 align:start position:0% while a bias of +1g means there's an extra<00:32:48.320> g<00:32:48.760> of<00:32:48.880> magnetic<00:32:49.320> force<00:32:49.600> is<00:32:49.720> applied<00:32:50.480> to 00:32:50.550 --> 00:32:50.560 align:start position:0% extra g of magnetic force is applied to 00:32:50.560 --> 00:32:52.990 align:start position:0% extra g of magnetic force is applied to push<00:32:50.840> the<00:32:50.960> antihydrogen<00:32:51.720> atoms<00:32:52.160> downward<00:32:52.840> and 00:32:52.990 --> 00:32:53.000 align:start position:0% push the antihydrogen atoms downward and 00:32:53.000 --> 00:32:54.710 align:start position:0% push the antihydrogen atoms downward and so<00:32:53.240> on. 00:32:54.710 --> 00:32:54.720 align:start position:0% so on. 00:32:54.720 --> 00:32:56.270 align:start position:0% so on. The<00:32:54.800> team<00:32:55.080> made<00:32:55.360> predictions<00:32:56.040> through 00:32:56.270 --> 00:32:56.280 align:start position:0% The team made predictions through 00:32:56.280 --> 00:32:58.910 align:start position:0% The team made predictions through simulations<00:32:57.040> for<00:32:57.240> each<00:32:57.480> bias<00:32:58.520> and<00:32:58.720> for 00:32:58.910 --> 00:32:58.920 align:start position:0% simulations for each bias and for 00:32:58.920 --> 00:33:00.550 align:start position:0% simulations for each bias and for various<00:32:59.480> possible<00:32:59.920> gravitational 00:33:00.550 --> 00:33:00.560 align:start position:0% various possible gravitational 00:33:00.560 --> 00:33:03.190 align:start position:0% various possible gravitational interactions,<00:33:01.600> which<00:33:01.840> produced<00:33:02.280> the<00:33:02.520> orange, 00:33:03.190 --> 00:33:03.200 align:start position:0% interactions, which produced the orange, 00:33:03.200 --> 00:33:06.830 align:start position:0% interactions, which produced the orange, green,<00:33:03.880> and<00:33:04.040> purple<00:33:04.400> curves<00:33:04.920> shown<00:33:05.280> here. 00:33:06.830 --> 00:33:06.840 align:start position:0% green, and purple curves shown here. 00:33:06.840 --> 00:33:09.350 align:start position:0% green, and purple curves shown here. As<00:33:07.040> you<00:33:07.160> can<00:33:07.360> see,<00:33:08.200> the<00:33:08.320> experimental<00:33:09.080> data 00:33:09.350 --> 00:33:09.360 align:start position:0% As you can see, the experimental data 00:33:09.360 --> 00:33:12.190 align:start position:0% As you can see, the experimental data points<00:33:09.880> shown<00:33:10.160> in<00:33:10.240> blue<00:33:11.120> best<00:33:11.560> match<00:33:11.960> the 00:33:12.190 --> 00:33:12.200 align:start position:0% points shown in blue best match the 00:33:12.200 --> 00:33:14.590 align:start position:0% points shown in blue best match the orange<00:33:12.600> curve,<00:33:13.480> which<00:33:13.680> represents<00:33:14.280> the 00:33:14.590 --> 00:33:14.600 align:start position:0% orange curve, which represents the 00:33:14.600 --> 00:33:17.150 align:start position:0% orange curve, which represents the normal<00:33:15.080> simulation<00:33:16.080> where<00:33:16.320> gravity<00:33:16.840> pulls 00:33:17.150 --> 00:33:17.160 align:start position:0% normal simulation where gravity pulls 00:33:17.160 --> 00:33:19.230 align:start position:0% normal simulation where gravity pulls antimatter<00:33:17.680> downwards. 00:33:19.230 --> 00:33:19.240 align:start position:0% antimatter downwards. 00:33:19.240 --> 00:33:21.110 align:start position:0% antimatter downwards. But<00:33:19.440> because<00:33:19.800> the<00:33:19.880> data<00:33:20.200> falls<00:33:20.560> just<00:33:20.760> a<00:33:20.840> bit 00:33:21.110 --> 00:33:21.120 align:start position:0% But because the data falls just a bit 00:33:21.120 --> 00:33:23.670 align:start position:0% But because the data falls just a bit below<00:33:21.640> this<00:33:21.920> curve,<00:33:22.800> the<00:33:22.920> best-fit 00:33:23.670 --> 00:33:23.680 align:start position:0% below this curve, the best-fit 00:33:23.680 --> 00:33:25.630 align:start position:0% below this curve, the best-fit gravitational<00:33:24.280> acceleration<00:33:25.080> was<00:33:25.320> only 00:33:25.630 --> 00:33:25.640 align:start position:0% gravitational acceleration was only 00:33:25.640 --> 00:33:28.750 align:start position:0% gravitational acceleration was only 0.75g, 00:33:28.750 --> 00:33:28.760 align:start position:0% 00:33:28.760 --> 00:33:31.790 align:start position:0% 3/4<00:33:29.720> of<00:33:29.840> the<00:33:29.960> strength<00:33:30.320> of<00:33:30.480> gravity<00:33:31.120> acting<00:33:31.600> on 00:33:31.790 --> 00:33:31.800 align:start position:0% 3/4 of the strength of gravity acting on 00:33:31.800 --> 00:33:33.670 align:start position:0% 3/4 of the strength of gravity acting on ordinary<00:33:32.200> matter. 00:33:33.670 --> 00:33:33.680 align:start position:0% ordinary matter. 00:33:33.680 --> 00:33:35.950 align:start position:0% ordinary matter. Does<00:33:33.920> this<00:33:34.200> mean<00:33:34.600> that<00:33:34.800> gravity<00:33:35.400> affects 00:33:35.950 --> 00:33:35.960 align:start position:0% Does this mean that gravity affects 00:33:35.960 --> 00:33:37.910 align:start position:0% Does this mean that gravity affects matter<00:33:36.560> and<00:33:36.840> antimatter<00:33:37.320> particles 00:33:37.910 --> 00:33:37.920 align:start position:0% matter and antimatter particles 00:33:37.920 --> 00:33:40.510 align:start position:0% matter and antimatter particles differently<00:33:38.560> after<00:33:38.960> all? 00:33:40.510 --> 00:33:40.520 align:start position:0% differently after all? 00:33:40.520 --> 00:33:43.190 align:start position:0% differently after all? Not<00:33:41.040> necessarily. 00:33:43.190 --> 00:33:43.200 align:start position:0% Not necessarily. 00:33:43.200 --> 00:33:45.870 align:start position:0% Not necessarily. Let's<00:33:43.440> have<00:33:43.560> a<00:33:43.600> look<00:33:43.920> at<00:33:44.160> the<00:33:44.400> error<00:33:44.680> bars. 00:33:45.870 --> 00:33:45.880 align:start position:0% Let's have a look at the error bars. 00:33:45.880 --> 00:33:47.830 align:start position:0% Let's have a look at the error bars. They<00:33:46.080> indicate<00:33:46.600> that<00:33:46.760> there<00:33:47.000> are<00:33:47.160> two<00:33:47.480> major 00:33:47.830 --> 00:33:47.840 align:start position:0% They indicate that there are two major 00:33:47.840 --> 00:33:50.190 align:start position:0% They indicate that there are two major forces<00:33:48.280> of<00:33:48.400> uncertainty<00:33:49.000> in<00:33:49.120> the<00:33:49.200> results, 00:33:50.190 --> 00:33:50.200 align:start position:0% forces of uncertainty in the results, 00:33:50.200 --> 00:33:52.470 align:start position:0% forces of uncertainty in the results, including<00:33:50.960> an<00:33:51.080> uncertainty<00:33:51.840> in<00:33:51.960> the<00:33:52.080> applied 00:33:52.470 --> 00:33:52.480 align:start position:0% including an uncertainty in the applied 00:33:52.480 --> 00:33:55.710 align:start position:0% including an uncertainty in the applied bias,<00:33:53.320> possible<00:33:54.000> errors<00:33:54.520> in<00:33:54.640> alignment,<00:33:55.520> and 00:33:55.710 --> 00:33:55.720 align:start position:0% bias, possible errors in alignment, and 00:33:55.720 --> 00:33:57.750 align:start position:0% bias, possible errors in alignment, and other<00:33:56.000> systematic<00:33:56.960> and<00:33:57.080> statistical 00:33:57.750 --> 00:33:57.760 align:start position:0% other systematic and statistical 00:33:57.760 --> 00:33:59.990 align:start position:0% other systematic and statistical uncertainties. 00:33:59.990 --> 00:34:00.000 align:start position:0% uncertainties. 00:34:00.000 --> 00:34:02.430 align:start position:0% uncertainties. When<00:34:00.280> accounting<00:34:00.840> for<00:34:00.960> these<00:34:01.240> uncertainties, 00:34:02.430 --> 00:34:02.440 align:start position:0% When accounting for these uncertainties, 00:34:02.440 --> 00:34:05.230 align:start position:0% When accounting for these uncertainties, the<00:34:02.600> best-fit<00:34:03.480> gravitational<00:34:04.200> acceleration 00:34:05.230 --> 00:34:05.240 align:start position:0% the best-fit gravitational acceleration 00:34:05.240 --> 00:34:09.070 align:start position:0% the best-fit gravitational acceleration is<00:34:05.480> actually<00:34:05.920> reported<00:34:06.920> as<00:34:07.160> 0.75g 00:34:09.070 --> 00:34:09.080 align:start position:0% is actually reported as 0.75g 00:34:09.080 --> 00:34:11.909 align:start position:0% is actually reported as 0.75g plus<00:34:09.360> or<00:34:09.480> minus<00:34:10.240> 0.13g 00:34:11.909 --> 00:34:11.919 align:start position:0% plus or minus 0.13g 00:34:11.919 --> 00:34:15.430 align:start position:0% plus or minus 0.13g plus<00:34:12.159> or<00:34:12.240> minus<00:34:12.600> 1.6g. 00:34:15.430 --> 00:34:15.440 align:start position:0% plus or minus 1.6g. 00:34:15.440 --> 00:34:17.629 align:start position:0% plus or minus 1.6g. This<00:34:15.679> means<00:34:16.040> that<00:34:16.200> a<00:34:16.280> full<00:34:16.679> 1g<00:34:17.520> of 00:34:17.629 --> 00:34:17.639 align:start position:0% This means that a full 1g of 00:34:17.639 --> 00:34:20.190 align:start position:0% This means that a full 1g of gravitational<00:34:18.240> acceleration<00:34:19.240> is<00:34:19.480> still 00:34:20.190 --> 00:34:20.200 align:start position:0% gravitational acceleration is still 00:34:20.200 --> 00:34:21.950 align:start position:0% gravitational acceleration is still fairly<00:34:20.639> consistent<00:34:21.320> with<00:34:21.480> the<00:34:21.560> collected 00:34:21.950 --> 00:34:21.960 align:start position:0% fairly consistent with the collected 00:34:21.960 --> 00:34:23.510 align:start position:0% fairly consistent with the collected data. 00:34:23.510 --> 00:34:23.520 align:start position:0% data. 00:34:23.520 --> 00:34:25.270 align:start position:0% data. Future<00:34:23.800> experiments<00:34:24.520> will<00:34:24.639> be<00:34:24.840> able<00:34:25.159> to 00:34:25.270 --> 00:34:25.280 align:start position:0% Future experiments will be able to 00:34:25.280 --> 00:34:27.950 align:start position:0% Future experiments will be able to determine<00:34:25.879> more<00:34:26.080> precisely<00:34:26.879> how<00:34:27.240> strongly 00:34:27.950 --> 00:34:27.960 align:start position:0% determine more precisely how strongly 00:34:27.960 --> 00:34:30.270 align:start position:0% determine more precisely how strongly gravity<00:34:28.440> acts<00:34:28.760> on<00:34:28.919> antimatter, 00:34:30.270 --> 00:34:30.280 align:start position:0% gravity acts on antimatter, 00:34:30.280 --> 00:34:33.070 align:start position:0% gravity acts on antimatter, but<00:34:31.000> we<00:34:31.120> can<00:34:31.320> already<00:34:31.760> rule<00:34:32.200> out<00:34:32.440> speculative 00:34:33.070 --> 00:34:33.080 align:start position:0% but we can already rule out speculative 00:34:33.080 --> 00:34:35.470 align:start position:0% but we can already rule out speculative theories<00:34:33.639> that<00:34:33.840> rely<00:34:34.280> on<00:34:34.480> antimatter<00:34:35.000> falling 00:34:35.470 --> 00:34:35.480 align:start position:0% theories that rely on antimatter falling 00:34:35.480 --> 00:34:38.310 align:start position:0% theories that rely on antimatter falling up<00:34:36.000> instead<00:34:36.320> of<00:34:36.399> down. 00:34:38.310 --> 00:34:38.320 align:start position:0% up instead of down. 00:34:38.320 --> 00:34:41.030 align:start position:0% up instead of down. In<00:34:38.480> the<00:34:38.639> end,<00:34:39.280> despite<00:34:39.960> how<00:34:40.320> weird<00:34:40.840> and 00:34:41.030 --> 00:34:41.040 align:start position:0% In the end, despite how weird and 00:34:41.040 --> 00:34:43.869 align:start position:0% In the end, despite how weird and backwards<00:34:41.679> the<00:34:41.800> world<00:34:42.120> of<00:34:42.280> antimatter<00:34:42.840> is,<00:34:43.720> it 00:34:43.869 --> 00:34:43.879 align:start position:0% backwards the world of antimatter is, it 00:34:43.879 --> 00:34:46.430 align:start position:0% backwards the world of antimatter is, it seems<00:34:44.240> that<00:34:44.520> only<00:34:44.840> the<00:34:45.040> weak<00:34:45.440> force<00:34:45.919> actually 00:34:46.430 --> 00:34:46.440 align:start position:0% seems that only the weak force actually 00:34:46.440 --> 00:34:48.550 align:start position:0% seems that only the weak force actually applies<00:34:46.960> differently<00:34:47.520> to<00:34:47.639> particles<00:34:48.399> and 00:34:48.550 --> 00:34:48.560 align:start position:0% applies differently to particles and 00:34:48.560 --> 00:34:50.230 align:start position:0% applies differently to particles and antiparticles. 00:34:50.230 --> 00:34:50.240 align:start position:0% antiparticles. 00:34:50.240 --> 00:34:52.669 align:start position:0% antiparticles. But,<00:34:50.480> explaining<00:34:51.360> the<00:34:51.480> baryonic<00:34:52.080> asymmetry 00:34:52.669 --> 00:34:52.679 align:start position:0% But, explaining the baryonic asymmetry 00:34:52.679 --> 00:34:55.389 align:start position:0% But, explaining the baryonic asymmetry of<00:34:52.760> the<00:34:52.879> universe<00:34:53.639> would<00:34:53.800> require<00:34:54.399> much<00:34:55.040> more 00:34:55.389 --> 00:34:55.399 align:start position:0% of the universe would require much more 00:34:55.399 --> 00:34:58.150 align:start position:0% of the universe would require much more drastic<00:34:55.960> differences<00:34:56.600> between<00:34:57.000> the<00:34:57.120> two. 00:34:58.150 --> 00:34:58.160 align:start position:0% drastic differences between the two. 00:34:58.160 --> 00:35:01.710 align:start position:0% drastic differences between the two. So,<00:34:58.680> scientists<00:34:59.440> aren't<00:35:00.000> looking<00:35:00.280> for<00:35:00.520> them. 00:35:01.710 --> 00:35:01.720 align:start position:0% So, scientists aren't looking for them. 00:35:01.720 --> 00:35:04.310 align:start position:0% So, scientists aren't looking for them. Could<00:35:02.120> there<00:35:02.400> be<00:35:02.720> new<00:35:03.000> forces<00:35:03.600> and<00:35:03.720> particles 00:35:04.310 --> 00:35:04.320 align:start position:0% Could there be new forces and particles 00:35:04.320 --> 00:35:06.430 align:start position:0% Could there be new forces and particles that<00:35:04.480> interact<00:35:05.080> even<00:35:05.480> more<00:35:05.760> weirdly<00:35:06.240> with 00:35:06.430 --> 00:35:06.440 align:start position:0% that interact even more weirdly with 00:35:06.440 --> 00:35:07.870 align:start position:0% that interact even more weirdly with antimatter? 00:35:07.870 --> 00:35:07.880 align:start position:0% antimatter? 00:35:07.880 --> 00:35:10.190 align:start position:0% antimatter? Or<00:35:08.200> would<00:35:08.520> you<00:35:08.640> be<00:35:08.800> willing<00:35:09.120> to<00:35:09.240> accept<00:35:10.040> that 00:35:10.190 --> 00:35:10.200 align:start position:0% Or would you be willing to accept that 00:35:10.200 --> 00:35:12.030 align:start position:0% Or would you be willing to accept that having<00:35:10.520> so<00:35:10.840> much<00:35:11.080> more<00:35:11.280> matter<00:35:11.760> than 00:35:12.030 --> 00:35:12.040 align:start position:0% having so much more matter than 00:35:12.040 --> 00:35:14.030 align:start position:0% having so much more matter than antimatter<00:35:12.640> around<00:35:13.040> us<00:35:13.560> is<00:35:13.720> a<00:35:13.760> mere 00:35:14.030 --> 00:35:14.040 align:start position:0% antimatter around us is a mere 00:35:14.040 --> 00:35:15.550 align:start position:0% antimatter around us is a mere coincidence? 00:35:15.550 --> 00:35:15.560 align:start position:0% coincidence? 00:35:15.560 --> 00:35:17.670 align:start position:0% coincidence? In<00:35:15.680> any<00:35:15.840> case,<00:35:16.440> let<00:35:16.800> us<00:35:16.920> know<00:35:17.320> if<00:35:17.520> you've 00:35:17.670 --> 00:35:17.680 align:start position:0% In any case, let us know if you've 00:35:17.680 --> 00:35:19.150 align:start position:0% In any case, let us know if you've learned<00:35:17.880> something<00:35:18.200> new<00:35:18.360> about<00:35:18.680> antimatter 00:35:19.150 --> 00:35:19.160 align:start position:0% learned something new about antimatter 00:35:19.160 --> 00:35:21.030 align:start position:0% learned something new about antimatter from<00:35:19.360> watching<00:35:19.640> this<00:35:19.760> video,<00:35:20.600> and<00:35:20.800> whether 00:35:21.030 --> 00:35:21.040 align:start position:0% from watching this video, and whether 00:35:21.040 --> 00:35:22.870 align:start position:0% from watching this video, and whether this<00:35:21.280> is<00:35:21.400> a<00:35:21.440> topic<00:35:22.000> you'd<00:35:22.120> like<00:35:22.280> to<00:35:22.400> hear<00:35:22.600> more 00:35:22.870 --> 00:35:22.880 align:start position:0% this is a topic you'd like to hear more 00:35:22.880 --> 00:35:24.510 align:start position:0% this is a topic you'd like to hear more on. 00:35:24.510 --> 00:35:24.520 align:start position:0% on. 00:35:24.520 --> 00:35:28.030 align:start position:0% on. 800<00:35:25.200> light-years<00:35:25.680> away,<00:35:26.440> there's<00:35:26.800> an<00:35:27.080> unseen 00:35:28.030 --> 00:35:28.040 align:start position:0% 800 light-years away, there's an unseen 00:35:28.040 --> 00:35:31.070 align:start position:0% 800 light-years away, there's an unseen antimatter<00:35:29.000> factory<00:35:30.000> churning<00:35:30.640> out 00:35:31.070 --> 00:35:31.080 align:start position:0% antimatter factory churning out 00:35:31.080 --> 00:35:33.750 align:start position:0% antimatter factory churning out high-energy<00:35:32.160> positrons, 00:35:33.750 --> 00:35:33.760 align:start position:0% high-energy positrons, 00:35:33.760 --> 00:35:35.830 align:start position:0% high-energy positrons, tiny<00:35:34.280> particles<00:35:34.920> of<00:35:35.080> antimatter<00:35:35.600> that<00:35:35.760> are 00:35:35.830 --> 00:35:35.840 align:start position:0% tiny particles of antimatter that are 00:35:35.840 --> 00:35:38.110 align:start position:0% tiny particles of antimatter that are streaming<00:35:36.640> through<00:35:36.920> the<00:35:37.040> cosmos<00:35:38.000> and 00:35:38.110 --> 00:35:38.120 align:start position:0% streaming through the cosmos and 00:35:38.120 --> 00:35:41.390 align:start position:0% streaming through the cosmos and colliding<00:35:38.800> with<00:35:39.360> our<00:35:39.600> planet. 00:35:41.390 --> 00:35:41.400 align:start position:0% colliding with our planet. 00:35:41.400 --> 00:35:43.310 align:start position:0% colliding with our planet. For<00:35:41.520> much<00:35:41.760> of<00:35:41.880> history,<00:35:42.360> we<00:35:42.560> didn't<00:35:42.880> know<00:35:43.160> this 00:35:43.310 --> 00:35:43.320 align:start position:0% For much of history, we didn't know this 00:35:43.320 --> 00:35:45.670 align:start position:0% For much of history, we didn't know this strange<00:35:43.760> source<00:35:44.080> existed.<00:35:45.240> Most<00:35:45.520> of<00:35:45.600> the 00:35:45.670 --> 00:35:45.680 align:start position:0% strange source existed. Most of the 00:35:45.680 --> 00:35:47.870 align:start position:0% strange source existed. Most of the positrons<00:35:46.280> bombarding<00:35:46.840> us<00:35:47.040> went<00:35:47.320> completely 00:35:47.870 --> 00:35:47.880 align:start position:0% positrons bombarding us went completely 00:35:47.880 --> 00:35:50.590 align:start position:0% positrons bombarding us went completely undetected,<00:35:49.000> instead<00:35:49.560> getting<00:35:49.880> absorbed<00:35:50.480> in 00:35:50.590 --> 00:35:50.600 align:start position:0% undetected, instead getting absorbed in 00:35:50.600 --> 00:35:52.710 align:start position:0% undetected, instead getting absorbed in our<00:35:50.760> planet's<00:35:51.160> atmosphere. 00:35:52.710 --> 00:35:52.720 align:start position:0% our planet's atmosphere. 00:35:52.720 --> 00:35:54.590 align:start position:0% our planet's atmosphere. It<00:35:52.840> wasn't<00:35:53.120> until<00:35:53.440> we<00:35:53.520> started<00:35:53.880> looking<00:35:54.200> from 00:35:54.590 --> 00:35:54.600 align:start position:0% It wasn't until we started looking from 00:35:54.600 --> 00:35:57.150 align:start position:0% It wasn't until we started looking from beyond<00:35:55.280> the<00:35:55.400> bounds<00:35:55.760> of<00:35:55.880> our<00:35:56.040> planet<00:35:56.880> that<00:35:57.040> we 00:35:57.150 --> 00:35:57.160 align:start position:0% beyond the bounds of our planet that we 00:35:57.160 --> 00:35:58.750 align:start position:0% beyond the bounds of our planet that we noticed<00:35:57.560> them. 00:35:58.750 --> 00:35:58.760 align:start position:0% noticed them. 00:35:58.760 --> 00:36:02.030 align:start position:0% noticed them. In<00:35:59.160> 2011,<00:36:00.440> NASA's<00:36:01.000> Alpha<00:36:01.520> Magnetic 00:36:02.030 --> 00:36:02.040 align:start position:0% In 2011, NASA's Alpha Magnetic 00:36:02.040 --> 00:36:04.190 align:start position:0% In 2011, NASA's Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer,<00:36:03.120> a<00:36:03.240> state-of-the-art 00:36:04.190 --> 00:36:04.200 align:start position:0% Spectrometer, a state-of-the-art 00:36:04.200 --> 00:36:07.070 align:start position:0% Spectrometer, a state-of-the-art particle<00:36:04.720> detector<00:36:05.200> some<00:36:05.560> 200<00:36:06.240> mi<00:36:06.560> up<00:36:06.720> aboard 00:36:07.070 --> 00:36:07.080 align:start position:0% particle detector some 200 mi up aboard 00:36:07.080 --> 00:36:09.110 align:start position:0% particle detector some 200 mi up aboard the<00:36:07.160> International<00:36:07.720> Space<00:36:08.040> Station,<00:36:08.920> was 00:36:09.110 --> 00:36:09.120 align:start position:0% the International Space Station, was 00:36:09.120 --> 00:36:10.390 align:start position:0% the International Space Station, was switched<00:36:09.520> on. 00:36:10.390 --> 00:36:10.400 align:start position:0% switched on. 00:36:10.400 --> 00:36:12.950 align:start position:0% switched on. What<00:36:10.560> did<00:36:10.680> it<00:36:10.840> find?<00:36:11.760> You<00:36:11.960> guessed<00:36:12.280> it, 00:36:12.950 --> 00:36:12.960 align:start position:0% What did it find? You guessed it, 00:36:12.960 --> 00:36:14.590 align:start position:0% What did it find? You guessed it, positrons. 00:36:14.590 --> 00:36:14.600 align:start position:0% positrons. 00:36:14.600 --> 00:36:16.230 align:start position:0% positrons. The<00:36:14.720> presence<00:36:15.120> of<00:36:15.240> these<00:36:15.640> subatomic 00:36:16.230 --> 00:36:16.240 align:start position:0% The presence of these subatomic 00:36:16.240 --> 00:36:19.910 align:start position:0% The presence of these subatomic particles<00:36:17.000> was<00:36:17.320> to<00:36:17.440> be<00:36:17.560> expected,<00:36:18.720> but<00:36:19.040> not<00:36:19.760> in 00:36:19.910 --> 00:36:19.920 align:start position:0% particles was to be expected, but not in 00:36:19.920 --> 00:36:22.150 align:start position:0% particles was to be expected, but not in the<00:36:20.000> numbers<00:36:20.480> they<00:36:20.640> were<00:36:20.760> finding. 00:36:22.150 --> 00:36:22.160 align:start position:0% the numbers they were finding. 00:36:22.160 --> 00:36:24.790 align:start position:0% the numbers they were finding. Such<00:36:22.640> was<00:36:22.880> the<00:36:23.000> sheer<00:36:23.520> volume<00:36:24.000> of<00:36:24.160> positrons 00:36:24.790 --> 00:36:24.800 align:start position:0% Such was the sheer volume of positrons 00:36:24.800 --> 00:36:27.230 align:start position:0% Such was the sheer volume of positrons being<00:36:25.120> detected<00:36:26.000> that<00:36:26.120> the<00:36:26.280> usual<00:36:26.720> sources 00:36:27.230 --> 00:36:27.240 align:start position:0% being detected that the usual sources 00:36:27.240 --> 00:36:29.750 align:start position:0% being detected that the usual sources like<00:36:27.720> natural<00:36:28.200> radioactive<00:36:28.800> decay<00:36:29.600> and 00:36:29.750 --> 00:36:29.760 align:start position:0% like natural radioactive decay and 00:36:29.760 --> 00:36:32.750 align:start position:0% like natural radioactive decay and cosmic<00:36:30.280> rays<00:36:31.200> no<00:36:31.640> longer<00:36:32.160> offered<00:36:32.680> a 00:36:32.750 --> 00:36:32.760 align:start position:0% cosmic rays no longer offered a 00:36:32.760 --> 00:36:35.110 align:start position:0% cosmic rays no longer offered a sufficient<00:36:33.440> explanation. 00:36:35.110 --> 00:36:35.120 align:start position:0% sufficient explanation. 00:36:35.120 --> 00:36:39.030 align:start position:0% sufficient explanation. So,<00:36:35.800> where<00:36:36.120> were<00:36:36.680> they<00:36:36.880> coming<00:36:37.280> from? 00:36:39.030 --> 00:36:39.040 align:start position:0% So, where were they coming from? 00:36:39.040 --> 00:36:41.430 align:start position:0% So, where were they coming from? We've<00:36:39.320> only<00:36:39.680> recently<00:36:40.640> been<00:36:40.840> able<00:36:41.040> to<00:36:41.120> trace 00:36:41.430 --> 00:36:41.440 align:start position:0% We've only recently been able to trace 00:36:41.440 --> 00:36:43.870 align:start position:0% We've only recently been able to trace the<00:36:41.560> culprit<00:36:42.160> of<00:36:42.280> this<00:36:42.680> cosmic<00:36:43.320> antimatter 00:36:43.870 --> 00:36:43.880 align:start position:0% the culprit of this cosmic antimatter 00:36:43.880 --> 00:36:46.830 align:start position:0% the culprit of this cosmic antimatter shower,<00:36:44.720> and<00:36:44.840> it<00:36:45.040> all<00:36:45.240> comes<00:36:45.480> down<00:36:45.840> to<00:36:46.000> another 00:36:46.830 --> 00:36:46.840 align:start position:0% shower, and it all comes down to another 00:36:46.840 --> 00:36:49.110 align:start position:0% shower, and it all comes down to another high-energy<00:36:47.720> discovery. 00:36:49.110 --> 00:36:49.120 align:start position:0% high-energy discovery. 00:36:49.120 --> 00:36:53.550 align:start position:0% high-energy discovery. A<00:36:49.200> strange<00:36:50.320> gamma-ray<00:36:51.080> haze<00:36:51.800> named<00:36:52.280> Geminga, 00:36:53.550 --> 00:36:53.560 align:start position:0% A strange gamma-ray haze named Geminga, 00:36:53.560 --> 00:36:56.870 align:start position:0% A strange gamma-ray haze named Geminga, first<00:36:53.840> identified<00:36:54.760> in<00:36:54.880> the<00:36:54.960> 1970s. 00:36:56.870 --> 00:36:56.880 align:start position:0% first identified in the 1970s. 00:36:56.880 --> 00:36:59.670 align:start position:0% first identified in the 1970s. What<00:36:57.320> is<00:36:57.920> this<00:36:58.160> mysterious<00:36:58.840> source<00:36:59.240> of<00:36:59.360> gamma 00:36:59.670 --> 00:36:59.680 align:start position:0% What is this mysterious source of gamma 00:36:59.680 --> 00:37:02.550 align:start position:0% What is this mysterious source of gamma radiation?<00:37:00.920> And<00:37:01.200> what<00:37:01.560> does<00:37:01.760> it<00:37:01.880> have<00:37:02.120> to<00:37:02.240> do 00:37:02.550 --> 00:37:02.560 align:start position:0% radiation? And what does it have to do 00:37:02.560 --> 00:37:04.630 align:start position:0% radiation? And what does it have to do with<00:37:02.680> the<00:37:02.800> unusual<00:37:03.560> abundance<00:37:04.400> of 00:37:04.630 --> 00:37:04.640 align:start position:0% with the unusual abundance of 00:37:04.640 --> 00:37:07.070 align:start position:0% with the unusual abundance of high-energy<00:37:05.720> positrons<00:37:06.480> hitting<00:37:06.880> our 00:37:07.070 --> 00:37:07.080 align:start position:0% high-energy positrons hitting our 00:37:07.080 --> 00:37:09.150 align:start position:0% high-energy positrons hitting our planet? 00:37:09.150 --> 00:37:09.160 align:start position:0% planet? 00:37:09.160 --> 00:37:10.750 align:start position:0% planet? I'm<00:37:09.400> Alex<00:37:09.680> McConaughey,<00:37:10.400> and<00:37:10.600> you're 00:37:10.750 --> 00:37:10.760 align:start position:0% I'm Alex McConaughey, and you're 00:37:10.760 --> 00:37:13.110 align:start position:0% I'm Alex McConaughey, and you're watching<00:37:11.120> Astrium.<00:37:12.000> Join<00:37:12.240> me<00:37:12.360> today<00:37:12.760> as<00:37:12.960> we 00:37:13.110 --> 00:37:13.120 align:start position:0% watching Astrium. Join me today as we 00:37:13.120 --> 00:37:15.830 align:start position:0% watching Astrium. Join me today as we tune<00:37:13.640> into<00:37:14.040> the<00:37:14.360> enigmatic<00:37:15.280> frequency<00:37:15.760> of 00:37:15.830 --> 00:37:15.840 align:start position:0% tune into the enigmatic frequency of 00:37:15.840 --> 00:37:18.830 align:start position:0% tune into the enigmatic frequency of Geminga,<00:37:16.680> whose<00:37:17.000> gamma<00:37:17.280> radiation<00:37:18.240> has<00:37:18.440> lit 00:37:18.830 --> 00:37:18.840 align:start position:0% Geminga, whose gamma radiation has lit 00:37:18.840 --> 00:37:20.790 align:start position:0% Geminga, whose gamma radiation has lit up<00:37:18.960> the<00:37:19.120> world<00:37:19.480> of<00:37:19.680> astrophysics<00:37:20.640> for 00:37:20.790 --> 00:37:20.800 align:start position:0% up the world of astrophysics for 00:37:20.800 --> 00:37:24.630 align:start position:0% up the world of astrophysics for decades. 00:37:24.630 --> 00:37:24.640 align:start position:0% 00:37:24.640 --> 00:37:27.190 align:start position:0% Up<00:37:25.240> in<00:37:25.360> our<00:37:25.520> night<00:37:25.760> sky,<00:37:26.440> nestled<00:37:26.960> in<00:37:27.080> the 00:37:27.190 --> 00:37:27.200 align:start position:0% Up in our night sky, nestled in the 00:37:27.200 --> 00:37:29.230 align:start position:0% Up in our night sky, nestled in the Gemini<00:37:27.680> constellation<00:37:28.520> in<00:37:28.640> the<00:37:28.760> northern 00:37:29.230 --> 00:37:29.240 align:start position:0% Gemini constellation in the northern 00:37:29.240 --> 00:37:31.550 align:start position:0% Gemini constellation in the northern celestial<00:37:29.800> hemisphere,<00:37:30.680> there<00:37:30.880> is<00:37:31.200> something 00:37:31.550 --> 00:37:31.560 align:start position:0% celestial hemisphere, there is something 00:37:31.560 --> 00:37:33.710 align:start position:0% celestial hemisphere, there is something peculiar<00:37:32.280> going<00:37:32.640> on. 00:37:33.710 --> 00:37:33.720 align:start position:0% peculiar going on. 00:37:33.720 --> 00:37:36.870 align:start position:0% peculiar going on. In<00:37:34.080> 1972,<00:37:35.320> NASA's<00:37:35.880> Small<00:37:36.360> Astronomy 00:37:36.870 --> 00:37:36.880 align:start position:0% In 1972, NASA's Small Astronomy 00:37:36.880 --> 00:37:40.630 align:start position:0% In 1972, NASA's Small Astronomy Satellite<00:37:37.440> 2,<00:37:38.000> or<00:37:38.360> SAS<00:37:38.840> 2,<00:37:39.520> identified<00:37:40.400> an 00:37:40.630 --> 00:37:40.640 align:start position:0% Satellite 2, or SAS 2, identified an 00:37:40.640 --> 00:37:43.430 align:start position:0% Satellite 2, or SAS 2, identified an unknown<00:37:41.160> source<00:37:41.560> of<00:37:41.720> gamma<00:37:42.000> radiation. 00:37:43.430 --> 00:37:43.440 align:start position:0% unknown source of gamma radiation. 00:37:43.440 --> 00:37:45.390 align:start position:0% unknown source of gamma radiation. But<00:37:43.760> with<00:37:44.000> the<00:37:44.120> technology<00:37:44.720> available<00:37:45.200> at<00:37:45.280> the 00:37:45.390 --> 00:37:45.400 align:start position:0% But with the technology available at the 00:37:45.400 --> 00:37:48.270 align:start position:0% But with the technology available at the time,<00:37:46.120> the<00:37:46.240> best<00:37:46.680> it<00:37:46.800> could<00:37:46.960> do<00:37:47.400> was<00:37:47.640> trace<00:37:48.040> its 00:37:48.270 --> 00:37:48.280 align:start position:0% time, the best it could do was trace its 00:37:48.280 --> 00:37:51.230 align:start position:0% time, the best it could do was trace its origin<00:37:48.880> to<00:37:49.000> this<00:37:49.320> wider<00:37:50.040> region<00:37:50.560> of<00:37:50.720> our<00:37:50.920> Milky 00:37:51.230 --> 00:37:51.240 align:start position:0% origin to this wider region of our Milky 00:37:51.240 --> 00:37:52.470 align:start position:0% origin to this wider region of our Milky Way. 00:37:52.470 --> 00:37:52.480 align:start position:0% Way. 00:37:52.480 --> 00:37:55.110 align:start position:0% Way. So,<00:37:53.160> the<00:37:53.280> radiation's<00:37:54.080> ultimate<00:37:54.560> source 00:37:55.110 --> 00:37:55.120 align:start position:0% So, the radiation's ultimate source 00:37:55.120 --> 00:37:57.310 align:start position:0% So, the radiation's ultimate source remained<00:37:55.600> hidden<00:37:56.080> among<00:37:56.400> the<00:37:56.480> stars<00:37:57.080> for 00:37:57.310 --> 00:37:57.320 align:start position:0% remained hidden among the stars for 00:37:57.320 --> 00:37:58.750 align:start position:0% remained hidden among the stars for decades. 00:37:58.750 --> 00:37:58.760 align:start position:0% decades. 00:37:58.760 --> 00:38:01.230 align:start position:0% decades. Nevertheless,<00:37:59.360> it<00:37:59.640> was<00:38:00.000> given<00:38:00.400> a<00:38:00.480> name, 00:38:01.230 --> 00:38:01.240 align:start position:0% Nevertheless, it was given a name, 00:38:01.240 --> 00:38:05.230 align:start position:0% Nevertheless, it was given a name, Geminga,<00:38:02.480> as<00:38:02.640> coined<00:38:03.200> in<00:38:03.360> 1976<00:38:04.520> by<00:38:04.720> Italian 00:38:05.230 --> 00:38:05.240 align:start position:0% Geminga, as coined in 1976 by Italian 00:38:05.240 --> 00:38:08.390 align:start position:0% Geminga, as coined in 1976 by Italian physicist<00:38:06.000> Giovanni<00:38:06.720> Bignami,<00:38:07.960> who<00:38:08.120> would 00:38:08.390 --> 00:38:08.400 align:start position:0% physicist Giovanni Bignami, who would 00:38:08.400 --> 00:38:11.070 align:start position:0% physicist Giovanni Bignami, who would dedicate<00:38:08.920> his<00:38:09.080> career<00:38:09.520> to<00:38:09.640> studying<00:38:10.160> it. 00:38:11.070 --> 00:38:11.080 align:start position:0% dedicate his career to studying it. 00:38:11.080 --> 00:38:13.510 align:start position:0% dedicate his career to studying it. It's<00:38:11.200> a<00:38:11.280> play<00:38:11.480> on<00:38:11.640> words,<00:38:12.360> a<00:38:12.440> combination<00:38:13.120> of 00:38:13.510 --> 00:38:13.520 align:start position:0% It's a play on words, a combination of 00:38:13.520 --> 00:38:16.110 align:start position:0% It's a play on words, a combination of Gemini,<00:38:14.400> the<00:38:14.480> region<00:38:14.880> where<00:38:15.000> it's<00:38:15.160> located, 00:38:16.110 --> 00:38:16.120 align:start position:0% Gemini, the region where it's located, 00:38:16.120 --> 00:38:18.590 align:start position:0% Gemini, the region where it's located, and<00:38:16.600> gamma,<00:38:17.360> the<00:38:17.480> type<00:38:17.680> of<00:38:17.800> radiation<00:38:18.440> it 00:38:18.590 --> 00:38:18.600 align:start position:0% and gamma, the type of radiation it 00:38:18.600 --> 00:38:19.870 align:start position:0% and gamma, the type of radiation it emits. 00:38:19.870 --> 00:38:19.880 align:start position:0% emits. 00:38:19.880 --> 00:38:22.590 align:start position:0% emits. Geminga<00:38:20.400> is<00:38:20.680> also<00:38:21.000> a<00:38:21.080> pun<00:38:21.480> in<00:38:21.880> Beniamino's 00:38:22.590 --> 00:38:22.600 align:start position:0% Geminga is also a pun in Beniamino's 00:38:22.600 --> 00:38:24.790 align:start position:0% Geminga is also a pun in Beniamino's Milanese<00:38:23.200> dialect,<00:38:23.760> meaning<00:38:24.280> "it's<00:38:24.560> not 00:38:24.790 --> 00:38:24.800 align:start position:0% Milanese dialect, meaning "it's not 00:38:24.800 --> 00:38:27.670 align:start position:0% Milanese dialect, meaning "it's not there".<00:38:25.800> A<00:38:25.840> fitting<00:38:26.200> name<00:38:26.720> for<00:38:26.920> a<00:38:26.960> gamma-ray 00:38:27.670 --> 00:38:27.680 align:start position:0% there". A fitting name for a gamma-ray 00:38:27.680 --> 00:38:30.950 align:start position:0% there". A fitting name for a gamma-ray haze<00:38:28.320> with<00:38:28.760> unknown<00:38:29.280> origin. 00:38:30.950 --> 00:38:30.960 align:start position:0% haze with unknown origin. 00:38:30.960 --> 00:38:33.470 align:start position:0% haze with unknown origin. It<00:38:31.040> wasn't<00:38:31.320> until<00:38:31.800> 1983 00:38:33.470 --> 00:38:33.480 align:start position:0% It wasn't until 1983 00:38:33.480 --> 00:38:36.390 align:start position:0% It wasn't until 1983 when<00:38:33.680> Beniamino<00:38:34.320> and<00:38:34.480> his<00:38:34.720> team<00:38:35.400> finally<00:38:36.000> had 00:38:36.390 --> 00:38:36.400 align:start position:0% when Beniamino and his team finally had 00:38:36.400 --> 00:38:38.230 align:start position:0% when Beniamino and his team finally had their<00:38:36.680> big<00:38:37.040> break. 00:38:38.230 --> 00:38:38.240 align:start position:0% their big break. 00:38:38.240 --> 00:38:40.830 align:start position:0% their big break. They<00:38:38.400> managed<00:38:38.760> to<00:38:38.840> identify<00:38:39.560> a<00:38:39.800> weak<00:38:40.440> X-ray 00:38:40.830 --> 00:38:40.840 align:start position:0% They managed to identify a weak X-ray 00:38:40.840 --> 00:38:43.950 align:start position:0% They managed to identify a weak X-ray signal<00:38:41.320> from<00:38:41.560> Geminga<00:38:42.520> using<00:38:42.920> the<00:38:43.200> Einstein 00:38:43.950 --> 00:38:43.960 align:start position:0% signal from Geminga using the Einstein 00:38:43.960 --> 00:38:45.750 align:start position:0% signal from Geminga using the Einstein X-ray<00:38:44.320> satellite. 00:38:45.750 --> 00:38:45.760 align:start position:0% X-ray satellite. 00:38:45.760 --> 00:38:47.870 align:start position:0% X-ray satellite. This<00:38:45.920> meant,<00:38:46.600> although<00:38:46.920> its<00:38:47.040> exact<00:38:47.440> position 00:38:47.870 --> 00:38:47.880 align:start position:0% This meant, although its exact position 00:38:47.880 --> 00:38:50.590 align:start position:0% This meant, although its exact position remained<00:38:48.360> unknown,<00:38:49.320> they<00:38:49.480> could<00:38:50.000> narrow<00:38:50.320> down 00:38:50.590 --> 00:38:50.600 align:start position:0% remained unknown, they could narrow down 00:38:50.600 --> 00:38:52.630 align:start position:0% remained unknown, they could narrow down their<00:38:50.760> search<00:38:51.200> area<00:38:51.960> and<00:38:52.240> were<00:38:52.360> getting 00:38:52.630 --> 00:38:52.640 align:start position:0% their search area and were getting 00:38:52.640 --> 00:38:54.510 align:start position:0% their search area and were getting closer<00:38:53.136> [music]<00:38:53.160> to<00:38:53.320> uncovering<00:38:53.960> Geminga's 00:38:54.510 --> 00:38:54.520 align:start position:0% closer [music] to uncovering Geminga's 00:38:54.520 --> 00:38:56.630 align:start position:0% closer [music] to uncovering Geminga's hiding<00:38:54.880> place.<00:38:55.840> But<00:38:55.920> it<00:38:56.000> didn't<00:38:56.280> answer<00:38:56.520> the 00:38:56.630 --> 00:38:56.640 align:start position:0% hiding place. But it didn't answer the 00:38:56.640 --> 00:38:59.750 align:start position:0% hiding place. But it didn't answer the big<00:38:56.880> question,<00:38:57.920> "What<00:38:58.440> is<00:38:58.640> it?"<00:38:59.320> as 00:38:59.750 --> 00:38:59.760 align:start position:0% big question, "What is it?" as 00:38:59.760 --> 00:39:02.590 align:start position:0% big question, "What is it?" as astronomers<00:39:00.360> could<00:39:00.640> still<00:39:01.200> only<00:39:01.520> offer<00:39:02.000> vague 00:39:02.590 --> 00:39:02.600 align:start position:0% astronomers could still only offer vague 00:39:02.600 --> 00:39:04.830 align:start position:0% astronomers could still only offer vague guesses<00:39:03.200> about<00:39:03.520> the<00:39:03.640> true<00:39:04.080> nature<00:39:04.600> of<00:39:04.720> the 00:39:04.830 --> 00:39:04.840 align:start position:0% guesses about the true nature of the 00:39:04.840 --> 00:39:06.430 align:start position:0% guesses about the true nature of the source. 00:39:06.430 --> 00:39:06.440 align:start position:0% source. 00:39:06.440 --> 00:39:09.390 align:start position:0% source. That<00:39:06.640> was<00:39:07.240> until<00:39:07.720> 1991 00:39:09.390 --> 00:39:09.400 align:start position:0% That was until 1991 00:39:09.400 --> 00:39:12.150 align:start position:0% That was until 1991 when<00:39:09.560> they<00:39:09.680> had<00:39:10.080> another<00:39:10.680> lucky<00:39:10.960> break.<00:39:11.960> Two 00:39:12.150 --> 00:39:12.160 align:start position:0% when they had another lucky break. Two 00:39:12.160 --> 00:39:14.150 align:start position:0% when they had another lucky break. Two separate<00:39:12.560> missions<00:39:12.960> identified<00:39:13.560> radiation 00:39:14.150 --> 00:39:14.160 align:start position:0% separate missions identified radiation 00:39:14.160 --> 00:39:16.550 align:start position:0% separate missions identified radiation coming<00:39:14.440> from<00:39:14.640> Geminga<00:39:15.600> and<00:39:15.720> they<00:39:15.920> weren't 00:39:16.550 --> 00:39:16.560 align:start position:0% coming from Geminga and they weren't 00:39:16.560 --> 00:39:20.110 align:start position:0% coming from Geminga and they weren't constant<00:39:17.120> signals,<00:39:18.080> but<00:39:18.520> pulses. 00:39:20.110 --> 00:39:20.120 align:start position:0% constant signals, but pulses. 00:39:20.120 --> 00:39:21.950 align:start position:0% constant signals, but pulses. The<00:39:20.240> first<00:39:20.560> of<00:39:20.640> these<00:39:20.800> discoveries<00:39:21.440> was<00:39:21.600> made 00:39:21.950 --> 00:39:21.960 align:start position:0% The first of these discoveries was made 00:39:21.960 --> 00:39:24.430 align:start position:0% The first of these discoveries was made with<00:39:22.200> a<00:39:22.320> German-built<00:39:23.280> X-ray<00:39:23.640> telescope 00:39:24.430 --> 00:39:24.440 align:start position:0% with a German-built X-ray telescope 00:39:24.440 --> 00:39:27.510 align:start position:0% with a German-built X-ray telescope known<00:39:24.800> as<00:39:25.000> ROSAT,<00:39:25.880> short<00:39:26.200> for<00:39:26.880> Röntgen 00:39:27.510 --> 00:39:27.520 align:start position:0% known as ROSAT, short for Röntgen 00:39:27.520 --> 00:39:30.030 align:start position:0% known as ROSAT, short for Röntgen Satellite,<00:39:28.600> named<00:39:29.040> after<00:39:29.280> the<00:39:29.400> German<00:39:29.760> word 00:39:30.030 --> 00:39:30.040 align:start position:0% Satellite, named after the German word 00:39:30.040 --> 00:39:31.990 align:start position:0% Satellite, named after the German word for<00:39:30.360> X-rays. 00:39:31.990 --> 00:39:32.000 align:start position:0% for X-rays. 00:39:32.000 --> 00:39:34.950 align:start position:0% for X-rays. ROSAT<00:39:32.480> was<00:39:32.720> the<00:39:32.840> first<00:39:33.400> to<00:39:33.520> identify<00:39:34.080> pulses 00:39:34.950 --> 00:39:34.960 align:start position:0% ROSAT was the first to identify pulses 00:39:34.960 --> 00:39:37.270 align:start position:0% ROSAT was the first to identify pulses in<00:39:35.120> the<00:39:35.200> X-ray<00:39:35.600> signal<00:39:36.000> coming<00:39:36.240> from<00:39:36.440> Geminga 00:39:37.270 --> 00:39:37.280 align:start position:0% in the X-ray signal coming from Geminga 00:39:37.280 --> 00:39:40.030 align:start position:0% in the X-ray signal coming from Geminga and<00:39:37.480> soon<00:39:37.800> after<00:39:38.640> they<00:39:38.760> were<00:39:39.000> also<00:39:39.360> confirmed 00:39:40.030 --> 00:39:40.040 align:start position:0% and soon after they were also confirmed 00:39:40.040 --> 00:39:42.070 align:start position:0% and soon after they were also confirmed in<00:39:40.240> the<00:39:40.440> gamma<00:39:40.880> wavelengths<00:39:41.760> by<00:39:41.880> the 00:39:42.070 --> 00:39:42.080 align:start position:0% in the gamma wavelengths by the 00:39:42.080 --> 00:39:44.910 align:start position:0% in the gamma wavelengths by the Energetic<00:39:42.680> Gamma<00:39:43.000> Ray<00:39:43.360> Experiment<00:39:44.000> Telescope 00:39:44.910 --> 00:39:44.920 align:start position:0% Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope 00:39:44.920 --> 00:39:48.230 align:start position:0% Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope or<00:39:45.440> EGRET,<00:39:46.400> a<00:39:46.480> telescope<00:39:47.160> aboard<00:39:47.760> NASA's 00:39:48.230 --> 00:39:48.240 align:start position:0% or EGRET, a telescope aboard NASA's 00:39:48.240 --> 00:39:52.150 align:start position:0% or EGRET, a telescope aboard NASA's Compton<00:39:48.920> Gamma<00:39:49.240> Ray<00:39:49.520> Observatory<00:39:50.320> Satellite. 00:39:52.150 --> 00:39:52.160 align:start position:0% Compton Gamma Ray Observatory Satellite. 00:39:52.160 --> 00:39:53.870 align:start position:0% Compton Gamma Ray Observatory Satellite. Not<00:39:52.480> only<00:39:52.680> did<00:39:52.840> these<00:39:53.200> complementary 00:39:53.870 --> 00:39:53.880 align:start position:0% Not only did these complementary 00:39:53.880 --> 00:39:56.150 align:start position:0% Not only did these complementary observations<00:39:54.720> demonstrate<00:39:55.280> that<00:39:55.400> the<00:39:55.560> X-rays 00:39:56.150 --> 00:39:56.160 align:start position:0% observations demonstrate that the X-rays 00:39:56.160 --> 00:39:58.190 align:start position:0% observations demonstrate that the X-rays and<00:39:56.280> the<00:39:56.360> gamma<00:39:56.640> rays<00:39:57.200> were<00:39:57.280> both<00:39:57.640> coming<00:39:58.000> from 00:39:58.190 --> 00:39:58.200 align:start position:0% and the gamma rays were both coming from 00:39:58.200 --> 00:40:00.310 align:start position:0% and the gamma rays were both coming from Geminga,<00:39:59.080> but<00:39:59.200> for<00:39:59.320> the<00:39:59.440> first<00:39:59.760> time<00:40:00.160> they 00:40:00.310 --> 00:40:00.320 align:start position:0% Geminga, but for the first time they 00:40:00.320 --> 00:40:03.670 align:start position:0% Geminga, but for the first time they revealed<00:40:01.040> what<00:40:01.640> Geminga<00:40:02.120> was. 00:40:03.670 --> 00:40:03.680 align:start position:0% revealed what Geminga was. 00:40:03.680 --> 00:40:06.670 align:start position:0% revealed what Geminga was. With<00:40:03.840> a<00:40:03.880> period<00:40:04.480> of<00:40:04.800> 0.237 00:40:06.670 --> 00:40:06.680 align:start position:0% With a period of 0.237 00:40:06.680 --> 00:40:09.910 align:start position:0% With a period of 0.237 seconds,<00:40:08.160> flashing<00:40:08.840> as<00:40:09.000> it<00:40:09.120> spins<00:40:09.480> around<00:40:09.760> its 00:40:09.910 --> 00:40:09.920 align:start position:0% seconds, flashing as it spins around its 00:40:09.920 --> 00:40:13.070 align:start position:0% seconds, flashing as it spins around its axis<00:40:10.480> a<00:40:10.520> little<00:40:10.800> more<00:40:11.040> than<00:40:11.280> 4<00:40:11.680> hertz<00:40:12.440> or<00:40:12.840> four 00:40:13.070 --> 00:40:13.080 align:start position:0% axis a little more than 4 hertz or four 00:40:13.080 --> 00:40:16.550 align:start position:0% axis a little more than 4 hertz or four times<00:40:13.480> per<00:40:13.600> second,<00:40:14.760> Geminga<00:40:15.240> behaved<00:40:15.920> like<00:40:16.360> a 00:40:16.550 --> 00:40:16.560 align:start position:0% times per second, Geminga behaved like a 00:40:16.560 --> 00:40:20.390 align:start position:0% times per second, Geminga behaved like a pulsar. 00:40:20.390 --> 00:40:20.400 align:start position:0% 00:40:20.400 --> 00:40:22.870 align:start position:0% A<00:40:20.480> pulsar<00:40:21.000> is<00:40:21.160> a<00:40:21.240> type<00:40:21.720> of<00:40:21.840> neutron<00:40:22.200> star<00:40:22.600> that 00:40:22.870 --> 00:40:22.880 align:start position:0% A pulsar is a type of neutron star that 00:40:22.880 --> 00:40:25.550 align:start position:0% A pulsar is a type of neutron star that spins<00:40:23.480> rapidly,<00:40:24.520> emitting<00:40:24.960> beams<00:40:25.440> of 00:40:25.550 --> 00:40:25.560 align:start position:0% spins rapidly, emitting beams of 00:40:25.560 --> 00:40:27.950 align:start position:0% spins rapidly, emitting beams of radiation<00:40:26.160> that<00:40:26.360> sweep<00:40:26.840> across<00:40:27.200> space<00:40:27.640> like<00:40:27.880> a 00:40:27.950 --> 00:40:27.960 align:start position:0% radiation that sweep across space like a 00:40:27.960 --> 00:40:29.790 align:start position:0% radiation that sweep across space like a cosmic<00:40:28.480> lighthouse. 00:40:29.790 --> 00:40:29.800 align:start position:0% cosmic lighthouse. 00:40:29.800 --> 00:40:32.310 align:start position:0% cosmic lighthouse. From<00:40:30.000> across<00:40:30.400> the<00:40:30.520> galaxy,<00:40:31.400> most<00:40:31.720> pulsars 00:40:32.310 --> 00:40:32.320 align:start position:0% From across the galaxy, most pulsars 00:40:32.320 --> 00:40:35.030 align:start position:0% From across the galaxy, most pulsars appear<00:40:32.600> to<00:40:32.760> flash<00:40:33.200> in<00:40:33.400> radio<00:40:33.760> waves<00:40:34.520> anywhere 00:40:35.030 --> 00:40:35.040 align:start position:0% appear to flash in radio waves anywhere 00:40:35.040 --> 00:40:37.670 align:start position:0% appear to flash in radio waves anywhere from<00:40:35.240> a<00:40:35.320> few<00:40:35.560> times<00:40:35.920> a<00:40:35.960> minute<00:40:36.640> to<00:40:36.800> as<00:40:36.960> fast<00:40:37.440> as 00:40:37.670 --> 00:40:37.680 align:start position:0% from a few times a minute to as fast as 00:40:37.680 --> 00:40:41.030 align:start position:0% from a few times a minute to as fast as 700<00:40:38.720> times<00:40:39.240> per<00:40:39.480> second. 00:40:41.030 --> 00:40:41.040 align:start position:0% 700 times per second. 00:40:41.040 --> 00:40:43.550 align:start position:0% 700 times per second. And<00:40:41.480> at<00:40:41.600> this<00:40:41.800> point<00:40:42.160> in<00:40:42.280> the<00:40:42.360> early<00:40:42.600> '90s, 00:40:43.550 --> 00:40:43.560 align:start position:0% And at this point in the early '90s, 00:40:43.560 --> 00:40:46.030 align:start position:0% And at this point in the early '90s, they<00:40:43.720> were<00:40:44.120> incredibly<00:40:44.920> rare. 00:40:46.030 --> 00:40:46.040 align:start position:0% they were incredibly rare. 00:40:46.040 --> 00:40:48.990 align:start position:0% they were incredibly rare. You<00:40:46.160> see,<00:40:46.640> before<00:40:46.960> ROSAT<00:40:47.520> and<00:40:47.760> EGRET,<00:40:48.640> only 00:40:48.990 --> 00:40:49.000 align:start position:0% You see, before ROSAT and EGRET, only 00:40:49.000 --> 00:40:51.670 align:start position:0% You see, before ROSAT and EGRET, only two<00:40:49.480> other<00:40:49.760> high-energy<00:40:50.480> gamma-ray<00:40:51.040> pulsars 00:40:51.670 --> 00:40:51.680 align:start position:0% two other high-energy gamma-ray pulsars 00:40:51.680 --> 00:40:54.750 align:start position:0% two other high-energy gamma-ray pulsars had<00:40:52.000> ever<00:40:52.280> been<00:40:52.480> identified,<00:40:53.600> the<00:40:53.720> Crab<00:40:54.560> and 00:40:54.750 --> 00:40:54.760 align:start position:0% had ever been identified, the Crab and 00:40:54.760 --> 00:40:56.550 align:start position:0% had ever been identified, the Crab and Vela<00:40:55.160> pulsars. 00:40:56.550 --> 00:40:56.560 align:start position:0% Vela pulsars. 00:40:56.560 --> 00:40:58.910 align:start position:0% Vela pulsars. And<00:40:56.880> Crab<00:40:57.160> and<00:40:57.320> Vela<00:40:58.040> were<00:40:58.200> different<00:40:58.800> to 00:40:58.910 --> 00:40:58.920 align:start position:0% And Crab and Vela were different to 00:40:58.920 --> 00:41:02.150 align:start position:0% And Crab and Vela were different to Geminga<00:40:59.520> in<00:40:59.680> a<00:40:59.720> couple<00:41:00.240> of<00:41:00.400> key<00:41:00.760> ways. 00:41:02.150 --> 00:41:02.160 align:start position:0% Geminga in a couple of key ways. 00:41:02.160 --> 00:41:04.470 align:start position:0% Geminga in a couple of key ways. First,<00:41:02.760> in<00:41:02.880> addition<00:41:03.240> to<00:41:03.360> gamma<00:41:03.640> rays,<00:41:04.200> both 00:41:04.470 --> 00:41:04.480 align:start position:0% First, in addition to gamma rays, both 00:41:04.480 --> 00:41:06.910 align:start position:0% First, in addition to gamma rays, both of<00:41:04.600> these<00:41:04.800> pulsars<00:41:05.480> also<00:41:05.840> produced<00:41:06.440> radio 00:41:06.910 --> 00:41:06.920 align:start position:0% of these pulsars also produced radio 00:41:06.920 --> 00:41:09.390 align:start position:0% of these pulsars also produced radio waves<00:41:07.680> and<00:41:07.800> were<00:41:07.920> therefore<00:41:08.360> visible<00:41:08.920> using 00:41:09.390 --> 00:41:09.400 align:start position:0% waves and were therefore visible using 00:41:09.400 --> 00:41:11.390 align:start position:0% waves and were therefore visible using radio<00:41:09.880> telescopes. 00:41:11.390 --> 00:41:11.400 align:start position:0% radio telescopes. 00:41:11.400 --> 00:41:14.350 align:start position:0% radio telescopes. So,<00:41:11.880> if<00:41:12.120> Geminga<00:41:12.640> was<00:41:12.880> a<00:41:12.960> pulsar,<00:41:14.160> then<00:41:14.280> it 00:41:14.350 --> 00:41:14.360 align:start position:0% So, if Geminga was a pulsar, then it 00:41:14.360 --> 00:41:16.670 align:start position:0% So, if Geminga was a pulsar, then it would<00:41:14.480> be<00:41:14.600> the<00:41:14.720> first<00:41:15.160> discovery<00:41:15.760> of<00:41:16.000> one<00:41:16.600> that 00:41:16.670 --> 00:41:16.680 align:start position:0% would be the first discovery of one that 00:41:16.680 --> 00:41:19.830 align:start position:0% would be the first discovery of one that was<00:41:16.800> apparently<00:41:17.440> radio<00:41:18.040> silent,<00:41:19.360> only 00:41:19.830 --> 00:41:19.840 align:start position:0% was apparently radio silent, only 00:41:19.840 --> 00:41:21.870 align:start position:0% was apparently radio silent, only emitting<00:41:20.320> enough<00:41:20.560> radiation<00:41:21.120> to<00:41:21.200> be<00:41:21.320> seen<00:41:21.720> in 00:41:21.870 --> 00:41:21.880 align:start position:0% emitting enough radiation to be seen in 00:41:21.880 --> 00:41:25.230 align:start position:0% emitting enough radiation to be seen in the<00:41:22.000> gamma<00:41:22.760> and<00:41:23.080> x-ray<00:41:23.600> wavelengths. 00:41:25.230 --> 00:41:25.240 align:start position:0% the gamma and x-ray wavelengths. 00:41:25.240 --> 00:41:27.790 align:start position:0% the gamma and x-ray wavelengths. And<00:41:25.400> second,<00:41:26.360> Crab<00:41:26.880> and<00:41:27.000> Vela<00:41:27.600> were 00:41:27.790 --> 00:41:27.800 align:start position:0% And second, Crab and Vela were 00:41:27.800 --> 00:41:30.790 align:start position:0% And second, Crab and Vela were surrounded<00:41:28.360> by<00:41:28.600> their<00:41:28.840> respective<00:41:29.560> nebulae, 00:41:30.790 --> 00:41:30.800 align:start position:0% surrounded by their respective nebulae, 00:41:30.800 --> 00:41:32.990 align:start position:0% surrounded by their respective nebulae, remnants<00:41:31.360> from<00:41:31.720> when<00:41:31.920> they<00:41:32.080> were<00:41:32.280> created 00:41:32.990 --> 00:41:33.000 align:start position:0% remnants from when they were created 00:41:33.000 --> 00:41:35.630 align:start position:0% remnants from when they were created from<00:41:33.360> supernova<00:41:34.000> explosions. 00:41:35.630 --> 00:41:35.640 align:start position:0% from supernova explosions. 00:41:35.640 --> 00:41:38.830 align:start position:0% from supernova explosions. But<00:41:35.920> Geminga's<00:41:36.520> nebula<00:41:37.160> was<00:41:37.520> conspicuous<00:41:38.680> by 00:41:38.830 --> 00:41:38.840 align:start position:0% But Geminga's nebula was conspicuous by 00:41:38.840 --> 00:41:40.790 align:start position:0% But Geminga's nebula was conspicuous by its<00:41:39.080> absence. 00:41:40.790 --> 00:41:40.800 align:start position:0% its absence. 00:41:40.800 --> 00:41:44.510 align:start position:0% its absence. So,<00:41:41.080> why<00:41:41.480> is<00:41:41.960> Geminga<00:41:42.920> this<00:41:43.160> powerful<00:41:44.040> source 00:41:44.510 --> 00:41:44.520 align:start position:0% So, why is Geminga this powerful source 00:41:44.520 --> 00:41:47.910 align:start position:0% So, why is Geminga this powerful source of<00:41:44.680> gamma<00:41:45.040> rays<00:41:46.080> so<00:41:46.480> good<00:41:46.720> at<00:41:46.840> hiding<00:41:47.320> from<00:41:47.560> our 00:41:47.910 --> 00:41:47.920 align:start position:0% of gamma rays so good at hiding from our 00:41:47.920 --> 00:41:51.670 align:start position:0% of gamma rays so good at hiding from our radio<00:41:48.400> telescopes?<00:41:49.640> Where<00:41:50.080> is<00:41:50.240> its<00:41:50.400> nebula? 00:41:51.670 --> 00:41:51.680 align:start position:0% radio telescopes? Where is its nebula? 00:41:51.680 --> 00:41:53.710 align:start position:0% radio telescopes? Where is its nebula? Or<00:41:51.840> could<00:41:52.000> it<00:41:52.120> be<00:41:52.400> a<00:41:52.720> different<00:41:53.320> type<00:41:53.560> of 00:41:53.710 --> 00:41:53.720 align:start position:0% Or could it be a different type of 00:41:53.720 --> 00:41:57.790 align:start position:0% Or could it be a different type of object<00:41:54.360> altogether? 00:41:57.790 --> 00:41:57.800 align:start position:0% 00:41:57.800 --> 00:41:59.550 align:start position:0% Well,<00:41:58.160> the<00:41:58.320> answer<00:41:58.560> to<00:41:58.680> the<00:41:58.800> first<00:41:59.120> question 00:41:59.550 --> 00:41:59.560 align:start position:0% Well, the answer to the first question 00:41:59.560 --> 00:42:02.430 align:start position:0% Well, the answer to the first question is,<00:42:00.080> in<00:42:00.280> part,<00:42:01.240> because<00:42:01.600> we<00:42:01.760> hadn't<00:42:02.080> been 00:42:02.430 --> 00:42:02.440 align:start position:0% is, in part, because we hadn't been 00:42:02.440 --> 00:42:04.150 align:start position:0% is, in part, because we hadn't been listening<00:42:02.880> properly<00:42:03.760> due<00:42:03.920> to<00:42:04.040> the 00:42:04.150 --> 00:42:04.160 align:start position:0% listening properly due to the 00:42:04.160 --> 00:42:06.470 align:start position:0% listening properly due to the limitations<00:42:04.800> of<00:42:04.920> the<00:42:05.000> available<00:42:05.480> technology 00:42:06.470 --> 00:42:06.480 align:start position:0% limitations of the available technology 00:42:06.480 --> 00:42:08.550 align:start position:0% limitations of the available technology and<00:42:06.720> due<00:42:06.960> to<00:42:07.160> our<00:42:07.400> understanding<00:42:08.320> of<00:42:08.440> the 00:42:08.550 --> 00:42:08.560 align:start position:0% and due to our understanding of the 00:42:08.560 --> 00:42:10.430 align:start position:0% and due to our understanding of the radio<00:42:08.880> emissions<00:42:09.440> of<00:42:09.600> such<00:42:10.040> stellar 00:42:10.430 --> 00:42:10.440 align:start position:0% radio emissions of such stellar 00:42:10.440 --> 00:42:11.710 align:start position:0% radio emissions of such stellar remnants. 00:42:11.710 --> 00:42:11.720 align:start position:0% remnants. 00:42:11.720 --> 00:42:14.630 align:start position:0% remnants. You<00:42:11.840> see,<00:42:12.680> while<00:42:13.000> radio<00:42:13.400> pulsars<00:42:14.000> can<00:42:14.200> emit 00:42:14.630 --> 00:42:14.640 align:start position:0% You see, while radio pulsars can emit 00:42:14.640 --> 00:42:17.150 align:start position:0% You see, while radio pulsars can emit radio<00:42:15.000> waves<00:42:15.280> across<00:42:15.720> a<00:42:15.960> wide<00:42:16.440> bandwidth, 00:42:17.150 --> 00:42:17.160 align:start position:0% radio waves across a wide bandwidth, 00:42:17.160 --> 00:42:22.390 align:start position:0% radio waves across a wide bandwidth, from<00:42:17.320> as<00:42:17.440> low<00:42:17.720> as<00:42:18.040> 17<00:42:18.720> MHz<00:42:19.560> to<00:42:19.720> above<00:42:20.320> 87<00:42:21.160> GHz, 00:42:22.390 --> 00:42:22.400 align:start position:0% from as low as 17 MHz to above 87 GHz, 00:42:22.400 --> 00:42:25.550 align:start position:0% from as low as 17 MHz to above 87 GHz, around<00:42:22.960> half<00:42:23.280> the<00:42:23.400> radio<00:42:23.760> spectrum,<00:42:24.920> not<00:42:25.360> all 00:42:25.550 --> 00:42:25.560 align:start position:0% around half the radio spectrum, not all 00:42:25.560 --> 00:42:27.470 align:start position:0% around half the radio spectrum, not all of<00:42:25.640> these<00:42:25.880> frequencies<00:42:26.480> travel<00:42:26.920> well<00:42:27.200> through 00:42:27.470 --> 00:42:27.480 align:start position:0% of these frequencies travel well through 00:42:27.480 --> 00:42:28.790 align:start position:0% of these frequencies travel well through space. 00:42:28.790 --> 00:42:28.800 align:start position:0% space. 00:42:28.800 --> 00:42:31.070 align:start position:0% space. Even<00:42:29.080> though<00:42:29.240> we've<00:42:29.480> known<00:42:29.840> since<00:42:30.080> the<00:42:30.160> 1970s 00:42:31.070 --> 00:42:31.080 align:start position:0% Even though we've known since the 1970s 00:42:31.080 --> 00:42:33.670 align:start position:0% Even though we've known since the 1970s that<00:42:31.400> radio<00:42:31.760> pulsars<00:42:32.440> often<00:42:32.840> peak<00:42:33.200> between 00:42:33.670 --> 00:42:33.680 align:start position:0% that radio pulsars often peak between 00:42:33.680 --> 00:42:36.910 align:start position:0% that radio pulsars often peak between 100<00:42:34.280> to<00:42:34.560> 200<00:42:35.120> MHz,<00:42:36.200> where<00:42:36.400> they<00:42:36.600> are 00:42:36.910 --> 00:42:36.920 align:start position:0% 100 to 200 MHz, where they are 00:42:36.920 --> 00:42:39.550 align:start position:0% 100 to 200 MHz, where they are intrinsically<00:42:37.720> brightest,<00:42:39.000> things<00:42:39.280> like<00:42:39.440> the 00:42:39.550 --> 00:42:39.560 align:start position:0% intrinsically brightest, things like the 00:42:39.560 --> 00:42:41.710 align:start position:0% intrinsically brightest, things like the interstellar<00:42:40.080> medium,<00:42:40.800> background<00:42:41.400> sky 00:42:41.710 --> 00:42:41.720 align:start position:0% interstellar medium, background sky 00:42:41.720 --> 00:42:43.510 align:start position:0% interstellar medium, background sky temperature,<00:42:42.640> and<00:42:42.760> effects<00:42:43.120> from<00:42:43.320> the 00:42:43.510 --> 00:42:43.520 align:start position:0% temperature, and effects from the 00:42:43.520 --> 00:42:46.190 align:start position:0% temperature, and effects from the ionosphere<00:42:44.760> mean<00:42:45.040> that<00:42:45.280> lower<00:42:45.520> frequencies 00:42:46.190 --> 00:42:46.200 align:start position:0% ionosphere mean that lower frequencies 00:42:46.200 --> 00:42:48.150 align:start position:0% ionosphere mean that lower frequencies are<00:42:46.360> dampened<00:42:47.280> as<00:42:47.440> they<00:42:47.600> make<00:42:47.840> their<00:42:47.960> way 00:42:48.150 --> 00:42:48.160 align:start position:0% are dampened as they make their way 00:42:48.160 --> 00:42:50.790 align:start position:0% are dampened as they make their way across<00:42:48.520> space,<00:42:49.360> resulting<00:42:49.960> in<00:42:50.200> very<00:42:50.560> weak 00:42:50.790 --> 00:42:50.800 align:start position:0% across space, resulting in very weak 00:42:50.800 --> 00:42:53.150 align:start position:0% across space, resulting in very weak signals<00:42:51.480> that<00:42:51.600> are<00:42:51.720> much<00:42:52.320> more<00:42:52.560> difficult<00:42:53.080> to 00:42:53.150 --> 00:42:53.160 align:start position:0% signals that are much more difficult to 00:42:53.160 --> 00:42:54.630 align:start position:0% signals that are much more difficult to detect. 00:42:54.630 --> 00:42:54.640 align:start position:0% detect. 00:42:54.640 --> 00:42:57.030 align:start position:0% detect. Because<00:42:55.080> those<00:42:55.320> radio<00:42:55.600> signals<00:42:55.960> are<00:42:56.040> so<00:42:56.360> weak, 00:42:57.030 --> 00:42:57.040 align:start position:0% Because those radio signals are so weak, 00:42:57.040 --> 00:42:58.870 align:start position:0% Because those radio signals are so weak, most<00:42:57.320> radio<00:42:57.600> telescopes<00:42:58.440> hadn't<00:42:58.720> been 00:42:58.870 --> 00:42:58.880 align:start position:0% most radio telescopes hadn't been 00:42:58.880 --> 00:43:00.950 align:start position:0% most radio telescopes hadn't been looking<00:42:59.160> for<00:42:59.360> them,<00:43:00.040> instead<00:43:00.520> confining 00:43:00.950 --> 00:43:00.960 align:start position:0% looking for them, instead confining 00:43:00.960 --> 00:43:02.550 align:start position:0% looking for them, instead confining themselves<00:43:01.480> to<00:43:01.600> searching<00:43:02.040> for<00:43:02.160> signals 00:43:02.550 --> 00:43:02.560 align:start position:0% themselves to searching for signals 00:43:02.560 --> 00:43:04.590 align:start position:0% themselves to searching for signals between<00:43:03.040> 430 00:43:04.590 --> 00:43:04.600 align:start position:0% between 430 00:43:04.600 --> 00:43:07.670 align:start position:0% between 430 and<00:43:04.840> 1,600<00:43:06.200> MHz. 00:43:07.670 --> 00:43:07.680 align:start position:0% and 1,600 MHz. 00:43:07.680 --> 00:43:09.990 align:start position:0% and 1,600 MHz. This<00:43:08.040> would<00:43:08.200> have<00:43:08.320> been<00:43:08.520> fine<00:43:09.320> had<00:43:09.520> Geminga 00:43:09.990 --> 00:43:10.000 align:start position:0% This would have been fine had Geminga 00:43:10.000 --> 00:43:13.710 align:start position:0% This would have been fine had Geminga behaved<00:43:10.560> as<00:43:10.680> expected<00:43:11.600> for<00:43:11.880> one<00:43:12.080> of<00:43:12.200> its<00:43:12.360> kind. 00:43:13.710 --> 00:43:13.720 align:start position:0% behaved as expected for one of its kind. 00:43:13.720 --> 00:43:18.110 align:start position:0% behaved as expected for one of its kind. Since<00:43:14.240> it<00:43:14.480> did<00:43:14.720> not,<00:43:15.600> it<00:43:15.800> took<00:43:16.120> until<00:43:16.640> 1997<00:43:18.000> for 00:43:18.110 --> 00:43:18.120 align:start position:0% Since it did not, it took until 1997 for 00:43:18.120 --> 00:43:19.510 align:start position:0% Since it did not, it took until 1997 for scientists<00:43:18.600> to<00:43:18.720> realize<00:43:19.200> what<00:43:19.360> was 00:43:19.510 --> 00:43:19.520 align:start position:0% scientists to realize what was 00:43:19.520 --> 00:43:20.630 align:start position:0% scientists to realize what was happening. 00:43:20.630 --> 00:43:20.640 align:start position:0% happening. 00:43:20.640 --> 00:43:23.190 align:start position:0% happening. Three<00:43:21.200> independent<00:43:21.880> observations<00:43:22.640> from<00:43:22.840> the 00:43:23.190 --> 00:43:23.200 align:start position:0% Three independent observations from the 00:43:23.200 --> 00:43:25.790 align:start position:0% Three independent observations from the Pushchino<00:43:23.840> Radio<00:43:24.200> Astronomy<00:43:24.840> Observatory 00:43:25.790 --> 00:43:25.800 align:start position:0% Pushchino Radio Astronomy Observatory 00:43:25.800 --> 00:43:28.350 align:start position:0% Pushchino Radio Astronomy Observatory were<00:43:25.960> able<00:43:26.200> to<00:43:26.320> identify<00:43:26.880> extremely<00:43:28.000> weak 00:43:28.350 --> 00:43:28.360 align:start position:0% were able to identify extremely weak 00:43:28.360 --> 00:43:31.110 align:start position:0% were able to identify extremely weak pulses<00:43:28.920> from<00:43:29.080> Geminga<00:43:29.880> using<00:43:30.280> a<00:43:30.400> sensitive 00:43:31.110 --> 00:43:31.120 align:start position:0% pulses from Geminga using a sensitive 00:43:31.120 --> 00:43:32.950 align:start position:0% pulses from Geminga using a sensitive transit<00:43:31.515> [music]<00:43:31.680> antenna. 00:43:32.950 --> 00:43:32.960 align:start position:0% transit [music] antenna. 00:43:32.960 --> 00:43:35.310 align:start position:0% transit [music] antenna. The<00:43:33.080> faint<00:43:33.480> radio<00:43:33.840> pulses<00:43:34.280> came<00:43:34.600> in<00:43:34.800> around 00:43:35.310 --> 00:43:35.320 align:start position:0% The faint radio pulses came in around 00:43:35.320 --> 00:43:38.070 align:start position:0% The faint radio pulses came in around 100<00:43:35.840> MHz,<00:43:36.760> which<00:43:36.920> explains<00:43:37.480> why<00:43:37.640> previous 00:43:38.070 --> 00:43:38.080 align:start position:0% 100 MHz, which explains why previous 00:43:38.080 --> 00:43:40.350 align:start position:0% 100 MHz, which explains why previous radio<00:43:38.400> searches<00:43:38.880> for<00:43:39.000> Geminga<00:43:39.760> had<00:43:40.000> come<00:43:40.200> up 00:43:40.350 --> 00:43:40.360 align:start position:0% radio searches for Geminga had come up 00:43:40.360 --> 00:43:41.550 align:start position:0% radio searches for Geminga had come up silent. 00:43:41.550 --> 00:43:41.560 align:start position:0% silent. 00:43:41.560 --> 00:43:44.830 align:start position:0% silent. Turns<00:43:41.880> out<00:43:42.560> Geminga<00:43:43.040> wasn't<00:43:43.480> truly<00:43:44.040> hiding 00:43:44.830 --> 00:43:44.840 align:start position:0% Turns out Geminga wasn't truly hiding 00:43:44.840 --> 00:43:47.830 align:start position:0% Turns out Geminga wasn't truly hiding and<00:43:45.080> had<00:43:45.640> been<00:43:45.800> sending<00:43:46.160> us<00:43:46.280> signals.<00:43:47.200> We<00:43:47.360> just 00:43:47.830 --> 00:43:47.840 align:start position:0% and had been sending us signals. We just 00:43:47.840 --> 00:43:50.630 align:start position:0% and had been sending us signals. We just weren't<00:43:48.080> listening<00:43:48.480> correctly. 00:43:50.630 --> 00:43:50.640 align:start position:0% weren't listening correctly. 00:43:50.640 --> 00:43:52.910 align:start position:0% weren't listening correctly. That<00:43:50.880> same<00:43:51.160> year,<00:43:51.520> a<00:43:51.600> team<00:43:52.000> led<00:43:52.360> by<00:43:52.560> the<00:43:52.680> late 00:43:52.910 --> 00:43:52.920 align:start position:0% That same year, a team led by the late 00:43:52.920 --> 00:43:55.590 align:start position:0% That same year, a team led by the late astronomer<00:43:53.480> Janusz<00:43:54.080> Gil<00:43:54.680> theorized<00:43:55.280> that 00:43:55.590 --> 00:43:55.600 align:start position:0% astronomer Janusz Gil theorized that 00:43:55.600 --> 00:43:57.350 align:start position:0% astronomer Janusz Gil theorized that another<00:43:55.920> reason<00:43:56.240> Geminga<00:43:56.760> had<00:43:56.960> appeared<00:43:57.320> to 00:43:57.350 --> 00:43:57.360 align:start position:0% another reason Geminga had appeared to 00:43:57.360 --> 00:43:59.590 align:start position:0% another reason Geminga had appeared to be<00:43:57.480> radio<00:43:57.800> silent<00:43:58.440> may<00:43:58.760> be<00:43:58.960> its<00:43:59.160> magnetic 00:43:59.590 --> 00:43:59.600 align:start position:0% be radio silent may be its magnetic 00:43:59.600 --> 00:44:02.270 align:start position:0% be radio silent may be its magnetic field.<00:44:00.640> Models<00:44:01.000> showed<00:44:01.360> that<00:44:01.640> radio<00:44:01.960> waves 00:44:02.270 --> 00:44:02.280 align:start position:0% field. Models showed that radio waves 00:44:02.280 --> 00:44:04.630 align:start position:0% field. Models showed that radio waves may<00:44:02.480> be<00:44:02.600> absorbed<00:44:03.320> or<00:44:03.440> refracted<00:44:04.120> within<00:44:04.520> the 00:44:04.630 --> 00:44:04.640 align:start position:0% may be absorbed or refracted within the 00:44:04.640 --> 00:44:07.230 align:start position:0% may be absorbed or refracted within the pulsar's<00:44:05.160> magnetosphere,<00:44:06.440> leaving<00:44:06.920> only 00:44:07.230 --> 00:44:07.240 align:start position:0% pulsar's magnetosphere, leaving only 00:44:07.240 --> 00:44:09.830 align:start position:0% pulsar's magnetosphere, leaving only weak<00:44:07.520> pulses<00:44:08.080> around<00:44:08.520> 100<00:44:09.080> MHz<00:44:09.640> to<00:44:09.720> be 00:44:09.830 --> 00:44:09.840 align:start position:0% weak pulses around 100 MHz to be 00:44:09.840 --> 00:44:11.150 align:start position:0% weak pulses around 100 MHz to be detectable. 00:44:11.150 --> 00:44:11.160 align:start position:0% detectable. 00:44:11.160 --> 00:44:13.590 align:start position:0% detectable. This<00:44:11.400> would<00:44:11.680> effectively<00:44:12.440> leave<00:44:12.720> it<00:44:12.840> quiet<00:44:13.520> at 00:44:13.590 --> 00:44:13.600 align:start position:0% This would effectively leave it quiet at 00:44:13.600 --> 00:44:15.670 align:start position:0% This would effectively leave it quiet at the<00:44:13.720> higher<00:44:14.040> radio<00:44:14.400> bands<00:44:15.120> than<00:44:15.320> most 00:44:15.670 --> 00:44:15.680 align:start position:0% the higher radio bands than most 00:44:15.680 --> 00:44:18.070 align:start position:0% the higher radio bands than most telescopes<00:44:16.200> used. 00:44:18.070 --> 00:44:18.080 align:start position:0% telescopes used. 00:44:18.080 --> 00:44:20.510 align:start position:0% telescopes used. Confirming<00:44:18.800> Geminga<00:44:19.200> was<00:44:19.400> a<00:44:19.440> pulsar,<00:44:20.360> and 00:44:20.510 --> 00:44:20.520 align:start position:0% Confirming Geminga was a pulsar, and 00:44:20.520 --> 00:44:23.030 align:start position:0% Confirming Geminga was a pulsar, and specifically<00:44:21.120> a<00:44:21.240> gamma-ray<00:44:21.880> pulsar,<00:44:22.800> was<00:44:22.960> a 00:44:23.030 --> 00:44:23.040 align:start position:0% specifically a gamma-ray pulsar, was a 00:44:23.040 --> 00:44:24.670 align:start position:0% specifically a gamma-ray pulsar, was a big<00:44:23.560> deal. 00:44:24.670 --> 00:44:24.680 align:start position:0% big deal. 00:44:24.680 --> 00:44:28.510 align:start position:0% big deal. In<00:44:24.800> fact,<00:44:25.560> 99%<00:44:26.960> of<00:44:27.120> its<00:44:27.320> output<00:44:27.960> is<00:44:28.240> in<00:44:28.400> the 00:44:28.510 --> 00:44:28.520 align:start position:0% In fact, 99% of its output is in the 00:44:28.520 --> 00:44:31.030 align:start position:0% In fact, 99% of its output is in the gamma<00:44:28.960> range,<00:44:30.040> making<00:44:30.400> it<00:44:30.600> one<00:44:30.800> of<00:44:30.880> the 00:44:31.030 --> 00:44:31.040 align:start position:0% gamma range, making it one of the 00:44:31.040 --> 00:44:33.790 align:start position:0% gamma range, making it one of the brightest<00:44:31.880> gamma-ray<00:44:32.440> sources<00:44:33.280> in<00:44:33.560> our 00:44:33.790 --> 00:44:33.800 align:start position:0% brightest gamma-ray sources in our 00:44:33.800 --> 00:44:36.110 align:start position:0% brightest gamma-ray sources in our entire<00:44:34.440> galaxy. 00:44:36.110 --> 00:44:36.120 align:start position:0% entire galaxy. 00:44:36.120 --> 00:44:39.270 align:start position:0% entire galaxy. It<00:44:36.280> is,<00:44:36.880> as<00:44:37.000> it<00:44:37.120> turns<00:44:37.480> out,<00:44:38.200> all<00:44:38.560> that's<00:44:38.800> left 00:44:39.270 --> 00:44:39.280 align:start position:0% It is, as it turns out, all that's left 00:44:39.280 --> 00:44:42.110 align:start position:0% It is, as it turns out, all that's left after<00:44:39.600> a<00:44:39.680> star<00:44:40.600> several<00:44:41.120> times<00:44:41.560> more<00:44:41.760> massive 00:44:42.110 --> 00:44:42.120 align:start position:0% after a star several times more massive 00:44:42.120 --> 00:44:46.430 align:start position:0% after a star several times more massive than<00:44:42.280> our<00:44:42.440> sun<00:44:43.280> exploded<00:44:44.360> about<00:44:44.720> 350,000 00:44:46.430 --> 00:44:46.440 align:start position:0% than our sun exploded about 350,000 00:44:46.440 --> 00:44:47.950 align:start position:0% than our sun exploded about 350,000 years<00:44:46.680> ago. 00:44:47.950 --> 00:44:47.960 align:start position:0% years ago. 00:44:47.960 --> 00:44:50.750 align:start position:0% years ago. But,<00:44:48.560> its<00:44:48.920> relative<00:44:49.400> radio<00:44:49.680> silence<00:44:50.520> and<00:44:50.640> its 00:44:50.750 --> 00:44:50.760 align:start position:0% But, its relative radio silence and its 00:44:50.760 --> 00:44:53.230 align:start position:0% But, its relative radio silence and its apparent<00:44:51.320> lack<00:44:51.760> of<00:44:51.880> a<00:44:51.960> nebula<00:44:52.720> weren't<00:44:53.000> the 00:44:53.230 --> 00:44:53.240 align:start position:0% apparent lack of a nebula weren't the 00:44:53.240 --> 00:44:58.550 align:start position:0% apparent lack of a nebula weren't the only<00:44:53.600> unusual<00:44:54.160> things<00:44:54.680> about<00:44:55.040> this<00:44:55.280> pulsar. 00:44:58.550 --> 00:44:58.560 align:start position:0% 00:44:58.560 --> 00:45:01.030 align:start position:0% When<00:44:58.880> Italian<00:44:59.400> astrophysicists,<00:45:00.600> including 00:45:01.030 --> 00:45:01.040 align:start position:0% When Italian astrophysicists, including 00:45:01.040 --> 00:45:04.430 align:start position:0% When Italian astrophysicists, including Bignami,<00:45:02.040> Geminga's<00:45:02.560> name-giver,<00:45:03.600> compared 00:45:04.430 --> 00:45:04.440 align:start position:0% Bignami, Geminga's name-giver, compared 00:45:04.440 --> 00:45:06.630 align:start position:0% Bignami, Geminga's name-giver, compared a<00:45:04.520> series<00:45:05.000> of<00:45:05.120> observations<00:45:06.120> from<00:45:06.480> the 00:45:06.630 --> 00:45:06.640 align:start position:0% a series of observations from the 00:45:06.640 --> 00:45:09.070 align:start position:0% a series of observations from the European<00:45:07.160> Southern<00:45:07.440> Observatory's<00:45:08.080> 3.6-m 00:45:09.070 --> 00:45:09.080 align:start position:0% European Southern Observatory's 3.6-m 00:45:09.080 --> 00:45:12.190 align:start position:0% European Southern Observatory's 3.6-m telescope<00:45:10.000> and<00:45:10.320> New<00:45:10.560> Technology<00:45:11.160> Telescope 00:45:12.190 --> 00:45:12.200 align:start position:0% telescope and New Technology Telescope 00:45:12.200 --> 00:45:13.990 align:start position:0% telescope and New Technology Telescope with<00:45:12.720> observations<00:45:13.600> from<00:45:13.880> the 00:45:13.990 --> 00:45:14.000 align:start position:0% with observations from the 00:45:14.000 --> 00:45:15.550 align:start position:0% with observations from the Canada-France-Hawaii 00:45:15.550 --> 00:45:15.560 align:start position:0% Canada-France-Hawaii 00:45:15.560 --> 00:45:17.590 align:start position:0% Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope,<00:45:16.720> they<00:45:16.920> found<00:45:16.971> [music] 00:45:17.590 --> 00:45:17.600 align:start position:0% Telescope, they found [music] 00:45:17.600 --> 00:45:20.510 align:start position:0% Telescope, they found [music] that<00:45:17.800> Geminga<00:45:18.680> was<00:45:18.920> moving. 00:45:20.510 --> 00:45:20.520 align:start position:0% that Geminga was moving. 00:45:20.520 --> 00:45:23.350 align:start position:0% that Geminga was moving. Not<00:45:20.760> only<00:45:20.960> that,<00:45:21.720> it<00:45:21.920> was<00:45:22.080> traveling<00:45:22.840> at<00:45:23.200> an 00:45:23.350 --> 00:45:23.360 align:start position:0% Not only that, it was traveling at an 00:45:23.360 --> 00:45:27.350 align:start position:0% Not only that, it was traveling at an unusually<00:45:24.280> high<00:45:24.480> speed<00:45:25.160> of<00:45:25.240> around<00:45:25.840> 0.2<00:45:27.040> arc 00:45:27.350 --> 00:45:27.360 align:start position:0% unusually high speed of around 0.2 arc 00:45:27.360 --> 00:45:29.630 align:start position:0% unusually high speed of around 0.2 arc seconds<00:45:27.451> [music]<00:45:27.920> per<00:45:28.280> year. 00:45:29.630 --> 00:45:29.640 align:start position:0% seconds [music] per year. 00:45:29.640 --> 00:45:32.430 align:start position:0% seconds [music] per year. As<00:45:29.800> a<00:45:29.840> reminder,<00:45:30.800> an<00:45:30.960> arc<00:45:31.200> second<00:45:31.720> is<00:45:31.960> a<00:45:32.080> very 00:45:32.430 --> 00:45:32.440 align:start position:0% As a reminder, an arc second is a very 00:45:32.440 --> 00:45:35.070 align:start position:0% As a reminder, an arc second is a very small<00:45:32.920> unit<00:45:33.280> of<00:45:33.480> angular<00:45:33.880> measurement.<00:45:34.840> Used 00:45:35.070 --> 00:45:35.080 align:start position:0% small unit of angular measurement. Used 00:45:35.080 --> 00:45:36.990 align:start position:0% small unit of angular measurement. Used when<00:45:35.240> we<00:45:35.360> need<00:45:35.720> more<00:45:35.960> precise<00:45:36.480> measurements 00:45:36.990 --> 00:45:37.000 align:start position:0% when we need more precise measurements 00:45:37.000 --> 00:45:39.070 align:start position:0% when we need more precise measurements than<00:45:37.240> a<00:45:37.280> degree<00:45:37.800> would<00:45:37.960> allow. 00:45:39.070 --> 00:45:39.080 align:start position:0% than a degree would allow. 00:45:39.080 --> 00:45:41.910 align:start position:0% than a degree would allow. Within<00:45:39.560> each<00:45:39.880> arc<00:45:40.120> degree,<00:45:40.760> there<00:45:41.040> are<00:45:41.240> 60<00:45:41.720> arc 00:45:41.910 --> 00:45:41.920 align:start position:0% Within each arc degree, there are 60 arc 00:45:41.920 --> 00:45:44.230 align:start position:0% Within each arc degree, there are 60 arc minutes,<00:45:42.800> and<00:45:42.920> within<00:45:43.240> each<00:45:43.520> arc<00:45:43.680> minute<00:45:44.080> are 00:45:44.230 --> 00:45:44.240 align:start position:0% minutes, and within each arc minute are 00:45:44.240 --> 00:45:47.630 align:start position:0% minutes, and within each arc minute are 60<00:45:44.720> arc<00:45:45.000> seconds.<00:45:46.200> These<00:45:46.480> arc<00:45:46.680> seconds<00:45:47.160> are<00:45:47.520> a 00:45:47.630 --> 00:45:47.640 align:start position:0% 60 arc seconds. These arc seconds are a 00:45:47.640 --> 00:45:49.910 align:start position:0% 60 arc seconds. These arc seconds are a common<00:45:48.160> unit<00:45:48.600> used<00:45:48.920> in<00:45:49.000> astronomy<00:45:49.560> to<00:45:49.680> talk 00:45:49.910 --> 00:45:49.920 align:start position:0% common unit used in astronomy to talk 00:45:49.920 --> 00:45:51.910 align:start position:0% common unit used in astronomy to talk about<00:45:50.280> the<00:45:50.400> movement<00:45:50.840> of<00:45:51.000> objects<00:45:51.480> across<00:45:51.840> the 00:45:51.910 --> 00:45:51.920 align:start position:0% about the movement of objects across the 00:45:51.920 --> 00:45:55.390 align:start position:0% about the movement of objects across the sky<00:45:52.600> from<00:45:52.920> our<00:45:53.160> perspective<00:45:53.720> on<00:45:53.960> Earth. 00:45:55.390 --> 00:45:55.400 align:start position:0% sky from our perspective on Earth. 00:45:55.400 --> 00:45:57.510 align:start position:0% sky from our perspective on Earth. If<00:45:55.520> you<00:45:55.640> were<00:45:55.760> to<00:45:55.880> draw<00:45:56.240> a<00:45:56.320> circle<00:45:57.040> around<00:45:57.360> the 00:45:57.510 --> 00:45:57.520 align:start position:0% If you were to draw a circle around the 00:45:57.520 --> 00:45:59.550 align:start position:0% If you were to draw a circle around the orbit<00:45:57.840> of<00:45:58.000> the<00:45:58.080> moon<00:45:58.400> around<00:45:58.640> the<00:45:58.840> Earth, 00:45:59.550 --> 00:45:59.560 align:start position:0% orbit of the moon around the Earth, 00:45:59.560 --> 00:46:02.310 align:start position:0% orbit of the moon around the Earth, there<00:45:59.760> would<00:46:00.000> be<00:46:00.360> 360° 00:46:02.310 --> 00:46:02.320 align:start position:0% there would be 360° 00:46:02.320 --> 00:46:05.430 align:start position:0% there would be 360° around<00:46:02.880> that<00:46:03.080> circular<00:46:03.560> path.<00:46:04.640> So,<00:46:05.000> at<00:46:05.240> any 00:46:05.430 --> 00:46:05.440 align:start position:0% around that circular path. So, at any 00:46:05.440 --> 00:46:08.510 align:start position:0% around that circular path. So, at any given<00:46:05.760> time<00:46:06.200> of<00:46:06.480> day<00:46:07.040> or<00:46:07.200> night,<00:46:08.000> assuming 00:46:08.510 --> 00:46:08.520 align:start position:0% given time of day or night, assuming 00:46:08.520 --> 00:46:10.110 align:start position:0% given time of day or night, assuming nothing<00:46:08.880> is<00:46:09.040> blocking<00:46:09.480> your<00:46:09.640> view<00:46:09.880> of<00:46:10.000> the 00:46:10.110 --> 00:46:10.120 align:start position:0% nothing is blocking your view of the 00:46:10.120 --> 00:46:14.030 align:start position:0% nothing is blocking your view of the horizon,<00:46:11.160> you<00:46:11.280> can<00:46:11.480> see<00:46:11.800> about<00:46:12.360> 180°<00:46:13.840> of<00:46:13.920> the 00:46:14.030 --> 00:46:14.040 align:start position:0% horizon, you can see about 180° of the 00:46:14.040 --> 00:46:17.470 align:start position:0% horizon, you can see about 180° of the sky.<00:46:14.960> And<00:46:15.400> from<00:46:15.640> the<00:46:15.720> horizon<00:46:16.440> to<00:46:16.560> the<00:46:16.640> zenith, 00:46:17.470 --> 00:46:17.480 align:start position:0% sky. And from the horizon to the zenith, 00:46:17.480 --> 00:46:20.710 align:start position:0% sky. And from the horizon to the zenith, the<00:46:17.600> top<00:46:17.840> of<00:46:17.887> [music]<00:46:17.920> the<00:46:18.000> sky,<00:46:18.600> it<00:46:18.760> is<00:46:18.920> 90°. 00:46:20.710 --> 00:46:20.720 align:start position:0% the top of [music] the sky, it is 90°. 00:46:20.720 --> 00:46:22.390 align:start position:0% the top of [music] the sky, it is 90°. If<00:46:20.840> you<00:46:20.960> hold<00:46:21.200> out<00:46:21.320> your<00:46:21.480> little<00:46:21.720> finger<00:46:22.160> at 00:46:22.390 --> 00:46:22.400 align:start position:0% If you hold out your little finger at 00:46:22.400 --> 00:46:24.750 align:start position:0% If you hold out your little finger at arm's<00:46:22.680> length<00:46:23.000> and<00:46:23.120> close<00:46:23.440> one<00:46:23.720> eye,<00:46:24.440> the<00:46:24.560> tip 00:46:24.750 --> 00:46:24.760 align:start position:0% arm's length and close one eye, the tip 00:46:24.760 --> 00:46:27.350 align:start position:0% arm's length and close one eye, the tip of<00:46:24.840> your<00:46:24.960> little<00:46:25.200> finger<00:46:25.560> covers<00:46:26.000> about<00:46:26.520> 1°<00:46:27.280> of 00:46:27.350 --> 00:46:27.360 align:start position:0% of your little finger covers about 1° of 00:46:27.360 --> 00:46:29.030 align:start position:0% of your little finger covers about 1° of the<00:46:27.480> sky,<00:46:27.840> roughly. 00:46:29.030 --> 00:46:29.040 align:start position:0% the sky, roughly. 00:46:29.040 --> 00:46:30.790 align:start position:0% the sky, roughly. Next<00:46:29.240> time<00:46:29.520> you're<00:46:29.800> outside<00:46:30.400> on<00:46:30.480> a<00:46:30.560> clear 00:46:30.790 --> 00:46:30.800 align:start position:0% Next time you're outside on a clear 00:46:30.800 --> 00:46:33.190 align:start position:0% Next time you're outside on a clear night,<00:46:31.240> try<00:46:31.520> this<00:46:32.280> and<00:46:32.520> see<00:46:32.680> if<00:46:32.800> your<00:46:32.960> little 00:46:33.190 --> 00:46:33.200 align:start position:0% night, try this and see if your little 00:46:33.200 --> 00:46:35.562 align:start position:0% night, try this and see if your little finger<00:46:33.480> can<00:46:33.680> cover<00:46:34.040> the<00:46:34.160> moon.<00:46:35.120> It<00:46:35.360> should, 00:46:35.562 --> 00:46:35.572 align:start position:0% finger can cover the moon. It should, 00:46:35.572 --> 00:46:37.670 align:start position:0% finger can cover the moon. It should, [music]<00:46:36.040> because<00:46:36.560> the<00:46:36.640> moon<00:46:36.880> takes<00:46:37.200> up<00:46:37.440> only 00:46:37.670 --> 00:46:37.680 align:start position:0% [music] because the moon takes up only 00:46:37.680 --> 00:46:41.110 align:start position:0% [music] because the moon takes up only about<00:46:38.120> half<00:46:38.520> of<00:46:38.680> a<00:46:38.720> degree,<00:46:39.560> or<00:46:39.720> about<00:46:40.200> 31<00:46:40.840> arc 00:46:41.110 --> 00:46:41.120 align:start position:0% about half of a degree, or about 31 arc 00:46:41.120 --> 00:46:43.790 align:start position:0% about half of a degree, or about 31 arc minutes<00:46:41.600> in<00:46:41.720> the<00:46:41.800> night<00:46:42.000> sky. 00:46:43.790 --> 00:46:43.800 align:start position:0% minutes in the night sky. 00:46:43.800 --> 00:46:47.870 align:start position:0% minutes in the night sky. Geminga<00:46:44.400> traveling<00:46:45.160> 0.2<00:46:46.360> arc<00:46:46.720> seconds<00:46:47.360> across 00:46:47.870 --> 00:46:47.880 align:start position:0% Geminga traveling 0.2 arc seconds across 00:46:47.880 --> 00:46:51.030 align:start position:0% Geminga traveling 0.2 arc seconds across our<00:46:48.080> sky<00:46:48.560> each<00:46:49.040> year<00:46:50.040> may<00:46:50.160> not<00:46:50.400> sound<00:46:50.760> like<00:46:50.960> a 00:46:51.030 --> 00:46:51.040 align:start position:0% our sky each year may not sound like a 00:46:51.040 --> 00:46:54.270 align:start position:0% our sky each year may not sound like a lot,<00:46:51.880> but<00:46:52.040> from<00:46:52.440> our<00:46:52.680> perspective<00:46:53.320> on<00:46:53.600> Earth, 00:46:54.270 --> 00:46:54.280 align:start position:0% lot, but from our perspective on Earth, 00:46:54.280 --> 00:46:56.430 align:start position:0% lot, but from our perspective on Earth, the<00:46:54.400> typical<00:46:54.800> star<00:46:55.200> only<00:46:55.480> moves<00:46:56.000> a<00:46:56.080> few 00:46:56.430 --> 00:46:56.440 align:start position:0% the typical star only moves a few 00:46:56.440 --> 00:46:59.510 align:start position:0% the typical star only moves a few thousandths<00:46:57.280> of<00:46:57.400> an<00:46:57.600> arc<00:46:57.840> second<00:46:58.280> per<00:46:58.560> year. 00:46:59.510 --> 00:46:59.520 align:start position:0% thousandths of an arc second per year. 00:46:59.520 --> 00:47:02.830 align:start position:0% thousandths of an arc second per year. Yet,<00:47:00.360> despite<00:47:01.040> being<00:47:01.520> 800<00:47:02.120> light-years<00:47:02.600> from 00:47:02.830 --> 00:47:02.840 align:start position:0% Yet, despite being 800 light-years from 00:47:02.840 --> 00:47:07.310 align:start position:0% Yet, despite being 800 light-years from us,<00:47:03.560> Geminga<00:47:04.120> will<00:47:04.320> travel<00:47:04.920> 30<00:47:05.640> arc<00:47:06.160> minutes, 00:47:07.310 --> 00:47:07.320 align:start position:0% us, Geminga will travel 30 arc minutes, 00:47:07.320 --> 00:47:09.430 align:start position:0% us, Geminga will travel 30 arc minutes, the<00:47:07.440> equivalent<00:47:08.120> to<00:47:08.200> the<00:47:08.320> apparent<00:47:08.840> diameter 00:47:09.430 --> 00:47:09.440 align:start position:0% the equivalent to the apparent diameter 00:47:09.440 --> 00:47:13.350 align:start position:0% the equivalent to the apparent diameter of<00:47:09.640> the<00:47:09.760> moon,<00:47:10.760> across<00:47:11.400> our<00:47:11.640> sky<00:47:12.440> in<00:47:12.640> just<00:47:13.080> over 00:47:13.350 --> 00:47:13.360 align:start position:0% of the moon, across our sky in just over 00:47:13.360 --> 00:47:15.470 align:start position:0% of the moon, across our sky in just over 10,000<00:47:14.160> years. 00:47:15.470 --> 00:47:15.480 align:start position:0% 10,000 years. 00:47:15.480 --> 00:47:18.030 align:start position:0% 10,000 years. In<00:47:15.640> other<00:47:15.840> words,<00:47:16.480> this<00:47:16.680> stellar<00:47:17.040> corpse<00:47:17.520> is 00:47:18.030 --> 00:47:18.040 align:start position:0% In other words, this stellar corpse is 00:47:18.040 --> 00:47:22.190 align:start position:0% In other words, this stellar corpse is racing<00:47:18.960> through<00:47:19.200> the<00:47:19.280> galaxy<00:47:20.240> at<00:47:20.440> nearly<00:47:21.000> 210 00:47:22.190 --> 00:47:22.200 align:start position:0% racing through the galaxy at nearly 210 00:47:22.200 --> 00:47:26.270 align:start position:0% racing through the galaxy at nearly 210 km<00:47:23.200> per<00:47:23.440> second. 00:47:26.270 --> 00:47:26.280 align:start position:0% km per second. 00:47:26.280 --> 00:47:27.750 align:start position:0% km per second. Heading<00:47:26.600> towards<00:47:26.920> the<00:47:27.040> border<00:47:27.360> between<00:47:27.680> the 00:47:27.750 --> 00:47:27.760 align:start position:0% Heading towards the border between the 00:47:27.760 --> 00:47:30.750 align:start position:0% Heading towards the border between the constellations<00:47:28.640> Gemini<00:47:29.200> and<00:47:29.440> Lynx,<00:47:30.400> and<00:47:30.560> at 00:47:30.750 --> 00:47:30.760 align:start position:0% constellations Gemini and Lynx, and at 00:47:30.760 --> 00:47:33.550 align:start position:0% constellations Gemini and Lynx, and at its<00:47:31.000> current<00:47:31.520> rate<00:47:31.760> of<00:47:31.920> motion,<00:47:32.880> Geminga<00:47:33.360> will 00:47:33.550 --> 00:47:33.560 align:start position:0% its current rate of motion, Geminga will 00:47:33.560 --> 00:47:35.470 align:start position:0% its current rate of motion, Geminga will remain<00:47:34.040> in<00:47:34.200> Gemini<00:47:34.680> for<00:47:34.800> another<00:47:35.120> half 00:47:35.470 --> 00:47:35.480 align:start position:0% remain in Gemini for another half 00:47:35.480 --> 00:47:38.030 align:start position:0% remain in Gemini for another half million<00:47:35.840> years.<00:47:36.680> But<00:47:36.840> it<00:47:36.960> may<00:47:37.200> need<00:47:37.600> a<00:47:37.680> new 00:47:38.030 --> 00:47:38.040 align:start position:0% million years. But it may need a new 00:47:38.040 --> 00:47:39.990 align:start position:0% million years. But it may need a new name<00:47:38.400> after<00:47:38.760> that. 00:47:39.990 --> 00:47:40.000 align:start position:0% name after that. 00:47:40.000 --> 00:47:42.110 align:start position:0% name after that. However,<00:47:40.320> this<00:47:40.600> mysterious<00:47:41.160> pulsar<00:47:41.600> gets 00:47:42.110 --> 00:47:42.120 align:start position:0% However, this mysterious pulsar gets 00:47:42.120 --> 00:47:43.830 align:start position:0% However, this mysterious pulsar gets stranger<00:47:42.640> still. 00:47:43.830 --> 00:47:43.840 align:start position:0% stranger still. 00:47:43.840 --> 00:47:46.590 align:start position:0% stranger still. It<00:47:44.000> is<00:47:44.200> its<00:47:44.440> vast<00:47:45.160> speed<00:47:45.720> that<00:47:45.920> helps<00:47:46.200> produce 00:47:46.590 --> 00:47:46.600 align:start position:0% It is its vast speed that helps produce 00:47:46.600 --> 00:47:48.870 align:start position:0% It is its vast speed that helps produce another<00:47:47.120> feature<00:47:47.880> that<00:47:48.080> scientists<00:47:48.720> were 00:47:48.870 --> 00:47:48.880 align:start position:0% another feature that scientists were 00:47:48.880 --> 00:47:50.750 align:start position:0% another feature that scientists were about<00:47:49.240> to<00:47:49.360> discover. 00:47:50.750 --> 00:47:50.760 align:start position:0% about to discover. 00:47:50.760 --> 00:47:53.030 align:start position:0% about to discover. As<00:47:50.960> it<00:47:51.080> hurtles<00:47:51.480> through<00:47:51.760> space,<00:47:52.560> Geminga 00:47:53.030 --> 00:47:53.040 align:start position:0% As it hurtles through space, Geminga 00:47:53.040 --> 00:47:57.150 align:start position:0% As it hurtles through space, Geminga leaves<00:47:53.440> behind<00:47:54.120> two<00:47:54.800> ghostly<00:47:55.520> X-ray<00:47:56.160> tails 00:47:57.150 --> 00:47:57.160 align:start position:0% leaves behind two ghostly X-ray tails 00:47:57.160 --> 00:48:00.830 align:start position:0% leaves behind two ghostly X-ray tails that<00:47:57.360> streak<00:47:57.840> 3<00:47:58.600> trillion<00:47:59.360> kilometers<00:48:00.280> across 00:48:00.830 --> 00:48:00.840 align:start position:0% that streak 3 trillion kilometers across 00:48:00.840 --> 00:48:02.550 align:start position:0% that streak 3 trillion kilometers across the<00:48:00.960> sky. 00:48:02.550 --> 00:48:02.560 align:start position:0% the sky. 00:48:02.560 --> 00:48:04.790 align:start position:0% the sky. As<00:48:02.720> I<00:48:02.800> discussed<00:48:03.280> earlier,<00:48:04.040> despite<00:48:04.440> the<00:48:04.520> fact 00:48:04.790 --> 00:48:04.800 align:start position:0% As I discussed earlier, despite the fact 00:48:04.800 --> 00:48:07.070 align:start position:0% As I discussed earlier, despite the fact that<00:48:04.920> this<00:48:05.200> fast-moving<00:48:05.960> pulsar<00:48:06.440> is<00:48:06.640> nearly 00:48:07.070 --> 00:48:07.080 align:start position:0% that this fast-moving pulsar is nearly 00:48:07.080 --> 00:48:10.590 align:start position:0% that this fast-moving pulsar is nearly radio<00:48:07.400> silent,<00:48:08.400> it<00:48:08.760> certainly<00:48:09.600> isn't<00:48:10.080> quiet 00:48:10.590 --> 00:48:10.600 align:start position:0% radio silent, it certainly isn't quiet 00:48:10.600 --> 00:48:14.270 align:start position:0% radio silent, it certainly isn't quiet in<00:48:10.720> the<00:48:10.840> gamma-ray<00:48:11.600> and<00:48:12.000> x-ray<00:48:12.480> wavelengths. 00:48:14.270 --> 00:48:14.280 align:start position:0% in the gamma-ray and x-ray wavelengths. 00:48:14.280 --> 00:48:17.470 align:start position:0% in the gamma-ray and x-ray wavelengths. In<00:48:14.360> 1999,<00:48:15.600> ESA's<00:48:16.120> X-ray<00:48:16.760> Multi<00:48:17.200> Mirror 00:48:17.470 --> 00:48:17.480 align:start position:0% In 1999, ESA's X-ray Multi Mirror 00:48:17.480 --> 00:48:20.190 align:start position:0% In 1999, ESA's X-ray Multi Mirror Mission,<00:48:18.160> or<00:48:18.408> [music]<00:48:18.520> XMM-Newton, 00:48:20.190 --> 00:48:20.200 align:start position:0% Mission, or [music] XMM-Newton, 00:48:20.200 --> 00:48:22.230 align:start position:0% Mission, or [music] XMM-Newton, was<00:48:20.440> launched<00:48:20.800> to<00:48:20.920> peer<00:48:21.200> deeper<00:48:21.720> into<00:48:21.960> this 00:48:22.230 --> 00:48:22.240 align:start position:0% was launched to peer deeper into this 00:48:22.240 --> 00:48:25.270 align:start position:0% was launched to peer deeper into this x-ray<00:48:22.640> universe,<00:48:23.680> and<00:48:24.000> 4<00:48:24.240> years<00:48:24.480> later,<00:48:25.160> a 00:48:25.270 --> 00:48:25.280 align:start position:0% x-ray universe, and 4 years later, a 00:48:25.280 --> 00:48:29.070 align:start position:0% x-ray universe, and 4 years later, a team<00:48:25.720> led<00:48:26.040> by<00:48:26.480> Patrizia<00:48:27.400> Caraveo<00:48:28.480> uncovered 00:48:29.070 --> 00:48:29.080 align:start position:0% team led by Patrizia Caraveo uncovered 00:48:29.080 --> 00:48:32.070 align:start position:0% team led by Patrizia Caraveo uncovered these<00:48:29.320> comet-like<00:48:30.280> x-ray<00:48:30.640> trails. 00:48:32.070 --> 00:48:32.080 align:start position:0% these comet-like x-ray trails. 00:48:32.080 --> 00:48:34.310 align:start position:0% these comet-like x-ray trails. Their<00:48:32.280> shape<00:48:32.840> and<00:48:32.960> brightness<00:48:33.680> are<00:48:33.880> partly 00:48:34.310 --> 00:48:34.320 align:start position:0% Their shape and brightness are partly 00:48:34.320 --> 00:48:36.350 align:start position:0% Their shape and brightness are partly explained<00:48:34.760> by<00:48:34.880> the<00:48:35.000> shock<00:48:35.400> wave<00:48:35.720> created<00:48:36.160> by 00:48:36.350 --> 00:48:36.360 align:start position:0% explained by the shock wave created by 00:48:36.360 --> 00:48:39.630 align:start position:0% explained by the shock wave created by Geminga's<00:48:37.080> motion<00:48:37.680> through<00:48:38.000> space<00:48:39.040> and<00:48:39.480> its 00:48:39.630 --> 00:48:39.640 align:start position:0% Geminga's motion through space and its 00:48:39.640 --> 00:48:41.750 align:start position:0% Geminga's motion through space and its rotation<00:48:40.360> as<00:48:40.520> a<00:48:40.560> pulsar, 00:48:41.750 --> 00:48:41.760 align:start position:0% rotation as a pulsar, 00:48:41.760 --> 00:48:43.830 align:start position:0% rotation as a pulsar, but<00:48:41.840> they<00:48:42.040> are<00:48:42.200> also<00:48:42.560> revealing<00:48:43.200> of<00:48:43.360> another 00:48:43.830 --> 00:48:43.840 align:start position:0% but they are also revealing of another 00:48:43.840 --> 00:48:48.470 align:start position:0% but they are also revealing of another attribute,<00:48:44.920> Geminga's<00:48:45.800> colossal<00:48:46.600> mass. 00:48:48.470 --> 00:48:48.480 align:start position:0% attribute, Geminga's colossal mass. 00:48:48.480 --> 00:48:50.870 align:start position:0% attribute, Geminga's colossal mass. Measuring<00:48:48.920> only<00:48:49.160> about<00:48:49.560> 20<00:48:50.000> to<00:48:50.120> 30<00:48:50.440> kilometers 00:48:50.870 --> 00:48:50.880 align:start position:0% Measuring only about 20 to 30 kilometers 00:48:50.880 --> 00:48:54.230 align:start position:0% Measuring only about 20 to 30 kilometers across,<00:48:51.720> Geminga<00:48:52.240> is<00:48:52.480> extremely<00:48:53.480> dense, 00:48:54.230 --> 00:48:54.240 align:start position:0% across, Geminga is extremely dense, 00:48:54.240 --> 00:48:57.030 align:start position:0% across, Geminga is extremely dense, containing<00:48:54.800> about<00:48:55.160> as<00:48:55.360> much<00:48:55.840> mass<00:48:56.240> as<00:48:56.440> a<00:48:56.560> one 00:48:57.030 --> 00:48:57.040 align:start position:0% containing about as much mass as a one 00:48:57.040 --> 00:48:59.430 align:start position:0% containing about as much mass as a one and<00:48:57.160> a<00:48:57.240> half<00:48:57.600> of<00:48:57.840> our<00:48:58.040> suns. 00:48:59.430 --> 00:48:59.440 align:start position:0% and a half of our suns. 00:48:59.440 --> 00:49:01.710 align:start position:0% and a half of our suns. To<00:48:59.520> put<00:48:59.680> that<00:48:59.920> in<00:49:00.080> perspective,<00:49:01.280> if<00:49:01.400> you<00:49:01.520> had<00:49:01.680> a 00:49:01.710 --> 00:49:01.720 align:start position:0% To put that in perspective, if you had a 00:49:01.720 --> 00:49:04.550 align:start position:0% To put that in perspective, if you had a teaspoon<00:49:02.440> of<00:49:02.560> neutron<00:49:03.000> star<00:49:03.280> material,<00:49:04.440> it 00:49:04.550 --> 00:49:04.560 align:start position:0% teaspoon of neutron star material, it 00:49:04.560 --> 00:49:08.350 align:start position:0% teaspoon of neutron star material, it would<00:49:04.720> weigh<00:49:05.080> about<00:49:05.800> 4<00:49:06.480> billion<00:49:07.080> tons,<00:49:08.120> as 00:49:08.350 --> 00:49:08.360 align:start position:0% would weigh about 4 billion tons, as 00:49:08.360 --> 00:49:12.950 align:start position:0% would weigh about 4 billion tons, as much<00:49:08.800> as<00:49:09.040> 10,000<00:49:10.480> Empire<00:49:10.920> State<00:49:11.200> Buildings. 00:49:12.950 --> 00:49:12.960 align:start position:0% much as 10,000 Empire State Buildings. 00:49:12.960 --> 00:49:16.270 align:start position:0% much as 10,000 Empire State Buildings. As<00:49:13.160> this<00:49:13.520> dense,<00:49:14.440> high-mass<00:49:15.240> object<00:49:15.800> races 00:49:16.270 --> 00:49:16.280 align:start position:0% As this dense, high-mass object races 00:49:16.280 --> 00:49:17.790 align:start position:0% As this dense, high-mass object races forward<00:49:16.680> through<00:49:16.880> the<00:49:17.000> low-density 00:49:17.790 --> 00:49:17.800 align:start position:0% forward through the low-density 00:49:17.800 --> 00:49:22.830 align:start position:0% forward through the low-density interstellar<00:49:18.280> medium,<00:49:19.160> just<00:49:19.720> 0.06<00:49:21.200> to<00:49:21.440> 0.15 00:49:22.830 --> 00:49:22.840 align:start position:0% interstellar medium, just 0.06 to 0.15 00:49:22.840 --> 00:49:25.270 align:start position:0% interstellar medium, just 0.06 to 0.15 atoms<00:49:23.320> per<00:49:23.520> cubic<00:49:23.960> centimeter, 00:49:25.270 --> 00:49:25.280 align:start position:0% atoms per cubic centimeter, 00:49:25.280 --> 00:49:27.430 align:start position:0% atoms per cubic centimeter, it<00:49:25.400> compresses<00:49:26.120> the<00:49:26.200> interstellar<00:49:26.680> medium 00:49:27.430 --> 00:49:27.440 align:start position:0% it compresses the interstellar medium 00:49:27.440 --> 00:49:29.830 align:start position:0% it compresses the interstellar medium and<00:49:27.640> its<00:49:27.840> own<00:49:28.120> embedded<00:49:28.720> magnetic<00:49:29.160> field<00:49:29.600> by<00:49:29.760> a 00:49:29.830 --> 00:49:29.840 align:start position:0% and its own embedded magnetic field by a 00:49:29.840 --> 00:49:31.950 align:start position:0% and its own embedded magnetic field by a factor<00:49:30.400> of<00:49:30.640> four. 00:49:31.950 --> 00:49:31.960 align:start position:0% factor of four. 00:49:31.960 --> 00:49:34.350 align:start position:0% factor of four. Meanwhile,<00:49:32.840> the<00:49:32.960> incessant<00:49:33.720> spinning<00:49:34.160> of<00:49:34.240> the 00:49:34.350 --> 00:49:34.360 align:start position:0% Meanwhile, the incessant spinning of the 00:49:34.360 --> 00:49:36.030 align:start position:0% Meanwhile, the incessant spinning of the neutron<00:49:34.680> star<00:49:35.040> creates<00:49:35.360> an<00:49:35.440> environment 00:49:36.030 --> 00:49:36.040 align:start position:0% neutron star creates an environment 00:49:36.040 --> 00:49:38.590 align:start position:0% neutron star creates an environment where<00:49:36.280> electrons<00:49:37.200> and<00:49:37.360> their<00:49:37.720> antimatter 00:49:38.590 --> 00:49:38.600 align:start position:0% where electrons and their antimatter 00:49:38.600 --> 00:49:41.350 align:start position:0% where electrons and their antimatter counterparts,<00:49:39.640> called<00:49:39.880> positrons,<00:49:40.960> can<00:49:41.200> be 00:49:41.350 --> 00:49:41.360 align:start position:0% counterparts, called positrons, can be 00:49:41.360 --> 00:49:44.510 align:start position:0% counterparts, called positrons, can be accelerated<00:49:42.360> to<00:49:42.640> extreme<00:49:43.480> energies, 00:49:44.510 --> 00:49:44.520 align:start position:0% accelerated to extreme energies, 00:49:44.520 --> 00:49:46.870 align:start position:0% accelerated to extreme energies, powerful<00:49:44.960> enough<00:49:45.320> to<00:49:45.480> emit<00:49:45.960> high-energy 00:49:46.870 --> 00:49:46.880 align:start position:0% powerful enough to emit high-energy 00:49:46.880 --> 00:49:48.750 align:start position:0% powerful enough to emit high-energy gamma-rays. 00:49:48.750 --> 00:49:48.760 align:start position:0% gamma-rays. 00:49:48.760 --> 00:49:50.430 align:start position:0% gamma-rays. While<00:49:49.000> most<00:49:49.280> of<00:49:49.360> these<00:49:49.560> electrons<00:49:50.040> are<00:49:50.120> seen 00:49:50.430 --> 00:49:50.440 align:start position:0% While most of these electrons are seen 00:49:50.440 --> 00:49:52.350 align:start position:0% While most of these electrons are seen in<00:49:50.560> the<00:49:50.680> gamma<00:49:51.000> radiation<00:49:51.560> that<00:49:51.760> escapes<00:49:52.160> from 00:49:52.350 --> 00:49:52.360 align:start position:0% in the gamma radiation that escapes from 00:49:52.360 --> 00:49:55.470 align:start position:0% in the gamma radiation that escapes from the<00:49:52.480> pulsar,<00:49:53.520> some<00:49:53.840> get<00:49:54.040> trapped<00:49:54.760> and<00:49:54.960> spiral 00:49:55.470 --> 00:49:55.480 align:start position:0% the pulsar, some get trapped and spiral 00:49:55.480 --> 00:49:58.110 align:start position:0% the pulsar, some get trapped and spiral within<00:49:55.920> this<00:49:56.080> enhanced<00:49:56.560> magnetic<00:49:57.000> field. 00:49:58.110 --> 00:49:58.120 align:start position:0% within this enhanced magnetic field. 00:49:58.120 --> 00:50:00.710 align:start position:0% within this enhanced magnetic field. In<00:49:58.240> these<00:49:58.600> images<00:49:59.160> from<00:49:59.400> a<00:49:59.440> computer<00:49:59.880> model, 00:50:00.710 --> 00:50:00.720 align:start position:0% In these images from a computer model, 00:50:00.720 --> 00:50:03.070 align:start position:0% In these images from a computer model, the<00:50:00.840> tails<00:50:01.280> can<00:50:01.440> be<00:50:01.560> seen<00:50:02.000> streaking<00:50:02.640> along 00:50:03.070 --> 00:50:03.080 align:start position:0% the tails can be seen streaking along 00:50:03.080 --> 00:50:05.190 align:start position:0% the tails can be seen streaking along the<00:50:03.280> edges<00:50:03.560> of<00:50:03.680> Geminga's<00:50:04.320> three-dimensional 00:50:05.190 --> 00:50:05.200 align:start position:0% the edges of Geminga's three-dimensional 00:50:05.200 --> 00:50:07.510 align:start position:0% the edges of Geminga's three-dimensional shock<00:50:05.480> wave,<00:50:06.080> like<00:50:06.320> the<00:50:06.440> wake<00:50:06.880> created<00:50:07.280> by<00:50:07.440> a 00:50:07.510 --> 00:50:07.520 align:start position:0% shock wave, like the wake created by a 00:50:07.520 --> 00:50:09.590 align:start position:0% shock wave, like the wake created by a boat<00:50:07.960> going<00:50:08.280> through<00:50:08.520> water. 00:50:09.590 --> 00:50:09.600 align:start position:0% boat going through water. 00:50:09.600 --> 00:50:12.070 align:start position:0% boat going through water. Only<00:50:09.920> this<00:50:10.280> boat<00:50:10.800> is<00:50:11.000> more<00:50:11.200> massive<00:50:11.720> than<00:50:11.880> our 00:50:12.070 --> 00:50:12.080 align:start position:0% Only this boat is more massive than our 00:50:12.080 --> 00:50:14.790 align:start position:0% Only this boat is more massive than our sun,<00:50:13.040> and<00:50:13.240> the<00:50:13.360> wake<00:50:13.960> is<00:50:14.160> made<00:50:14.480> up<00:50:14.680> of 00:50:14.790 --> 00:50:14.800 align:start position:0% sun, and the wake is made up of 00:50:14.800 --> 00:50:19.910 align:start position:0% sun, and the wake is made up of extremely<00:50:15.800> high-energy<00:50:16.760> X-rays. 00:50:19.910 --> 00:50:19.920 align:start position:0% 00:50:19.920 --> 00:50:21.870 align:start position:0% The<00:50:20.080> final<00:50:20.440> piece<00:50:20.760> of<00:50:20.880> the<00:50:20.960> Geminga<00:50:21.320> puzzle 00:50:21.870 --> 00:50:21.880 align:start position:0% The final piece of the Geminga puzzle 00:50:21.880 --> 00:50:25.510 align:start position:0% The final piece of the Geminga puzzle wasn't<00:50:22.280> discovered<00:50:22.960> until<00:50:23.600> 2005. 00:50:25.510 --> 00:50:25.520 align:start position:0% wasn't discovered until 2005. 00:50:25.520 --> 00:50:27.590 align:start position:0% wasn't discovered until 2005. It's<00:50:25.840> nebula. 00:50:27.590 --> 00:50:27.600 align:start position:0% It's nebula. 00:50:27.600 --> 00:50:30.150 align:start position:0% It's nebula. Taking<00:50:27.920> the<00:50:28.040> form<00:50:28.400> of<00:50:28.560> a<00:50:28.640> shell<00:50:29.160> of<00:50:29.400> neutral 00:50:30.150 --> 00:50:30.160 align:start position:0% Taking the form of a shell of neutral 00:50:30.160 --> 00:50:33.390 align:start position:0% Taking the form of a shell of neutral hydrogen<00:50:30.680> gas<00:50:31.400> with<00:50:31.560> a<00:50:31.600> radius<00:50:32.200> of<00:50:32.480> 0.4 00:50:33.390 --> 00:50:33.400 align:start position:0% hydrogen gas with a radius of 0.4 00:50:33.400 --> 00:50:36.350 align:start position:0% hydrogen gas with a radius of 0.4 parsecs<00:50:34.040> wide,<00:50:34.880> it<00:50:35.040> turned<00:50:35.360> out<00:50:35.560> to<00:50:35.680> be<00:50:36.200> what 00:50:36.350 --> 00:50:36.360 align:start position:0% parsecs wide, it turned out to be what 00:50:36.360 --> 00:50:40.470 align:start position:0% parsecs wide, it turned out to be what we<00:50:36.560> call<00:50:37.240> a<00:50:37.360> pulsar<00:50:38.240> wind<00:50:38.800> nebula. 00:50:40.470 --> 00:50:40.480 align:start position:0% we call a pulsar wind nebula. 00:50:40.480 --> 00:50:42.510 align:start position:0% we call a pulsar wind nebula. This<00:50:40.720> type<00:50:41.000> of<00:50:41.120> nebula<00:50:41.640> is<00:50:41.800> created<00:50:42.240> from<00:50:42.400> the 00:50:42.510 --> 00:50:42.520 align:start position:0% This type of nebula is created from the 00:50:42.520 --> 00:50:44.510 align:start position:0% This type of nebula is created from the wind<00:50:42.880> plasma<00:50:43.320> that<00:50:43.600> emanates<00:50:44.080> from<00:50:44.400> a 00:50:44.510 --> 00:50:44.520 align:start position:0% wind plasma that emanates from a 00:50:44.520 --> 00:50:47.070 align:start position:0% wind plasma that emanates from a pulsar's<00:50:45.200> magnetic<00:50:45.840> poles. 00:50:47.070 --> 00:50:47.080 align:start position:0% pulsar's magnetic poles. 00:50:47.080 --> 00:50:49.030 align:start position:0% pulsar's magnetic poles. The<00:50:47.160> plasma,<00:50:47.600> made<00:50:47.960> of<00:50:48.120> charged<00:50:48.480> particles 00:50:49.030 --> 00:50:49.040 align:start position:0% The plasma, made of charged particles 00:50:49.040 --> 00:50:50.790 align:start position:0% The plasma, made of charged particles that<00:50:49.160> can<00:50:49.280> be<00:50:49.360> accelerated<00:50:50.040> to<00:50:50.160> to<00:50:50.280> near<00:50:50.560> light 00:50:50.790 --> 00:50:50.800 align:start position:0% that can be accelerated to to near light 00:50:50.800 --> 00:50:53.630 align:start position:0% that can be accelerated to to near light speed,<00:50:51.400> surrounds<00:50:51.960> the<00:50:52.040> pulsar,<00:50:52.920> creating<00:50:53.520> a 00:50:53.630 --> 00:50:53.640 align:start position:0% speed, surrounds the pulsar, creating a 00:50:53.640 --> 00:50:55.910 align:start position:0% speed, surrounds the pulsar, creating a nebula<00:50:54.240> of<00:50:54.440> high-energy<00:50:55.000> particles<00:50:55.720> that 00:50:55.910 --> 00:50:55.920 align:start position:0% nebula of high-energy particles that 00:50:55.920 --> 00:50:59.190 align:start position:0% nebula of high-energy particles that give<00:50:56.160> off<00:50:56.480> strong<00:50:57.280> X-ray<00:50:57.640> emissions. 00:50:59.190 --> 00:50:59.200 align:start position:0% give off strong X-ray emissions. 00:50:59.200 --> 00:51:01.110 align:start position:0% give off strong X-ray emissions. With<00:50:59.320> the<00:50:59.400> confirmation<00:51:00.040> that<00:51:00.200> Geminga<00:51:00.800> did 00:51:01.110 --> 00:51:01.120 align:start position:0% With the confirmation that Geminga did 00:51:01.120 --> 00:51:04.190 align:start position:0% With the confirmation that Geminga did have<00:51:01.360> a<00:51:01.400> nebula,<00:51:02.400> its<00:51:02.600> identity<00:51:03.160> as<00:51:03.320> a<00:51:03.360> pulsar 00:51:04.190 --> 00:51:04.200 align:start position:0% have a nebula, its identity as a pulsar 00:51:04.200 --> 00:51:06.830 align:start position:0% have a nebula, its identity as a pulsar could<00:51:04.520> finally<00:51:05.160> be<00:51:05.440> confirmed. 00:51:06.830 --> 00:51:06.840 align:start position:0% could finally be confirmed. 00:51:06.840 --> 00:51:10.950 align:start position:0% could finally be confirmed. But<00:51:06.960> Chandra<00:51:07.760> went<00:51:08.160> even<00:51:08.480> further. 00:51:10.950 --> 00:51:10.960 align:start position:0% But Chandra went even further. 00:51:10.960 --> 00:51:13.790 align:start position:0% But Chandra went even further. In<00:51:11.080> addition<00:51:11.600> to<00:51:11.880> imaging<00:51:12.280> Geminga,<00:51:13.240> Chandra 00:51:13.790 --> 00:51:13.800 align:start position:0% In addition to imaging Geminga, Chandra 00:51:13.800 --> 00:51:17.190 align:start position:0% In addition to imaging Geminga, Chandra also<00:51:14.240> looked<00:51:14.680> at<00:51:14.920> a<00:51:15.000> second<00:51:15.440> pulsar<00:51:16.320> called 00:51:17.190 --> 00:51:17.200 align:start position:0% also looked at a second pulsar called 00:51:17.200 --> 00:51:18.950 align:start position:0% also looked at a second pulsar called B0355 00:51:18.950 --> 00:51:18.960 align:start position:0% B0355 00:51:18.960 --> 00:51:20.510 align:start position:0% B0355 +<00:51:19.200> 54. 00:51:20.510 --> 00:51:20.520 align:start position:0% + 54. 00:51:20.520 --> 00:51:22.710 align:start position:0% + 54. And<00:51:20.680> by<00:51:20.840> comparing<00:51:21.360> the<00:51:21.480> two,<00:51:22.040> astronomers 00:51:22.710 --> 00:51:22.720 align:start position:0% And by comparing the two, astronomers 00:51:22.720 --> 00:51:25.270 align:start position:0% And by comparing the two, astronomers uncovered<00:51:23.360> another<00:51:23.960> possible<00:51:24.440> explanation 00:51:25.270 --> 00:51:25.280 align:start position:0% uncovered another possible explanation 00:51:25.280 --> 00:51:27.270 align:start position:0% uncovered another possible explanation for<00:51:25.440> the<00:51:25.640> absence<00:51:26.160> of<00:51:26.320> radio<00:51:26.640> pulses<00:51:27.080> from 00:51:27.270 --> 00:51:27.280 align:start position:0% for the absence of radio pulses from 00:51:27.280 --> 00:51:28.830 align:start position:0% for the absence of radio pulses from Geminga. 00:51:28.830 --> 00:51:28.840 align:start position:0% Geminga. 00:51:28.840 --> 00:51:31.190 align:start position:0% Geminga. On<00:51:28.960> the<00:51:29.040> surface,<00:51:29.800> these<00:51:30.200> pulsars<00:51:30.680> seem<00:51:30.920> quite 00:51:31.190 --> 00:51:31.200 align:start position:0% On the surface, these pulsars seem quite 00:51:31.200 --> 00:51:33.350 align:start position:0% On the surface, these pulsars seem quite similar.<00:51:32.200> They<00:51:32.320> are<00:51:32.400> both<00:51:32.720> about<00:51:33.040> half<00:51:33.320> a 00:51:33.350 --> 00:51:33.360 align:start position:0% similar. They are both about half a 00:51:33.360 --> 00:51:35.550 align:start position:0% similar. They are both about half a million<00:51:33.680> years<00:51:33.960> old,<00:51:34.520> and<00:51:34.640> they<00:51:34.760> spin<00:51:35.200> about 00:51:35.550 --> 00:51:35.560 align:start position:0% million years old, and they spin about 00:51:35.560 --> 00:51:38.150 align:start position:0% million years old, and they spin about four<00:51:35.800> to<00:51:35.920> five<00:51:36.160> times<00:51:36.520> per<00:51:36.680> second. 00:51:38.150 --> 00:51:38.160 align:start position:0% four to five times per second. 00:51:38.160 --> 00:51:41.030 align:start position:0% four to five times per second. However,<00:51:38.880> as<00:51:39.120> you<00:51:39.240> know,<00:51:39.880> Geminga<00:51:40.480> is<00:51:40.760> seen 00:51:41.030 --> 00:51:41.040 align:start position:0% However, as you know, Geminga is seen 00:51:41.040 --> 00:51:44.270 align:start position:0% However, as you know, Geminga is seen primarily<00:51:41.720> in<00:51:41.960> gamma-ray<00:51:42.520> pulses<00:51:43.600> with<00:51:43.920> no 00:51:44.270 --> 00:51:44.280 align:start position:0% primarily in gamma-ray pulses with no 00:51:44.280 --> 00:51:46.350 align:start position:0% primarily in gamma-ray pulses with no bright<00:51:44.720> radio<00:51:45.080> emissions. 00:51:46.350 --> 00:51:46.360 align:start position:0% bright radio emissions. 00:51:46.360 --> 00:51:49.110 align:start position:0% bright radio emissions. By<00:51:46.480> contrast,<00:51:47.400> the<00:51:47.680> other<00:51:47.920> pulsar,<00:51:48.880> which 00:51:49.110 --> 00:51:49.120 align:start position:0% By contrast, the other pulsar, which 00:51:49.120 --> 00:51:52.670 align:start position:0% By contrast, the other pulsar, which I'll<00:51:49.240> refer<00:51:49.560> to<00:51:49.720> as<00:51:49.880> pulsar<00:51:50.440> B,<00:51:51.480> is<00:51:51.720> not<00:51:52.200> seen 00:51:52.670 --> 00:51:52.680 align:start position:0% I'll refer to as pulsar B, is not seen 00:51:52.680 --> 00:51:54.350 align:start position:0% I'll refer to as pulsar B, is not seen in<00:51:52.880> gamma<00:51:53.160> rays. 00:51:54.350 --> 00:51:54.360 align:start position:0% in gamma rays. 00:51:54.360 --> 00:51:56.550 align:start position:0% in gamma rays. And<00:51:54.680> instead,<00:51:55.400> is<00:51:55.600> one<00:51:55.760> of<00:51:55.880> the<00:51:56.000> brightest 00:51:56.550 --> 00:51:56.560 align:start position:0% And instead, is one of the brightest 00:51:56.560 --> 00:51:59.390 align:start position:0% And instead, is one of the brightest known<00:51:57.080> radio<00:51:57.720> pulsars. 00:51:59.390 --> 00:51:59.400 align:start position:0% known radio pulsars. 00:51:59.400 --> 00:52:01.190 align:start position:0% known radio pulsars. How<00:51:59.520> could<00:51:59.720> these<00:51:59.960> two<00:52:00.120> pulsars<00:52:00.720> be<00:52:01.000> so 00:52:01.190 --> 00:52:01.200 align:start position:0% How could these two pulsars be so 00:52:01.200 --> 00:52:04.510 align:start position:0% How could these two pulsars be so similar,<00:52:02.120> yet<00:52:02.440> so<00:52:02.960> vastly<00:52:03.560> different<00:52:04.120> in<00:52:04.280> how 00:52:04.510 --> 00:52:04.520 align:start position:0% similar, yet so vastly different in how 00:52:04.520 --> 00:52:06.350 align:start position:0% similar, yet so vastly different in how we<00:52:04.640> see<00:52:04.840> them? 00:52:06.350 --> 00:52:06.360 align:start position:0% we see them? 00:52:06.360 --> 00:52:08.870 align:start position:0% we see them? The<00:52:06.480> answer<00:52:06.960> may<00:52:07.200> be<00:52:07.360> as<00:52:07.480> simple<00:52:08.040> as<00:52:08.240> how<00:52:08.600> each 00:52:08.870 --> 00:52:08.880 align:start position:0% The answer may be as simple as how each 00:52:08.880 --> 00:52:11.790 align:start position:0% The answer may be as simple as how each of<00:52:09.000> these<00:52:09.240> pulsars<00:52:09.840> are<00:52:10.200> oriented<00:52:11.200> relative 00:52:11.790 --> 00:52:11.800 align:start position:0% of these pulsars are oriented relative 00:52:11.800 --> 00:52:14.830 align:start position:0% of these pulsars are oriented relative to<00:52:12.000> our<00:52:12.280> observation<00:52:12.960> from<00:52:13.320> Earth. 00:52:14.830 --> 00:52:14.840 align:start position:0% to our observation from Earth. 00:52:14.840 --> 00:52:16.630 align:start position:0% to our observation from Earth. Astronomers<00:52:15.440> believe<00:52:15.760> that<00:52:15.920> these<00:52:16.160> images<00:52:16.520> of 00:52:16.630 --> 00:52:16.640 align:start position:0% Astronomers believe that these images of 00:52:16.640 --> 00:52:19.790 align:start position:0% Astronomers believe that these images of Geminga<00:52:17.360> and<00:52:17.600> pulsar<00:52:18.040> B<00:52:18.720> have<00:52:19.040> revealed<00:52:19.600> their 00:52:19.790 --> 00:52:19.800 align:start position:0% Geminga and pulsar B have revealed their 00:52:19.800 --> 00:52:23.630 align:start position:0% Geminga and pulsar B have revealed their spin<00:52:20.280> axes<00:52:21.360> and<00:52:21.760> uncovered<00:52:22.520> a<00:52:22.640> reason<00:52:23.080> for<00:52:23.280> why 00:52:23.630 --> 00:52:23.640 align:start position:0% spin axes and uncovered a reason for why 00:52:23.640 --> 00:52:25.990 align:start position:0% spin axes and uncovered a reason for why radio<00:52:24.240> and<00:52:24.520> gamma<00:52:24.800> ray<00:52:24.960> pulses<00:52:25.680> may<00:52:25.880> be 00:52:25.990 --> 00:52:26.000 align:start position:0% radio and gamma ray pulses may be 00:52:26.000 --> 00:52:30.550 align:start position:0% radio and gamma ray pulses may be present<00:52:26.880> or<00:52:27.240> absent<00:52:28.120> on<00:52:28.400> different<00:52:28.720> pulsars. 00:52:30.550 --> 00:52:30.560 align:start position:0% present or absent on different pulsars. 00:52:30.560 --> 00:52:32.310 align:start position:0% present or absent on different pulsars. Like<00:52:30.800> our<00:52:31.040> own<00:52:31.280> magnetic<00:52:31.680> field<00:52:31.960> around 00:52:32.310 --> 00:52:32.320 align:start position:0% Like our own magnetic field around 00:52:32.320 --> 00:52:34.430 align:start position:0% Like our own magnetic field around Earth,<00:52:33.000> both<00:52:33.280> of<00:52:33.360> these<00:52:33.560> pulsars<00:52:34.120> have 00:52:34.430 --> 00:52:34.440 align:start position:0% Earth, both of these pulsars have 00:52:34.440 --> 00:52:36.270 align:start position:0% Earth, both of these pulsars have magnetic<00:52:34.880> poles<00:52:35.360> close<00:52:35.680> to<00:52:35.800> their<00:52:35.960> spin 00:52:36.270 --> 00:52:36.280 align:start position:0% magnetic poles close to their spin 00:52:36.280 --> 00:52:37.390 align:start position:0% magnetic poles close to their spin poles. 00:52:37.390 --> 00:52:37.400 align:start position:0% poles. 00:52:37.400 --> 00:52:39.190 align:start position:0% poles. These<00:52:37.600> poles<00:52:37.920> are<00:52:38.040> where<00:52:38.440> the<00:52:38.600> beams<00:52:39.040> of 00:52:39.190 --> 00:52:39.200 align:start position:0% These poles are where the beams of 00:52:39.200 --> 00:52:41.950 align:start position:0% These poles are where the beams of pulsing<00:52:39.840> radio<00:52:40.200> emissions<00:52:40.680> come<00:52:40.920> from. 00:52:41.950 --> 00:52:41.960 align:start position:0% pulsing radio emissions come from. 00:52:41.960 --> 00:52:43.670 align:start position:0% pulsing radio emissions come from. You<00:52:42.080> could<00:52:42.240> try<00:52:42.440> to<00:52:42.640> model<00:52:42.960> this<00:52:43.440> if<00:52:43.560> you 00:52:43.670 --> 00:52:43.680 align:start position:0% You could try to model this if you 00:52:43.680 --> 00:52:46.070 align:start position:0% You could try to model this if you skewer<00:52:44.320> a<00:52:44.400> little<00:52:44.680> foam<00:52:44.960> ball<00:52:45.480> right<00:52:45.760> down<00:52:46.000> the 00:52:46.070 --> 00:52:46.080 align:start position:0% skewer a little foam ball right down the 00:52:46.080 --> 00:52:47.030 align:start position:0% skewer a little foam ball right down the middle. 00:52:47.030 --> 00:52:47.040 align:start position:0% middle. 00:52:47.040 --> 00:52:49.350 align:start position:0% middle. The<00:52:47.120> foam<00:52:47.360> ball<00:52:47.760> is<00:52:47.920> a<00:52:48.000> pulsar<00:52:48.840> and<00:52:48.960> the<00:52:49.040> radio 00:52:49.350 --> 00:52:49.360 align:start position:0% The foam ball is a pulsar and the radio 00:52:49.360 --> 00:52:50.830 align:start position:0% The foam ball is a pulsar and the radio beams<00:52:49.680> coming<00:52:49.920> from<00:52:50.080> the<00:52:50.160> poles<00:52:50.720> are 00:52:50.830 --> 00:52:50.840 align:start position:0% beams coming from the poles are 00:52:50.840 --> 00:52:52.710 align:start position:0% beams coming from the poles are represented<00:52:51.400> by<00:52:51.520> the<00:52:51.640> wooden<00:52:51.920> skewer<00:52:52.360> coming 00:52:52.710 --> 00:52:52.720 align:start position:0% represented by the wooden skewer coming 00:52:52.720 --> 00:52:54.830 align:start position:0% represented by the wooden skewer coming out<00:52:52.840> both<00:52:53.120> ends.<00:52:54.080> If<00:52:54.120> you<00:52:54.200> spin<00:52:54.480> the<00:52:54.560> ball 00:52:54.830 --> 00:52:54.840 align:start position:0% out both ends. If you spin the ball 00:52:54.840 --> 00:52:57.630 align:start position:0% out both ends. If you spin the ball around<00:52:55.320> the<00:52:55.440> skewer<00:52:55.840> like<00:52:56.040> a<00:52:56.120> spin<00:52:56.520> axis,<00:52:57.480> you 00:52:57.630 --> 00:52:57.640 align:start position:0% around the skewer like a spin axis, you 00:52:57.640 --> 00:53:00.270 align:start position:0% around the skewer like a spin axis, you create<00:52:58.040> an<00:52:58.120> equator<00:52:58.640> around<00:52:58.960> the<00:52:59.040> middle. 00:53:00.270 --> 00:53:00.280 align:start position:0% create an equator around the middle. 00:53:00.280 --> 00:53:02.150 align:start position:0% create an equator around the middle. To<00:53:00.320> illustrate<00:53:00.720> the<00:53:00.800> gamma<00:53:01.080> ray<00:53:01.240> source<00:53:01.800> along 00:53:02.150 --> 00:53:02.160 align:start position:0% To illustrate the gamma ray source along 00:53:02.160 --> 00:53:04.750 align:start position:0% To illustrate the gamma ray source along the<00:53:02.240> spin<00:53:02.480> equator,<00:53:03.280> called<00:53:03.520> the<00:53:03.600> torus,<00:53:04.640> you 00:53:04.750 --> 00:53:04.760 align:start position:0% the spin equator, called the torus, you 00:53:04.760 --> 00:53:07.110 align:start position:0% the spin equator, called the torus, you could<00:53:05.080> cut<00:53:05.320> a<00:53:05.360> hole<00:53:05.720> in<00:53:05.880> a<00:53:05.920> paper<00:53:06.280> plate<00:53:06.920> and 00:53:07.110 --> 00:53:07.120 align:start position:0% could cut a hole in a paper plate and 00:53:07.120 --> 00:53:09.510 align:start position:0% could cut a hole in a paper plate and squeeze<00:53:07.600> it<00:53:07.760> over<00:53:08.000> the<00:53:08.120> foam<00:53:08.440> ball. 00:53:09.510 --> 00:53:09.520 align:start position:0% squeeze it over the foam ball. 00:53:09.520 --> 00:53:11.550 align:start position:0% squeeze it over the foam ball. Now<00:53:09.800> you've<00:53:09.960> got<00:53:10.200> yourself<00:53:10.600> a<00:53:10.680> disk<00:53:11.120> of<00:53:11.280> gamma 00:53:11.550 --> 00:53:11.560 align:start position:0% Now you've got yourself a disk of gamma 00:53:11.560 --> 00:53:14.230 align:start position:0% Now you've got yourself a disk of gamma rays<00:53:12.160> beaming<00:53:12.760> out<00:53:13.040> from<00:53:13.240> the<00:53:13.360> equator<00:53:14.080> in 00:53:14.230 --> 00:53:14.240 align:start position:0% rays beaming out from the equator in 00:53:14.240 --> 00:53:16.110 align:start position:0% rays beaming out from the equator in every<00:53:14.520> direction. 00:53:16.110 --> 00:53:16.120 align:start position:0% every direction. 00:53:16.120 --> 00:53:18.230 align:start position:0% every direction. With<00:53:16.280> Geminga,<00:53:17.120> the<00:53:17.360> edge<00:53:17.640> of<00:53:17.720> the<00:53:17.880> paper 00:53:18.230 --> 00:53:18.240 align:start position:0% With Geminga, the edge of the paper 00:53:18.240 --> 00:53:20.950 align:start position:0% With Geminga, the edge of the paper plate<00:53:18.720> is<00:53:18.880> pointing<00:53:19.360> towards<00:53:19.880> us,<00:53:20.600> meaning 00:53:20.950 --> 00:53:20.960 align:start position:0% plate is pointing towards us, meaning 00:53:20.960 --> 00:53:23.750 align:start position:0% plate is pointing towards us, meaning the<00:53:21.040> gamma<00:53:21.360> rays<00:53:21.880> are<00:53:22.080> heading<00:53:22.480> to<00:53:22.680> Earth. 00:53:23.750 --> 00:53:23.760 align:start position:0% the gamma rays are heading to Earth. 00:53:23.760 --> 00:53:26.470 align:start position:0% the gamma rays are heading to Earth. But<00:53:23.880> for<00:53:24.000> pulsar<00:53:24.480> B,<00:53:25.400> its<00:53:25.680> relative<00:53:26.040> position 00:53:26.470 --> 00:53:26.480 align:start position:0% But for pulsar B, its relative position 00:53:26.480 --> 00:53:29.190 align:start position:0% But for pulsar B, its relative position to<00:53:26.680> us<00:53:27.040> is<00:53:27.240> at<00:53:27.480> a<00:53:27.560> different<00:53:28.040> angle,<00:53:28.800> as<00:53:29.000> if 00:53:29.190 --> 00:53:29.200 align:start position:0% to us is at a different angle, as if 00:53:29.200 --> 00:53:30.990 align:start position:0% to us is at a different angle, as if looking<00:53:29.600> at<00:53:29.760> the<00:53:29.880> flat<00:53:30.360> surface<00:53:30.840> of<00:53:30.920> the 00:53:30.990 --> 00:53:31.000 align:start position:0% looking at the flat surface of the 00:53:31.000 --> 00:53:32.190 align:start position:0% looking at the flat surface of the plate. 00:53:32.190 --> 00:53:32.200 align:start position:0% plate. 00:53:32.200 --> 00:53:34.230 align:start position:0% plate. The<00:53:32.240> gamma<00:53:32.480> rays<00:53:32.840> are<00:53:32.960> moving<00:53:33.400> perpendicular 00:53:34.230 --> 00:53:34.240 align:start position:0% The gamma rays are moving perpendicular 00:53:34.240 --> 00:53:36.910 align:start position:0% The gamma rays are moving perpendicular to<00:53:34.400> our<00:53:34.520> line<00:53:34.760> of<00:53:34.880> sight,<00:53:35.680> therefore<00:53:36.480> missing 00:53:36.910 --> 00:53:36.920 align:start position:0% to our line of sight, therefore missing 00:53:36.920 --> 00:53:38.790 align:start position:0% to our line of sight, therefore missing Earth. 00:53:38.790 --> 00:53:38.800 align:start position:0% Earth. 00:53:38.800 --> 00:53:40.350 align:start position:0% Earth. Let's<00:53:38.960> look<00:53:39.160> again<00:53:39.520> at<00:53:39.600> the<00:53:39.720> two<00:53:39.960> Chandra 00:53:40.350 --> 00:53:40.360 align:start position:0% Let's look again at the two Chandra 00:53:40.360 --> 00:53:42.990 align:start position:0% Let's look again at the two Chandra images<00:53:40.840> of<00:53:41.000> Geminga<00:53:41.480> on<00:53:41.600> the<00:53:41.720> left<00:53:42.360> and<00:53:42.600> pulsar 00:53:42.990 --> 00:53:43.000 align:start position:0% images of Geminga on the left and pulsar 00:53:43.000 --> 00:53:45.270 align:start position:0% images of Geminga on the left and pulsar B<00:53:43.360> on<00:53:43.480> the<00:53:43.560> right,<00:53:44.360> along<00:53:44.640> with<00:53:44.880> artist 00:53:45.270 --> 00:53:45.280 align:start position:0% B on the right, along with artist 00:53:45.280 --> 00:53:46.790 align:start position:0% B on the right, along with artist illustrations<00:53:45.920> of<00:53:46.040> what<00:53:46.200> astronomers 00:53:46.790 --> 00:53:46.800 align:start position:0% illustrations of what astronomers 00:53:46.800 --> 00:53:48.750 align:start position:0% illustrations of what astronomers believe<00:53:47.160> the<00:53:47.280> pulsar<00:53:47.760> wind<00:53:48.000> nebulas<00:53:48.520> look 00:53:48.750 --> 00:53:48.760 align:start position:0% believe the pulsar wind nebulas look 00:53:48.760 --> 00:53:50.710 align:start position:0% believe the pulsar wind nebulas look like<00:53:49.000> for<00:53:49.200> each<00:53:49.360> of<00:53:49.480> these. 00:53:50.710 --> 00:53:50.720 align:start position:0% like for each of these. 00:53:50.720 --> 00:53:53.150 align:start position:0% like for each of these. In<00:53:50.800> the<00:53:50.920> image<00:53:51.240> of<00:53:51.360> pulsar<00:53:51.840> B,<00:53:52.640> the<00:53:52.760> long 00:53:53.150 --> 00:53:53.160 align:start position:0% In the image of pulsar B, the long 00:53:53.160 --> 00:53:55.670 align:start position:0% In the image of pulsar B, the long trailing<00:53:53.680> blue<00:53:53.880> tails<00:53:54.400> represent<00:53:55.040> the<00:53:55.200> radio 00:53:55.670 --> 00:53:55.680 align:start position:0% trailing blue tails represent the radio 00:53:55.680 --> 00:53:58.030 align:start position:0% trailing blue tails represent the radio jets<00:53:56.040> emanating<00:53:56.560> from<00:53:56.720> its<00:53:56.880> poles,<00:53:57.800> and<00:53:57.960> the 00:53:58.030 --> 00:53:58.040 align:start position:0% jets emanating from its poles, and the 00:53:58.040 --> 00:54:00.510 align:start position:0% jets emanating from its poles, and the skewers<00:53:58.640> coming<00:53:58.960> out<00:53:59.120> of<00:53:59.200> both<00:53:59.480> ends. 00:54:00.510 --> 00:54:00.520 align:start position:0% skewers coming out of both ends. 00:54:00.520 --> 00:54:02.110 align:start position:0% skewers coming out of both ends. Only<00:54:00.880> instead<00:54:01.240> of<00:54:01.320> being<00:54:01.520> straight<00:54:01.880> like<00:54:02.040> a 00:54:02.110 --> 00:54:02.120 align:start position:0% Only instead of being straight like a 00:54:02.120 --> 00:54:04.470 align:start position:0% Only instead of being straight like a wooden<00:54:02.360> skewer,<00:54:03.160> pulsar<00:54:03.520> B<00:54:03.760> is<00:54:03.920> moving<00:54:04.240> so 00:54:04.470 --> 00:54:04.480 align:start position:0% wooden skewer, pulsar B is moving so 00:54:04.480 --> 00:54:06.310 align:start position:0% wooden skewer, pulsar B is moving so fast<00:54:04.920> through<00:54:05.120> space<00:54:05.560> that<00:54:05.720> these<00:54:06.000> jets 00:54:06.310 --> 00:54:06.320 align:start position:0% fast through space that these jets 00:54:06.320 --> 00:54:09.150 align:start position:0% fast through space that these jets appear<00:54:06.760> bent<00:54:07.240> backwards,<00:54:08.240> trailing<00:54:08.640> behind 00:54:09.150 --> 00:54:09.160 align:start position:0% appear bent backwards, trailing behind 00:54:09.160 --> 00:54:11.670 align:start position:0% appear bent backwards, trailing behind as<00:54:09.240> the<00:54:09.360> pulsar<00:54:09.800> moves<00:54:10.120> through<00:54:10.360> space. 00:54:11.670 --> 00:54:11.680 align:start position:0% as the pulsar moves through space. 00:54:11.680 --> 00:54:14.110 align:start position:0% as the pulsar moves through space. Now,<00:54:11.960> look<00:54:12.160> at<00:54:12.240> the<00:54:12.360> image<00:54:12.720> of<00:54:12.880> Geminga. 00:54:14.110 --> 00:54:14.120 align:start position:0% Now, look at the image of Geminga. 00:54:14.120 --> 00:54:16.830 align:start position:0% Now, look at the image of Geminga. Here,<00:54:14.680> the<00:54:14.840> long<00:54:15.320> twin<00:54:15.640> tails<00:54:16.120> on<00:54:16.320> either<00:54:16.520> side 00:54:16.830 --> 00:54:16.840 align:start position:0% Here, the long twin tails on either side 00:54:16.840 --> 00:54:19.110 align:start position:0% Here, the long twin tails on either side of<00:54:16.920> the<00:54:17.040> image<00:54:17.440> are<00:54:17.680> the<00:54:17.840> radio<00:54:18.280> jets, 00:54:19.110 --> 00:54:19.120 align:start position:0% of the image are the radio jets, 00:54:19.120 --> 00:54:21.830 align:start position:0% of the image are the radio jets, trailing<00:54:19.600> behind<00:54:20.200> as<00:54:20.440> it,<00:54:20.880> too,<00:54:21.440> rushes 00:54:21.830 --> 00:54:21.840 align:start position:0% trailing behind as it, too, rushes 00:54:21.840 --> 00:54:23.190 align:start position:0% trailing behind as it, too, rushes through<00:54:22.080> space. 00:54:23.190 --> 00:54:23.200 align:start position:0% through space. 00:54:23.200 --> 00:54:24.990 align:start position:0% through space. But<00:54:23.360> this<00:54:23.560> time,<00:54:24.120> instead<00:54:24.480> of<00:54:24.560> pointing 00:54:24.990 --> 00:54:25.000 align:start position:0% But this time, instead of pointing 00:54:25.000 --> 00:54:27.270 align:start position:0% But this time, instead of pointing almost<00:54:25.320> directly<00:54:25.840> toward<00:54:26.560> and<00:54:26.680> away<00:54:26.960> from<00:54:27.160> our 00:54:27.270 --> 00:54:27.280 align:start position:0% almost directly toward and away from our 00:54:27.280 --> 00:54:29.470 align:start position:0% almost directly toward and away from our vantage<00:54:27.680> point<00:54:27.920> on<00:54:28.080> Earth,<00:54:28.880> these<00:54:29.120> jets 00:54:29.470 --> 00:54:29.480 align:start position:0% vantage point on Earth, these jets 00:54:29.480 --> 00:54:31.870 align:start position:0% vantage point on Earth, these jets appear<00:54:29.800> to<00:54:29.880> be<00:54:30.000> coming<00:54:30.440> off<00:54:30.680> to<00:54:30.800> the<00:54:30.920> sides, 00:54:31.870 --> 00:54:31.880 align:start position:0% appear to be coming off to the sides, 00:54:31.880 --> 00:54:34.150 align:start position:0% appear to be coming off to the sides, not<00:54:32.440> aimed<00:54:32.680> at<00:54:32.840> Earth. 00:54:34.150 --> 00:54:34.160 align:start position:0% not aimed at Earth. 00:54:34.160 --> 00:54:36.510 align:start position:0% not aimed at Earth. So,<00:54:34.280> when<00:54:34.440> astronomers<00:54:35.040> look<00:54:35.520> at<00:54:35.680> Geminga, 00:54:36.510 --> 00:54:36.520 align:start position:0% So, when astronomers look at Geminga, 00:54:36.520 --> 00:54:38.750 align:start position:0% So, when astronomers look at Geminga, they<00:54:36.720> see<00:54:37.040> powerful<00:54:37.760> gamma-ray<00:54:38.320> emissions 00:54:38.750 --> 00:54:38.760 align:start position:0% they see powerful gamma-ray emissions 00:54:38.760 --> 00:54:40.870 align:start position:0% they see powerful gamma-ray emissions from<00:54:38.920> the<00:54:39.000> spin<00:54:39.400> equator,<00:54:40.360> but<00:54:40.440> the<00:54:40.520> radio 00:54:40.870 --> 00:54:40.880 align:start position:0% from the spin equator, but the radio 00:54:40.880 --> 00:54:42.830 align:start position:0% from the spin equator, but the radio jets<00:54:41.200> point<00:54:41.520> to<00:54:41.600> the<00:54:41.720> sides<00:54:42.360> and<00:54:42.480> remain 00:54:42.830 --> 00:54:42.840 align:start position:0% jets point to the sides and remain 00:54:42.840 --> 00:54:44.190 align:start position:0% jets point to the sides and remain unseen. 00:54:44.190 --> 00:54:44.200 align:start position:0% unseen. 00:54:44.200 --> 00:54:46.550 align:start position:0% unseen. And<00:54:44.320> when<00:54:44.560> they<00:54:44.720> look<00:54:45.040> at<00:54:45.240> pulsar<00:54:45.760> B,<00:54:46.400> the 00:54:46.550 --> 00:54:46.560 align:start position:0% And when they look at pulsar B, the 00:54:46.560 --> 00:54:48.670 align:start position:0% And when they look at pulsar B, the opposite<00:54:46.960> happens.<00:54:47.840> The<00:54:47.960> radio<00:54:48.320> jets<00:54:48.600> are 00:54:48.670 --> 00:54:48.680 align:start position:0% opposite happens. The radio jets are 00:54:48.680 --> 00:54:50.470 align:start position:0% opposite happens. The radio jets are pointed<00:54:49.160> almost<00:54:49.520> straight<00:54:49.920> toward<00:54:50.320> our 00:54:50.470 --> 00:54:50.480 align:start position:0% pointed almost straight toward our 00:54:50.480 --> 00:54:52.670 align:start position:0% pointed almost straight toward our planet,<00:54:51.280> while<00:54:51.400> the<00:54:51.520> gamma-ray<00:54:51.960> source<00:54:52.560> at 00:54:52.670 --> 00:54:52.680 align:start position:0% planet, while the gamma-ray source at 00:54:52.680 --> 00:54:55.550 align:start position:0% planet, while the gamma-ray source at the<00:54:52.800> equator<00:54:53.640> is<00:54:53.800> missing<00:54:54.200> Earth. 00:54:55.550 --> 00:54:55.560 align:start position:0% the equator is missing Earth. 00:54:55.560 --> 00:54:58.470 align:start position:0% the equator is missing Earth. Sometimes,<00:54:56.560> the<00:54:56.680> most<00:54:57.000> simple<00:54:57.440> explanation 00:54:58.470 --> 00:54:58.480 align:start position:0% Sometimes, the most simple explanation 00:54:58.480 --> 00:55:00.110 align:start position:0% Sometimes, the most simple explanation is<00:54:58.760> the<00:54:58.880> correct<00:54:59.240> one. 00:55:00.110 --> 00:55:00.120 align:start position:0% is the correct one. 00:55:00.120 --> 00:55:01.910 align:start position:0% is the correct one. And<00:55:00.200> that<00:55:00.400> finally<00:55:00.880> brings<00:55:01.200> us<00:55:01.320> back<00:55:01.640> to<00:55:01.760> the 00:55:01.910 --> 00:55:01.920 align:start position:0% And that finally brings us back to the 00:55:01.920 --> 00:55:04.310 align:start position:0% And that finally brings us back to the decades-long<00:55:02.800> mystery<00:55:03.320> of<00:55:03.480> an<00:55:03.600> unusual 00:55:04.310 --> 00:55:04.320 align:start position:0% decades-long mystery of an unusual 00:55:04.320 --> 00:55:06.790 align:start position:0% decades-long mystery of an unusual abundance<00:55:04.840> of<00:55:05.080> antimatter<00:55:05.880> bombarding<00:55:06.640> our 00:55:06.790 --> 00:55:06.800 align:start position:0% abundance of antimatter bombarding our 00:55:06.800 --> 00:55:09.670 align:start position:0% abundance of antimatter bombarding our planet. 00:55:09.670 --> 00:55:09.680 align:start position:0% 00:55:09.680 --> 00:55:11.470 align:start position:0% For<00:55:09.760> more<00:55:09.960> than<00:55:10.120> a<00:55:10.160> decade,<00:55:10.880> a<00:55:11.000> particle 00:55:11.470 --> 00:55:11.480 align:start position:0% For more than a decade, a particle 00:55:11.480 --> 00:55:13.550 align:start position:0% For more than a decade, a particle detector<00:55:12.000> called<00:55:12.400> the<00:55:12.640> Alpha<00:55:13.080> Magnetic 00:55:13.550 --> 00:55:13.560 align:start position:0% detector called the Alpha Magnetic 00:55:13.560 --> 00:55:16.870 align:start position:0% detector called the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer,<00:55:14.640> or<00:55:15.000> AMS-02,<00:55:16.480> has<00:55:16.680> been 00:55:16.870 --> 00:55:16.880 align:start position:0% Spectrometer, or AMS-02, has been 00:55:16.880 --> 00:55:18.190 align:start position:0% Spectrometer, or AMS-02, has been attached<00:55:16.958> [music]<00:55:17.360> to<00:55:17.440> the<00:55:17.600> International 00:55:18.190 --> 00:55:18.200 align:start position:0% attached [music] to the International 00:55:18.200 --> 00:55:20.870 align:start position:0% attached [music] to the International Space<00:55:18.480> Station,<00:55:19.240> collecting<00:55:19.800> information<00:55:20.560> on 00:55:20.870 --> 00:55:20.880 align:start position:0% Space Station, collecting information on 00:55:20.880 --> 00:55:23.550 align:start position:0% Space Station, collecting information on antimatter,<00:55:21.840> dark<00:55:22.160> matter,<00:55:22.840> and<00:55:23.000> cosmic<00:55:23.400> ray 00:55:23.550 --> 00:55:23.560 align:start position:0% antimatter, dark matter, and cosmic ray 00:55:23.560 --> 00:55:24.910 align:start position:0% antimatter, dark matter, and cosmic ray sources. 00:55:24.910 --> 00:55:24.920 align:start position:0% sources. 00:55:24.920 --> 00:55:27.310 align:start position:0% sources. As<00:55:25.040> a<00:55:25.120> reminder,<00:55:25.680> cosmic<00:55:26.040> rays<00:55:26.400> are<00:55:26.680> energetic 00:55:27.310 --> 00:55:27.320 align:start position:0% As a reminder, cosmic rays are energetic 00:55:27.320 --> 00:55:28.230 align:start position:0% As a reminder, cosmic rays are energetic particles,<00:55:27.438> [music] 00:55:28.230 --> 00:55:28.240 align:start position:0% particles, [music] 00:55:28.240 --> 00:55:30.350 align:start position:0% particles, [music] fragments<00:55:28.720> of<00:55:28.880> atoms<00:55:29.480> that<00:55:29.760> travel<00:55:30.120> through 00:55:30.350 --> 00:55:30.360 align:start position:0% fragments of atoms that travel through 00:55:30.360 --> 00:55:32.870 align:start position:0% fragments of atoms that travel through space<00:55:30.800> at<00:55:30.960> nearly<00:55:31.320> the<00:55:31.400> speed<00:55:31.680> of<00:55:31.800> light. 00:55:32.870 --> 00:55:32.880 align:start position:0% space at nearly the speed of light. 00:55:32.880 --> 00:55:34.750 align:start position:0% space at nearly the speed of light. These<00:55:33.040> can<00:55:33.160> be<00:55:33.280> made<00:55:33.600> by<00:55:33.720> the<00:55:33.840> sun,<00:55:34.560> by 00:55:34.750 --> 00:55:34.760 align:start position:0% These can be made by the sun, by 00:55:34.760 --> 00:55:37.470 align:start position:0% These can be made by the sun, by supernova<00:55:35.320> explosions,<00:55:36.160> or<00:55:36.680> other<00:55:37.040> cosmic 00:55:37.470 --> 00:55:37.480 align:start position:0% supernova explosions, or other cosmic 00:55:37.480 --> 00:55:38.590 align:start position:0% supernova explosions, or other cosmic means. 00:55:38.590 --> 00:55:38.600 align:start position:0% means. 00:55:38.600 --> 00:55:40.670 align:start position:0% means. And<00:55:38.760> in<00:55:38.920> 2013, 00:55:40.670 --> 00:55:40.680 align:start position:0% And in 2013, 00:55:40.680 --> 00:55:42.670 align:start position:0% And in 2013, the<00:55:40.800> first<00:55:41.200> results<00:55:41.640> of<00:55:41.760> the<00:55:41.920> AMS-02 00:55:42.670 --> 00:55:42.680 align:start position:0% the first results of the AMS-02 00:55:42.680 --> 00:55:45.230 align:start position:0% the first results of the AMS-02 experiment<00:55:43.280> were<00:55:43.400> announced.<00:55:44.520> The<00:55:44.600> detector 00:55:45.230 --> 00:55:45.240 align:start position:0% experiment were announced. The detector 00:55:45.240 --> 00:55:48.190 align:start position:0% experiment were announced. The detector had<00:55:45.440> recorded<00:55:46.120> more<00:55:46.440> than<00:55:46.920> 400,000 00:55:48.190 --> 00:55:48.200 align:start position:0% had recorded more than 400,000 00:55:48.200 --> 00:55:51.150 align:start position:0% had recorded more than 400,000 positrons,<00:55:49.280> the<00:55:49.480> largest<00:55:50.080> sample<00:55:50.520> of<00:55:50.680> cosmic 00:55:51.150 --> 00:55:51.160 align:start position:0% positrons, the largest sample of cosmic 00:55:51.160 --> 00:55:54.283 align:start position:0% positrons, the largest sample of cosmic ray<00:55:51.360> positron<00:55:51.880> data<00:55:52.600> ever<00:55:52.880> collected,<00:55:53.960> and 00:55:54.283 --> 00:55:54.293 align:start position:0% ray positron data ever collected, and 00:55:54.293 --> 00:55:56.030 align:start position:0% ray positron data ever collected, and [music]<00:55:54.360> increasing<00:55:54.960> the<00:55:55.080> world's<00:55:55.520> total 00:55:56.030 --> 00:55:56.040 align:start position:0% [music] increasing the world's total 00:55:56.040 --> 00:55:58.270 align:start position:0% [music] increasing the world's total cosmic<00:55:56.520> ray<00:55:56.720> positron<00:55:57.360> data<00:55:58.000> by<00:55:58.200> a 00:55:58.270 --> 00:55:58.280 align:start position:0% cosmic ray positron data by a 00:55:58.280 --> 00:56:00.230 align:start position:0% cosmic ray positron data by a hundredfold. 00:56:00.230 --> 00:56:00.240 align:start position:0% hundredfold. 00:56:00.240 --> 00:56:02.070 align:start position:0% hundredfold. For<00:56:00.360> years,<00:56:01.120> many<00:56:01.440> astronomers<00:56:01.960> and 00:56:02.070 --> 00:56:02.080 align:start position:0% For years, many astronomers and 00:56:02.080 --> 00:56:03.750 align:start position:0% For years, many astronomers and physicists<00:56:02.600> hoped<00:56:02.880> that<00:56:03.000> this<00:56:03.320> excess 00:56:03.750 --> 00:56:03.760 align:start position:0% physicists hoped that this excess 00:56:03.760 --> 00:56:06.230 align:start position:0% physicists hoped that this excess antimatter<00:56:04.720> may<00:56:04.920> be<00:56:05.080> the<00:56:05.240> byproduct<00:56:06.040> of<00:56:06.160> a 00:56:06.230 --> 00:56:06.240 align:start position:0% antimatter may be the byproduct of a 00:56:06.240 --> 00:56:08.750 align:start position:0% antimatter may be the byproduct of a dark<00:56:06.760> matter<00:56:07.080> annihilation,<00:56:08.360> offering 00:56:08.750 --> 00:56:08.760 align:start position:0% dark matter annihilation, offering 00:56:08.760 --> 00:56:10.790 align:start position:0% dark matter annihilation, offering possible<00:56:09.160> clues<00:56:09.600> about<00:56:09.920> this<00:56:10.080> mysterious 00:56:10.790 --> 00:56:10.800 align:start position:0% possible clues about this mysterious 00:56:10.800 --> 00:56:13.790 align:start position:0% possible clues about this mysterious substance.<00:56:11.960> After<00:56:12.280> all,<00:56:12.880> dark<00:56:13.160> matter<00:56:13.480> could 00:56:13.790 --> 00:56:13.800 align:start position:0% substance. After all, dark matter could 00:56:13.800 --> 00:56:17.270 align:start position:0% substance. After all, dark matter could make<00:56:14.080> up<00:56:14.320> around<00:56:14.680> 27%<00:56:15.840> of<00:56:15.920> the<00:56:16.000> cosmos,<00:56:17.120> and 00:56:17.270 --> 00:56:17.280 align:start position:0% make up around 27% of the cosmos, and 00:56:17.280 --> 00:56:20.110 align:start position:0% make up around 27% of the cosmos, and yet<00:56:17.880> we<00:56:18.000> still<00:56:18.280> don't<00:56:18.520> know<00:56:18.720> what<00:56:18.840> it<00:56:19.000> is. 00:56:20.110 --> 00:56:20.120 align:start position:0% yet we still don't know what it is. 00:56:20.120 --> 00:56:22.510 align:start position:0% yet we still don't know what it is. Like<00:56:20.440> regular<00:56:20.880> matter,<00:56:21.560> dark<00:56:21.840> matter<00:56:22.160> holds 00:56:22.510 --> 00:56:22.520 align:start position:0% Like regular matter, dark matter holds 00:56:22.520 --> 00:56:25.030 align:start position:0% Like regular matter, dark matter holds mass<00:56:23.040> and<00:56:23.200> takes<00:56:23.480> up<00:56:23.640> space,<00:56:24.600> but<00:56:24.680> it<00:56:24.760> doesn't 00:56:25.030 --> 00:56:25.040 align:start position:0% mass and takes up space, but it doesn't 00:56:25.040 --> 00:56:27.390 align:start position:0% mass and takes up space, but it doesn't seem<00:56:25.240> to<00:56:25.360> absorb,<00:56:26.080> reflect,<00:56:26.640> or<00:56:26.880> interact 00:56:27.390 --> 00:56:27.400 align:start position:0% seem to absorb, reflect, or interact 00:56:27.400 --> 00:56:30.070 align:start position:0% seem to absorb, reflect, or interact with<00:56:27.600> light,<00:56:28.440> at<00:56:28.560> least<00:56:29.000> not<00:56:29.200> in<00:56:29.320> a<00:56:29.360> way<00:56:29.720> we<00:56:29.920> can 00:56:30.070 --> 00:56:30.080 align:start position:0% with light, at least not in a way we can 00:56:30.080 --> 00:56:31.470 align:start position:0% with light, at least not in a way we can detect. 00:56:31.470 --> 00:56:31.480 align:start position:0% detect. 00:56:31.480 --> 00:56:33.230 align:start position:0% detect. Some<00:56:31.720> theorize<00:56:32.240> that<00:56:32.360> dark<00:56:32.600> matter<00:56:32.880> may<00:56:33.120> be 00:56:33.230 --> 00:56:33.240 align:start position:0% Some theorize that dark matter may be 00:56:33.240 --> 00:56:35.350 align:start position:0% Some theorize that dark matter may be made<00:56:33.640> of<00:56:33.760> yet<00:56:34.160> unidentified<00:56:35.000> types<00:56:35.280> of 00:56:35.350 --> 00:56:35.360 align:start position:0% made of yet unidentified types of 00:56:35.360 --> 00:56:36.670 align:start position:0% made of yet unidentified types of particles. 00:56:36.670 --> 00:56:36.680 align:start position:0% particles. 00:56:36.680 --> 00:56:39.070 align:start position:0% particles. Whatever<00:56:37.040> it<00:56:37.160> is,<00:56:37.760> scientists<00:56:38.320> had<00:56:38.800> high 00:56:39.070 --> 00:56:39.080 align:start position:0% Whatever it is, scientists had high 00:56:39.080 --> 00:56:40.910 align:start position:0% Whatever it is, scientists had high hopes<00:56:39.800> that<00:56:39.960> the<00:56:40.120> overabundance<00:56:40.800> of 00:56:40.910 --> 00:56:40.920 align:start position:0% hopes that the overabundance of 00:56:40.920 --> 00:56:43.550 align:start position:0% hopes that the overabundance of antimatter<00:56:41.440> being<00:56:41.720> detected<00:56:42.240> aboard<00:56:42.560> the<00:56:42.760> ISS 00:56:43.550 --> 00:56:43.560 align:start position:0% antimatter being detected aboard the ISS 00:56:43.560 --> 00:56:46.110 align:start position:0% antimatter being detected aboard the ISS may<00:56:43.760> hold<00:56:44.160> clues<00:56:44.680> about<00:56:45.000> dark<00:56:45.360> matter's<00:56:45.760> true 00:56:46.110 --> 00:56:46.120 align:start position:0% may hold clues about dark matter's true 00:56:46.120 --> 00:56:47.670 align:start position:0% may hold clues about dark matter's true nature. 00:56:47.670 --> 00:56:47.680 align:start position:0% nature. 00:56:47.680 --> 00:56:49.870 align:start position:0% nature. Unfortunately,<00:56:48.840> they've<00:56:49.240> been<00:56:49.480> left 00:56:49.870 --> 00:56:49.880 align:start position:0% Unfortunately, they've been left 00:56:49.880 --> 00:56:52.390 align:start position:0% Unfortunately, they've been left disappointed.<00:56:51.240> The<00:56:51.320> more<00:56:51.520> scientists<00:56:52.040> dig 00:56:52.390 --> 00:56:52.400 align:start position:0% disappointed. The more scientists dig 00:56:52.400 --> 00:56:54.350 align:start position:0% disappointed. The more scientists dig into<00:56:52.600> the<00:56:52.720> data,<00:56:53.440> the<00:56:53.560> clearer<00:56:54.080> it's 00:56:54.350 --> 00:56:54.360 align:start position:0% into the data, the clearer it's 00:56:54.360 --> 00:56:56.830 align:start position:0% into the data, the clearer it's becoming.<00:56:55.520> The<00:56:55.560> most<00:56:55.880> likely<00:56:56.320> source<00:56:56.680> of 00:56:56.830 --> 00:56:56.840 align:start position:0% becoming. The most likely source of 00:56:56.840 --> 00:57:00.790 align:start position:0% becoming. The most likely source of these<00:56:57.080> positrons<00:56:58.000> may<00:56:58.360> actually<00:56:58.880> be<00:56:59.320> pulsars. 00:57:00.790 --> 00:57:00.800 align:start position:0% these positrons may actually be pulsars. 00:57:00.800 --> 00:57:03.470 align:start position:0% these positrons may actually be pulsars. Astrophysicists<00:57:01.680> had<00:57:01.960> long<00:57:02.200> suspected<00:57:02.720> this, 00:57:03.470 --> 00:57:03.480 align:start position:0% Astrophysicists had long suspected this, 00:57:03.480 --> 00:57:05.550 align:start position:0% Astrophysicists had long suspected this, but<00:57:03.600> until<00:57:04.000> 2017, 00:57:05.550 --> 00:57:05.560 align:start position:0% but until 2017, 00:57:05.560 --> 00:57:07.910 align:start position:0% but until 2017, there<00:57:05.680> simply<00:57:06.240> wasn't<00:57:06.560> proof. 00:57:07.910 --> 00:57:07.920 align:start position:0% there simply wasn't proof. 00:57:07.920 --> 00:57:10.790 align:start position:0% there simply wasn't proof. It<00:57:08.040> was<00:57:08.280> the<00:57:08.440> High-Altitude<00:57:09.440> Water<00:57:10.080> Cherenkov 00:57:10.790 --> 00:57:10.800 align:start position:0% It was the High-Altitude Water Cherenkov 00:57:10.800 --> 00:57:13.590 align:start position:0% It was the High-Altitude Water Cherenkov Gamma<00:57:11.080> Ray<00:57:11.200> Observatory<00:57:12.200> that<00:57:12.560> finally<00:57:13.160> added 00:57:13.590 --> 00:57:13.600 align:start position:0% Gamma Ray Observatory that finally added 00:57:13.600 --> 00:57:15.630 align:start position:0% Gamma Ray Observatory that finally added evidence<00:57:14.080> to<00:57:14.160> this<00:57:14.360> hypothesis. 00:57:15.630 --> 00:57:15.640 align:start position:0% evidence to this hypothesis. 00:57:15.640 --> 00:57:17.790 align:start position:0% evidence to this hypothesis. A<00:57:15.760> small<00:57:16.240> halo<00:57:16.720> of<00:57:16.840> gamma<00:57:17.080> radiation<00:57:17.640> was 00:57:17.790 --> 00:57:17.800 align:start position:0% A small halo of gamma radiation was 00:57:17.800 --> 00:57:19.750 align:start position:0% A small halo of gamma radiation was identified<00:57:18.400> surrounding<00:57:18.840> Geminga<00:57:19.560> with 00:57:19.750 --> 00:57:19.760 align:start position:0% identified surrounding Geminga with 00:57:19.760 --> 00:57:21.410 align:start position:0% identified surrounding Geminga with trillions<00:57:20.280> of<00:57:20.400> times<00:57:20.760> more<00:57:20.960> energy<00:57:21.400> than 00:57:21.410 --> 00:57:21.420 align:start position:0% trillions of times more energy than 00:57:21.420 --> 00:57:24.430 align:start position:0% trillions of times more energy than [music]<00:57:21.640> is<00:57:21.840> visible<00:57:22.280> to<00:57:22.440> our<00:57:22.720> eyes,<00:57:23.440> from<00:57:23.680> 5 00:57:24.430 --> 00:57:24.440 align:start position:0% [music] is visible to our eyes, from 5 00:57:24.440 --> 00:57:27.310 align:start position:0% [music] is visible to our eyes, from 5 to<00:57:24.600> 40<00:57:25.200> trillion<00:57:25.760> electron<00:57:26.240> volts. 00:57:27.310 --> 00:57:27.320 align:start position:0% to 40 trillion electron volts. 00:57:27.320 --> 00:57:29.310 align:start position:0% to 40 trillion electron volts. The<00:57:27.400> sort<00:57:27.680> of<00:57:27.760> radiation<00:57:28.400> usually<00:57:28.760> produced 00:57:29.310 --> 00:57:29.320 align:start position:0% The sort of radiation usually produced 00:57:29.320 --> 00:57:31.190 align:start position:0% The sort of radiation usually produced by<00:57:29.640> positrons.<00:57:29.924> [music] 00:57:31.190 --> 00:57:31.200 align:start position:0% by positrons. [music] 00:57:31.200 --> 00:57:33.190 align:start position:0% by positrons. [music] This<00:57:31.400> was<00:57:31.560> the<00:57:31.680> first<00:57:32.200> real<00:57:32.600> observational 00:57:33.190 --> 00:57:33.200 align:start position:0% This was the first real observational 00:57:33.200 --> 00:57:35.390 align:start position:0% This was the first real observational evidence<00:57:33.840> pointing<00:57:34.240> to<00:57:34.360> a<00:57:34.440> pulsar<00:57:35.200> as<00:57:35.360> a 00:57:35.390 --> 00:57:35.400 align:start position:0% evidence pointing to a pulsar as a 00:57:35.400 --> 00:57:38.470 align:start position:0% evidence pointing to a pulsar as a potential<00:57:35.920> source. 00:57:38.470 --> 00:57:38.480 align:start position:0% 00:57:38.480 --> 00:57:40.510 align:start position:0% Pulsars<00:57:39.240> naturally<00:57:39.800> surround<00:57:40.120> themselves 00:57:40.510 --> 00:57:40.520 align:start position:0% Pulsars naturally surround themselves 00:57:40.520 --> 00:57:42.510 align:start position:0% Pulsars naturally surround themselves with<00:57:40.640> a<00:57:40.720> haze<00:57:41.080> of<00:57:41.200> both<00:57:41.520> electrons<00:57:42.200> and<00:57:42.320> their 00:57:42.510 --> 00:57:42.520 align:start position:0% with a haze of both electrons and their 00:57:42.520 --> 00:57:45.030 align:start position:0% with a haze of both electrons and their positron<00:57:43.120> counterparts<00:57:44.240> as<00:57:44.360> a<00:57:44.400> result<00:57:44.840> of<00:57:44.960> the 00:57:45.030 --> 00:57:45.040 align:start position:0% positron counterparts as a result of the 00:57:45.040 --> 00:57:47.550 align:start position:0% positron counterparts as a result of the star's<00:57:45.440> intense<00:57:45.960> magnetic<00:57:46.400> field. 00:57:47.550 --> 00:57:47.560 align:start position:0% star's intense magnetic field. 00:57:47.560 --> 00:57:49.430 align:start position:0% star's intense magnetic field. This<00:57:47.840> intense<00:57:48.280> magnetic<00:57:48.680> field<00:57:49.040> pulls 00:57:49.430 --> 00:57:49.440 align:start position:0% This intense magnetic field pulls 00:57:49.440 --> 00:57:51.590 align:start position:0% This intense magnetic field pulls particles<00:57:50.000> from<00:57:50.120> the<00:57:50.240> pulsar's<00:57:50.720> surface<00:57:51.480> and 00:57:51.590 --> 00:57:51.600 align:start position:0% particles from the pulsar's surface and 00:57:51.600 --> 00:57:53.830 align:start position:0% particles from the pulsar's surface and accelerates<00:57:52.320> them<00:57:52.520> to<00:57:52.680> near<00:57:53.040> the<00:57:53.200> speed<00:57:53.680> of 00:57:53.830 --> 00:57:53.840 align:start position:0% accelerates them to near the speed of 00:57:53.840 --> 00:57:54.950 align:start position:0% accelerates them to near the speed of light. 00:57:54.950 --> 00:57:54.960 align:start position:0% light. 00:57:54.960 --> 00:57:56.550 align:start position:0% light. Scientists<00:57:55.400> think<00:57:55.600> that<00:57:55.720> these<00:57:55.880> accelerated 00:57:56.550 --> 00:57:56.560 align:start position:0% Scientists think that these accelerated 00:57:56.560 --> 00:57:58.510 align:start position:0% Scientists think that these accelerated positrons<00:57:57.160> and<00:57:57.320> electrons<00:57:58.080> are<00:57:58.200> then 00:57:58.510 --> 00:57:58.520 align:start position:0% positrons and electrons are then 00:57:58.520 --> 00:58:01.150 align:start position:0% positrons and electrons are then colliding<00:57:59.280> with<00:57:59.440> starlight,<00:58:00.600> boosting<00:58:01.040> the 00:58:01.150 --> 00:58:01.160 align:start position:0% colliding with starlight, boosting the 00:58:01.160 --> 00:58:03.470 align:start position:0% colliding with starlight, boosting the light<00:58:01.480> to<00:58:01.640> higher<00:58:02.000> energies,<00:58:02.840> which<00:58:03.040> then 00:58:03.470 --> 00:58:03.480 align:start position:0% light to higher energies, which then 00:58:03.480 --> 00:58:07.030 align:start position:0% light to higher energies, which then radiates<00:58:04.400> as<00:58:04.600> the<00:58:04.720> gamma-ray<00:58:05.160> halo<00:58:05.600> observed. 00:58:07.030 --> 00:58:07.040 align:start position:0% radiates as the gamma-ray halo observed. 00:58:07.040 --> 00:58:08.910 align:start position:0% radiates as the gamma-ray halo observed. But,<00:58:07.400> based<00:58:07.720> on<00:58:07.800> the<00:58:07.880> size<00:58:08.240> of<00:58:08.320> the<00:58:08.440> halo<00:58:08.800> that 00:58:08.910 --> 00:58:08.920 align:start position:0% But, based on the size of the halo that 00:58:08.920 --> 00:58:10.750 align:start position:0% But, based on the size of the halo that the<00:58:09.000> Hawk<00:58:09.360> team<00:58:09.680> saw, 00:58:10.750 --> 00:58:10.760 align:start position:0% the Hawk team saw, 00:58:10.760 --> 00:58:13.110 align:start position:0% the Hawk team saw, Geminga's<00:58:11.320> positrons<00:58:12.120> would<00:58:12.480> rarely<00:58:12.880> have 00:58:13.110 --> 00:58:13.120 align:start position:0% Geminga's positrons would rarely have 00:58:13.120 --> 00:58:15.630 align:start position:0% Geminga's positrons would rarely have the<00:58:13.240> energy<00:58:13.560> required<00:58:14.080> to<00:58:14.240> reach<00:58:14.520> our<00:58:14.720> planet. 00:58:15.630 --> 00:58:15.640 align:start position:0% the energy required to reach our planet. 00:58:15.640 --> 00:58:16.990 align:start position:0% the energy required to reach our planet. And<00:58:15.800> so,<00:58:15.920> they<00:58:16.160> believed<00:58:16.520> the<00:58:16.640> excess 00:58:16.990 --> 00:58:17.000 align:start position:0% And so, they believed the excess 00:58:17.000 --> 00:58:19.190 align:start position:0% And so, they believed the excess positrons<00:58:17.640> must<00:58:17.880> have<00:58:18.200> a<00:58:18.240> more<00:58:18.600> exotic 00:58:19.190 --> 00:58:19.200 align:start position:0% positrons must have a more exotic 00:58:19.200 --> 00:58:20.510 align:start position:0% positrons must have a more exotic source. 00:58:20.510 --> 00:58:20.520 align:start position:0% source. 00:58:20.520 --> 00:58:23.070 align:start position:0% source. That<00:58:20.680> was<00:58:21.120> until<00:58:21.720> stunning<00:58:22.280> new<00:58:22.480> information 00:58:23.070 --> 00:58:23.080 align:start position:0% That was until stunning new information 00:58:23.080 --> 00:58:25.150 align:start position:0% That was until stunning new information was<00:58:23.200> uncovered<00:58:23.680> a<00:58:23.720> few<00:58:24.000> years<00:58:24.240> later<00:58:24.920> thanks 00:58:25.150 --> 00:58:25.160 align:start position:0% was uncovered a few years later thanks 00:58:25.160 --> 00:58:27.950 align:start position:0% was uncovered a few years later thanks to<00:58:25.280> a<00:58:25.320> team<00:58:25.800> led<00:58:26.040> by<00:58:26.280> astrophysicist<00:58:27.280> Matea<00:58:27.840> Di 00:58:27.950 --> 00:58:27.960 align:start position:0% to a team led by astrophysicist Matea Di 00:58:27.960 --> 00:58:29.470 align:start position:0% to a team led by astrophysicist Matea Di Mauro. 00:58:29.470 --> 00:58:29.480 align:start position:0% Mauro. 00:58:29.480 --> 00:58:32.070 align:start position:0% Mauro. Using<00:58:30.080> a<00:58:30.240> decade<00:58:30.880> of<00:58:31.000> gamma-ray<00:58:31.520> data<00:58:31.840> from 00:58:32.070 --> 00:58:32.080 align:start position:0% Using a decade of gamma-ray data from 00:58:32.080 --> 00:58:34.990 align:start position:0% Using a decade of gamma-ray data from Geminga<00:58:32.840> acquired<00:58:33.320> from<00:58:33.560> Fermi's<00:58:34.160> Large<00:58:34.680> Area 00:58:34.990 --> 00:58:35.000 align:start position:0% Geminga acquired from Fermi's Large Area 00:58:35.000 --> 00:58:37.380 align:start position:0% Geminga acquired from Fermi's Large Area Telescope,<00:58:36.040> which<00:58:36.240> is<00:58:36.440> able<00:58:36.840> to<00:58:36.960> observe 00:58:37.380 --> 00:58:37.390 align:start position:0% Telescope, which is able to observe 00:58:37.390 --> 00:58:39.310 align:start position:0% Telescope, which is able to observe [music]<00:58:37.600> lower<00:58:37.960> energy<00:58:38.320> light<00:58:38.720> than<00:58:38.840> the<00:58:38.920> Hawk 00:58:39.310 --> 00:58:39.320 align:start position:0% [music] lower energy light than the Hawk 00:58:39.320 --> 00:58:42.030 align:start position:0% [music] lower energy light than the Hawk Gamma-Ray<00:58:39.720> Observatory,<00:58:41.000> Di<00:58:41.080> Mauro's<00:58:41.520> team 00:58:42.030 --> 00:58:42.040 align:start position:0% Gamma-Ray Observatory, Di Mauro's team 00:58:42.040 --> 00:58:44.190 align:start position:0% Gamma-Ray Observatory, Di Mauro's team was<00:58:42.240> able<00:58:42.520> to<00:58:42.640> subtract<00:58:43.280> out<00:58:43.640> all<00:58:44.000> other 00:58:44.190 --> 00:58:44.200 align:start position:0% was able to subtract out all other 00:58:44.200 --> 00:58:46.310 align:start position:0% was able to subtract out all other gamma-ray<00:58:44.600> sources<00:58:45.480> to<00:58:45.640> reveal<00:58:46.160> a 00:58:46.310 --> 00:58:46.320 align:start position:0% gamma-ray sources to reveal a 00:58:46.320 --> 00:58:49.590 align:start position:0% gamma-ray sources to reveal a spectacular<00:58:47.520> glow<00:58:48.000> coming<00:58:48.320> from<00:58:48.520> Geminga, 00:58:49.590 --> 00:58:49.600 align:start position:0% spectacular glow coming from Geminga, 00:58:49.600 --> 00:58:51.590 align:start position:0% spectacular glow coming from Geminga, much,<00:58:50.360> much<00:58:50.880> bigger<00:58:51.280> than<00:58:51.400> what<00:58:51.520> the 00:58:51.590 --> 00:58:51.600 align:start position:0% much, much bigger than what the 00:58:51.600 --> 00:58:54.910 align:start position:0% much, much bigger than what the scientists<00:58:52.200> had<00:58:52.600> ever<00:58:52.880> seen<00:58:53.160> before. 00:58:54.910 --> 00:58:54.920 align:start position:0% scientists had ever seen before. 00:58:54.920 --> 00:58:57.230 align:start position:0% scientists had ever seen before. The<00:58:55.000> vast,<00:58:55.720> oblong<00:58:56.200> halo<00:58:56.640> of<00:58:56.840> glowing 00:58:57.230 --> 00:58:57.240 align:start position:0% The vast, oblong halo of glowing 00:58:57.240 --> 00:59:00.310 align:start position:0% The vast, oblong halo of glowing gamma-rays<00:58:58.240> at<00:58:58.400> an<00:58:58.560> energy<00:58:59.040> of<00:58:59.360> 10<00:58:59.880> billion 00:59:00.310 --> 00:59:00.320 align:start position:0% gamma-rays at an energy of 10 billion 00:59:00.320 --> 00:59:04.030 align:start position:0% gamma-rays at an energy of 10 billion electron<00:59:00.840> volts<00:59:01.640> spanned<00:59:02.400> 20<00:59:03.000> degrees<00:59:03.800> of<00:59:03.920> the 00:59:04.030 --> 00:59:04.040 align:start position:0% electron volts spanned 20 degrees of the 00:59:04.040 --> 00:59:07.350 align:start position:0% electron volts spanned 20 degrees of the sky,<00:59:05.080> similar<00:59:05.480> to<00:59:05.560> the<00:59:05.720> area<00:59:06.360> the<00:59:06.520> Big<00:59:07.000> Dipper 00:59:07.350 --> 00:59:07.360 align:start position:0% sky, similar to the area the Big Dipper 00:59:07.360 --> 00:59:09.670 align:start position:0% sky, similar to the area the Big Dipper constellation<00:59:08.240> occupies. 00:59:09.670 --> 00:59:09.680 align:start position:0% constellation occupies. 00:59:09.680 --> 00:59:11.910 align:start position:0% constellation occupies. And<00:59:09.920> that's<00:59:10.160> not<00:59:10.400> all.<00:59:11.160> The<00:59:11.280> glow<00:59:11.560> of<00:59:11.680> gamma 00:59:11.910 --> 00:59:11.920 align:start position:0% And that's not all. The glow of gamma 00:59:11.920 --> 00:59:14.750 align:start position:0% And that's not all. The glow of gamma radiation<00:59:12.760> is<00:59:13.040> even<00:59:13.680> bigger<00:59:14.320> at<00:59:14.480> lower 00:59:14.750 --> 00:59:14.760 align:start position:0% radiation is even bigger at lower 00:59:14.760 --> 00:59:16.030 align:start position:0% radiation is even bigger at lower energies. 00:59:16.030 --> 00:59:16.040 align:start position:0% energies. 00:59:16.040 --> 00:59:17.950 align:start position:0% energies. If<00:59:16.160> we<00:59:16.280> could<00:59:16.520> see<00:59:16.760> it<00:59:17.000> all<00:59:17.240> with<00:59:17.400> the<00:59:17.480> naked 00:59:17.950 --> 00:59:17.960 align:start position:0% If we could see it all with the naked 00:59:17.960 --> 00:59:20.630 align:start position:0% If we could see it all with the naked eye,<00:59:18.640> Geminga's<00:59:19.160> gamma-ray<00:59:19.720> glow<00:59:20.120> would 00:59:20.630 --> 00:59:20.640 align:start position:0% eye, Geminga's gamma-ray glow would 00:59:20.640 --> 00:59:24.430 align:start position:0% eye, Geminga's gamma-ray glow would dominate<00:59:21.360> our<00:59:21.600> sky,<00:59:22.600> covering<00:59:23.080> an<00:59:23.280> area<00:59:23.880> 40 00:59:24.430 --> 00:59:24.440 align:start position:0% dominate our sky, covering an area 40 00:59:24.440 --> 00:59:27.430 align:start position:0% dominate our sky, covering an area 40 times<00:59:25.120> bigger<00:59:25.600> than<00:59:25.760> the<00:59:25.880> full<00:59:26.240> moon. 00:59:27.430 --> 00:59:27.440 align:start position:0% times bigger than the full moon. 00:59:27.440 --> 00:59:29.110 align:start position:0% times bigger than the full moon. With<00:59:27.640> this<00:59:27.960> new<00:59:28.160> information, 00:59:29.110 --> 00:59:29.120 align:start position:0% With this new information, 00:59:29.120 --> 00:59:30.830 align:start position:0% With this new information, astrophysicists<00:59:29.920> found<00:59:30.240> that<00:59:30.360> the<00:59:30.440> size<00:59:30.720> of 00:59:30.830 --> 00:59:30.840 align:start position:0% astrophysicists found that the size of 00:59:30.840 --> 00:59:33.350 align:start position:0% astrophysicists found that the size of Geminga's<00:59:31.320> halo<00:59:32.000> meant<00:59:32.320> that<00:59:32.600> this<00:59:33.000> one 00:59:33.350 --> 00:59:33.360 align:start position:0% Geminga's halo meant that this one 00:59:33.360 --> 00:59:35.990 align:start position:0% Geminga's halo meant that this one pulsar<00:59:33.840> alone<00:59:34.560> could<00:59:34.760> be<00:59:34.880> responsible<00:59:35.680> for<00:59:35.840> as 00:59:35.990 --> 00:59:36.000 align:start position:0% pulsar alone could be responsible for as 00:59:36.000 --> 00:59:39.230 align:start position:0% pulsar alone could be responsible for as much<00:59:36.320> as<00:59:36.560> 20%<00:59:37.840> of<00:59:37.960> the<00:59:38.160> excess<00:59:38.640> positrons 00:59:39.230 --> 00:59:39.240 align:start position:0% much as 20% of the excess positrons 00:59:39.240 --> 00:59:41.150 align:start position:0% much as 20% of the excess positrons detected<00:59:39.880> near<00:59:40.200> Earth. 00:59:41.150 --> 00:59:41.160 align:start position:0% detected near Earth. 00:59:41.160 --> 00:59:43.430 align:start position:0% detected near Earth. From<00:59:41.320> there,<00:59:41.960> it's<00:59:42.200> no<00:59:42.360> stretch<00:59:42.880> to<00:59:43.000> imagine 00:59:43.430 --> 00:59:43.440 align:start position:0% From there, it's no stretch to imagine 00:59:43.440 --> 00:59:45.750 align:start position:0% From there, it's no stretch to imagine that<00:59:43.760> other<00:59:44.000> pulsars<00:59:44.960> are<00:59:45.080> the<00:59:45.160> most<00:59:45.440> likely 00:59:45.750 --> 00:59:45.760 align:start position:0% that other pulsars are the most likely 00:59:45.760 --> 00:59:47.830 align:start position:0% that other pulsars are the most likely culprit<00:59:46.280> for<00:59:46.360> the<00:59:46.480> remaining<00:59:47.160> antimatter 00:59:47.830 --> 00:59:47.840 align:start position:0% culprit for the remaining antimatter 00:59:47.840 --> 00:59:49.750 align:start position:0% culprit for the remaining antimatter abundance<00:59:48.400> we<00:59:48.560> found. 00:59:49.750 --> 00:59:49.760 align:start position:0% abundance we found. 00:59:49.760 --> 00:59:51.670 align:start position:0% abundance we found. This<00:59:49.920> explanation<00:59:50.640> may<00:59:50.800> not<00:59:51.080> have<00:59:51.200> solved<00:59:51.600> the 00:59:51.670 --> 00:59:51.680 align:start position:0% This explanation may not have solved the 00:59:51.680 --> 00:59:53.790 align:start position:0% This explanation may not have solved the mystery<00:59:52.000> of<00:59:52.080> dark<00:59:52.360> matter,<00:59:53.160> but<00:59:53.360> it<00:59:53.520> is 00:59:53.790 --> 00:59:53.800 align:start position:0% mystery of dark matter, but it is 00:59:53.800 --> 00:59:57.470 align:start position:0% mystery of dark matter, but it is certainly<00:59:54.520> a<00:59:54.680> magnificent<00:59:55.720> revelation. 00:59:57.470 --> 00:59:57.480 align:start position:0% certainly a magnificent revelation. 00:59:57.480 --> 00:59:59.830 align:start position:0% certainly a magnificent revelation. It<00:59:57.600> was<00:59:58.080> Jocelyn<00:59:58.640> Bell<00:59:59.000> Burnell<00:59:59.680> who 00:59:59.830 --> 00:59:59.840 align:start position:0% It was Jocelyn Bell Burnell who 00:59:59.840 --> 01:00:03.070 align:start position:0% It was Jocelyn Bell Burnell who discovered<01:00:00.320> the<01:00:00.440> first<01:00:00.760> pulsar<01:00:01.320> in<01:00:01.440> 1967. 01:00:03.070 --> 01:00:03.080 align:start position:0% discovered the first pulsar in 1967. 01:00:03.080 --> 01:00:04.750 align:start position:0% discovered the first pulsar in 1967. Back<01:00:03.320> when<01:00:03.480> people<01:00:03.760> thought<01:00:04.080> that<01:00:04.320> those 01:00:04.750 --> 01:00:04.760 align:start position:0% Back when people thought that those 01:00:04.760 --> 01:00:06.910 align:start position:0% Back when people thought that those regular<01:00:05.240> signals<01:00:05.840> could<01:00:06.080> be<01:00:06.200> the<01:00:06.320> work<01:00:06.640> of 01:00:06.910 --> 01:00:06.920 align:start position:0% regular signals could be the work of 01:00:06.920 --> 01:00:08.950 align:start position:0% regular signals could be the work of extraterrestrial<01:00:07.800> life. 01:00:08.950 --> 01:00:08.960 align:start position:0% extraterrestrial life. 01:00:08.960 --> 01:00:11.110 align:start position:0% extraterrestrial life. In<01:00:09.080> the<01:00:09.200> nearly<01:00:09.640> 60<01:00:10.200> years<01:00:10.520> that<01:00:10.640> have<01:00:10.760> passed 01:00:11.110 --> 01:00:11.120 align:start position:0% In the nearly 60 years that have passed 01:00:11.120 --> 01:00:13.390 align:start position:0% In the nearly 60 years that have passed since,<01:00:11.840> we<01:00:11.960> have<01:00:12.080> found<01:00:12.640> thousands<01:00:13.280> of 01:00:13.390 --> 01:00:13.400 align:start position:0% since, we have found thousands of 01:00:13.400 --> 01:00:15.870 align:start position:0% since, we have found thousands of pulsars,<01:00:14.480> and<01:00:14.640> our<01:00:14.880> understanding<01:00:15.560> of<01:00:15.680> these 01:00:15.870 --> 01:00:15.880 align:start position:0% pulsars, and our understanding of these 01:00:15.880 --> 01:00:19.470 align:start position:0% pulsars, and our understanding of these neutron<01:00:16.280> stars<01:00:16.720> has<01:00:16.960> grown<01:00:17.640> with<01:00:17.920> every<01:00:18.280> one. 01:00:19.470 --> 01:00:19.480 align:start position:0% neutron stars has grown with every one. 01:00:19.480 --> 01:00:22.070 align:start position:0% neutron stars has grown with every one. And<01:00:19.800> since<01:00:20.160> Geminga<01:00:20.600> was<01:00:20.760> identified<01:00:21.560> as<01:00:21.800> only 01:00:22.070 --> 01:00:22.080 align:start position:0% And since Geminga was identified as only 01:00:22.080 --> 01:00:24.270 align:start position:0% And since Geminga was identified as only the<01:00:22.280> third<01:00:22.800> known<01:00:23.120> gamma-ray<01:00:23.560> pulsar<01:00:24.120> in 01:00:24.270 --> 01:00:24.280 align:start position:0% the third known gamma-ray pulsar in 01:00:24.280 --> 01:00:28.270 align:start position:0% the third known gamma-ray pulsar in 1991,<01:00:25.560> we've<01:00:25.720> now<01:00:25.920> spotted<01:00:26.480> over<01:00:26.840> 300<01:00:28.000> thanks 01:00:28.270 --> 01:00:28.280 align:start position:0% 1991, we've now spotted over 300 thanks 01:00:28.280 --> 01:00:30.670 align:start position:0% 1991, we've now spotted over 300 thanks to<01:00:28.400> NASA's<01:00:29.080> Fermi<01:00:29.400> mission. 01:00:30.670 --> 01:00:30.680 align:start position:0% to NASA's Fermi mission. 01:00:30.680 --> 01:00:32.870 align:start position:0% to NASA's Fermi mission. But<01:00:31.120> given<01:00:31.440> Geminga's<01:00:31.920> track<01:00:32.200> record<01:00:32.760> of 01:00:32.870 --> 01:00:32.880 align:start position:0% But given Geminga's track record of 01:00:32.880 --> 01:00:35.070 align:start position:0% But given Geminga's track record of defying<01:00:33.360> expectations<01:00:34.440> and<01:00:34.640> furthering 01:00:35.070 --> 01:00:35.080 align:start position:0% defying expectations and furthering 01:00:35.080 --> 01:00:36.190 align:start position:0% defying expectations and furthering science, 01:00:36.190 --> 01:00:36.200 align:start position:0% science, 01:00:36.200 --> 01:00:37.950 align:start position:0% science, I<01:00:36.280> like<01:00:36.520> to<01:00:36.600> think<01:00:36.880> that<01:00:37.120> this<01:00:37.400> particular 01:00:37.950 --> 01:00:37.960 align:start position:0% I like to think that this particular 01:00:37.960 --> 01:00:44.550 align:start position:0% I like to think that this particular pulsar<01:00:38.920> has<01:00:39.120> more<01:00:39.400> secrets<01:00:39.840> still<01:00:40.120> to<01:00:40.280> reveal. 01:00:44.550 --> 01:00:44.560 align:start position:0% 01:00:44.560 --> 01:00:46.270 align:start position:0% You<01:00:44.680> may<01:00:44.800> have<01:00:44.960> noticed<01:00:45.360> this<01:00:45.560> video<01:00:45.920> didn't 01:00:46.270 --> 01:00:46.280 align:start position:0% You may have noticed this video didn't 01:00:46.280 --> 01:00:48.750 align:start position:0% You may have noticed this video didn't have<01:00:46.560> any<01:00:46.760> sponsors,<01:00:47.840> and<01:00:48.000> that's<01:00:48.200> because<01:00:48.640> it 01:00:48.750 --> 01:00:48.760 align:start position:0% have any sponsors, and that's because it 01:00:48.760 --> 01:00:50.990 align:start position:0% have any sponsors, and that's because it was<01:00:48.920> brought<01:00:49.280> to<01:00:49.400> you<01:00:49.720> by<01:00:49.960> our<01:00:50.280> astronauts<01:00:50.880> on 01:00:50.990 --> 01:00:51.000 align:start position:0% was brought to you by our astronauts on 01:00:51.000 --> 01:00:52.190 align:start position:0% was brought to you by our astronauts on Patreon. 01:00:52.190 --> 01:00:52.200 align:start position:0% Patreon. 01:00:52.200 --> 01:00:53.950 align:start position:0% Patreon. Consider<01:00:52.520> joining<01:00:52.960> our<01:00:53.080> Patreon<01:00:53.560> to<01:00:53.680> keep 01:00:53.950 --> 01:00:53.960 align:start position:0% Consider joining our Patreon to keep 01:00:53.960 --> 01:00:55.950 align:start position:0% Consider joining our Patreon to keep these<01:00:54.200> videos<01:00:54.520> thriving<01:00:55.040> even<01:00:55.680> when<01:00:55.840> they're 01:00:55.950 --> 01:00:55.960 align:start position:0% these videos thriving even when they're 01:00:55.960 --> 01:00:57.310 align:start position:0% these videos thriving even when they're sponsor-free. 01:00:57.310 --> 01:00:57.320 align:start position:0% sponsor-free. 01:00:57.320 --> 01:00:59.150 align:start position:0% sponsor-free. It's<01:00:57.480> the<01:00:57.560> reason<01:00:57.880> we<01:00:58.000> can<01:00:58.200> research<01:00:58.760> deep 01:00:59.150 --> 01:00:59.160 align:start position:0% It's the reason we can research deep 01:00:59.160 --> 01:01:01.230 align:start position:0% It's the reason we can research deep into<01:00:59.360> the<01:00:59.480> topics<01:00:59.840> we<01:00:59.960> love<01:01:00.600> without<01:01:00.920> cutting 01:01:01.230 --> 01:01:01.240 align:start position:0% into the topics we love without cutting 01:01:01.240 --> 01:01:03.510 align:start position:0% into the topics we love without cutting corners<01:01:01.760> or<01:01:01.960> chasing<01:01:02.400> clicks. 01:01:03.510 --> 01:01:03.520 align:start position:0% corners or chasing clicks. 01:01:03.520 --> 01:01:05.870 align:start position:0% corners or chasing clicks. Every<01:01:03.800> new<01:01:04.040> astronaut<01:01:04.760> allows<01:01:05.120> us<01:01:05.280> to<01:01:05.400> explore 01:01:05.870 --> 01:01:05.880 align:start position:0% Every new astronaut allows us to explore 01:01:05.880 --> 01:01:08.990 align:start position:0% Every new astronaut allows us to explore bigger<01:01:06.280> ideas<01:01:07.200> and<01:01:07.480> make<01:01:07.760> every<01:01:08.040> upload<01:01:08.680> even 01:01:08.990 --> 01:01:09.000 align:start position:0% bigger ideas and make every upload even 01:01:09.000 --> 01:01:10.630 align:start position:0% bigger ideas and make every upload even better<01:01:09.280> than<01:01:09.480> the<01:01:09.560> last. 01:01:10.630 --> 01:01:10.640 align:start position:0% better than the last. 01:01:10.640 --> 01:01:12.390 align:start position:0% better than the last. So,<01:01:10.840> if<01:01:11.080> you've<01:01:11.360> ever<01:01:11.600> thought<01:01:11.880> about<01:01:12.120> being<01:01:12.360> a 01:01:12.390 --> 01:01:12.400 align:start position:0% So, if you've ever thought about being a 01:01:12.400 --> 01:01:14.230 align:start position:0% So, if you've ever thought about being a bigger<01:01:12.640> part<01:01:12.920> of<01:01:12.960> this<01:01:13.160> channel,<01:01:13.840> join<01:01:14.160> the 01:01:14.230 --> 01:01:14.240 align:start position:0% bigger part of this channel, join the 01:01:14.240 --> 01:01:17.070 align:start position:0% bigger part of this channel, join the crew<01:01:14.720> to<01:01:14.880> power<01:01:15.240> Astrum<01:01:16.040> and<01:01:16.200> keep<01:01:16.560> space 01:01:17.070 --> 01:01:17.080 align:start position:0% crew to power Astrum and keep space 01:01:17.080 --> 01:01:20.360 align:start position:0% crew to power Astrum and keep space curiosity<01:01:17.800> alive.