WEBVTT

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We<00:00:01.439><c> often</c><00:00:01.839><c> think</c><00:00:02.080><c> of</c><00:00:02.399><c> black</c><00:00:02.720><c> holes</c><00:00:03.120><c> as</c>

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We often think of black holes as
 

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We often think of black holes as
destroyers.<00:00:04.880><c> They</c><00:00:05.200><c> suck</c><00:00:05.600><c> everything</c><00:00:06.000><c> within</c>

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destroyers. They suck everything within
 

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destroyers. They suck everything within
their<00:00:06.640><c> reach</c><00:00:06.879><c> into</c><00:00:07.200><c> them</c><00:00:07.520><c> and</c><00:00:07.839><c> give</c><00:00:08.160><c> nothing</c>

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their reach into them and give nothing
 

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their reach into them and give nothing
back.<00:00:09.519><c> They</c><00:00:09.760><c> are</c><00:00:09.920><c> the</c><00:00:10.160><c> end,</c><00:00:10.639><c> the</c><00:00:10.880><c> final</c>

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back. They are the end, the final
 

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back. They are the end, the final
destruction<00:00:11.759><c> of</c><00:00:11.920><c> the</c><00:00:12.160><c> universe.</c><00:00:13.280><c> And</c><00:00:13.440><c> yet,</c>

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destruction of the universe. And yet,
 

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destruction of the universe. And yet,
what<00:00:14.320><c> if</c><00:00:14.559><c> I</c><00:00:14.719><c> said</c><00:00:14.880><c> to</c><00:00:15.040><c> you</c><00:00:15.280><c> that</c><00:00:15.519><c> they</c><00:00:15.759><c> might</c>

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what if I said to you that they might
 

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what if I said to you that they might
actually<00:00:16.640><c> prove</c><00:00:17.039><c> to</c><00:00:17.279><c> be</c><00:00:17.440><c> our</c><00:00:17.760><c> salvation?</c>

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actually prove to be our salvation?
 

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actually prove to be our salvation?
Black<00:00:19.520><c> holes</c><00:00:19.920><c> might</c><00:00:20.160><c> provide</c><00:00:20.480><c> the</c><00:00:20.720><c> answer</c><00:00:20.960><c> to</c>

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Black holes might provide the answer to
 

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Black holes might provide the answer to
traveling<00:00:21.760><c> faster</c><00:00:22.240><c> than</c><00:00:22.400><c> the</c><00:00:22.560><c> speed</c><00:00:22.800><c> of</c><00:00:22.960><c> light</c>

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traveling faster than the speed of light
 

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traveling faster than the speed of light
and<00:00:23.760><c> solving</c><00:00:24.080><c> the</c><00:00:24.320><c> energy</c><00:00:24.720><c> crisis</c><00:00:25.199><c> in</c><00:00:25.439><c> ways</c><00:00:25.760><c> we</c>

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and solving the energy crisis in ways we
 

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and solving the energy crisis in ways we
couldn't<00:00:26.400><c> have</c><00:00:26.560><c> even</c><00:00:26.880><c> imagined</c><00:00:27.439><c> until</c>

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couldn't have even imagined until
 

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couldn't have even imagined until
recently.

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recently.
 

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recently.
And<00:00:30.560><c> as</c><00:00:30.880><c> by</c><00:00:31.199><c> now</c><00:00:31.519><c> I</c><00:00:31.679><c> have</c><00:00:31.840><c> come</c><00:00:32.079><c> to</c><00:00:32.320><c> expect,</c>

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And as by now I have come to expect,
 

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And as by now I have come to expect,
they<00:00:33.440><c> do</c><00:00:33.600><c> so</c><00:00:33.840><c> by</c><00:00:34.079><c> messing</c><00:00:34.480><c> with</c><00:00:34.719><c> the</c><00:00:34.880><c> fabric</c><00:00:35.200><c> of</c>

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they do so by messing with the fabric of
 

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they do so by messing with the fabric of
reality<00:00:35.840><c> itself</c><00:00:36.559><c> and</c><00:00:36.880><c> by</c><00:00:37.120><c> completely</c>

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reality itself and by completely
 

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reality itself and by completely
countering<00:00:38.239><c> my</c><00:00:38.559><c> expectations</c><00:00:39.120><c> of</c><00:00:39.360><c> physics.</c>

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countering my expectations of physics.
 

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countering my expectations of physics.
Perhaps<00:00:40.879><c> we</c><00:00:41.120><c> have</c><00:00:41.280><c> been</c><00:00:41.520><c> thinking</c><00:00:41.760><c> about</c>

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Perhaps we have been thinking about
 

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Perhaps we have been thinking about
black<00:00:42.399><c> holes</c><00:00:42.800><c> all</c><00:00:43.120><c> wrong.</c>

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black holes all wrong.
 

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black holes all wrong.
I'm<00:00:45.600><c> Alex</c><00:00:46.000><c> Mccoan</c><00:00:46.640><c> and</c><00:00:46.879><c> you're</c><00:00:47.200><c> watching</c>

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I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
 

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I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
Astramm.<00:00:48.399><c> Join</c><00:00:48.640><c> me</c><00:00:48.800><c> again</c><00:00:49.039><c> for</c><00:00:49.280><c> the</c><00:00:49.440><c> fifth</c>

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Astramm. Join me again for the fifth
 

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Astramm. Join me again for the fifth
video<00:00:50.000><c> in</c><00:00:50.320><c> my</c><00:00:50.480><c> series</c><00:00:50.800><c> about</c><00:00:51.120><c> black</c><00:00:51.360><c> holes,</c>

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video in my series about black holes,
 

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video in my series about black holes,
where<00:00:52.320><c> once</c><00:00:52.640><c> again</c><00:00:53.120><c> my</c><00:00:53.360><c> mind</c><00:00:53.680><c> has</c><00:00:54.000><c> been</c><00:00:54.160><c> blown</c>

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where once again my mind has been blown
 

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where once again my mind has been blown
by<00:00:54.879><c> the</c><00:00:55.120><c> incredible</c><00:00:55.680><c> potential</c><00:00:56.320><c> and</c>

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by the incredible potential and
 

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by the incredible potential and
implications<00:00:57.280><c> of</c><00:00:57.520><c> these</c><00:00:57.840><c> very</c><00:00:58.160><c> real</c><00:00:58.480><c> objects</c>

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implications of these very real objects
 

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implications of these very real objects
in<00:00:59.120><c> our</c><00:00:59.359><c> universe.</c>

01:02.790 --> 01:02.800 align:start position:0%
 
 

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I've<00:01:03.039><c> talked</c><00:01:03.359><c> before</c><00:01:03.680><c> about</c><00:01:03.920><c> the</c><00:01:04.159><c> formation</c>

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I've talked before about the formation
 

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I've talked before about the formation
of<00:01:04.640><c> black</c><00:01:04.879><c> holes</c><00:01:05.199><c> in</c><00:01:05.439><c> this</c><00:01:05.600><c> series,</c><00:01:06.320><c> including</c>

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of black holes in this series, including
 

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of black holes in this series, including
aspects<00:01:07.360><c> about</c><00:01:07.680><c> their</c><00:01:07.920><c> event</c><00:01:08.240><c> horizons,</c>

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aspects about their event horizons,
 

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aspects about their event horizons,
how<00:01:10.320><c> they</c><00:01:10.560><c> are</c><00:01:10.799><c> created,</c>

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how they are created,
 

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how they are created,
and<00:01:12.720><c> how</c><00:01:12.880><c> they</c><00:01:13.119><c> might</c><00:01:13.360><c> possibly</c><00:01:13.840><c> end.</c>

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and how they might possibly end.
 

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and how they might possibly end.
But<00:01:15.760><c> to</c><00:01:16.080><c> understand</c><00:01:16.479><c> how</c><00:01:16.720><c> a</c><00:01:16.880><c> black</c><00:01:17.040><c> hole</c>

01:17.510 --> 01:17.520 align:start position:0%
But to understand how a black hole
 

01:17.520 --> 01:19.830 align:start position:0%
But to understand how a black hole
ignores<00:01:17.920><c> the</c><00:01:18.080><c> usual</c><00:01:18.479><c> limitations</c><00:01:19.119><c> on</c><00:01:19.439><c> faster</c>

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ignores the usual limitations on faster
 

01:19.840 --> 01:21.910 align:start position:0%
ignores the usual limitations on faster
than<00:01:20.000><c> light</c><00:01:20.240><c> travel</c><00:01:20.799><c> and</c><00:01:21.119><c> does</c><00:01:21.280><c> so</c><00:01:21.439><c> in</c><00:01:21.680><c> a</c><00:01:21.840><c> way</c>

01:21.910 --> 01:21.920 align:start position:0%
than light travel and does so in a way
 

01:21.920 --> 01:23.910 align:start position:0%
than light travel and does so in a way
that<00:01:22.080><c> you</c><00:01:22.320><c> can</c><00:01:22.479><c> benefit</c><00:01:22.799><c> from</c><00:01:23.119><c> it</c><00:01:23.439><c> without</c>

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that you can benefit from it without
 

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that you can benefit from it without
having<00:01:24.159><c> to</c><00:01:24.320><c> go</c><00:01:24.479><c> inside</c><00:01:24.720><c> a</c><00:01:24.960><c> black</c><00:01:25.119><c> hole's</c><00:01:25.439><c> event</c>

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having to go inside a black hole's event
 

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having to go inside a black hole's event
horizon<00:01:26.880><c> and</c><00:01:27.439><c> how</c><00:01:27.680><c> it</c><00:01:27.920><c> produces</c><00:01:28.479><c> near</c>

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horizon and how it produces near
 

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horizon and how it produces near
limitless<00:01:29.600><c> energy</c><00:01:30.000><c> at</c><00:01:30.240><c> the</c><00:01:30.400><c> same</c><00:01:30.560><c> time</c><00:01:31.360><c> then</c>

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limitless energy at the same time then
 

01:31.600 --> 01:33.510 align:start position:0%
limitless energy at the same time then
we<00:01:31.840><c> are</c><00:01:32.000><c> going</c><00:01:32.159><c> to</c><00:01:32.320><c> have</c><00:01:32.479><c> to</c><00:01:32.640><c> understand</c><00:01:33.200><c> more</c>

01:33.510 --> 01:33.520 align:start position:0%
we are going to have to understand more
 

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we are going to have to understand more
about<00:01:33.759><c> the</c><00:01:34.000><c> features</c><00:01:34.240><c> of</c><00:01:34.479><c> black</c><00:01:34.720><c> holes</c><00:01:35.040><c> than</c>

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about the features of black holes than
 

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about the features of black holes than
we've<00:01:35.439><c> covered</c><00:01:35.680><c> so</c><00:01:35.920><c> far.</c><00:01:37.119><c> So,</c><00:01:37.439><c> a</c><00:01:37.680><c> quick</c><00:01:37.920><c> recap.</c>

01:38.710 --> 01:38.720 align:start position:0%
we've covered so far. So, a quick recap.
 

01:38.720 --> 01:41.109 align:start position:0%
we've covered so far. So, a quick recap.
What<00:01:38.880><c> is</c><00:01:39.040><c> a</c><00:01:39.200><c> black</c><00:01:39.360><c> hole?</c><00:01:40.320><c> In</c><00:01:40.560><c> its</c><00:01:40.799><c> simplest</c>

01:41.109 --> 01:41.119 align:start position:0%
What is a black hole? In its simplest
 

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What is a black hole? In its simplest
form,<00:01:41.439><c> a</c><00:01:41.680><c> black</c><00:01:41.840><c> hole</c><00:01:42.079><c> is</c><00:01:42.320><c> an</c><00:01:42.479><c> object</c><00:01:42.799><c> in</c><00:01:43.040><c> space</c>

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form, a black hole is an object in space
 

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form, a black hole is an object in space
that<00:01:43.600><c> is</c><00:01:43.759><c> so</c><00:01:44.079><c> massive</c><00:01:44.400><c> and</c><00:01:44.720><c> so</c><00:01:44.960><c> dense</c><00:01:45.520><c> that</c><00:01:45.840><c> the</c>

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that is so massive and so dense that the
 

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that is so massive and so dense that the
gravity<00:01:46.399><c> it</c><00:01:46.640><c> creates</c><00:01:47.040><c> is</c><00:01:47.360><c> too</c><00:01:47.680><c> powerful</c><00:01:48.079><c> for</c>

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gravity it creates is too powerful for
 

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gravity it creates is too powerful for
anything<00:01:48.640><c> to</c><00:01:48.880><c> escape</c><00:01:49.200><c> it.</c><00:01:50.159><c> We</c><00:01:50.399><c> are</c><00:01:50.560><c> familiar</c>

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anything to escape it. We are familiar
 

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anything to escape it. We are familiar
with<00:01:51.200><c> the</c><00:01:51.520><c> iconic</c><00:01:52.000><c> black</c><00:01:52.320><c> spherical</c><00:01:52.799><c> zone</c>

01:53.109 --> 01:53.119 align:start position:0%
with the iconic black spherical zone
 

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with the iconic black spherical zone
that<00:01:53.360><c> surrounds</c><00:01:53.600><c> a</c><00:01:53.840><c> black</c><00:01:54.000><c> hole.</c><00:01:54.640><c> This</c><00:01:54.799><c> is</c><00:01:54.960><c> the</c>

01:55.109 --> 01:55.119 align:start position:0%
that surrounds a black hole. This is the
 

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that surrounds a black hole. This is the
black<00:01:55.280><c> hole's</c><00:01:55.759><c> event</c><00:01:56.079><c> horizon.</c><00:01:57.360><c> This</c><00:01:57.600><c> sphere</c>

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black hole's event horizon. This sphere
 

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black hole's event horizon. This sphere
is<00:01:58.159><c> the</c><00:01:58.320><c> demarcation</c><00:01:59.040><c> point</c><00:01:59.439><c> between</c>

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is the demarcation point between
 

01:59.840 --> 02:02.389 align:start position:0%
is the demarcation point between
escapable<00:02:00.479><c> gravity</c><00:02:01.200><c> and</c><00:02:01.520><c> inescapable</c>

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escapable gravity and inescapable
 

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escapable gravity and inescapable
gravity.

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gravity.
 

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gravity.
Because<00:02:04.240><c> the</c><00:02:04.479><c> gravitational</c><00:02:05.119><c> pull</c><00:02:05.600><c> increases</c>

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Because the gravitational pull increases
 

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Because the gravitational pull increases
the<00:02:06.479><c> closer</c><00:02:06.719><c> you</c><00:02:06.960><c> get</c><00:02:07.040><c> to</c><00:02:07.200><c> a</c><00:02:07.439><c> black</c><00:02:07.600><c> hole.</c><00:02:08.399><c> Once</c>

02:08.630 --> 02:08.640 align:start position:0%
the closer you get to a black hole. Once
 

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the closer you get to a black hole. Once
you<00:02:08.879><c> go</c><00:02:09.039><c> beyond</c><00:02:09.360><c> the</c><00:02:09.520><c> event</c><00:02:09.840><c> horizon,</c>

02:10.790 --> 02:10.800 align:start position:0%
you go beyond the event horizon,
 

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you go beyond the event horizon,
nothing,<00:02:11.520><c> not</c><00:02:11.760><c> even</c><00:02:12.080><c> light,</c><00:02:12.560><c> can</c><00:02:12.800><c> travel</c><00:02:13.120><c> fast</c>

02:13.430 --> 02:13.440 align:start position:0%
nothing, not even light, can travel fast
 

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nothing, not even light, can travel fast
enough<00:02:13.680><c> to</c><00:02:13.920><c> get</c><00:02:14.080><c> away</c><00:02:14.400><c> again.</c><00:02:15.760><c> Beyond</c><00:02:16.160><c> that,</c>

02:16.390 --> 02:16.400 align:start position:0%
enough to get away again. Beyond that,
 

02:16.400 --> 02:18.309 align:start position:0%
enough to get away again. Beyond that,
though,<00:02:16.800><c> it's</c><00:02:17.120><c> actually</c><00:02:17.440><c> quite</c><00:02:17.760><c> difficult</c><00:02:18.160><c> to</c>

02:18.309 --> 02:18.319 align:start position:0%
though, it's actually quite difficult to
 

02:18.319 --> 02:20.229 align:start position:0%
though, it's actually quite difficult to
say<00:02:18.640><c> much</c><00:02:18.879><c> about</c><00:02:19.120><c> a</c><00:02:19.360><c> black</c><00:02:19.520><c> hole's</c><00:02:19.920><c> features</c>

02:20.229 --> 02:20.239 align:start position:0%
say much about a black hole's features
 

02:20.239 --> 02:23.030 align:start position:0%
say much about a black hole's features
at<00:02:20.480><c> all.</c><00:02:21.360><c> Precisely</c><00:02:22.080><c> because</c><00:02:22.319><c> of</c><00:02:22.480><c> the</c><00:02:22.720><c> event</c>

02:23.030 --> 02:23.040 align:start position:0%
at all. Precisely because of the event
 

02:23.040 --> 02:25.190 align:start position:0%
at all. Precisely because of the event
horizon,<00:02:23.760><c> we</c><00:02:24.000><c> cannot</c><00:02:24.319><c> see</c><00:02:24.480><c> what</c><00:02:24.720><c> the</c><00:02:24.959><c> inside</c>

02:25.190 --> 02:25.200 align:start position:0%
horizon, we cannot see what the inside
 

02:25.200 --> 02:27.990 align:start position:0%
horizon, we cannot see what the inside
of<00:02:25.360><c> a</c><00:02:25.520><c> black</c><00:02:25.680><c> hole</c><00:02:26.000><c> looks</c><00:02:26.319><c> like.</c><00:02:27.440><c> In</c><00:02:27.599><c> fact,</c>

02:27.990 --> 02:28.000 align:start position:0%
of a black hole looks like. In fact,
 

02:28.000 --> 02:29.750 align:start position:0%
of a black hole looks like. In fact,
there<00:02:28.239><c> are</c><00:02:28.400><c> only</c><00:02:28.720><c> three</c><00:02:29.040><c> things</c><00:02:29.200><c> we</c><00:02:29.520><c> can</c><00:02:29.599><c> say</c>

02:29.750 --> 02:29.760 align:start position:0%
there are only three things we can say
 

02:29.760 --> 02:31.670 align:start position:0%
there are only three things we can say
about<00:02:30.080><c> black</c><00:02:30.319><c> holes</c><00:02:30.640><c> with</c><00:02:30.959><c> any</c><00:02:31.200><c> degree</c><00:02:31.440><c> of</c>

02:31.670 --> 02:31.680 align:start position:0%
about black holes with any degree of
 

02:31.680 --> 02:34.710 align:start position:0%
about black holes with any degree of
certainty.<00:02:32.879><c> They</c><00:02:33.120><c> have</c><00:02:33.360><c> mass.</c><00:02:34.239><c> They</c><00:02:34.480><c> have</c>

02:34.710 --> 02:34.720 align:start position:0%
certainty. They have mass. They have
 

02:34.720 --> 02:38.710 align:start position:0%
certainty. They have mass. They have
charge.<00:02:35.519><c> And</c><00:02:35.760><c> they</c><00:02:35.920><c> have</c><00:02:36.080><c> angular</c><00:02:36.640><c> momentum.</c>

02:38.710 --> 02:38.720 align:start position:0%
charge. And they have angular momentum.
 

02:38.720 --> 02:40.309 align:start position:0%
charge. And they have angular momentum.
You<00:02:38.959><c> might</c><00:02:39.200><c> wonder</c><00:02:39.440><c> how</c><00:02:39.680><c> we</c><00:02:39.840><c> know</c><00:02:40.000><c> these</c>

02:40.309 --> 02:40.319 align:start position:0%
You might wonder how we know these
 

02:40.319 --> 02:42.309 align:start position:0%
You might wonder how we know these
things<00:02:40.480><c> about</c><00:02:40.800><c> black</c><00:02:41.040><c> holes</c><00:02:41.519><c> given</c><00:02:41.840><c> that</c><00:02:42.000><c> no</c>

02:42.309 --> 02:42.319 align:start position:0%
things about black holes given that no
 

02:42.319 --> 02:43.990 align:start position:0%
things about black holes given that no
light<00:02:42.640><c> can</c><00:02:42.800><c> leave</c><00:02:43.040><c> them</c><00:02:43.200><c> to</c><00:02:43.440><c> tell</c><00:02:43.599><c> us</c><00:02:43.760><c> about</c>

02:43.990 --> 02:44.000 align:start position:0%
light can leave them to tell us about
 

02:44.000 --> 02:46.309 align:start position:0%
light can leave them to tell us about
them.<00:02:45.120><c> The</c><00:02:45.360><c> key</c><00:02:45.519><c> to</c><00:02:45.680><c> these</c><00:02:46.000><c> three</c>

02:46.309 --> 02:46.319 align:start position:0%
them. The key to these three
 

02:46.319 --> 02:48.390 align:start position:0%
them. The key to these three
characteristics<00:02:47.200><c> is</c><00:02:47.440><c> that</c><00:02:47.760><c> all</c><00:02:48.000><c> three</c><00:02:48.239><c> of</c>

02:48.390 --> 02:48.400 align:start position:0%
characteristics is that all three of
 

02:48.400 --> 02:50.470 align:start position:0%
characteristics is that all three of
them<00:02:48.640><c> represent</c><00:02:49.200><c> aspects</c><00:02:49.599><c> of</c><00:02:49.760><c> the</c><00:02:50.000><c> black</c><00:02:50.160><c> hole</c>

02:50.470 --> 02:50.480 align:start position:0%
them represent aspects of the black hole
 

02:50.480 --> 02:52.550 align:start position:0%
them represent aspects of the black hole
that<00:02:50.640><c> can</c><00:02:50.800><c> be</c><00:02:50.959><c> felt</c><00:02:51.280><c> outside</c><00:02:51.760><c> the</c><00:02:52.000><c> black</c><00:02:52.239><c> holes</c>

02:52.550 --> 02:52.560 align:start position:0%
that can be felt outside the black holes
 

02:52.560 --> 02:55.910 align:start position:0%
that can be felt outside the black holes
event<00:02:52.879><c> horizon.</c><00:02:54.319><c> Charge,</c><00:02:54.959><c> for</c><00:02:55.120><c> instance,</c>

02:55.910 --> 02:55.920 align:start position:0%
event horizon. Charge, for instance,
 

02:55.920 --> 02:57.750 align:start position:0%
event horizon. Charge, for instance,
works<00:02:56.239><c> the</c><00:02:56.480><c> same</c><00:02:56.640><c> way</c><00:02:56.879><c> around</c><00:02:57.120><c> a</c><00:02:57.360><c> black</c><00:02:57.519><c> hole</c>

02:57.750 --> 02:57.760 align:start position:0%
works the same way around a black hole
 

02:57.760 --> 02:59.509 align:start position:0%
works the same way around a black hole
as<00:02:58.000><c> it</c><00:02:58.160><c> does</c><00:02:58.319><c> around</c><00:02:58.640><c> any</c><00:02:58.879><c> other</c><00:02:59.120><c> charged</c>

02:59.509 --> 02:59.519 align:start position:0%
as it does around any other charged
 

02:59.519 --> 03:02.309 align:start position:0%
as it does around any other charged
object.<00:03:00.400><c> That</c><00:03:00.640><c> is</c><00:03:00.800><c> to</c><00:03:00.959><c> say,</c><00:03:01.519><c> if</c><00:03:01.680><c> a</c><00:03:01.920><c> black</c><00:03:02.080><c> hole</c>

03:02.309 --> 03:02.319 align:start position:0%
object. That is to say, if a black hole
 

03:02.319 --> 03:04.630 align:start position:0%
object. That is to say, if a black hole
is<00:03:02.560><c> charged,</c><00:03:03.280><c> then</c><00:03:03.519><c> it</c><00:03:03.680><c> will</c><00:03:03.840><c> attract</c><00:03:04.239><c> objects</c>

03:04.630 --> 03:04.640 align:start position:0%
is charged, then it will attract objects
 

03:04.640 --> 03:06.790 align:start position:0%
is charged, then it will attract objects
that<00:03:04.879><c> have</c><00:03:05.120><c> different</c><00:03:05.519><c> charge</c><00:03:05.840><c> to</c><00:03:06.080><c> it</c><00:03:06.560><c> and</c>

03:06.790 --> 03:06.800 align:start position:0%
that have different charge to it and
 

03:06.800 --> 03:09.350 align:start position:0%
that have different charge to it and
repel<00:03:07.200><c> objects</c><00:03:07.599><c> that</c><00:03:07.840><c> share</c><00:03:08.080><c> its</c><00:03:08.319><c> charge.</c>

03:09.350 --> 03:09.360 align:start position:0%
repel objects that share its charge.
 

03:09.360 --> 03:11.670 align:start position:0%
repel objects that share its charge.
Think<00:03:09.519><c> of</c><00:03:09.680><c> it</c><00:03:09.840><c> like</c><00:03:10.000><c> a</c><00:03:10.239><c> giant</c><00:03:10.560><c> magnet</c><00:03:11.280><c> pushing</c>

03:11.670 --> 03:11.680 align:start position:0%
Think of it like a giant magnet pushing
 

03:11.680 --> 03:14.630 align:start position:0%
Think of it like a giant magnet pushing
and<00:03:12.000><c> pulling</c><00:03:12.239><c> on</c><00:03:12.400><c> the</c><00:03:12.640><c> universe</c><00:03:12.959><c> around</c><00:03:13.280><c> it.</c>

03:14.630 --> 03:14.640 align:start position:0%
and pulling on the universe around it.
 

03:14.640 --> 03:16.470 align:start position:0%
and pulling on the universe around it.
Scientists<00:03:15.120><c> can</c><00:03:15.360><c> track</c><00:03:15.760><c> objects</c><00:03:16.159><c> that</c>

03:16.470 --> 03:16.480 align:start position:0%
Scientists can track objects that
 

03:16.480 --> 03:18.630 align:start position:0%
Scientists can track objects that
approach<00:03:16.800><c> a</c><00:03:16.959><c> black</c><00:03:17.200><c> hole</c><00:03:17.680><c> and</c><00:03:17.920><c> by</c><00:03:18.159><c> seeing</c><00:03:18.400><c> how</c>

03:18.630 --> 03:18.640 align:start position:0%
approach a black hole and by seeing how
 

03:18.640 --> 03:20.710 align:start position:0%
approach a black hole and by seeing how
quickly<00:03:19.120><c> certain</c><00:03:19.440><c> objects</c><00:03:20.000><c> known</c><00:03:20.239><c> to</c><00:03:20.400><c> have</c><00:03:20.560><c> a</c>

03:20.710 --> 03:20.720 align:start position:0%
quickly certain objects known to have a
 

03:20.720 --> 03:23.270 align:start position:0%
quickly certain objects known to have a
charge<00:03:21.120><c> move</c><00:03:21.360><c> towards</c><00:03:21.760><c> it,</c><00:03:22.640><c> scientists</c><00:03:23.120><c> can</c>

03:23.270 --> 03:23.280 align:start position:0%
charge move towards it, scientists can
 

03:23.280 --> 03:24.869 align:start position:0%
charge move towards it, scientists can
predict<00:03:23.599><c> the</c><00:03:23.840><c> charge</c><00:03:24.080><c> of</c><00:03:24.239><c> the</c><00:03:24.400><c> black</c><00:03:24.560><c> hole</c>

03:24.869 --> 03:24.879 align:start position:0%
predict the charge of the black hole
 

03:24.879 --> 03:26.550 align:start position:0%
predict the charge of the black hole
itself.

03:26.550 --> 03:26.560 align:start position:0%
itself.
 

03:26.560 --> 03:29.670 align:start position:0%
itself.
Interplaying<00:03:27.200><c> with</c><00:03:27.360><c> this</c><00:03:27.680><c> is</c><00:03:28.080><c> mass.</c>

03:29.670 --> 03:29.680 align:start position:0%
Interplaying with this is mass.
 

03:29.680 --> 03:31.670 align:start position:0%
Interplaying with this is mass.
The<00:03:29.840><c> mass</c><00:03:30.080><c> of</c><00:03:30.239><c> a</c><00:03:30.400><c> black</c><00:03:30.640><c> hole</c><00:03:30.959><c> can</c><00:03:31.200><c> also</c><00:03:31.519><c> be</c>

03:31.670 --> 03:31.680 align:start position:0%
The mass of a black hole can also be
 

03:31.680 --> 03:33.589 align:start position:0%
The mass of a black hole can also be
felt<00:03:32.080><c> outside</c><00:03:32.480><c> the</c><00:03:32.720><c> sphere</c><00:03:33.040><c> of</c><00:03:33.200><c> the</c><00:03:33.360><c> event</c>

03:33.589 --> 03:33.599 align:start position:0%
felt outside the sphere of the event
 

03:33.599 --> 03:36.550 align:start position:0%
felt outside the sphere of the event
horizon.<00:03:34.720><c> In</c><00:03:34.959><c> fact,</c><00:03:35.200><c> it</c><00:03:35.440><c> is</c><00:03:35.599><c> the</c><00:03:35.760><c> main</c><00:03:36.080><c> creator</c>

03:36.550 --> 03:36.560 align:start position:0%
horizon. In fact, it is the main creator
 

03:36.560 --> 03:39.110 align:start position:0%
horizon. In fact, it is the main creator
of<00:03:36.720><c> the</c><00:03:36.879><c> event</c><00:03:37.120><c> horizon</c><00:03:37.599><c> in</c><00:03:37.840><c> the</c><00:03:37.920><c> first</c><00:03:38.159><c> place.</c>

03:39.110 --> 03:39.120 align:start position:0%
of the event horizon in the first place.
 

03:39.120 --> 03:41.830 align:start position:0%
of the event horizon in the first place.
This<00:03:39.280><c> is</c><00:03:39.440><c> because</c><00:03:39.920><c> mass</c><00:03:40.400><c> creates</c><00:03:40.799><c> gravity</c><00:03:41.599><c> and</c>

03:41.830 --> 03:41.840 align:start position:0%
This is because mass creates gravity and
 

03:41.840 --> 03:43.750 align:start position:0%
This is because mass creates gravity and
does<00:03:42.080><c> so</c><00:03:42.319><c> in</c><00:03:42.480><c> a</c><00:03:42.640><c> linear</c><00:03:43.120><c> fashion</c><00:03:43.519><c> in</c>

03:43.750 --> 03:43.760 align:start position:0%
does so in a linear fashion in
 

03:43.760 --> 03:45.509 align:start position:0%
does so in a linear fashion in
accordance<00:03:44.159><c> with</c><00:03:44.319><c> the</c><00:03:44.560><c> same</c><00:03:44.720><c> principles</c><00:03:45.200><c> you</c>

03:45.509 --> 03:45.519 align:start position:0%
accordance with the same principles you
 

03:45.519 --> 03:48.229 align:start position:0%
accordance with the same principles you
might<00:03:45.680><c> find</c><00:03:45.840><c> in</c><00:03:46.080><c> Gor's</c><00:03:46.640><c> law,</c><00:03:47.200><c> a</c><00:03:47.440><c> theorem</c><00:03:47.840><c> about</c>

03:48.229 --> 03:48.239 align:start position:0%
might find in Gor's law, a theorem about
 

03:48.239 --> 03:50.070 align:start position:0%
might find in Gor's law, a theorem about
electromagnetism,

03:50.070 --> 03:50.080 align:start position:0%
electromagnetism,
 

03:50.080 --> 03:53.350 align:start position:0%
electromagnetism,
albeit<00:03:50.640><c> with</c><00:03:50.879><c> a</c><00:03:51.120><c> gravitational</c><00:03:51.840><c> analog.</c>

03:53.350 --> 03:53.360 align:start position:0%
albeit with a gravitational analog.
 

03:53.360 --> 03:55.830 align:start position:0%
albeit with a gravitational analog.
So,<00:03:53.920><c> it's</c><00:03:54.239><c> possible</c><00:03:54.640><c> too</c><00:03:54.879><c> to</c><00:03:55.200><c> calculate</c><00:03:55.599><c> the</c>

03:55.830 --> 03:55.840 align:start position:0%
So, it's possible too to calculate the
 

03:55.840 --> 03:58.309 align:start position:0%
So, it's possible too to calculate the
mass<00:03:56.080><c> of</c><00:03:56.159><c> an</c><00:03:56.400><c> object</c><00:03:56.799><c> by</c><00:03:57.120><c> seeing</c><00:03:57.519><c> how</c><00:03:57.760><c> far</c><00:03:58.000><c> away</c>

03:58.309 --> 03:58.319 align:start position:0%
mass of an object by seeing how far away
 

03:58.319 --> 04:00.070 align:start position:0%
mass of an object by seeing how far away
objects<00:03:58.799><c> are</c><00:03:59.040><c> before</c><00:03:59.360><c> they</c><00:03:59.599><c> start</c><00:03:59.840><c> to</c>

04:00.070 --> 04:00.080 align:start position:0%
objects are before they start to
 

04:00.080 --> 04:02.229 align:start position:0%
objects are before they start to
accelerate<00:04:00.560><c> towards</c><00:04:00.959><c> it</c><00:04:01.360><c> and</c><00:04:01.680><c> how</c><00:04:01.920><c> quickly</c>

04:02.229 --> 04:02.239 align:start position:0%
accelerate towards it and how quickly
 

04:02.239 --> 04:05.110 align:start position:0%
accelerate towards it and how quickly
they<00:04:02.480><c> accelerate.</c><00:04:03.680><c> Although</c><00:04:04.080><c> obviously</c><00:04:04.879><c> you</c>

04:05.110 --> 04:05.120 align:start position:0%
they accelerate. Although obviously you
 

04:05.120 --> 04:06.789 align:start position:0%
they accelerate. Although obviously you
need<00:04:05.200><c> to</c><00:04:05.360><c> factor</c><00:04:05.680><c> in</c><00:04:06.000><c> charge</c><00:04:06.319><c> at</c><00:04:06.480><c> the</c><00:04:06.640><c> same</c>

04:06.789 --> 04:06.799 align:start position:0%
need to factor in charge at the same
 

04:06.799 --> 04:10.630 align:start position:0%
need to factor in charge at the same
time<00:04:07.200><c> or</c><00:04:07.439><c> your</c><00:04:07.599><c> results</c><00:04:07.920><c> might</c><00:04:08.159><c> get</c><00:04:08.319><c> skewed.</c>

04:10.630 --> 04:10.640 align:start position:0%
time or your results might get skewed.
 

04:10.640 --> 04:14.470 align:start position:0%
time or your results might get skewed.
Finally,<00:04:11.280><c> angular</c><00:04:11.920><c> momentum</c><00:04:12.480><c> or</c><00:04:12.799><c> spin.</c><00:04:14.000><c> It</c><00:04:14.239><c> is</c>

04:14.470 --> 04:14.480 align:start position:0%
Finally, angular momentum or spin. It is
 

04:14.480 --> 04:16.550 align:start position:0%
Finally, angular momentum or spin. It is
possible<00:04:14.879><c> to</c><00:04:15.120><c> detect</c><00:04:15.439><c> the</c><00:04:15.680><c> spin</c><00:04:15.920><c> of</c><00:04:16.079><c> a</c><00:04:16.239><c> large</c>

04:16.550 --> 04:16.560 align:start position:0%
possible to detect the spin of a large
 

04:16.560 --> 04:18.789 align:start position:0%
possible to detect the spin of a large
mass<00:04:16.880><c> object</c><00:04:17.600><c> and</c><00:04:17.840><c> we</c><00:04:18.000><c> are</c><00:04:18.160><c> going</c><00:04:18.320><c> to</c><00:04:18.479><c> dive</c>

04:18.789 --> 04:18.799 align:start position:0%
mass object and we are going to dive
 

04:18.799 --> 04:21.749 align:start position:0%
mass object and we are going to dive
into<00:04:19.040><c> the</c><00:04:19.199><c> how</c><00:04:19.680><c> in</c><00:04:19.919><c> just</c><00:04:20.079><c> a</c><00:04:20.239><c> bit.</c><00:04:21.040><c> For</c><00:04:21.359><c> now,</c>

04:21.749 --> 04:21.759 align:start position:0%
into the how in just a bit. For now,
 

04:21.759 --> 04:23.909 align:start position:0%
into the how in just a bit. For now,
let's<00:04:22.079><c> just</c><00:04:22.240><c> accept</c><00:04:22.560><c> it</c><00:04:22.720><c> as</c><00:04:22.960><c> a</c><00:04:23.120><c> given</c><00:04:23.600><c> and</c>

04:23.909 --> 04:23.919 align:start position:0%
let's just accept it as a given and
 

04:23.919 --> 04:25.909 align:start position:0%
let's just accept it as a given and
recognize<00:04:24.320><c> that</c><00:04:24.639><c> black</c><00:04:24.800><c> holes</c><00:04:25.199><c> are</c><00:04:25.440><c> certainly</c>

04:25.909 --> 04:25.919 align:start position:0%
recognize that black holes are certainly
 

04:25.919 --> 04:29.110 align:start position:0%
recognize that black holes are certainly
very<00:04:26.400><c> high</c><00:04:26.880><c> mass</c><00:04:27.199><c> objects.</c><00:04:28.479><c> Before</c><00:04:28.720><c> we</c><00:04:28.960><c> get</c>

04:25.919 --> 04:30.549 align:start position:0%
in the description below. Go check them
out.<00:05:28.080><c> Now,</c><00:05:28.479><c> let's</c><00:05:28.720><c> get</c><00:05:28.880><c> back</c><00:05:29.039><c> to</c><00:05:29.199><c> black</c><00:05:29.440><c> holes.</c>

04:28.427 --> 04:28.437 align:start position:0%
out. Now, let's get back to black holes.
 

04:28.437 --> 04:30.427 align:start position:0%
out. Now, let's get back to black holes.
There<00:05:32.240><c> are</c><00:05:32.400><c> varying</c><00:05:32.800><c> sizes</c><00:05:33.199><c> of</c><00:05:33.440><c> black</c><00:05:33.680><c> holes</c>

04:30.427 --> 04:30.437 align:start position:0%
There are varying sizes of black holes
 

04:30.437 --> 04:33.147 align:start position:0%
There are varying sizes of black holes
in<00:05:34.160><c> existence.</c><00:05:35.199><c> The</c><00:05:35.520><c> smallest</c><00:05:36.160><c> known</c><00:05:36.479><c> as</c>

04:33.147 --> 04:33.157 align:start position:0%
in existence. The smallest known as
 

04:33.157 --> 04:35.307 align:start position:0%
in existence. The smallest known as
micro<00:05:37.120><c> black</c><00:05:37.360><c> holes</c><00:05:38.000><c> have</c><00:05:38.160><c> a</c><00:05:38.400><c> mass</c><00:05:38.639><c> that's</c>

04:35.307 --> 04:35.317 align:start position:0%
micro black holes have a mass that's
 

04:35.317 --> 04:39.466 align:start position:0%
micro black holes have a mass that's
comparable<00:05:39.440><c> to</c><00:05:39.600><c> that</c><00:05:39.840><c> of</c><00:05:40.000><c> our</c><00:05:40.320><c> moon</c><00:05:40.960><c> or</c><00:05:41.360><c> 7.35</c><00:05:42.800><c> *</c>

04:39.466 --> 04:39.476 align:start position:0%
comparable to that of our moon or 7.35 *
 

04:39.476 --> 04:42.987 align:start position:0%
comparable to that of our moon or 7.35 *
10<00:05:43.600><c> ^</c><00:05:44.000><c> 22</c><00:05:44.720><c> kg.</c>

04:42.987 --> 04:42.997 align:start position:0%
10 ^ 22 kg.
 

04:42.997 --> 04:46.186 align:start position:0%
10 ^ 22 kg.
They<00:05:46.880><c> fit</c><00:05:47.360><c> all</c><00:05:47.759><c> this</c><00:05:48.479><c> into</c><00:05:48.800><c> a</c><00:05:49.039><c> space</c><00:05:49.360><c> that's</c>

04:46.186 --> 04:46.196 align:start position:0%
They fit all this into a space that's
 

04:46.196 --> 04:49.947 align:start position:0%
They fit all this into a space that's
just<00:05:50.160><c> 0.2</c><00:05:51.520><c> mm</c><00:05:52.080><c> in</c><00:05:52.320><c> diameter,</c><00:05:53.039><c> which</c><00:05:53.280><c> is</c>

04:49.947 --> 04:49.957 align:start position:0%
just 0.2 mm in diameter, which is
 

04:49.957 --> 04:52.587 align:start position:0%
just 0.2 mm in diameter, which is
incredible.<00:05:54.800><c> It</c><00:05:55.120><c> really</c><00:05:55.360><c> gives</c><00:05:55.520><c> you</c><00:05:55.680><c> a</c><00:05:55.919><c> sense</c>

04:52.587 --> 04:52.597 align:start position:0%
incredible. It really gives you a sense
 

04:52.597 --> 04:55.387 align:start position:0%
incredible. It really gives you a sense
of<00:05:56.400><c> how</c><00:05:56.880><c> dense</c><00:05:57.280><c> a</c><00:05:57.520><c> black</c><00:05:57.759><c> hole</c><00:05:58.080><c> can</c><00:05:58.240><c> be.</c>

04:55.387 --> 04:55.397 align:start position:0%
of how dense a black hole can be.
 

04:55.397 --> 04:57.466 align:start position:0%
of how dense a black hole can be.
Something<00:05:59.360><c> thinner</c><00:05:59.840><c> in</c><00:06:00.160><c> size</c><00:06:00.400><c> than</c><00:06:00.560><c> a</c><00:06:00.800><c> human</c>

04:57.466 --> 04:57.476 align:start position:0%
Something thinner in size than a human
 

04:57.476 --> 05:00.987 align:start position:0%
Something thinner in size than a human
hair<00:06:01.680><c> packing</c><00:06:02.080><c> the</c><00:06:02.320><c> mass</c><00:06:02.560><c> of</c><00:06:02.800><c> the</c><00:06:03.039><c> moon.</c><00:06:04.240><c> And</c>

05:00.987 --> 05:00.997 align:start position:0%
hair packing the mass of the moon. And
 

05:00.997 --> 05:03.387 align:start position:0%
hair packing the mass of the moon. And
that's<00:06:04.800><c> just</c><00:06:04.960><c> the</c><00:06:05.120><c> smallest</c><00:06:05.520><c> ones.</c><00:06:06.560><c> Stellar</c>

05:03.387 --> 05:03.397 align:start position:0%
that's just the smallest ones. Stellar
 

05:03.397 --> 05:05.707 align:start position:0%
that's just the smallest ones. Stellar
black<00:06:07.199><c> holes</c><00:06:07.680><c> have</c><00:06:07.840><c> a</c><00:06:08.000><c> mass</c><00:06:08.319><c> equal</c><00:06:08.720><c> to</c><00:06:08.960><c> 10</c>

05:05.707 --> 05:05.717 align:start position:0%
black holes have a mass equal to 10
 

05:05.717 --> 05:08.427 align:start position:0%
black holes have a mass equal to 10
times<00:06:09.600><c> our</c><00:06:09.919><c> sun</c><00:06:10.400><c> and</c><00:06:10.720><c> have</c><00:06:10.880><c> a</c><00:06:11.120><c> diameter</c><00:06:11.600><c> equal</c>

05:08.427 --> 05:08.437 align:start position:0%
times our sun and have a diameter equal
 

05:08.437 --> 05:10.507 align:start position:0%
times our sun and have a diameter equal
to<00:06:12.240><c> 60</c><00:06:12.560><c> km.</c>

05:10.507 --> 05:10.517 align:start position:0%
to 60 km.
 

05:10.517 --> 05:12.906 align:start position:0%
to 60 km.
Intermediate<00:06:14.880><c> black</c><00:06:15.120><c> holes</c><00:06:15.440><c> are</c><00:06:15.680><c> the</c><00:06:15.840><c> mass</c><00:06:16.080><c> of</c>

05:12.906 --> 05:12.916 align:start position:0%
Intermediate black holes are the mass of
 

05:12.916 --> 05:16.107 align:start position:0%
Intermediate black holes are the mass of
1,000<00:06:17.120><c> suns</c><00:06:17.919><c> and</c><00:06:18.160><c> fit</c><00:06:18.560><c> all</c><00:06:18.800><c> of</c><00:06:18.960><c> that</c><00:06:19.199><c> into</c><00:06:19.440><c> a</c>

05:16.107 --> 05:16.117 align:start position:0%
1,000 suns and fit all of that into a
 

05:16.117 --> 05:19.147 align:start position:0%
1,000 suns and fit all of that into a
diameter<00:06:20.080><c> of</c><00:06:20.400><c> 2,000</c><00:06:20.960><c> km,</c><00:06:21.919><c> which</c><00:06:22.160><c> is</c><00:06:22.400><c> still</c>

05:19.147 --> 05:19.157 align:start position:0%
diameter of 2,000 km, which is still
 

05:19.157 --> 05:22.027 align:start position:0%
diameter of 2,000 km, which is still
much<00:06:23.039><c> smaller</c><00:06:23.440><c> than</c><00:06:23.600><c> the</c><00:06:23.759><c> Earth.</c><00:06:24.880><c> It</c><00:06:25.199><c> is</c><00:06:25.360><c> the</c>

05:22.027 --> 05:22.037 align:start position:0%
much smaller than the Earth. It is the
 

05:22.037 --> 05:24.667 align:start position:0%
much smaller than the Earth. It is the
largest<00:06:26.080><c> black</c><00:06:26.319><c> holes</c><00:06:26.720><c> that</c><00:06:27.039><c> really</c><00:06:27.360><c> dwarf</c><00:06:27.759><c> us</c>

05:24.667 --> 05:24.677 align:start position:0%
largest black holes that really dwarf us
 

05:24.677 --> 05:28.267 align:start position:0%
largest black holes that really dwarf us
with<00:06:28.479><c> masses</c><00:06:28.960><c> between</c><00:06:29.600><c> 100,000</c><00:06:31.039><c> to</c><00:06:31.360><c> 10</c>

05:28.267 --> 05:28.277 align:start position:0%
with masses between 100,000 to 10
 

05:28.277 --> 05:31.066 align:start position:0%
with masses between 100,000 to 10
billion<00:06:32.400><c> times</c><00:06:32.800><c> the</c><00:06:33.039><c> mass</c><00:06:33.280><c> of</c><00:06:33.440><c> the</c><00:06:33.600><c> sun</c><00:06:34.400><c> and</c>

05:31.066 --> 05:31.076 align:start position:0%
billion times the mass of the sun and
 

05:31.076 --> 05:34.507 align:start position:0%
billion times the mass of the sun and
sizes<00:06:35.120><c> ranging</c><00:06:35.600><c> from</c><00:06:36.080><c> 0.001</c>

05:34.507 --> 05:34.517 align:start position:0%
sizes ranging from 0.001
 

05:34.517 --> 05:37.867 align:start position:0%
sizes ranging from 0.001
to<00:06:38.639><c> 400</c><00:06:39.440><c> astronomical</c><00:06:40.240><c> units.</c><00:06:41.199><c> An</c>

05:37.867 --> 05:37.877 align:start position:0%
to 400 astronomical units. An
 

05:37.877 --> 05:39.466 align:start position:0%
to 400 astronomical units. An
astronomical<00:06:42.080><c> unit</c><00:06:42.400><c> being</c><00:06:42.560><c> the</c><00:06:42.800><c> distance</c>

05:39.466 --> 05:39.476 align:start position:0%
astronomical unit being the distance
 

05:39.476 --> 05:42.267 align:start position:0%
astronomical unit being the distance
from<00:06:43.280><c> the</c><00:06:43.520><c> earth</c><00:06:43.680><c> to</c><00:06:43.919><c> the</c><00:06:44.080><c> sun.</c>

05:42.267 --> 05:42.277 align:start position:0%
from the earth to the sun.
 

05:42.277 --> 05:44.667 align:start position:0%
from the earth to the sun.
But<00:06:46.160><c> other</c><00:06:46.479><c> than</c><00:06:46.639><c> those</c><00:06:46.960><c> three</c><00:06:47.199><c> features,</c>

05:44.667 --> 05:44.677 align:start position:0%
But other than those three features,
 

05:44.677 --> 05:47.147 align:start position:0%
But other than those three features,
there<00:06:48.479><c> are</c><00:06:48.720><c> in</c><00:06:48.960><c> theory</c><00:06:49.600><c> no</c><00:06:49.919><c> other</c><00:06:50.240><c> differences</c>

05:47.147 --> 05:47.157 align:start position:0%
there are in theory no other differences
 

05:47.157 --> 05:49.707 align:start position:0%
there are in theory no other differences
between<00:06:51.039><c> them.</c><00:06:52.000><c> If</c><00:06:52.160><c> you</c><00:06:52.319><c> put</c><00:06:52.479><c> two</c><00:06:52.800><c> black</c><00:06:52.960><c> holes</c>

05:49.707 --> 05:49.717 align:start position:0%
between them. If you put two black holes
 

05:49.717 --> 05:51.626 align:start position:0%
between them. If you put two black holes
in<00:06:53.520><c> the</c><00:06:53.680><c> same</c><00:06:53.840><c> room</c><00:06:54.160><c> and</c><00:06:54.479><c> made</c><00:06:54.639><c> sure</c><00:06:54.800><c> they</c><00:06:55.039><c> had</c>

05:51.626 --> 05:51.636 align:start position:0%
in the same room and made sure they had
 

05:51.636 --> 05:54.027 align:start position:0%
in the same room and made sure they had
the<00:06:55.360><c> same</c><00:06:55.520><c> mass,</c><00:06:56.000><c> charge,</c><00:06:56.400><c> and</c><00:06:56.560><c> spin,</c><00:06:57.360><c> it</c>

05:54.027 --> 05:54.037 align:start position:0%
the same mass, charge, and spin, it
 

05:54.037 --> 05:57.547 align:start position:0%
the same mass, charge, and spin, it
would<00:06:57.759><c> be</c><00:06:57.919><c> impossible</c><00:06:58.560><c> to</c><00:06:58.800><c> tell</c><00:06:59.039><c> them</c><00:06:59.199><c> apart.</c>

05:57.547 --> 05:57.557 align:start position:0%
would be impossible to tell them apart.
 

05:57.557 --> 06:00.026 align:start position:0%
would be impossible to tell them apart.
However,<00:07:01.840><c> these</c><00:07:02.160><c> three</c><00:07:02.400><c> features</c><00:07:02.960><c> are</c><00:07:03.199><c> enough</c>

06:00.026 --> 06:00.036 align:start position:0%
However, these three features are enough
 

06:00.036 --> 06:02.107 align:start position:0%
However, these three features are enough
to<00:07:03.919><c> have</c><00:07:04.080><c> some</c><00:07:04.400><c> interesting</c><00:07:04.960><c> effects</c><00:07:05.280><c> on</c><00:07:05.520><c> the</c>

06:02.107 --> 06:02.117 align:start position:0%
to have some interesting effects on the
 

06:02.117 --> 06:05.626 align:start position:0%
to have some interesting effects on the
area<00:07:06.000><c> of</c><00:07:06.240><c> space</c><00:07:06.639><c> outside</c><00:07:07.039><c> a</c><00:07:07.360><c> black</c><00:07:07.520><c> hole.</c>

06:05.626 --> 06:05.636 align:start position:0%
area of space outside a black hole.
 

06:05.636 --> 06:07.227 align:start position:0%
area of space outside a black hole.
Traveling<00:07:09.599><c> inside</c><00:07:09.919><c> a</c><00:07:10.160><c> black</c><00:07:10.319><c> hole</c><00:07:10.639><c> is</c>

06:07.227 --> 06:07.237 align:start position:0%
Traveling inside a black hole is
 

06:07.237 --> 06:09.626 align:start position:0%
Traveling inside a black hole is
impossible.<00:07:11.840><c> Space</c><00:07:12.080><c> and</c><00:07:12.319><c> time</c><00:07:12.639><c> break</c><00:07:12.960><c> down</c>

06:09.626 --> 06:09.636 align:start position:0%
impossible. Space and time break down
 

06:09.636 --> 06:12.107 align:start position:0%
impossible. Space and time break down
past<00:07:13.520><c> the</c><00:07:13.680><c> event</c><00:07:14.000><c> horizon.</c><00:07:14.880><c> But</c><00:07:15.039><c> we</c><00:07:15.280><c> think</c><00:07:15.440><c> we</c>

06:12.107 --> 06:12.117 align:start position:0%
past the event horizon. But we think we
 

06:12.117 --> 06:14.346 align:start position:0%
past the event horizon. But we think we
know<00:07:15.840><c> a</c><00:07:16.080><c> few</c><00:07:16.319><c> things</c><00:07:16.479><c> that</c><00:07:16.800><c> must</c><00:07:17.199><c> exist</c><00:07:17.520><c> inside</c>

06:14.346 --> 06:14.356 align:start position:0%
know a few things that must exist inside
 

06:14.356 --> 06:15.867 align:start position:0%
know a few things that must exist inside
one.

06:15.867 --> 06:15.877 align:start position:0%
one.
 

06:15.877 --> 06:17.707 align:start position:0%
one.
Beating<00:07:19.759><c> in</c><00:07:19.919><c> the</c><00:07:20.080><c> heart</c><00:07:20.240><c> of</c><00:07:20.400><c> a</c><00:07:20.560><c> black</c><00:07:20.720><c> hole,</c>

06:17.707 --> 06:17.717 align:start position:0%
Beating in the heart of a black hole,
 

06:17.717 --> 06:20.587 align:start position:0%
Beating in the heart of a black hole,
there<00:07:21.440><c> is</c><00:07:21.599><c> thought</c><00:07:21.840><c> to</c><00:07:22.080><c> lie</c><00:07:22.400><c> the</c><00:07:22.639><c> singularity.</c>

06:20.587 --> 06:20.597 align:start position:0%
there is thought to lie the singularity.
 

06:20.597 --> 06:22.906 align:start position:0%
there is thought to lie the singularity.
In<00:07:24.400><c> truth,</c><00:07:25.039><c> this</c><00:07:25.280><c> actually</c><00:07:25.759><c> is</c><00:07:26.000><c> the</c><00:07:26.240><c> black</c>

06:22.906 --> 06:22.916 align:start position:0%
In truth, this actually is the black
 

06:22.916 --> 06:25.787 align:start position:0%
In truth, this actually is the black
hole.<00:07:27.680><c> When</c><00:07:27.919><c> we</c><00:07:28.160><c> were</c><00:07:28.319><c> discussing</c><00:07:28.800><c> diameters</c>

06:25.787 --> 06:25.797 align:start position:0%
hole. When we were discussing diameters
 

06:25.797 --> 06:28.026 align:start position:0%
hole. When we were discussing diameters
earlier,<00:07:30.080><c> that</c><00:07:30.400><c> is</c><00:07:30.560><c> just</c><00:07:30.720><c> the</c><00:07:31.039><c> diameter</c><00:07:31.440><c> of</c>

06:28.026 --> 06:28.036 align:start position:0%
earlier, that is just the diameter of
 

06:28.036 --> 06:30.987 align:start position:0%
earlier, that is just the diameter of
the<00:07:31.840><c> event</c><00:07:32.160><c> horizon.</c><00:07:33.360><c> Again,</c><00:07:33.840><c> we</c><00:07:34.080><c> are</c><00:07:34.319><c> not</c>

06:30.987 --> 06:30.997 align:start position:0%
the event horizon. Again, we are not
 

06:30.997 --> 06:32.906 align:start position:0%
the event horizon. Again, we are not
certain<00:07:34.880><c> what</c><00:07:35.039><c> a</c><00:07:35.280><c> black</c><00:07:35.440><c> hole</c><00:07:35.759><c> actually</c><00:07:36.160><c> looks</c>

06:32.906 --> 06:32.916 align:start position:0%
certain what a black hole actually looks
 

06:32.916 --> 06:35.626 align:start position:0%
certain what a black hole actually looks
like<00:07:36.880><c> because</c><00:07:37.280><c> light</c><00:07:37.599><c> can</c><00:07:37.759><c> never</c><00:07:38.000><c> escape</c><00:07:38.319><c> it.</c>

06:35.626 --> 06:35.636 align:start position:0%
like because light can never escape it.
 

06:35.636 --> 06:38.186 align:start position:0%
like because light can never escape it.
In<00:07:39.360><c> a</c><00:07:39.599><c> space</c><00:07:39.840><c> that</c><00:07:40.080><c> is</c><00:07:40.400><c> infinitely</c><00:07:41.039><c> small,</c>

06:38.186 --> 06:38.196 align:start position:0%
In a space that is infinitely small,
 

06:38.196 --> 06:39.947 align:start position:0%
In a space that is infinitely small,
there<00:07:41.919><c> is</c><00:07:42.080><c> a</c><00:07:42.240><c> point</c><00:07:42.479><c> where</c><00:07:42.800><c> all</c><00:07:43.039><c> the</c><00:07:43.199><c> mass</c><00:07:43.440><c> of</c>

06:39.947 --> 06:39.957 align:start position:0%
there is a point where all the mass of
 

06:39.957 --> 06:42.427 align:start position:0%
there is a point where all the mass of
the<00:07:43.680><c> black</c><00:07:43.840><c> hole</c><00:07:44.160><c> is</c><00:07:44.400><c> packed</c><00:07:45.039><c> so</c><00:07:45.360><c> that</c><00:07:45.599><c> it</c><00:07:45.840><c> is</c>

06:42.427 --> 06:42.437 align:start position:0%
the black hole is packed so that it is
 

06:42.437 --> 06:45.307 align:start position:0%
the black hole is packed so that it is
infinitely<00:07:46.639><c> dense.</c><00:07:48.000><c> For</c><00:07:48.240><c> the</c><00:07:48.400><c> simplest</c>

06:45.307 --> 06:45.317 align:start position:0%
infinitely dense. For the simplest
 

06:45.317 --> 06:47.547 align:start position:0%
infinitely dense. For the simplest
models<00:07:49.199><c> of</c><00:07:49.360><c> black</c><00:07:49.520><c> holes,</c><00:07:50.319><c> the</c><00:07:50.560><c> ones</c><00:07:50.800><c> that</c><00:07:50.960><c> do</c>

06:47.547 --> 06:47.557 align:start position:0%
models of black holes, the ones that do
 

06:47.557 --> 06:50.987 align:start position:0%
models of black holes, the ones that do
not<00:07:51.360><c> spin,</c><00:07:52.080><c> this</c><00:07:52.240><c> is</c><00:07:52.400><c> a</c><00:07:52.560><c> single</c><00:07:52.880><c> point.</c><00:07:54.080><c> In</c><00:07:54.319><c> a</c>

06:50.987 --> 06:50.997 align:start position:0%
not spin, this is a single point. In a
 

06:50.997 --> 06:53.626 align:start position:0%
not spin, this is a single point. In a
rotating<00:07:55.120><c> black</c><00:07:55.360><c> hole,</c><00:07:56.080><c> this</c><00:07:56.240><c> is</c><00:07:56.400><c> more</c><00:07:56.639><c> like</c><00:07:56.879><c> a</c>

06:53.626 --> 06:53.636 align:start position:0%
rotating black hole, this is more like a
 

06:53.636 --> 06:55.707 align:start position:0%
rotating black hole, this is more like a
little<00:07:57.520><c> spinning</c><00:07:57.919><c> ring.</c><00:07:58.639><c> Otherwise,</c><00:07:59.120><c> it</c>

06:55.707 --> 06:55.717 align:start position:0%
little spinning ring. Otherwise, it
 

06:55.717 --> 06:57.626 align:start position:0%
little spinning ring. Otherwise, it
would<00:07:59.440><c> be</c><00:07:59.599><c> difficult</c><00:07:59.919><c> to</c><00:08:00.080><c> define</c><00:08:00.479><c> spin</c><00:08:00.800><c> for</c><00:08:01.039><c> a</c>

06:57.626 --> 06:57.636 align:start position:0%
would be difficult to define spin for a
 

06:57.636 --> 07:00.427 align:start position:0%
would be difficult to define spin for a
point<00:08:01.360><c> that</c><00:08:01.599><c> has</c><00:08:01.759><c> no</c><00:08:02.080><c> volume.</c>

07:00.427 --> 07:00.437 align:start position:0%
point that has no volume.
 

07:00.437 --> 07:02.587 align:start position:0%
point that has no volume.
Our<00:08:04.319><c> current</c><00:08:04.639><c> physics</c><00:08:05.039><c> get</c><00:08:05.360><c> very</c><00:08:05.680><c> strange</c>

07:02.587 --> 07:02.597 align:start position:0%
Our current physics get very strange
 

07:02.597 --> 07:05.707 align:start position:0%
Our current physics get very strange
around<00:08:06.479><c> such</c><00:08:06.720><c> a</c><00:08:06.879><c> black</c><00:08:07.039><c> hole.</c><00:08:08.080><c> If</c><00:08:08.319><c> ideal</c><00:08:08.800><c> paths</c>

07:05.707 --> 07:05.717 align:start position:0%
around such a black hole. If ideal paths
 

07:05.717 --> 07:07.626 align:start position:0%
around such a black hole. If ideal paths
are<00:08:09.520><c> traveled</c><00:08:09.840><c> around</c><00:08:10.160><c> this</c><00:08:10.400><c> point,</c><00:08:10.960><c> it</c>

07:07.626 --> 07:07.636 align:start position:0%
are traveled around this point, it
 

07:07.636 --> 07:09.466 align:start position:0%
are traveled around this point, it
becomes<00:08:11.520><c> mathematically</c><00:08:12.240><c> possible</c><00:08:12.639><c> to</c><00:08:12.879><c> do</c>

07:09.466 --> 07:09.476 align:start position:0%
becomes mathematically possible to do
 

07:09.476 --> 07:12.107 align:start position:0%
becomes mathematically possible to do
some<00:08:13.280><c> very</c><00:08:13.680><c> strange</c><00:08:14.080><c> things</c><00:08:14.800><c> like</c><00:08:15.199><c> meet</c><00:08:15.440><c> up</c>

07:12.107 --> 07:12.117 align:start position:0%
some very strange things like meet up
 

07:12.117 --> 07:14.107 align:start position:0%
some very strange things like meet up
with<00:08:15.919><c> your</c><00:08:16.080><c> own</c><00:08:16.400><c> past.</c>

07:14.107 --> 07:14.117 align:start position:0%
with your own past.
 

07:14.117 --> 07:15.787 align:start position:0%
with your own past.
This<00:08:17.919><c> has</c><00:08:18.080><c> some</c><00:08:18.240><c> disturbing</c><00:08:18.800><c> implications</c>

07:15.787 --> 07:15.797 align:start position:0%
This has some disturbing implications
 

07:15.797 --> 07:18.427 align:start position:0%
This has some disturbing implications
for<00:08:19.680><c> causality</c><00:08:20.560><c> and</c><00:08:20.800><c> gets</c><00:08:21.120><c> into</c><00:08:21.360><c> time</c><00:08:21.680><c> travel</c>

07:18.427 --> 07:18.437 align:start position:0%
for causality and gets into time travel
 

07:18.437 --> 07:21.306 align:start position:0%
for causality and gets into time travel
paradoxes<00:08:22.720><c> like</c><00:08:22.960><c> the</c><00:08:23.120><c> grandfather</c><00:08:23.759><c> paradox.</c>

07:21.306 --> 07:21.316 align:start position:0%
paradoxes like the grandfather paradox.
 

07:21.316 --> 07:23.626 align:start position:0%
paradoxes like the grandfather paradox.
So<00:08:25.120><c> that</c><00:08:25.440><c> probably</c><00:08:25.919><c> only</c><00:08:26.160><c> shows</c><00:08:26.479><c> for</c><00:08:26.720><c> certain</c>

07:23.626 --> 07:23.636 align:start position:0%
So that probably only shows for certain
 

07:23.636 --> 07:26.267 align:start position:0%
So that probably only shows for certain
that<00:08:27.599><c> our</c><00:08:27.919><c> ideas</c><00:08:28.400><c> about</c><00:08:28.800><c> singularities</c><00:08:29.599><c> are</c>

07:26.267 --> 07:26.277 align:start position:0%
that our ideas about singularities are
 

07:26.277 --> 07:28.586 align:start position:0%
that our ideas about singularities are
not<00:08:30.080><c> quite</c><00:08:30.400><c> right</c><00:08:30.639><c> yet.</c><00:08:31.680><c> Because</c><00:08:31.919><c> the</c>

07:28.586 --> 07:28.596 align:start position:0%
not quite right yet. Because the
 

07:28.596 --> 07:30.987 align:start position:0%
not quite right yet. Because the
singularity<00:08:32.880><c> is</c><00:08:33.039><c> so</c><00:08:33.279><c> small,</c><00:08:33.760><c> it'll</c><00:08:34.159><c> take</c><00:08:34.320><c> the</c>

07:30.987 --> 07:30.997 align:start position:0%
singularity is so small, it'll take the
 

07:30.997 --> 07:33.307 align:start position:0%
singularity is so small, it'll take the
successful<00:08:35.039><c> merging</c><00:08:35.519><c> of</c><00:08:35.760><c> quantum</c><00:08:36.240><c> theory</c><00:08:36.560><c> and</c>

07:33.307 --> 07:33.317 align:start position:0%
successful merging of quantum theory and
 

07:33.317 --> 07:35.706 align:start position:0%
successful merging of quantum theory and
general<00:08:37.279><c> relativity</c><00:08:37.919><c> theory</c><00:08:38.399><c> to</c><00:08:38.719><c> properly</c>

07:35.706 --> 07:35.716 align:start position:0%
general relativity theory to properly
 

07:35.716 --> 07:37.627 align:start position:0%
general relativity theory to properly
explain<00:08:39.760><c> what</c><00:08:40.000><c> is</c><00:08:40.159><c> going</c><00:08:40.240><c> on</c><00:08:40.479><c> inside</c><00:08:40.800><c> a</c><00:08:40.959><c> black</c>

07:37.627 --> 07:37.637 align:start position:0%
explain what is going on inside a black
 

07:37.637 --> 07:39.946 align:start position:0%
explain what is going on inside a black
hole.<00:08:41.919><c> And</c><00:08:42.080><c> we</c><00:08:42.320><c> have</c><00:08:42.479><c> not</c><00:08:42.719><c> yet</c><00:08:42.959><c> managed</c><00:08:43.200><c> to</c><00:08:43.360><c> do</c>

07:39.946 --> 07:39.956 align:start position:0%
hole. And we have not yet managed to do
 

07:39.956 --> 07:42.347 align:start position:0%
hole. And we have not yet managed to do
this.<00:08:44.399><c> It</c><00:08:44.640><c> may</c><00:08:44.880><c> one</c><00:08:45.120><c> day</c><00:08:45.279><c> turn</c><00:08:45.519><c> out</c><00:08:45.680><c> that</c>

07:42.347 --> 07:42.357 align:start position:0%
this. It may one day turn out that
 

07:42.357 --> 07:44.187 align:start position:0%
this. It may one day turn out that
singularities<00:08:46.640><c> do</c><00:08:46.880><c> not</c><00:08:47.040><c> exist</c><00:08:47.200><c> in</c><00:08:47.360><c> the</c><00:08:47.519><c> hearts</c>

07:44.187 --> 07:44.197 align:start position:0%
singularities do not exist in the hearts
 

07:44.197 --> 07:46.427 align:start position:0%
singularities do not exist in the hearts
of<00:08:47.920><c> black</c><00:08:48.080><c> holes</c><00:08:48.399><c> at</c><00:08:48.640><c> all.</c><00:08:49.360><c> But</c><00:08:49.519><c> this</c><00:08:49.680><c> is</c><00:08:49.760><c> the</c>

07:46.427 --> 07:46.437 align:start position:0%
of black holes at all. But this is the
 

07:46.437 --> 07:49.467 align:start position:0%
of black holes at all. But this is the
extent<00:08:50.320><c> of</c><00:08:50.480><c> our</c><00:08:50.640><c> knowledge</c><00:08:51.040><c> so</c><00:08:51.360><c> far.</c><00:08:52.720><c> Well,</c>

07:49.467 --> 07:49.477 align:start position:0%
extent of our knowledge so far. Well,
 

07:49.477 --> 07:51.467 align:start position:0%
extent of our knowledge so far. Well,
whatever<00:08:53.440><c> it</c><00:08:53.600><c> is</c><00:08:53.760><c> that</c><00:08:54.000><c> lies</c><00:08:54.320><c> inside</c><00:08:54.640><c> a</c><00:08:54.880><c> black</c>

07:51.467 --> 07:51.477 align:start position:0%
whatever it is that lies inside a black
 

07:51.477 --> 07:54.266 align:start position:0%
whatever it is that lies inside a black
hole,<00:08:55.839><c> it</c><00:08:56.160><c> powers</c><00:08:56.560><c> our</c><00:08:56.959><c> faster</c><00:08:57.360><c> than</c><00:08:57.600><c> light</c>

07:54.266 --> 07:54.276 align:start position:0%
hole, it powers our faster than light
 

07:54.276 --> 07:56.667 align:start position:0%
hole, it powers our faster than light
engine.<00:08:58.640><c> Because</c><00:08:58.959><c> like</c><00:08:59.200><c> most</c><00:08:59.519><c> objects</c><00:08:59.839><c> in</c><00:09:00.080><c> the</c>

07:56.667 --> 07:56.677 align:start position:0%
engine. Because like most objects in the
 

07:56.677 --> 07:59.547 align:start position:0%
engine. Because like most objects in the
universe,<00:09:00.720><c> it</c><00:09:00.959><c> spins.</c><00:09:02.000><c> And</c><00:09:02.320><c> oh,</c><00:09:02.640><c> does</c><00:09:02.880><c> it</c>

07:59.547 --> 07:59.557 align:start position:0%
universe, it spins. And oh, does it
 

07:59.557 --> 08:01.067 align:start position:0%
universe, it spins. And oh, does it
spin.

08:01.067 --> 08:01.077 align:start position:0%
spin.
 

08:01.077 --> 08:02.987 align:start position:0%
spin.
As<00:09:04.880><c> we</c><00:09:05.120><c> travel</c><00:09:05.440><c> out</c><00:09:05.680><c> from</c><00:09:05.839><c> the</c><00:09:06.080><c> center</c><00:09:06.240><c> of</c><00:09:06.399><c> the</c>

08:02.987 --> 08:02.997 align:start position:0%
As we travel out from the center of the
 

08:02.997 --> 08:04.907 align:start position:0%
As we travel out from the center of the
black<00:09:06.720><c> hole,</c><00:09:07.200><c> we</c><00:09:07.519><c> pass</c><00:09:07.760><c> through</c><00:09:08.000><c> the</c><00:09:08.240><c> event</c>

08:04.907 --> 08:04.917 align:start position:0%
black hole, we pass through the event
 

08:04.917 --> 08:07.307 align:start position:0%
black hole, we pass through the event
horizon<00:09:08.959><c> with</c><00:09:09.200><c> little</c><00:09:09.440><c> fanfare.</c><00:09:10.399><c> The</c><00:09:10.640><c> event</c>

08:07.307 --> 08:07.317 align:start position:0%
horizon with little fanfare. The event
 

08:07.317 --> 08:09.147 align:start position:0%
horizon with little fanfare. The event
horizon<00:09:11.360><c> actually</c><00:09:11.760><c> cannot</c><00:09:12.080><c> be</c><00:09:12.240><c> detected</c>

08:09.147 --> 08:09.157 align:start position:0%
horizon actually cannot be detected
 

08:09.157 --> 08:11.307 align:start position:0%
horizon actually cannot be detected
locally.<00:09:13.519><c> Although</c><00:09:13.839><c> a</c><00:09:14.000><c> person</c><00:09:14.240><c> outside</c><00:09:14.640><c> the</c>

08:11.307 --> 08:11.317 align:start position:0%
locally. Although a person outside the
 

08:11.317 --> 08:13.386 align:start position:0%
locally. Although a person outside the
black<00:09:15.040><c> hole</c><00:09:15.360><c> might</c><00:09:15.680><c> watch</c><00:09:15.920><c> you</c><00:09:16.160><c> slow</c><00:09:16.480><c> down</c><00:09:16.720><c> to</c>

08:13.386 --> 08:13.396 align:start position:0%
black hole might watch you slow down to
 

08:13.396 --> 08:15.307 align:start position:0%
black hole might watch you slow down to
a<00:09:17.200><c> complete</c><00:09:17.600><c> stop</c><00:09:17.920><c> as</c><00:09:18.160><c> you</c><00:09:18.399><c> travel</c><00:09:18.640><c> through</c>

08:15.307 --> 08:15.317 align:start position:0%
a complete stop as you travel through
 

08:15.317 --> 08:17.627 align:start position:0%
a complete stop as you travel through
it.<00:09:19.600><c> From</c><00:09:19.839><c> your</c><00:09:20.080><c> perspective,</c><00:09:20.720><c> it</c><00:09:20.959><c> actually</c>

08:17.627 --> 08:17.637 align:start position:0%
it. From your perspective, it actually
 

08:17.637 --> 08:19.067 align:start position:0%
it. From your perspective, it actually
might<00:09:21.440><c> seem</c><00:09:21.680><c> like</c><00:09:21.920><c> time</c><00:09:22.160><c> is</c><00:09:22.320><c> flowing</c>

08:19.067 --> 08:19.077 align:start position:0%
might seem like time is flowing
 

08:19.077 --> 08:21.946 align:start position:0%
might seem like time is flowing
normally.<00:09:23.760><c> Normally,</c><00:09:24.320><c> that</c><00:09:24.560><c> is</c><00:09:24.959><c> until</c><00:09:25.279><c> the</c>

08:21.946 --> 08:21.956 align:start position:0%
normally. Normally, that is until the
 

08:21.956 --> 08:24.347 align:start position:0%
normally. Normally, that is until the
universe<00:09:25.920><c> outside</c><00:09:26.399><c> the</c><00:09:26.640><c> black</c><00:09:26.800><c> hole</c><00:09:27.360><c> runs</c><00:09:27.680><c> its</c>

08:24.347 --> 08:24.357 align:start position:0%
universe outside the black hole runs its
 

08:24.357 --> 08:26.507 align:start position:0%
universe outside the black hole runs its
course<00:09:28.240><c> in</c><00:09:28.480><c> an</c><00:09:28.720><c> instant</c><00:09:29.360><c> because</c><00:09:29.760><c> time</c>

08:26.507 --> 08:26.517 align:start position:0%
course in an instant because time
 

08:26.517 --> 08:28.747 align:start position:0%
course in an instant because time
outside<00:09:30.480><c> the</c><00:09:30.720><c> black</c><00:09:30.880><c> hole</c><00:09:31.200><c> is</c><00:09:31.519><c> traveling</c><00:09:32.000><c> so</c>

08:28.747 --> 08:28.757 align:start position:0%
outside the black hole is traveling so
 

08:28.757 --> 08:31.627 align:start position:0%
outside the black hole is traveling so
fast<00:09:32.720><c> compared</c><00:09:33.120><c> to</c><00:09:33.279><c> you.</c><00:09:34.399><c> This</c><00:09:34.640><c> is</c><00:09:34.880><c> the</c>

08:31.627 --> 08:31.637 align:start position:0%
fast compared to you. This is the
 

08:31.637 --> 08:33.867 align:start position:0%
fast compared to you. This is the
essence<00:09:35.440><c> of</c><00:09:35.680><c> relativity</c><00:09:36.560><c> and</c><00:09:36.800><c> we</c><00:09:36.959><c> talk</c><00:09:37.200><c> about</c>

08:33.867 --> 08:33.877 align:start position:0%
essence of relativity and we talk about
 

08:33.877 --> 08:35.787 align:start position:0%
essence of relativity and we talk about
it<00:09:37.600><c> in</c><00:09:37.839><c> another</c><00:09:38.080><c> of</c><00:09:38.320><c> my</c><00:09:38.480><c> videos</c><00:09:38.880><c> which</c><00:09:39.120><c> you</c><00:09:39.279><c> can</c>

08:35.787 --> 08:35.797 align:start position:0%
it in another of my videos which you can
 

08:35.797 --> 08:38.027 align:start position:0%
it in another of my videos which you can
look<00:09:39.519><c> at</c><00:09:39.760><c> here.</c>

08:38.027 --> 08:38.037 align:start position:0%
look at here.
 

08:38.037 --> 08:40.587 align:start position:0%
look at here.
In<00:09:41.839><c> fact,</c><00:09:42.320><c> the</c><00:09:42.720><c> only</c><00:09:42.959><c> evidence</c><00:09:43.440><c> you</c><00:09:43.839><c> might</c>

08:40.587 --> 08:40.597 align:start position:0%
In fact, the only evidence you might
 

08:40.597 --> 08:42.107 align:start position:0%
In fact, the only evidence you might
have<00:09:44.399><c> that</c><00:09:44.640><c> you've</c><00:09:44.959><c> passed</c><00:09:45.200><c> the</c><00:09:45.360><c> event</c>

08:42.107 --> 08:42.117 align:start position:0%
have that you've passed the event
 

08:42.117 --> 08:44.266 align:start position:0%
have that you've passed the event
horizon<00:09:46.080><c> at</c><00:09:46.320><c> all</c><00:09:46.800><c> is</c><00:09:47.120><c> because</c><00:09:47.360><c> of</c><00:09:47.519><c> something</c>

08:44.266 --> 08:44.276 align:start position:0%
horizon at all is because of something
 

08:44.276 --> 08:47.067 align:start position:0%
horizon at all is because of something
that<00:09:48.080><c> exists</c><00:09:48.560><c> just</c><00:09:48.880><c> outside</c><00:09:49.360><c> it,</c><00:09:49.920><c> the</c><00:09:50.160><c> photon</c>

08:47.067 --> 08:47.077 align:start position:0%
that exists just outside it, the photon
 

08:47.077 --> 08:48.747 align:start position:0%
that exists just outside it, the photon
sphere.

08:48.747 --> 08:48.757 align:start position:0%
sphere.
 

08:48.757 --> 08:50.587 align:start position:0%
sphere.
In<00:09:52.480><c> a</c><00:09:52.640><c> zone</c><00:09:52.959><c> just</c><00:09:53.279><c> outside</c><00:09:53.680><c> the</c><00:09:53.920><c> event</c>

08:50.587 --> 08:50.597 align:start position:0%
In a zone just outside the event
 

08:50.597 --> 08:53.386 align:start position:0%
In a zone just outside the event
horizon,<00:09:54.959><c> there</c><00:09:55.200><c> exists</c><00:09:55.519><c> a</c><00:09:55.839><c> point</c><00:09:56.000><c> in</c><00:09:56.320><c> space</c>

08:53.386 --> 08:53.396 align:start position:0%
horizon, there exists a point in space
 

08:53.396 --> 08:55.867 align:start position:0%
horizon, there exists a point in space
where<00:09:57.200><c> if</c><00:09:57.440><c> a</c><00:09:57.600><c> photon</c><00:09:58.080><c> enters</c><00:09:58.399><c> it</c><00:09:58.640><c> at</c><00:09:58.959><c> just</c><00:09:59.200><c> the</c>

08:55.867 --> 08:55.877 align:start position:0%
where if a photon enters it at just the
 

08:55.877 --> 08:58.347 align:start position:0%
where if a photon enters it at just the
right<00:09:59.680><c> angle,</c><00:10:00.480><c> it</c><00:10:00.720><c> will</c><00:10:00.880><c> enter</c><00:10:01.200><c> a</c><00:10:01.519><c> perfect</c>

08:58.347 --> 08:58.357 align:start position:0%
right angle, it will enter a perfect
 

08:58.357 --> 09:00.747 align:start position:0%
right angle, it will enter a perfect
orbit<00:10:02.399><c> around</c><00:10:02.640><c> the</c><00:10:02.880><c> black</c><00:10:03.120><c> hole</c><00:10:03.680><c> in</c><00:10:03.920><c> much</c><00:10:04.160><c> the</c>

09:00.747 --> 09:00.757 align:start position:0%
orbit around the black hole in much the
 

09:00.757 --> 09:02.667 align:start position:0%
orbit around the black hole in much the
same<00:10:04.480><c> way</c><00:10:04.640><c> the</c><00:10:04.880><c> moon</c><00:10:05.279><c> perfectly</c><00:10:05.680><c> orbits</c><00:10:06.080><c> the</c>

09:02.667 --> 09:02.677 align:start position:0%
same way the moon perfectly orbits the
 

09:02.677 --> 09:06.187 align:start position:0%
same way the moon perfectly orbits the
Earth.<00:10:07.360><c> This</c><00:10:07.760><c> infiniteesimally</c><00:10:08.880><c> thin</c><00:10:09.200><c> zone</c>

09:06.187 --> 09:06.197 align:start position:0%
Earth. This infiniteesimally thin zone
 

09:06.197 --> 09:08.667 align:start position:0%
Earth. This infiniteesimally thin zone
is<00:10:10.000><c> known</c><00:10:10.240><c> as</c><00:10:10.399><c> the</c><00:10:10.560><c> photon</c><00:10:11.040><c> sphere.</c><00:10:11.760><c> And</c><00:10:11.920><c> given</c>

09:08.667 --> 09:08.677 align:start position:0%
is known as the photon sphere. And given
 

09:08.677 --> 09:10.427 align:start position:0%
is known as the photon sphere. And given
the<00:10:12.399><c> number</c><00:10:12.560><c> of</c><00:10:12.720><c> photons</c><00:10:13.200><c> that</c><00:10:13.440><c> have</c><00:10:13.600><c> flown</c>

09:10.427 --> 09:10.437 align:start position:0%
the number of photons that have flown
 

09:10.437 --> 09:12.747 align:start position:0%
the number of photons that have flown
past<00:10:14.399><c> black</c><00:10:14.640><c> holes</c><00:10:15.040><c> in</c><00:10:15.279><c> all</c><00:10:15.519><c> the</c><00:10:15.760><c> millions</c><00:10:16.079><c> of</c>

09:12.747 --> 09:12.757 align:start position:0%
past black holes in all the millions of
 

09:12.757 --> 09:15.147 align:start position:0%
past black holes in all the millions of
years<00:10:16.480><c> they</c><00:10:16.720><c> have</c><00:10:16.880><c> existed,</c><00:10:17.680><c> it</c><00:10:17.920><c> is</c><00:10:18.079><c> probably</c>

09:15.147 --> 09:15.157 align:start position:0%
years they have existed, it is probably
 

09:15.157 --> 09:17.547 align:start position:0%
years they have existed, it is probably
filled<00:10:19.040><c> with</c><00:10:19.360><c> photons.</c><00:10:20.560><c> It</c><00:10:20.720><c> is</c><00:10:20.880><c> quite</c>

09:17.547 --> 09:17.557 align:start position:0%
filled with photons. It is quite
 

09:17.557 --> 09:19.706 align:start position:0%
filled with photons. It is quite
possible<00:10:21.519><c> that</c><00:10:21.839><c> you</c><00:10:22.079><c> would</c><00:10:22.240><c> be</c><00:10:22.640><c> instantly</c>

09:19.706 --> 09:19.716 align:start position:0%
possible that you would be instantly
 

09:19.716 --> 09:22.747 align:start position:0%
possible that you would be instantly
fried<00:10:23.680><c> as</c><00:10:23.920><c> you</c><00:10:24.079><c> pass</c><00:10:24.320><c> through</c><00:10:24.560><c> this</c><00:10:24.800><c> point.</c>

09:22.747 --> 09:22.757 align:start position:0%
fried as you pass through this point.
 

09:22.757 --> 09:25.547 align:start position:0%
fried as you pass through this point.
However,<00:10:26.880><c> it</c><00:10:27.120><c> is</c><00:10:27.360><c> just</c><00:10:27.760><c> outside</c><00:10:28.320><c> here</c><00:10:28.640><c> that</c><00:10:28.959><c> we</c>

09:25.547 --> 09:25.557 align:start position:0%
However, it is just outside here that we
 

09:25.557 --> 09:28.107 align:start position:0%
However, it is just outside here that we
find<00:10:29.360><c> the</c><00:10:29.600><c> zone</c><00:10:29.839><c> that</c><00:10:30.160><c> interests</c><00:10:30.640><c> us,</c><00:10:31.279><c> the</c>

09:28.107 --> 09:28.117 align:start position:0%
find the zone that interests us, the
 

09:28.117 --> 09:29.946 align:start position:0%
find the zone that interests us, the
ergosphere.

09:29.946 --> 09:29.956 align:start position:0%
ergosphere.
 

09:29.956 --> 09:31.547 align:start position:0%
ergosphere.
This<00:10:33.680><c> is</c><00:10:33.839><c> the</c><00:10:34.000><c> zone</c><00:10:34.240><c> around</c><00:10:34.480><c> a</c><00:10:34.720><c> black</c><00:10:34.880><c> hole</c>

09:31.547 --> 09:31.557 align:start position:0%
This is the zone around a black hole
 

09:31.557 --> 09:33.467 align:start position:0%
This is the zone around a black hole
where<00:10:35.360><c> we</c><00:10:35.600><c> can</c><00:10:35.680><c> most</c><00:10:36.000><c> easily</c><00:10:36.399><c> detect</c><00:10:36.800><c> its</c>

09:33.467 --> 09:33.477 align:start position:0%
where we can most easily detect its
 

09:33.477 --> 09:36.747 align:start position:0%
where we can most easily detect its
spin.<00:10:37.920><c> And</c><00:10:38.079><c> this</c><00:10:38.240><c> is</c><00:10:38.480><c> because</c><00:10:39.200><c> in</c><00:10:39.440><c> this</c><00:10:39.680><c> zone</c>

09:36.747 --> 09:36.757 align:start position:0%
spin. And this is because in this zone
 

09:36.757 --> 09:40.266 align:start position:0%
spin. And this is because in this zone
it<00:10:40.560><c> is</c><00:10:40.720><c> impossible</c><00:10:41.200><c> for</c><00:10:41.519><c> us</c><00:10:41.839><c> not</c><00:10:42.160><c> to</c><00:10:42.320><c> move.</c><00:10:43.680><c> You</c>

09:40.266 --> 09:40.276 align:start position:0%
it is impossible for us not to move. You
 

09:40.276 --> 09:43.386 align:start position:0%
it is impossible for us not to move. You
see,<00:10:44.240><c> mass</c><00:10:44.640><c> affects</c><00:10:45.120><c> space.</c><00:10:46.079><c> We</c><00:10:46.320><c> see</c><00:10:46.480><c> this</c><00:10:46.720><c> in</c>

09:43.386 --> 09:43.396 align:start position:0%
see, mass affects space. We see this in
 

09:43.396 --> 09:45.547 align:start position:0%
see, mass affects space. We see this in
the<00:10:47.120><c> curving</c><00:10:47.600><c> effect</c><00:10:47.920><c> of</c><00:10:48.160><c> gravity</c><00:10:48.640><c> on</c><00:10:48.880><c> the</c>

09:45.547 --> 09:45.557 align:start position:0%
the curving effect of gravity on the
 

09:45.557 --> 09:47.627 align:start position:0%
the curving effect of gravity on the
travel<00:10:49.360><c> of</c><00:10:49.600><c> objects</c><00:10:50.160><c> through</c><00:10:50.399><c> that</c><00:10:50.640><c> region</c><00:10:50.959><c> of</c>

09:47.627 --> 09:47.637 align:start position:0%
travel of objects through that region of
 

09:47.637 --> 09:50.187 align:start position:0%
travel of objects through that region of
space.<00:10:52.399><c> However,</c><00:10:52.880><c> it</c><00:10:53.120><c> might</c><00:10:53.360><c> be</c><00:10:53.519><c> more</c>

09:50.187 --> 09:50.197 align:start position:0%
space. However, it might be more
 

09:50.197 --> 09:52.987 align:start position:0%
space. However, it might be more
accurate<00:10:54.160><c> to</c><00:10:54.399><c> say</c><00:10:54.640><c> that</c><00:10:54.880><c> mass</c><00:10:55.600><c> drags</c><00:10:56.079><c> on</c><00:10:56.320><c> the</c>

09:52.987 --> 09:52.997 align:start position:0%
accurate to say that mass drags on the
 

09:52.997 --> 09:55.547 align:start position:0%
accurate to say that mass drags on the
space<00:10:56.800><c> around</c><00:10:57.120><c> it.</c><00:10:58.160><c> As</c><00:10:58.320><c> it</c><00:10:58.560><c> moves</c><00:10:58.800><c> through</c>

09:55.547 --> 09:55.557 align:start position:0%
space around it. As it moves through
 

09:55.557 --> 09:57.946 align:start position:0%
space around it. As it moves through
space,<00:10:59.920><c> it</c><00:11:00.160><c> brings</c><00:11:00.399><c> a</c><00:11:00.720><c> little</c><00:11:00.880><c> bit</c><00:11:01.120><c> of</c><00:11:01.279><c> that</c>

09:57.946 --> 09:57.956 align:start position:0%
space, it brings a little bit of that
 

09:57.956 --> 10:00.427 align:start position:0%
space, it brings a little bit of that
space<00:11:01.839><c> along</c><00:11:02.160><c> with</c><00:11:02.320><c> it</c><00:11:02.560><c> for</c><00:11:02.720><c> the</c><00:11:02.880><c> ride.</c><00:11:03.839><c> And</c>

10:00.427 --> 10:00.437 align:start position:0%
space along with it for the ride. And
 

10:00.437 --> 10:02.506 align:start position:0%
space along with it for the ride. And
when<00:11:04.240><c> an</c><00:11:04.480><c> object</c><00:11:04.800><c> as</c><00:11:05.120><c> massive</c><00:11:05.440><c> as</c><00:11:05.680><c> a</c><00:11:05.839><c> black</c>

10:02.506 --> 10:02.516 align:start position:0%
when an object as massive as a black
 

10:02.516 --> 10:05.467 align:start position:0%
when an object as massive as a black
hole<00:11:06.560><c> spins,</c><00:11:07.360><c> there</c><00:11:07.519><c> is</c><00:11:07.680><c> an</c><00:11:07.920><c> effect</c><00:11:08.399><c> known</c><00:11:08.720><c> as</c>

10:05.467 --> 10:05.477 align:start position:0%
hole spins, there is an effect known as
 

10:05.477 --> 10:08.506 align:start position:0%
hole spins, there is an effect known as
frame<00:11:09.440><c> dragging.</c><00:11:10.720><c> To</c><00:11:10.959><c> put</c><00:11:11.120><c> it</c><00:11:11.279><c> simply,</c>

10:08.506 --> 10:08.516 align:start position:0%
frame dragging. To put it simply,
 

10:08.516 --> 10:10.987 align:start position:0%
frame dragging. To put it simply,
reality<00:11:12.720><c> around</c><00:11:13.040><c> the</c><00:11:13.360><c> black</c><00:11:13.519><c> hole</c><00:11:14.000><c> begins</c><00:11:14.320><c> to</c>

10:10.987 --> 10:10.997 align:start position:0%
reality around the black hole begins to
 

10:10.997 --> 10:13.627 align:start position:0%
reality around the black hole begins to
spin<00:11:14.880><c> in</c><00:11:15.120><c> a</c><00:11:15.279><c> whirlpool</c><00:11:16.079><c> that</c><00:11:16.560><c> cannot</c><00:11:17.040><c> be</c>

10:13.627 --> 10:13.637 align:start position:0%
spin in a whirlpool that cannot be
 

10:13.637 --> 10:16.427 align:start position:0%
spin in a whirlpool that cannot be
fought<00:11:17.519><c> against.</c><00:11:18.959><c> Much</c><00:11:19.279><c> like</c><00:11:19.440><c> a</c><00:11:19.760><c> real</c>

10:16.427 --> 10:16.437 align:start position:0%
fought against. Much like a real
 

10:16.437 --> 10:18.587 align:start position:0%
fought against. Much like a real
whirlpool,<00:11:20.959><c> anything</c><00:11:21.360><c> caught</c><00:11:21.680><c> within</c><00:11:21.920><c> the</c>

10:18.587 --> 10:18.597 align:start position:0%
whirlpool, anything caught within the
 

10:18.597 --> 10:21.467 align:start position:0%
whirlpool, anything caught within the
ergosphere<00:11:22.959><c> is</c><00:11:23.279><c> spun</c><00:11:23.680><c> around</c><00:11:23.920><c> the</c><00:11:24.160><c> black</c><00:11:24.320><c> hole</c>

10:21.467 --> 10:21.477 align:start position:0%
ergosphere is spun around the black hole
 

10:21.477 --> 10:23.386 align:start position:0%
ergosphere is spun around the black hole
because<00:11:25.360><c> the</c><00:11:25.600><c> frame</c><00:11:25.920><c> of</c><00:11:26.079><c> reference</c><00:11:26.480><c> it</c><00:11:26.720><c> sits</c>

10:23.386 --> 10:23.396 align:start position:0%
because the frame of reference it sits
 

10:23.396 --> 10:25.867 align:start position:0%
because the frame of reference it sits
in<00:11:27.279><c> is</c><00:11:27.680><c> being</c><00:11:27.920><c> pulled.</c>

10:25.867 --> 10:25.877 align:start position:0%
in is being pulled.
 

10:25.877 --> 10:28.187 align:start position:0%
in is being pulled.
Sort<00:11:29.760><c> of</c><00:11:29.839><c> like</c><00:11:30.079><c> how</c><00:11:30.320><c> a</c><00:11:30.560><c> person</c><00:11:30.880><c> moves</c><00:11:31.440><c> because</c>

10:28.187 --> 10:28.197 align:start position:0%
Sort of like how a person moves because
 

10:28.197 --> 10:31.467 align:start position:0%
Sort of like how a person moves because
they<00:11:32.000><c> are</c><00:11:32.240><c> standing</c><00:11:32.560><c> on</c><00:11:32.959><c> a</c><00:11:33.200><c> moving</c><00:11:33.600><c> walkway.</c>

10:31.467 --> 10:31.477 align:start position:0%
they are standing on a moving walkway.
 

10:31.477 --> 10:33.307 align:start position:0%
they are standing on a moving walkway.
The<00:11:35.279><c> greater</c><00:11:35.600><c> the</c><00:11:35.839><c> spin</c><00:11:36.160><c> of</c><00:11:36.320><c> the</c><00:11:36.480><c> massive</c>

10:33.307 --> 10:33.317 align:start position:0%
The greater the spin of the massive
 

10:33.317 --> 10:36.107 align:start position:0%
The greater the spin of the massive
object,<00:11:37.519><c> the</c><00:11:37.760><c> faster</c><00:11:38.079><c> this</c><00:11:38.399><c> happens.</c><00:11:39.279><c> And</c><00:11:39.440><c> in</c>

10:36.107 --> 10:36.117 align:start position:0%
object, the faster this happens. And in
 

10:36.117 --> 10:38.427 align:start position:0%
object, the faster this happens. And in
the<00:11:39.920><c> ergosphere,</c><00:11:40.800><c> this</c><00:11:41.040><c> can</c><00:11:41.279><c> occur</c><00:11:41.519><c> at</c><00:11:41.760><c> a</c>

10:38.427 --> 10:38.437 align:start position:0%
the ergosphere, this can occur at a
 

10:38.437 --> 10:41.627 align:start position:0%
the ergosphere, this can occur at a
speed<00:11:42.320><c> so</c><00:11:42.720><c> fast</c><00:11:43.360><c> that</c><00:11:43.680><c> by</c><00:11:43.920><c> the</c><00:11:44.079><c> event</c><00:11:44.399><c> horizon,</c>

10:41.627 --> 10:41.637 align:start position:0%
speed so fast that by the event horizon,
 

10:41.637 --> 10:44.027 align:start position:0%
speed so fast that by the event horizon,
space<00:11:45.519><c> is</c><00:11:45.839><c> moving</c><00:11:46.320><c> faster</c><00:11:46.800><c> than</c><00:11:46.959><c> the</c><00:11:47.200><c> speed</c><00:11:47.440><c> of</c>

10:44.027 --> 10:44.037 align:start position:0%
space is moving faster than the speed of
 

10:44.037 --> 10:46.506 align:start position:0%
space is moving faster than the speed of
light.<00:11:48.560><c> You</c><00:11:48.800><c> would</c><00:11:48.959><c> need</c><00:11:49.040><c> to</c><00:11:49.200><c> travel</c><00:11:49.680><c> faster</c>

10:46.506 --> 10:46.516 align:start position:0%
light. You would need to travel faster
 

10:46.516 --> 10:48.347 align:start position:0%
light. You would need to travel faster
than<00:11:50.240><c> the</c><00:11:50.480><c> speed</c><00:11:50.640><c> of</c><00:11:50.800><c> light</c><00:11:51.040><c> in</c><00:11:51.279><c> the</c><00:11:51.440><c> opposite</c>

10:48.347 --> 10:48.357 align:start position:0%
than the speed of light in the opposite
 

10:48.357 --> 10:50.747 align:start position:0%
than the speed of light in the opposite
direction<00:11:52.640><c> just</c><00:11:52.959><c> to</c><00:11:53.120><c> stay</c><00:11:53.360><c> at</c><00:11:53.600><c> a</c><00:11:53.839><c> relative</c>

10:50.747 --> 10:50.757 align:start position:0%
direction just to stay at a relative
 

10:50.757 --> 10:52.667 align:start position:0%
direction just to stay at a relative
standstill<00:11:54.959><c> from</c><00:11:55.200><c> the</c><00:11:55.440><c> point</c><00:11:55.519><c> of</c><00:11:55.760><c> view</c><00:11:55.920><c> of</c><00:11:56.079><c> the</c>

10:52.667 --> 10:52.677 align:start position:0%
standstill from the point of view of the
 

10:52.677 --> 10:55.067 align:start position:0%
standstill from the point of view of the
outside<00:11:56.640><c> observer,</c><00:11:57.600><c> which</c><00:11:57.839><c> of</c><00:11:58.079><c> course</c><00:11:58.399><c> you</c>

10:55.067 --> 10:55.077 align:start position:0%
outside observer, which of course you
 

10:55.077 --> 10:57.067 align:start position:0%
outside observer, which of course you
cannot<00:11:59.040><c> do.</c>

10:57.067 --> 10:57.077 align:start position:0%
cannot do.
 

10:57.077 --> 10:58.907 align:start position:0%
cannot do.
But<00:12:00.959><c> isn't</c><00:12:01.279><c> this</c><00:12:01.519><c> against</c><00:12:01.760><c> the</c><00:12:02.000><c> laws</c><00:12:02.240><c> of</c>

10:58.907 --> 10:58.917 align:start position:0%
But isn't this against the laws of
 

10:58.917 --> 11:01.467 align:start position:0%
But isn't this against the laws of
physics?<00:12:03.279><c> Doesn't</c><00:12:03.680><c> Einstein</c><00:12:04.399><c> say</c><00:12:04.720><c> that</c>

11:01.467 --> 11:01.477 align:start position:0%
physics? Doesn't Einstein say that
 

11:01.477 --> 11:03.386 align:start position:0%
physics? Doesn't Einstein say that
nothing<00:12:05.440><c> can</c><00:12:05.680><c> travel</c><00:12:06.000><c> faster</c><00:12:06.399><c> than</c><00:12:06.560><c> the</c><00:12:06.800><c> speed</c>

11:03.386 --> 11:03.396 align:start position:0%
nothing can travel faster than the speed
 

11:03.396 --> 11:06.826 align:start position:0%
nothing can travel faster than the speed
of<00:12:07.120><c> light?</c><00:12:08.320><c> The</c><00:12:08.560><c> answer</c><00:12:08.800><c> to</c><00:12:08.959><c> that</c><00:12:09.200><c> is</c><00:12:09.440><c> yes.</c><00:12:10.240><c> But</c>

11:06.826 --> 11:06.836 align:start position:0%
of light? The answer to that is yes. But
 

11:06.836 --> 11:08.587 align:start position:0%
of light? The answer to that is yes. But
black<00:12:10.639><c> holes</c><00:12:11.040><c> have</c><00:12:11.200><c> found</c><00:12:11.440><c> an</c><00:12:11.680><c> interesting</c>

11:08.587 --> 11:08.597 align:start position:0%
black holes have found an interesting
 

11:08.597 --> 11:11.227 align:start position:0%
black holes have found an interesting
loophole.<00:12:13.279><c> You</c><00:12:13.440><c> see,</c><00:12:13.839><c> this</c><00:12:14.079><c> rule</c><00:12:14.480><c> only</c>

11:11.227 --> 11:11.237 align:start position:0%
loophole. You see, this rule only
 

11:11.237 --> 11:14.587 align:start position:0%
loophole. You see, this rule only
applies<00:12:15.279><c> locally.</c><00:12:16.720><c> Right</c><00:12:17.040><c> where</c><00:12:17.279><c> you</c><00:12:17.519><c> are</c><00:12:17.920><c> in</c>

11:14.587 --> 11:14.597 align:start position:0%
applies locally. Right where you are in
 

11:14.597 --> 11:16.826 align:start position:0%
applies locally. Right where you are in
your<00:12:18.320><c> frame</c><00:12:18.639><c> of</c><00:12:18.800><c> reference,</c><00:12:19.680><c> nothing</c><00:12:20.000><c> can</c><00:12:20.240><c> go</c>

11:16.826 --> 11:16.836 align:start position:0%
your frame of reference, nothing can go
 

11:16.836 --> 11:18.907 align:start position:0%
your frame of reference, nothing can go
faster<00:12:20.800><c> than</c><00:12:20.959><c> the</c><00:12:21.120><c> speed</c><00:12:21.360><c> of</c><00:12:21.519><c> light.</c><00:12:22.320><c> But</c>

11:18.907 --> 11:18.917 align:start position:0%
faster than the speed of light. But
 

11:18.917 --> 11:21.867 align:start position:0%
faster than the speed of light. But
thanks<00:12:22.720><c> to</c><00:12:22.880><c> relativity,</c><00:12:24.000><c> it</c><00:12:24.320><c> is</c><00:12:24.639><c> possible</c><00:12:25.120><c> for</c>

11:21.867 --> 11:21.877 align:start position:0%
thanks to relativity, it is possible for
 

11:21.877 --> 11:24.347 align:start position:0%
thanks to relativity, it is possible for
frames<00:12:25.920><c> of</c><00:12:26.320><c> reference</c><00:12:26.959><c> to</c><00:12:27.200><c> move</c><00:12:27.440><c> away</c><00:12:27.680><c> from</c>

11:24.347 --> 11:24.357 align:start position:0%
frames of reference to move away from
 

11:24.357 --> 11:26.587 align:start position:0%
frames of reference to move away from
each<00:12:28.079><c> other</c><00:12:28.320><c> so</c><00:12:28.639><c> fast</c><00:12:29.040><c> that</c><00:12:29.360><c> objects</c><00:12:29.760><c> in</c><00:12:29.920><c> them</c>

11:26.587 --> 11:26.597 align:start position:0%
each other so fast that objects in them
 

11:26.597 --> 11:28.427 align:start position:0%
each other so fast that objects in them
appear<00:12:30.480><c> to</c><00:12:30.639><c> be</c><00:12:30.720><c> breaking</c><00:12:31.040><c> this</c><00:12:31.279><c> light</c><00:12:31.600><c> barrier</c>

11:28.427 --> 11:28.437 align:start position:0%
appear to be breaking this light barrier
 

11:28.437 --> 11:30.907 align:start position:0%
appear to be breaking this light barrier
from<00:12:32.160><c> your</c><00:12:32.399><c> point</c><00:12:32.560><c> of</c><00:12:32.800><c> view.</c>

11:30.907 --> 11:30.917 align:start position:0%
from your point of view.
 

11:30.917 --> 11:33.147 align:start position:0%
from your point of view.
But<00:12:34.720><c> if</c><00:12:34.959><c> you</c><00:12:35.279><c> move</c><00:12:35.519><c> next</c><00:12:35.760><c> to</c><00:12:35.920><c> them</c><00:12:36.160><c> and</c><00:12:36.399><c> entered</c>

11:33.147 --> 11:33.157 align:start position:0%
But if you move next to them and entered
 

11:33.157 --> 11:35.147 align:start position:0%
But if you move next to them and entered
their<00:12:36.959><c> frame</c><00:12:37.279><c> of</c><00:12:37.440><c> reference,</c><00:12:38.320><c> they</c><00:12:38.560><c> would</c>

11:35.147 --> 11:35.157 align:start position:0%
their frame of reference, they would
 

11:35.157 --> 11:36.987 align:start position:0%
their frame of reference, they would
seem<00:12:38.959><c> to</c><00:12:39.120><c> slow</c><00:12:39.440><c> down</c><00:12:39.839><c> and</c><00:12:40.079><c> would</c><00:12:40.320><c> start</c>

11:36.987 --> 11:36.997 align:start position:0%
seem to slow down and would start
 

11:36.997 --> 11:39.867 align:start position:0%
seem to slow down and would start
obeying<00:12:40.880><c> the</c><00:12:41.040><c> laws</c><00:12:41.279><c> of</c><00:12:41.440><c> physics</c><00:12:41.839><c> again.</c><00:12:43.120><c> It's</c>

11:39.867 --> 11:39.877 align:start position:0%
obeying the laws of physics again. It's
 

11:39.877 --> 11:42.027 align:start position:0%
obeying the laws of physics again. It's
a<00:12:43.680><c> really</c><00:12:44.000><c> weird</c><00:12:44.399><c> effect,</c><00:12:44.959><c> but</c><00:12:45.200><c> frame</c>

11:42.027 --> 11:42.037 align:start position:0%
a really weird effect, but frame
 

11:42.037 --> 11:44.747 align:start position:0%
a really weird effect, but frame
dragging<00:12:46.079><c> is</c><00:12:46.320><c> an</c><00:12:46.560><c> actual</c><00:12:46.959><c> thing.</c><00:12:47.680><c> It</c><00:12:47.920><c> is</c><00:12:48.079><c> by</c>

11:44.747 --> 11:44.757 align:start position:0%
dragging is an actual thing. It is by
 

11:44.757 --> 11:47.147 align:start position:0%
dragging is an actual thing. It is by
measuring<00:12:48.880><c> frame</c><00:12:49.279><c> dragging</c><00:12:49.920><c> that</c><00:12:50.240><c> scientists</c>

11:47.147 --> 11:47.157 align:start position:0%
measuring frame dragging that scientists
 

11:47.157 --> 11:50.266 align:start position:0%
measuring frame dragging that scientists
can<00:12:50.959><c> learn</c><00:12:51.200><c> the</c><00:12:51.360><c> spin</c><00:12:51.680><c> of</c><00:12:51.839><c> a</c><00:12:52.079><c> black</c><00:12:52.240><c> hole.</c>

11:50.266 --> 11:50.276 align:start position:0%
can learn the spin of a black hole.
 

11:50.276 --> 11:52.667 align:start position:0%
can learn the spin of a black hole.
However,<00:12:54.399><c> according</c><00:12:54.800><c> to</c><00:12:54.959><c> a</c><00:12:55.279><c> man</c><00:12:55.600><c> called</c><00:12:55.839><c> Roger</c>

11:52.667 --> 11:52.677 align:start position:0%
However, according to a man called Roger
 

11:52.677 --> 11:55.227 align:start position:0%
However, according to a man called Roger
Penrose,<00:12:57.279><c> there</c><00:12:57.600><c> may</c><00:12:57.760><c> even</c><00:12:58.079><c> be</c><00:12:58.240><c> a</c><00:12:58.399><c> way</c><00:12:58.560><c> of</c>

11:55.227 --> 11:55.237 align:start position:0%
Penrose, there may even be a way of
 

11:55.237 --> 11:57.706 align:start position:0%
Penrose, there may even be a way of
exploiting<00:12:59.360><c> it.</c><00:13:00.320><c> If</c><00:13:00.480><c> you</c><00:13:00.639><c> were</c><00:13:00.800><c> to</c><00:13:00.959><c> send</c><00:13:01.120><c> a</c>

11:57.706 --> 11:57.716 align:start position:0%
exploiting it. If you were to send a
 

11:57.716 --> 11:59.227 align:start position:0%
exploiting it. If you were to send a
rocket<00:13:01.680><c> into</c><00:13:01.920><c> this</c><00:13:02.160><c> section</c><00:13:02.399><c> of</c><00:13:02.480><c> the</c>

11:59.227 --> 11:59.237 align:start position:0%
rocket into this section of the
 

11:59.237 --> 12:01.386 align:start position:0%
rocket into this section of the
ergosphere,<00:13:03.600><c> the</c><00:13:03.839><c> rocket</c><00:13:04.160><c> would</c><00:13:04.399><c> speed</c><00:13:04.720><c> up</c>

12:01.386 --> 12:01.396 align:start position:0%
ergosphere, the rocket would speed up
 

12:01.396 --> 12:03.307 align:start position:0%
ergosphere, the rocket would speed up
due<00:13:05.200><c> to</c><00:13:05.360><c> being</c><00:13:05.600><c> caught</c><00:13:05.839><c> in</c><00:13:06.000><c> the</c><00:13:06.160><c> whirlpool</c><00:13:06.720><c> of</c>

12:03.307 --> 12:03.317 align:start position:0%
due to being caught in the whirlpool of
 

12:03.317 --> 12:05.467 align:start position:0%
due to being caught in the whirlpool of
reality.<00:13:07.760><c> Once</c><00:13:08.079><c> it</c><00:13:08.240><c> had</c><00:13:08.399><c> gained</c><00:13:08.720><c> enough</c>

12:05.467 --> 12:05.477 align:start position:0%
reality. Once it had gained enough
 

12:05.477 --> 12:07.547 align:start position:0%
reality. Once it had gained enough
speed,<00:13:09.600><c> it</c><00:13:09.760><c> could</c><00:13:09.920><c> then</c><00:13:10.240><c> fire</c><00:13:10.480><c> a</c><00:13:10.720><c> propellant</c>

12:07.547 --> 12:07.557 align:start position:0%
speed, it could then fire a propellant
 

12:07.557 --> 12:09.307 align:start position:0%
speed, it could then fire a propellant
in<00:13:11.279><c> such</c><00:13:11.519><c> a</c><00:13:11.680><c> direction</c><00:13:12.079><c> that</c><00:13:12.320><c> it</c><00:13:12.560><c> pushed</c>

12:09.307 --> 12:09.317 align:start position:0%
in such a direction that it pushed
 

12:09.317 --> 12:11.627 align:start position:0%
in such a direction that it pushed
itself<00:13:13.279><c> out</c><00:13:13.519><c> of</c><00:13:13.680><c> the</c><00:13:13.760><c> whirlpool</c><00:13:14.399><c> again,</c><00:13:14.959><c> but</c>

12:11.627 --> 12:11.637 align:start position:0%
itself out of the whirlpool again, but
 

12:11.637 --> 12:14.667 align:start position:0%
itself out of the whirlpool again, but
now<00:13:15.519><c> traveling</c><00:13:15.920><c> at</c><00:13:16.160><c> a</c><00:13:16.399><c> much</c><00:13:16.639><c> faster</c><00:13:17.120><c> speed.</c>

12:14.667 --> 12:14.677 align:start position:0%
now traveling at a much faster speed.
 

12:14.677 --> 12:17.706 align:start position:0%
now traveling at a much faster speed.
This<00:13:18.560><c> method,</c><00:13:19.200><c> named</c><00:13:19.519><c> the</c><00:13:19.680><c> Penrose</c><00:13:20.320><c> process,</c>

12:17.706 --> 12:17.716 align:start position:0%
This method, named the Penrose process,
 

12:17.716 --> 12:19.706 align:start position:0%
This method, named the Penrose process,
could<00:13:21.600><c> hypothetically</c><00:13:22.320><c> net</c><00:13:22.639><c> you</c><00:13:22.880><c> energy</c>

12:19.706 --> 12:19.716 align:start position:0%
could hypothetically net you energy
 

12:19.716 --> 12:22.266 align:start position:0%
could hypothetically net you energy
equal<00:13:23.600><c> to</c><00:13:23.760><c> about</c><00:13:24.160><c> 20%</c><00:13:24.880><c> of</c><00:13:25.040><c> the</c><00:13:25.200><c> mass</c><00:13:25.440><c> of</c><00:13:25.600><c> your</c>

12:22.266 --> 12:22.276 align:start position:0%
equal to about 20% of the mass of your
 

12:22.276 --> 12:25.227 align:start position:0%
equal to about 20% of the mass of your
rocket.<00:13:27.200><c> Now</c><00:13:27.760><c> that</c><00:13:28.000><c> might</c><00:13:28.240><c> not</c><00:13:28.399><c> sound</c><00:13:28.639><c> like</c>

12:25.227 --> 12:25.237 align:start position:0%
rocket. Now that might not sound like
 

12:25.237 --> 12:27.227 align:start position:0%
rocket. Now that might not sound like
much,<00:13:29.279><c> but</c><00:13:29.600><c> remember</c><00:13:30.320><c> according</c><00:13:30.639><c> to</c>

12:27.227 --> 12:27.237 align:start position:0%
much, but remember according to
 

12:27.237 --> 12:31.307 align:start position:0%
much, but remember according to
Einstein's<00:13:31.440><c> E=</c><00:13:32.079><c> MC²,</c><00:13:33.279><c> your</c><00:13:33.600><c> 20%</c><00:13:34.240><c> mass</c><00:13:34.560><c> would</c>

12:31.307 --> 12:31.317 align:start position:0%
Einstein's E= MC², your 20% mass would
 

12:31.317 --> 12:34.506 align:start position:0%
Einstein's E= MC², your 20% mass would
produce<00:13:35.200><c> energy</c><00:13:35.680><c> equal</c><00:13:36.000><c> to</c><00:13:36.160><c> itself</c><00:13:36.959><c> times</c><00:13:37.600><c> by</c>

12:34.506 --> 12:34.516 align:start position:0%
produce energy equal to itself times by
 

12:34.516 --> 12:39.467 align:start position:0%
produce energy equal to itself times by
299,792,458

12:39.467 --> 12:39.477 align:start position:0%
 
 

12:39.477 --> 12:43.227 align:start position:0%
 
squared.<00:13:44.399><c> That's</c><00:13:44.720><c> a</c><00:13:44.959><c> lot</c><00:13:45.120><c> of</c><00:13:45.279><c> energy.</c>

12:43.227 --> 12:43.237 align:start position:0%
squared. That's a lot of energy.
 

12:43.237 --> 12:45.946 align:start position:0%
squared. That's a lot of energy.
So<00:13:47.200><c> to</c><00:13:47.519><c> harness</c><00:13:48.000><c> this</c><00:13:48.399><c> colossal</c><00:13:49.040><c> kinetic</c>

12:45.946 --> 12:45.956 align:start position:0%
So to harness this colossal kinetic
 

12:45.956 --> 12:47.867 align:start position:0%
So to harness this colossal kinetic
energy,<00:13:50.320><c> all</c><00:13:50.480><c> you</c><00:13:50.639><c> would</c><00:13:50.800><c> need</c><00:13:50.880><c> to</c><00:13:51.040><c> do</c><00:13:51.200><c> is</c>

12:47.867 --> 12:47.877 align:start position:0%
energy, all you would need to do is
 

12:47.877 --> 12:49.627 align:start position:0%
energy, all you would need to do is
travel<00:13:51.680><c> to</c><00:13:51.839><c> the</c><00:13:52.000><c> nearest</c><00:13:52.320><c> black</c><00:13:52.560><c> hole,</c><00:13:52.959><c> which</c>

12:49.627 --> 12:49.637 align:start position:0%
travel to the nearest black hole, which
 

12:49.637 --> 12:51.946 align:start position:0%
travel to the nearest black hole, which
is<00:13:53.360><c> roughly</c><00:13:53.760><c> 3,000</c><00:13:54.320><c> lighty</c><00:13:54.560><c> years</c><00:13:54.800><c> from</c><00:13:54.959><c> us,</c>

12:51.946 --> 12:51.956 align:start position:0%
is roughly 3,000 lighty years from us,
 

12:51.956 --> 12:54.187 align:start position:0%
is roughly 3,000 lighty years from us,
and<00:13:55.760><c> enter</c><00:13:56.000><c> its</c><00:13:56.240><c> ergosphere</c><00:13:56.959><c> with</c><00:13:57.199><c> a</c><00:13:57.360><c> rocket</c>

12:54.187 --> 12:54.197 align:start position:0%
and enter its ergosphere with a rocket
 

12:54.197 --> 12:55.867 align:start position:0%
and enter its ergosphere with a rocket
capable<00:13:58.079><c> of</c><00:13:58.320><c> surviving</c><00:13:58.800><c> the</c><00:13:59.040><c> intense</c>

12:55.867 --> 12:55.877 align:start position:0%
capable of surviving the intense
 

12:55.877 --> 12:58.747 align:start position:0%
capable of surviving the intense
gravitational<00:14:00.079><c> forces</c><00:14:00.560><c> there.</c><00:14:01.680><c> Ideally,</c><00:14:02.160><c> you</c>

12:58.747 --> 12:58.757 align:start position:0%
gravitational forces there. Ideally, you
 

12:58.757 --> 13:00.266 align:start position:0%
gravitational forces there. Ideally, you
would<00:14:02.480><c> need</c><00:14:02.639><c> to</c><00:14:02.800><c> find</c><00:14:03.040><c> one</c><00:14:03.199><c> that</c><00:14:03.440><c> was</c><00:14:03.600><c> not</c>

13:00.266 --> 13:00.276 align:start position:0%
would need to find one that was not
 

13:00.276 --> 13:02.347 align:start position:0%
would need to find one that was not
surrounded<00:14:04.240><c> by</c><00:14:04.399><c> an</c><00:14:04.560><c> accretion</c><00:14:05.120><c> disc</c><00:14:05.680><c> because</c>

13:02.347 --> 13:02.357 align:start position:0%
surrounded by an accretion disc because
 

13:02.357 --> 13:04.266 align:start position:0%
surrounded by an accretion disc because
those<00:14:06.240><c> get</c><00:14:06.399><c> up</c><00:14:06.560><c> to</c><00:14:06.800><c> temperatures</c><00:14:07.199><c> of</c><00:14:07.440><c> millions</c>

13:04.266 --> 13:04.276 align:start position:0%
those get up to temperatures of millions
 

13:04.276 --> 13:06.667 align:start position:0%
those get up to temperatures of millions
of<00:14:08.079><c> degrees</c><00:14:08.720><c> as</c><00:14:08.880><c> they</c><00:14:09.120><c> are</c><00:14:09.279><c> swung</c><00:14:09.680><c> around</c><00:14:09.920><c> at</c>

13:06.667 --> 13:06.677 align:start position:0%
of degrees as they are swung around at
 

13:06.677 --> 13:08.987 align:start position:0%
of degrees as they are swung around at
near<00:14:10.480><c> light</c><00:14:10.800><c> speeds</c><00:14:11.199><c> and</c><00:14:11.519><c> melt</c><00:14:11.920><c> from</c><00:14:12.160><c> solids</c>

13:08.987 --> 13:08.997 align:start position:0%
near light speeds and melt from solids
 

13:08.997 --> 13:11.626 align:start position:0%
near light speeds and melt from solids
down<00:14:12.800><c> to</c><00:14:13.040><c> gas</c><00:14:13.360><c> and</c><00:14:13.519><c> plasma.</c><00:14:14.560><c> But</c><00:14:14.720><c> you</c><00:14:14.880><c> get</c><00:14:14.959><c> the</c>

13:11.626 --> 13:11.636 align:start position:0%
down to gas and plasma. But you get the
 

13:11.636 --> 13:14.427 align:start position:0%
down to gas and plasma. But you get the
idea.<00:14:15.680><c> Easy.</c>

13:14.427 --> 13:14.437 align:start position:0%
idea. Easy.
 

13:14.437 --> 13:16.747 align:start position:0%
idea. Easy.
Okay,<00:14:18.480><c> maybe</c><00:14:18.800><c> this</c><00:14:19.040><c> is</c><00:14:19.279><c> a</c><00:14:19.519><c> little</c><00:14:19.680><c> impractical</c>

13:16.747 --> 13:16.757 align:start position:0%
Okay, maybe this is a little impractical
 

13:16.757 --> 13:19.467 align:start position:0%
Okay, maybe this is a little impractical
for<00:14:20.560><c> us,</c><00:14:21.360><c> but</c><00:14:21.600><c> the</c><00:14:21.839><c> implications</c><00:14:22.399><c> for</c><00:14:22.720><c> faster</c>

13:19.467 --> 13:19.477 align:start position:0%
for us, but the implications for faster
 

13:19.477 --> 13:21.307 align:start position:0%
for us, but the implications for faster
than<00:14:23.279><c> light</c><00:14:23.519><c> travel</c><00:14:23.920><c> that</c><00:14:24.240><c> black</c><00:14:24.480><c> holes</c>

13:21.307 --> 13:21.317 align:start position:0%
than light travel that black holes
 

13:21.317 --> 13:23.787 align:start position:0%
than light travel that black holes
demonstrate<00:14:25.519><c> through</c><00:14:25.920><c> frame</c><00:14:26.320><c> dragging</c><00:14:27.040><c> might</c>

13:23.787 --> 13:23.797 align:start position:0%
demonstrate through frame dragging might
 

13:23.797 --> 13:26.107 align:start position:0%
demonstrate through frame dragging might
just<00:14:27.600><c> offer</c><00:14:27.839><c> us</c><00:14:28.079><c> the</c><00:14:28.320><c> key</c><00:14:28.560><c> to</c><00:14:28.800><c> one</c><00:14:29.120><c> day</c><00:14:29.360><c> beat</c>

13:26.107 --> 13:26.117 align:start position:0%
just offer us the key to one day beat
 

13:26.117 --> 13:28.826 align:start position:0%
just offer us the key to one day beat
the<00:14:29.839><c> light</c><00:14:30.079><c> barrier</c><00:14:30.480><c> for</c><00:14:30.720><c> real.</c><00:14:31.600><c> Not</c><00:14:31.839><c> by</c><00:14:32.079><c> going</c>

13:28.826 --> 13:28.836 align:start position:0%
the light barrier for real. Not by going
 

13:28.836 --> 13:31.227 align:start position:0%
the light barrier for real. Not by going
faster<00:14:32.800><c> than</c><00:14:32.959><c> light</c><00:14:33.279><c> ourselves,</c><00:14:34.320><c> but</c><00:14:34.560><c> by</c>

13:31.227 --> 13:31.237 align:start position:0%
faster than light ourselves, but by
 

13:31.237 --> 13:33.066 align:start position:0%
faster than light ourselves, but by
somehow<00:14:35.519><c> convincing</c><00:14:36.000><c> the</c><00:14:36.240><c> frame</c><00:14:36.480><c> of</c>

13:33.066 --> 13:33.076 align:start position:0%
somehow convincing the frame of
 

13:33.076 --> 13:35.467 align:start position:0%
somehow convincing the frame of
reference<00:14:37.040><c> we</c><00:14:37.279><c> are</c><00:14:37.440><c> in</c><00:14:37.920><c> to</c><00:14:38.240><c> travel</c><00:14:38.480><c> at</c><00:14:38.800><c> those</c>

13:35.467 --> 13:35.477 align:start position:0%
reference we are in to travel at those
 

13:35.477 --> 13:37.626 align:start position:0%
reference we are in to travel at those
faster<00:14:39.519><c> speeds,</c><00:14:40.160><c> just</c><00:14:40.399><c> like</c><00:14:40.560><c> they</c><00:14:40.800><c> do</c><00:14:40.959><c> around</c>

13:37.626 --> 13:37.636 align:start position:0%
faster speeds, just like they do around
 

13:37.636 --> 13:39.547 align:start position:0%
faster speeds, just like they do around
a<00:14:41.440><c> black</c><00:14:41.600><c> hole.</c>

13:39.547 --> 13:39.557 align:start position:0%
a black hole.
 

13:39.557 --> 13:41.867 align:start position:0%
a black hole.
Of<00:14:43.519><c> course,</c><00:14:44.079><c> if</c><00:14:44.320><c> this</c><00:14:44.560><c> requires</c><00:14:44.959><c> the</c><00:14:45.120><c> energy</c>

13:41.867 --> 13:41.877 align:start position:0%
Of course, if this requires the energy
 

13:41.877 --> 13:44.107 align:start position:0%
Of course, if this requires the energy
of<00:14:45.600><c> a</c><00:14:45.760><c> black</c><00:14:45.920><c> hole</c><00:14:46.160><c> to</c><00:14:46.399><c> accomplish,</c><00:14:47.120><c> we</c><00:14:47.360><c> might</c>

13:44.107 --> 13:44.117 align:start position:0%
of a black hole to accomplish, we might
 

13:44.117 --> 13:46.347 align:start position:0%
of a black hole to accomplish, we might
be<00:14:47.839><c> out</c><00:14:48.000><c> of</c><00:14:48.160><c> luck</c><00:14:48.399><c> for</c><00:14:48.639><c> now.</c><00:14:49.360><c> But</c><00:14:49.519><c> it's</c><00:14:49.760><c> an</c>

13:46.347 --> 13:46.357 align:start position:0%
be out of luck for now. But it's an
 

13:46.357 --> 13:47.946 align:start position:0%
be out of luck for now. But it's an
incredible<00:14:50.480><c> glimpse</c><00:14:50.800><c> into</c><00:14:51.040><c> what</c><00:14:51.279><c> is</c>

13:47.946 --> 13:47.956 align:start position:0%
incredible glimpse into what is
 

13:47.956 --> 13:50.427 align:start position:0%
incredible glimpse into what is
possible,<00:14:52.240><c> and</c><00:14:52.560><c> scientists</c><00:14:53.120><c> are</c><00:14:53.519><c> already</c>

13:50.427 --> 13:50.437 align:start position:0%
possible, and scientists are already
 

13:50.437 --> 13:52.266 align:start position:0%
possible, and scientists are already
looking<00:14:54.240><c> into</c><00:14:54.560><c> the</c><00:14:54.720><c> power</c><00:14:54.959><c> of</c><00:14:55.120><c> frame</c><00:14:55.519><c> dragging</c>

13:52.266 --> 13:52.276 align:start position:0%
looking into the power of frame dragging
 

13:52.276 --> 13:54.747 align:start position:0%
looking into the power of frame dragging
for<00:14:56.079><c> future</c><00:14:56.399><c> travel.</c><00:14:57.519><c> But</c><00:14:57.760><c> maybe</c><00:14:57.920><c> that's</c><00:14:58.160><c> a</c>

13:54.747 --> 13:54.757 align:start position:0%
for future travel. But maybe that's a
 

13:54.757 --> 13:57.147 align:start position:0%
for future travel. But maybe that's a
topic<00:14:58.560><c> for</c><00:14:58.800><c> another</c><00:14:59.120><c> video.</c>

13:57.147 --> 13:57.157 align:start position:0%
topic for another video.
 

13:57.157 --> 13:59.307 align:start position:0%
topic for another video.
Either<00:15:01.040><c> way,</c><00:15:01.519><c> this</c><00:15:01.760><c> all</c><00:15:02.000><c> just</c><00:15:02.240><c> highlights</c>

13:59.307 --> 13:59.317 align:start position:0%
Either way, this all just highlights
 

13:59.317 --> 14:02.027 align:start position:0%
Either way, this all just highlights
once<00:15:03.199><c> again</c><00:15:03.760><c> how</c><00:15:04.079><c> our</c><00:15:04.399><c> universe</c><00:15:05.040><c> really</c><00:15:05.360><c> is</c>

14:02.027 --> 14:02.037 align:start position:0%
once again how our universe really is
 

14:02.037 --> 14:04.027 align:start position:0%
once again how our universe really is
very<00:15:05.920><c> different</c><00:15:06.320><c> from</c><00:15:06.560><c> what</c><00:15:06.800><c> we</c><00:15:07.120><c> might</c><00:15:07.360><c> have</c>

14:04.027 --> 14:04.037 align:start position:0%
very different from what we might have
 

14:04.037 --> 14:14.187 align:start position:0%
very different from what we might have
ever<00:15:07.920><c> imagined.</c>

14:14.187 --> 14:14.197 align:start position:0%
 
 

14:14.197 --> 14:16.347 align:start position:0%
 
If<00:15:18.000><c> you're</c><00:15:18.160><c> a</c><00:15:18.320><c> longtime</c><00:15:18.720><c> viewer</c><00:15:18.959><c> of</c><00:15:19.120><c> Astramm,</c>

14:16.347 --> 14:16.357 align:start position:0%
If you're a longtime viewer of Astramm,
 

14:16.357 --> 14:18.667 align:start position:0%
If you're a longtime viewer of Astramm,
you'll<00:15:20.240><c> already</c><00:15:20.639><c> know</c><00:15:20.880><c> that</c><00:15:21.199><c> Beetlejuice</c><00:15:21.920><c> is</c>

14:18.667 --> 14:18.677 align:start position:0%
you'll already know that Beetlejuice is
 

14:18.677 --> 14:22.747 align:start position:0%
you'll already know that Beetlejuice is
no<00:15:22.639><c> ordinary</c><00:15:23.199><c> star.</c><00:15:24.639><c> Beetlejuice</c><00:15:25.360><c> is</c><00:15:25.600><c> a</c><00:15:25.920><c> red</c>

14:22.747 --> 14:22.757 align:start position:0%
no ordinary star. Beetlejuice is a red
 

14:22.757 --> 14:24.907 align:start position:0%
no ordinary star. Beetlejuice is a red
super<00:15:26.639><c> giant</c><00:15:27.040><c> in</c><00:15:27.199><c> the</c><00:15:27.279><c> Orion</c><00:15:27.760><c> constellation</c>

14:24.907 --> 14:24.917 align:start position:0%
super giant in the Orion constellation
 

14:24.917 --> 14:27.706 align:start position:0%
super giant in the Orion constellation
that's<00:15:28.800><c> just</c><00:15:29.199><c> 650</c><00:15:30.240><c> light</c><00:15:30.560><c> years</c><00:15:30.800><c> away</c><00:15:31.040><c> from</c>

14:27.706 --> 14:27.716 align:start position:0%
that's just 650 light years away from
 

14:27.716 --> 14:30.107 align:start position:0%
that's just 650 light years away from
the<00:15:31.440><c> solar</c><00:15:31.760><c> system,</c><00:15:32.399><c> making</c><00:15:32.720><c> it</c><00:15:32.880><c> the</c><00:15:33.199><c> second</c>

14:30.107 --> 14:30.117 align:start position:0%
the solar system, making it the second
 

14:30.117 --> 14:32.907 align:start position:0%
the solar system, making it the second
largest<00:15:34.480><c> and</c><00:15:34.800><c> 10th</c><00:15:35.279><c> brightest</c><00:15:35.839><c> star</c><00:15:36.079><c> in</c><00:15:36.320><c> the</c>

14:32.907 --> 14:32.917 align:start position:0%
largest and 10th brightest star in the
 

14:32.917 --> 14:35.946 align:start position:0%
largest and 10th brightest star in the
sky,<00:15:37.199><c> not</c><00:15:37.440><c> counting</c><00:15:37.680><c> the</c><00:15:37.920><c> sun.</c><00:15:38.880><c> A</c><00:15:39.120><c> few</c><00:15:39.279><c> years</c>

14:35.946 --> 14:35.956 align:start position:0%
sky, not counting the sun. A few years
 

14:35.956 --> 14:38.347 align:start position:0%
sky, not counting the sun. A few years
ago,<00:15:40.000><c> Beetlejuice</c><00:15:40.639><c> made</c><00:15:40.880><c> headlines</c><00:15:41.440><c> when</c><00:15:41.680><c> the</c>

14:38.347 --> 14:38.357 align:start position:0%
ago, Beetlejuice made headlines when the
 

14:38.357 --> 14:40.187 align:start position:0%
ago, Beetlejuice made headlines when the
bright<00:15:42.240><c> super</c><00:15:42.560><c> giant</c><00:15:43.040><c> appeared</c><00:15:43.360><c> to</c><00:15:43.600><c> be</c>

14:40.187 --> 14:40.197 align:start position:0%
bright super giant appeared to be
 

14:40.197 --> 14:42.347 align:start position:0%
bright super giant appeared to be
getting<00:15:43.920><c> dimmer,</c><00:15:44.800><c> indicating</c><00:15:45.279><c> that</c><00:15:45.519><c> it</c><00:15:45.760><c> might</c>

14:42.347 --> 14:42.357 align:start position:0%
getting dimmer, indicating that it might
 

14:42.357 --> 14:45.547 align:start position:0%
getting dimmer, indicating that it might
be<00:15:46.079><c> about</c><00:15:46.320><c> to</c><00:15:46.560><c> explode</c><00:15:47.040><c> in</c><00:15:47.279><c> a</c><00:15:47.440><c> supernova.</c>

14:45.547 --> 14:45.557 align:start position:0%
be about to explode in a supernova.
 

14:45.557 --> 14:47.706 align:start position:0%
be about to explode in a supernova.
But<00:15:49.519><c> that</c><00:15:49.839><c> wasn't</c><00:15:50.240><c> the</c><00:15:50.480><c> only</c><00:15:50.720><c> surprise</c><00:15:51.120><c> that</c>

14:47.706 --> 14:47.716 align:start position:0%
But that wasn't the only surprise that
 

14:47.716 --> 14:49.227 align:start position:0%
But that wasn't the only surprise that
Beetlejuice<00:15:51.920><c> had</c><00:15:52.160><c> in</c><00:15:52.320><c> store</c><00:15:52.560><c> for</c>

14:49.227 --> 14:49.237 align:start position:0%
Beetlejuice had in store for
 

14:49.237 --> 14:50.747 align:start position:0%
Beetlejuice had in store for
astronomers.

14:50.747 --> 14:50.757 align:start position:0%
astronomers.
 

14:50.757 --> 14:52.427 align:start position:0%
astronomers.
Measurements<00:15:54.800><c> from</c><00:15:54.959><c> the</c><00:15:55.120><c> Elmer</c><00:15:55.600><c> Array</c><00:15:55.839><c> of</c>

14:52.427 --> 14:52.437 align:start position:0%
Measurements from the Elmer Array of
 

14:52.437 --> 14:54.107 align:start position:0%
Measurements from the Elmer Array of
telescopes<00:15:56.800><c> have</c><00:15:57.040><c> detected</c><00:15:57.519><c> that</c>

14:54.107 --> 14:54.117 align:start position:0%
telescopes have detected that
 

14:54.117 --> 14:56.987 align:start position:0%
telescopes have detected that
Beetlejuice<00:15:58.320><c> is</c><00:15:58.480><c> rotating</c><00:15:59.120><c> at</c><00:15:59.360><c> a</c><00:15:59.600><c> mindbending</c>

14:56.987 --> 14:56.997 align:start position:0%
Beetlejuice is rotating at a mindbending
 

14:56.997 --> 15:00.667 align:start position:0%
Beetlejuice is rotating at a mindbending
rate<00:16:00.800><c> of</c><00:16:01.600><c> well,</c><00:16:02.320><c> just</c><00:16:02.560><c> about</c><00:16:02.959><c> once</c><00:16:03.360><c> every</c><00:16:03.920><c> 20</c>

15:00.667 --> 15:00.677 align:start position:0%
rate of well, just about once every 20
 

15:00.677 --> 15:03.867 align:start position:0%
rate of well, just about once every 20
years.<00:16:05.440><c> Okay,</c><00:16:06.160><c> that</c><00:16:06.399><c> might</c><00:16:06.720><c> sound</c><00:16:06.959><c> a</c><00:16:07.279><c> little</c>

15:03.867 --> 15:03.877 align:start position:0%
years. Okay, that might sound a little
 

15:03.877 --> 15:06.506 align:start position:0%
years. Okay, that might sound a little
underwhelming,<00:16:08.480><c> but</c><00:16:08.720><c> for</c><00:16:08.880><c> a</c><00:16:09.120><c> star</c><00:16:09.440><c> the</c><00:16:09.839><c> size</c>

15:06.506 --> 15:06.516 align:start position:0%
underwhelming, but for a star the size
 

15:06.516 --> 15:08.667 align:start position:0%
underwhelming, but for a star the size
of<00:16:10.240><c> Beetlejuice,</c><00:16:11.360><c> this</c><00:16:11.600><c> means</c><00:16:11.839><c> that</c><00:16:12.000><c> the</c>

15:08.667 --> 15:08.677 align:start position:0%
of Beetlejuice, this means that the
 

15:08.677 --> 15:12.506 align:start position:0%
of Beetlejuice, this means that the
surface<00:16:12.639><c> is</c><00:16:12.880><c> spinning</c><00:16:13.279><c> at</c><00:16:13.440><c> a</c><00:16:13.680><c> speed</c><00:16:14.160><c> of</c><00:16:14.720><c> 18,000</c>

15:12.506 --> 15:12.516 align:start position:0%
surface is spinning at a speed of 18,000
 

15:12.516 --> 15:18.347 align:start position:0%
surface is spinning at a speed of 18,000
km<00:16:16.959><c> hour,</c><00:16:17.600><c> or</c><00:16:17.839><c> about</c><00:16:18.320><c> 5</c><00:16:18.880><c> km/</c><00:16:20.079><c> second.</c><00:16:21.360><c> That's</c>

15:18.347 --> 15:18.357 align:start position:0%
km hour, or about 5 km/ second. That's
 

15:18.357 --> 15:20.987 align:start position:0%
km hour, or about 5 km/ second. That's
10<00:16:22.240><c> times</c><00:16:22.720><c> faster</c><00:16:23.120><c> than</c><00:16:23.279><c> our</c><00:16:23.600><c> own</c><00:16:23.839><c> velocity</c><00:16:24.320><c> on</c>

15:20.987 --> 15:20.997 align:start position:0%
10 times faster than our own velocity on
 

15:20.997 --> 15:23.147 align:start position:0%
10 times faster than our own velocity on
the<00:16:24.720><c> surface</c><00:16:24.959><c> of</c><00:16:25.120><c> Earth.</c><00:16:25.680><c> And</c><00:16:25.839><c> for</c><00:16:26.000><c> a</c><00:16:26.240><c> massive</c>

15:23.147 --> 15:23.157 align:start position:0%
the surface of Earth. And for a massive
 

15:23.157 --> 15:26.027 align:start position:0%
the surface of Earth. And for a massive
super<00:16:27.040><c> giant</c><00:16:27.440><c> star,</c><00:16:28.240><c> it</c><00:16:28.560><c> all</c><00:16:28.800><c> but</c><00:16:29.120><c> breaks</c><00:16:29.440><c> the</c>

15:26.027 --> 15:26.037 align:start position:0%
super giant star, it all but breaks the
 

15:26.037 --> 15:28.107 align:start position:0%
super giant star, it all but breaks the
laws<00:16:29.920><c> of</c><00:16:30.079><c> physics.</c>

15:28.107 --> 15:28.117 align:start position:0%
laws of physics.
 

15:28.117 --> 15:30.427 align:start position:0%
laws of physics.
I'm<00:16:32.000><c> Alex</c><00:16:32.399><c> Mccoan</c><00:16:33.120><c> and</c><00:16:33.360><c> you're</c><00:16:33.600><c> watching</c>

15:30.427 --> 15:30.437 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
 

15:30.437 --> 15:33.227 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
Astramm.<00:16:34.959><c> Join</c><00:16:35.279><c> me</c><00:16:35.440><c> today</c><00:16:35.759><c> as</c><00:16:36.000><c> we</c><00:16:36.240><c> dig</c><00:16:36.560><c> into</c>

15:33.227 --> 15:33.237 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join me today as we dig into
 

15:33.237 --> 15:35.946 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join me today as we dig into
the<00:16:37.040><c> unusual</c><00:16:37.839><c> surface</c><00:16:38.160><c> of</c><00:16:38.320><c> Beetlejuice</c><00:16:39.279><c> and</c>

15:35.946 --> 15:35.956 align:start position:0%
the unusual surface of Beetlejuice and
 

15:35.956 --> 15:38.266 align:start position:0%
the unusual surface of Beetlejuice and
the<00:16:39.759><c> secrets</c><00:16:40.160><c> behind</c><00:16:40.720><c> its</c><00:16:41.040><c> seemingly</c>

15:38.266 --> 15:38.276 align:start position:0%
the secrets behind its seemingly
 

15:38.276 --> 15:41.946 align:start position:0%
the secrets behind its seemingly
impossible<00:16:42.639><c> rotational</c><00:16:43.440><c> speed.</c>

15:41.946 --> 15:41.956 align:start position:0%
impossible rotational speed.
 

15:41.956 --> 15:45.066 align:start position:0%
impossible rotational speed.
Let's<00:16:45.839><c> start</c><00:16:46.079><c> with</c><00:16:46.240><c> the</c><00:16:46.480><c> basics.</c><00:16:47.759><c> There</c><00:16:48.000><c> are</c><00:16:48.320><c> a</c>

15:45.066 --> 15:45.076 align:start position:0%
Let's start with the basics. There are a
 

15:45.076 --> 15:46.826 align:start position:0%
Let's start with the basics. There are a
couple<00:16:48.880><c> of</c><00:16:49.120><c> different</c><00:16:49.440><c> ways</c><00:16:49.680><c> to</c><00:16:49.920><c> measure</c><00:16:50.240><c> the</c>

15:46.826 --> 15:46.836 align:start position:0%
couple of different ways to measure the
 

15:46.836 --> 15:49.946 align:start position:0%
couple of different ways to measure the
rotation<00:16:50.800><c> of</c><00:16:51.040><c> objects</c><00:16:51.519><c> in</c><00:16:51.759><c> the</c><00:16:51.920><c> night</c><00:16:52.240><c> sky.</c><00:16:53.279><c> If</c>

15:49.946 --> 15:49.956 align:start position:0%
rotation of objects in the night sky. If
 

15:49.956 --> 15:52.587 align:start position:0%
rotation of objects in the night sky. If
the<00:16:53.759><c> object</c><00:16:54.079><c> is</c><00:16:54.399><c> big</c><00:16:54.639><c> enough,</c><00:16:55.120><c> like</c><00:16:55.360><c> the</c><00:16:55.600><c> sun,</c>

15:52.587 --> 15:52.597 align:start position:0%
the object is big enough, like the sun,
 

15:52.597 --> 15:55.147 align:start position:0%
the object is big enough, like the sun,
the<00:16:56.399><c> moon,</c><00:16:56.959><c> or</c><00:16:57.199><c> even</c><00:16:57.440><c> a</c><00:16:57.600><c> planet</c><00:16:57.920><c> in</c><00:16:58.160><c> our</c><00:16:58.399><c> solar</c>

15:55.147 --> 15:55.157 align:start position:0%
the moon, or even a planet in our solar
 

15:55.157 --> 15:57.307 align:start position:0%
the moon, or even a planet in our solar
system,<00:16:59.440><c> it's</c><00:16:59.759><c> easy</c><00:17:00.000><c> enough</c><00:17:00.240><c> to</c><00:17:00.480><c> point</c><00:17:00.720><c> a</c>

15:57.307 --> 15:57.317 align:start position:0%
system, it's easy enough to point a
 

15:57.317 --> 15:59.626 align:start position:0%
system, it's easy enough to point a
telescope<00:17:01.360><c> at</c><00:17:01.600><c> it</c><00:17:01.920><c> and</c><00:17:02.240><c> watch</c><00:17:02.480><c> its</c><00:17:02.720><c> features</c>

15:59.626 --> 15:59.636 align:start position:0%
telescope at it and watch its features
 

15:59.636 --> 16:02.506 align:start position:0%
telescope at it and watch its features
move<00:17:03.519><c> in</c><00:17:03.759><c> real</c><00:17:04.000><c> time.</c><00:17:04.799><c> For</c><00:17:05.120><c> reference,</c><00:17:05.839><c> the</c>

16:02.506 --> 16:02.516 align:start position:0%
move in real time. For reference, the
 

16:02.516 --> 16:04.587 align:start position:0%
move in real time. For reference, the
angular<00:17:06.559><c> diameter</c><00:17:06.959><c> of</c><00:17:07.120><c> the</c><00:17:07.280><c> moon</c><00:17:07.600><c> is</c><00:17:07.839><c> about</c>

16:04.587 --> 16:04.597 align:start position:0%
angular diameter of the moon is about
 

16:04.597 --> 16:06.907 align:start position:0%
angular diameter of the moon is about
half<00:17:08.400><c> a</c><00:17:08.640><c> degree,</c><00:17:09.280><c> and</c><00:17:09.520><c> you</c><00:17:09.760><c> can</c><00:17:09.919><c> probably</c><00:17:10.319><c> make</c>

16:06.907 --> 16:06.917 align:start position:0%
half a degree, and you can probably make
 

16:06.917 --> 16:09.466 align:start position:0%
half a degree, and you can probably make
out<00:17:10.720><c> its</c><00:17:10.959><c> features</c><00:17:11.280><c> with</c><00:17:11.520><c> your</c><00:17:11.760><c> own</c><00:17:11.919><c> eyes.</c>

16:09.466 --> 16:09.476 align:start position:0%
out its features with your own eyes.
 

16:09.476 --> 16:12.187 align:start position:0%
out its features with your own eyes.
Jupiter's<00:17:13.600><c> angular</c><00:17:14.079><c> diameter</c><00:17:14.640><c> comes</c><00:17:14.880><c> in</c><00:17:15.120><c> at</c>

16:12.187 --> 16:12.197 align:start position:0%
Jupiter's angular diameter comes in at
 

16:12.197 --> 16:15.067 align:start position:0%
Jupiter's angular diameter comes in at
100th<00:17:16.400><c> of</c><00:17:16.559><c> a</c><00:17:16.720><c> degree,</c><00:17:17.439><c> but</c><00:17:17.679><c> its</c><00:17:17.919><c> features</c><00:17:18.400><c> are</c>

16:15.067 --> 16:15.077 align:start position:0%
100th of a degree, but its features are
 

16:15.077 --> 16:16.746 align:start position:0%
100th of a degree, but its features are
still<00:17:19.039><c> clearly</c><00:17:19.520><c> visible</c><00:17:19.919><c> through</c><00:17:20.160><c> a</c>

16:16.746 --> 16:16.756 align:start position:0%
still clearly visible through a
 

16:16.756 --> 16:20.587 align:start position:0%
still clearly visible through a
telescope.<00:17:21.600><c> So,</c><00:17:22.240><c> what</c><00:17:22.480><c> about</c><00:17:22.880><c> Beetlejuice?</c>

16:20.587 --> 16:20.597 align:start position:0%
telescope. So, what about Beetlejuice?
 

16:20.597 --> 16:23.866 align:start position:0%
telescope. So, what about Beetlejuice?
The<00:17:24.400><c> super</c><00:17:24.640><c> giant</c><00:17:25.120><c> star</c><00:17:25.520><c> just</c><00:17:26.000><c> 650</c><00:17:27.120><c> lighty</c>

16:23.866 --> 16:23.876 align:start position:0%
The super giant star just 650 lighty
 

16:23.876 --> 16:26.907 align:start position:0%
The super giant star just 650 lighty
years<00:17:27.679><c> away.</c><00:17:28.799><c> For</c><00:17:29.120><c> all</c><00:17:29.440><c> its</c><00:17:29.760><c> size,</c>

16:26.907 --> 16:26.917 align:start position:0%
years away. For all its size,
 

16:26.917 --> 16:29.226 align:start position:0%
years away. For all its size,
Beetlejuice<00:17:31.200><c> is</c><00:17:31.440><c> still</c><00:17:31.760><c> far</c><00:17:32.160><c> enough</c><00:17:32.480><c> away</c>

16:29.226 --> 16:29.236 align:start position:0%
Beetlejuice is still far enough away
 

16:29.236 --> 16:31.947 align:start position:0%
Beetlejuice is still far enough away
from<00:17:33.039><c> Earth</c><00:17:33.520><c> that</c><00:17:33.840><c> its</c><00:17:34.000><c> angular</c><00:17:34.480><c> diameter</c><00:17:35.039><c> is</c>

16:31.947 --> 16:31.957 align:start position:0%
from Earth that its angular diameter is
 

16:31.957 --> 16:35.147 align:start position:0%
from Earth that its angular diameter is
1,000<00:17:36.640><c> times</c><00:17:37.039><c> smaller</c><00:17:37.440><c> than</c><00:17:37.679><c> Jupiter's,</c>

16:35.147 --> 16:35.157 align:start position:0%
1,000 times smaller than Jupiter's,
 

16:35.157 --> 16:38.106 align:start position:0%
1,000 times smaller than Jupiter's,
making<00:17:39.039><c> it</c><00:17:39.280><c> look</c><00:17:39.520><c> like</c><00:17:39.760><c> a</c><00:17:40.080><c> total</c><00:17:40.559><c> blur</c><00:17:41.200><c> to</c><00:17:41.440><c> even</c>

16:38.106 --> 16:38.116 align:start position:0%
making it look like a total blur to even
 

16:38.116 --> 16:40.986 align:start position:0%
making it look like a total blur to even
our<00:17:42.080><c> most</c><00:17:42.320><c> powerful</c><00:17:42.799><c> telescopes.</c>

16:40.986 --> 16:40.996 align:start position:0%
our most powerful telescopes.
 

16:40.996 --> 16:42.986 align:start position:0%
our most powerful telescopes.
Luckily,<00:17:45.440><c> there's</c><00:17:45.679><c> another</c><00:17:46.000><c> way</c><00:17:46.160><c> to</c><00:17:46.320><c> tell</c>

16:42.986 --> 16:42.996 align:start position:0%
Luckily, there's another way to tell
 

16:42.996 --> 16:44.747 align:start position:0%
Luckily, there's another way to tell
whether<00:17:46.799><c> a</c><00:17:47.039><c> star</c><00:17:47.280><c> like</c><00:17:47.440><c> Beetlejuice</c><00:17:48.160><c> is</c>

16:44.747 --> 16:44.757 align:start position:0%
whether a star like Beetlejuice is
 

16:44.757 --> 16:48.027 align:start position:0%
whether a star like Beetlejuice is
rotating.<00:17:49.520><c> It's</c><00:17:49.840><c> less</c><00:17:50.160><c> direct</c><00:17:50.640><c> than</c><00:17:51.039><c> just</c>

16:48.027 --> 16:48.037 align:start position:0%
rotating. It's less direct than just
 

16:48.037 --> 16:50.427 align:start position:0%
rotating. It's less direct than just
well<00:17:52.160><c> looking</c><00:17:52.480><c> at</c><00:17:52.720><c> it,</c><00:17:53.360><c> but</c><00:17:53.520><c> it's</c><00:17:53.760><c> an</c>

16:50.427 --> 16:50.437 align:start position:0%
well looking at it, but it's an
 

16:50.437 --> 16:52.507 align:start position:0%
well looking at it, but it's an
ingenious<00:17:54.559><c> technique</c><00:17:55.039><c> that</c><00:17:55.280><c> relies</c><00:17:55.679><c> on</c><00:17:55.840><c> a</c>

16:52.507 --> 16:52.517 align:start position:0%
ingenious technique that relies on a
 

16:52.517 --> 16:54.427 align:start position:0%
ingenious technique that relies on a
simple<00:17:56.400><c> effect</c><00:17:56.799><c> you</c><00:17:57.120><c> might</c><00:17:57.440><c> have</c><00:17:57.679><c> already</c>

16:54.427 --> 16:54.437 align:start position:0%
simple effect you might have already
 

16:54.437 --> 16:58.027 align:start position:0%
simple effect you might have already
heard<00:17:58.240><c> of,</c><00:17:58.880><c> Doppler</c><00:17:59.440><c> shift.</c><00:18:00.720><c> The</c><00:18:00.960><c> same</c><00:18:01.200><c> effect</c>

16:58.027 --> 16:58.037 align:start position:0%
heard of, Doppler shift. The same effect
 

16:58.037 --> 17:00.106 align:start position:0%
heard of, Doppler shift. The same effect
is<00:18:01.840><c> also</c><00:18:02.160><c> responsible</c><00:18:02.799><c> for</c><00:18:03.039><c> the</c><00:18:03.280><c> change</c><00:18:03.440><c> in</c>

17:00.106 --> 17:00.116 align:start position:0%
is also responsible for the change in
 

17:00.116 --> 17:02.027 align:start position:0%
is also responsible for the change in
pitch<00:18:04.000><c> from</c><00:18:04.240><c> a</c><00:18:04.400><c> siren</c><00:18:04.799><c> as</c><00:18:04.960><c> an</c><00:18:05.120><c> ambulance</c>

17:02.027 --> 17:02.037 align:start position:0%
pitch from a siren as an ambulance
 

17:02.037 --> 17:04.827 align:start position:0%
pitch from a siren as an ambulance
passes<00:18:06.000><c> by.</c><00:18:06.960><c> When</c><00:18:07.120><c> the</c><00:18:07.360><c> ambulance</c><00:18:07.840><c> is</c><00:18:08.080><c> moving</c>

17:04.827 --> 17:04.837 align:start position:0%
passes by. When the ambulance is moving
 

17:04.837 --> 17:07.067 align:start position:0%
passes by. When the ambulance is moving
towards<00:18:08.799><c> you,</c><00:18:09.200><c> the</c><00:18:09.440><c> siren</c><00:18:09.919><c> sounds</c><00:18:10.320><c> higher</c>

17:07.067 --> 17:07.077 align:start position:0%
towards you, the siren sounds higher
 

17:07.077 --> 17:09.147 align:start position:0%
towards you, the siren sounds higher
pitched<00:18:11.200><c> because</c><00:18:11.520><c> the</c><00:18:11.760><c> sound</c><00:18:12.000><c> waves</c><00:18:12.320><c> hit</c><00:18:12.559><c> you</c>

17:09.147 --> 17:09.157 align:start position:0%
pitched because the sound waves hit you
 

17:09.157 --> 17:11.067 align:start position:0%
pitched because the sound waves hit you
at<00:18:12.880><c> a</c><00:18:13.039><c> higher</c><00:18:13.360><c> frequency</c><00:18:14.080><c> than</c><00:18:14.320><c> if</c><00:18:14.480><c> the</c>

17:11.067 --> 17:11.077 align:start position:0%
at a higher frequency than if the
 

17:11.077 --> 17:13.466 align:start position:0%
at a higher frequency than if the
ambulance<00:18:15.120><c> were</c><00:18:15.360><c> standing</c><00:18:15.760><c> still.</c><00:18:16.640><c> But</c><00:18:16.799><c> as</c>

17:13.466 --> 17:13.476 align:start position:0%
ambulance were standing still. But as
 

17:13.476 --> 17:15.387 align:start position:0%
ambulance were standing still. But as
soon<00:18:17.200><c> as</c><00:18:17.360><c> the</c><00:18:17.520><c> ambulance</c><00:18:17.919><c> starts</c><00:18:18.240><c> moving</c><00:18:18.640><c> away</c>

17:15.387 --> 17:15.397 align:start position:0%
soon as the ambulance starts moving away
 

17:15.397 --> 17:18.187 align:start position:0%
soon as the ambulance starts moving away
from<00:18:19.200><c> you,</c><00:18:19.760><c> the</c><00:18:20.000><c> effect</c><00:18:20.400><c> reverses.</c><00:18:21.440><c> Sound</c>

17:18.187 --> 17:18.197 align:start position:0%
from you, the effect reverses. Sound
 

17:18.197 --> 17:20.427 align:start position:0%
from you, the effect reverses. Sound
waves<00:18:22.080><c> hit</c><00:18:22.320><c> you</c><00:18:22.480><c> at</c><00:18:22.640><c> the</c><00:18:22.799><c> lower</c><00:18:23.039><c> frequency</c><00:18:23.840><c> and</c>

17:20.427 --> 17:20.437 align:start position:0%
waves hit you at the lower frequency and
 

17:20.437 --> 17:23.466 align:start position:0%
waves hit you at the lower frequency and
the<00:18:24.240><c> siren</c><00:18:24.720><c> sounds</c><00:18:25.360><c> lower</c><00:18:25.679><c> pitched.</c><00:18:26.480><c> What</c><00:18:26.799><c> you</c>

17:23.466 --> 17:23.476 align:start position:0%
the siren sounds lower pitched. What you
 

17:23.476 --> 17:25.547 align:start position:0%
the siren sounds lower pitched. What you
probably<00:18:27.520><c> wouldn't</c><00:18:27.919><c> notice</c><00:18:28.480><c> is</c><00:18:28.720><c> that</c><00:18:28.960><c> the</c>

17:25.547 --> 17:25.557 align:start position:0%
probably wouldn't notice is that the
 

17:25.557 --> 17:28.187 align:start position:0%
probably wouldn't notice is that the
Doppler<00:18:29.600><c> shift</c><00:18:30.000><c> affects</c><00:18:30.720><c> light</c><00:18:31.120><c> waves</c>

17:28.187 --> 17:28.197 align:start position:0%
Doppler shift affects light waves
 

17:28.197 --> 17:30.667 align:start position:0%
Doppler shift affects light waves
bouncing<00:18:32.240><c> off</c><00:18:32.480><c> the</c><00:18:32.640><c> ambulance</c><00:18:33.520><c> just</c><00:18:33.760><c> like</c><00:18:34.000><c> it</c>

17:30.667 --> 17:30.677 align:start position:0%
bouncing off the ambulance just like it
 

17:30.677 --> 17:32.667 align:start position:0%
bouncing off the ambulance just like it
affects<00:18:34.559><c> the</c><00:18:34.880><c> sound</c><00:18:35.120><c> waves</c><00:18:35.520><c> coming</c><00:18:35.760><c> from</c><00:18:36.000><c> its</c>

17:32.667 --> 17:32.677 align:start position:0%
affects the sound waves coming from its
 

17:32.677 --> 17:35.547 align:start position:0%
affects the sound waves coming from its
siren.<00:18:37.120><c> The</c><00:18:37.360><c> higher</c><00:18:37.760><c> frequency</c><00:18:38.320><c> light</c><00:18:38.720><c> as</c><00:18:38.960><c> the</c>

17:35.547 --> 17:35.557 align:start position:0%
siren. The higher frequency light as the
 

17:35.557 --> 17:38.427 align:start position:0%
siren. The higher frequency light as the
ambulance<00:18:39.760><c> approaches</c><00:18:40.720><c> makes</c><00:18:41.039><c> it</c><00:18:41.200><c> look</c><00:18:41.600><c> ever</c>

17:38.427 --> 17:38.437 align:start position:0%
ambulance approaches makes it look ever
 

17:38.437 --> 17:41.466 align:start position:0%
ambulance approaches makes it look ever
so<00:18:42.240><c> slightly</c><00:18:42.799><c> bluer.</c><00:18:44.000><c> And</c><00:18:44.320><c> as</c><00:18:44.559><c> soon</c><00:18:44.720><c> as</c><00:18:44.799><c> it</c>

17:41.466 --> 17:41.476 align:start position:0%
so slightly bluer. And as soon as it
 

17:41.476 --> 17:43.547 align:start position:0%
so slightly bluer. And as soon as it
starts<00:18:45.280><c> moving</c><00:18:45.600><c> away</c><00:18:45.840><c> from</c><00:18:46.080><c> you,</c><00:18:46.480><c> the</c><00:18:46.799><c> effect</c>

17:43.547 --> 17:43.557 align:start position:0%
starts moving away from you, the effect
 

17:43.557 --> 17:46.187 align:start position:0%
starts moving away from you, the effect
flips<00:18:47.760><c> and</c><00:18:48.000><c> it</c><00:18:48.160><c> looks</c><00:18:48.559><c> ever</c><00:18:48.880><c> so</c><00:18:49.200><c> slightly</c>

17:46.187 --> 17:46.197 align:start position:0%
flips and it looks ever so slightly
 

17:46.197 --> 17:49.147 align:start position:0%
flips and it looks ever so slightly
redder.<00:18:51.200><c> The</c><00:18:51.440><c> only</c><00:18:51.679><c> reason</c><00:18:52.000><c> this</c><00:18:52.320><c> visual</c>

17:49.147 --> 17:49.157 align:start position:0%
redder. The only reason this visual
 

17:49.157 --> 17:51.547 align:start position:0%
redder. The only reason this visual
effect<00:18:53.039><c> isn't</c><00:18:53.520><c> obvious</c><00:18:54.240><c> is</c><00:18:54.559><c> because</c><00:18:54.799><c> the</c>

17:51.547 --> 17:51.557 align:start position:0%
effect isn't obvious is because the
 

17:51.557 --> 17:53.867 align:start position:0%
effect isn't obvious is because the
speed<00:18:55.280><c> of</c><00:18:55.520><c> light</c><00:18:55.840><c> is</c><00:18:56.000><c> a</c><00:18:56.320><c> million</c><00:18:56.720><c> times</c><00:18:57.039><c> faster</c>

17:53.867 --> 17:53.877 align:start position:0%
speed of light is a million times faster
 

17:53.877 --> 17:56.027 align:start position:0%
speed of light is a million times faster
than<00:18:57.600><c> the</c><00:18:57.760><c> speed</c><00:18:58.000><c> of</c><00:18:58.160><c> sound.</c><00:18:58.960><c> So,</c><00:18:59.200><c> it</c><00:18:59.360><c> would</c>

17:56.027 --> 17:56.037 align:start position:0%
than the speed of sound. So, it would
 

17:56.037 --> 17:58.587 align:start position:0%
than the speed of sound. So, it would
take<00:18:59.760><c> a</c><00:19:00.080><c> much</c><00:19:00.559><c> faster</c><00:19:01.039><c> ambulance</c><00:19:01.520><c> for</c><00:19:01.760><c> us</c><00:19:01.919><c> to</c>

17:58.587 --> 17:58.597 align:start position:0%
take a much faster ambulance for us to
 

17:58.597 --> 18:00.587 align:start position:0%
take a much faster ambulance for us to
actually<00:19:02.559><c> notice</c><00:19:02.960><c> the</c><00:19:03.200><c> optical</c><00:19:03.679><c> Doppler</c>

18:00.587 --> 18:00.597 align:start position:0%
actually notice the optical Doppler
 

18:00.597 --> 18:02.027 align:start position:0%
actually notice the optical Doppler
shift.

18:02.027 --> 18:02.037 align:start position:0%
shift.
 

18:02.037 --> 18:04.106 align:start position:0%
shift.
We<00:19:05.919><c> might</c><00:19:06.160><c> not</c><00:19:06.400><c> have</c><00:19:06.640><c> ambulances</c><00:19:07.280><c> here</c><00:19:07.440><c> on</c>

18:04.106 --> 18:04.116 align:start position:0%
We might not have ambulances here on
 

18:04.116 --> 18:07.547 align:start position:0%
We might not have ambulances here on
Earth<00:19:08.000><c> flying</c><00:19:08.400><c> by</c><00:19:08.720><c> 5</c><00:19:08.960><c> km/s,</c><00:19:10.400><c> but</c><00:19:10.640><c> those</c><00:19:10.960><c> kind</c>

18:07.547 --> 18:07.557 align:start position:0%
Earth flying by 5 km/s, but those kind
 

18:07.557 --> 18:10.587 align:start position:0%
Earth flying by 5 km/s, but those kind
of<00:19:11.280><c> speeds</c><00:19:11.760><c> are</c><00:19:12.080><c> fair</c><00:19:12.400><c> game</c><00:19:12.720><c> out</c><00:19:12.880><c> in</c><00:19:13.200><c> space.</c>

18:10.587 --> 18:10.597 align:start position:0%
of speeds are fair game out in space.
 

18:10.597 --> 18:13.947 align:start position:0%
of speeds are fair game out in space.
Which<00:19:14.400><c> brings</c><00:19:14.720><c> us</c><00:19:14.960><c> back</c><00:19:15.200><c> to</c><00:19:15.440><c> Beetlejuice.</c>

18:13.947 --> 18:13.957 align:start position:0%
Which brings us back to Beetlejuice.
 

18:13.957 --> 18:16.507 align:start position:0%
Which brings us back to Beetlejuice.
When<00:19:17.679><c> a</c><00:19:17.919><c> star</c><00:19:18.160><c> is</c><00:19:18.400><c> rotating,</c><00:19:19.360><c> half</c><00:19:19.679><c> of</c><00:19:19.840><c> its</c>

18:16.507 --> 18:16.517 align:start position:0%
When a star is rotating, half of its
 

18:16.517 --> 18:19.547 align:start position:0%
When a star is rotating, half of its
surface<00:19:20.480><c> will</c><00:19:20.799><c> be</c><00:19:20.960><c> moving</c><00:19:21.440><c> towards</c><00:19:22.000><c> us</c><00:19:22.799><c> while</c>

18:19.547 --> 18:19.557 align:start position:0%
surface will be moving towards us while
 

18:19.557 --> 18:22.346 align:start position:0%
surface will be moving towards us while
at<00:19:23.360><c> the</c><00:19:23.600><c> same</c><00:19:23.840><c> time</c><00:19:24.480><c> the</c><00:19:24.799><c> other</c><00:19:25.039><c> half</c><00:19:25.360><c> will</c><00:19:25.679><c> be</c>

18:22.346 --> 18:22.356 align:start position:0%
at the same time the other half will be
 

18:22.356 --> 18:25.787 align:start position:0%
at the same time the other half will be
moving<00:19:26.320><c> away.</c><00:19:27.679><c> This</c><00:19:27.919><c> creates</c><00:19:28.400><c> a</c><00:19:28.720><c> gradient</c><00:19:29.200><c> of</c>

18:25.787 --> 18:25.797 align:start position:0%
moving away. This creates a gradient of
 

18:25.797 --> 18:27.947 align:start position:0%
moving away. This creates a gradient of
colors<00:19:29.760><c> emitted</c><00:19:30.240><c> by</c><00:19:30.400><c> the</c><00:19:30.640><c> star</c><00:19:30.960><c> that</c><00:19:31.200><c> we</c><00:19:31.360><c> can</c>

18:27.947 --> 18:27.957 align:start position:0%
colors emitted by the star that we can
 

18:27.957 --> 18:30.747 align:start position:0%
colors emitted by the star that we can
observe<00:19:32.000><c> with</c><00:19:32.240><c> our</c><00:19:32.480><c> telescopes.</c><00:19:33.520><c> Even</c><00:19:33.840><c> if</c><00:19:34.080><c> the</c>

18:30.747 --> 18:30.757 align:start position:0%
observe with our telescopes. Even if the
 

18:30.757 --> 18:32.667 align:start position:0%
observe with our telescopes. Even if the
star<00:19:34.559><c> is</c><00:19:34.720><c> too</c><00:19:34.960><c> blurry</c><00:19:35.280><c> for</c><00:19:35.520><c> us</c><00:19:35.600><c> to</c><00:19:35.760><c> make</c><00:19:36.000><c> out</c>

18:32.667 --> 18:32.677 align:start position:0%
star is too blurry for us to make out
 

18:32.677 --> 18:35.867 align:start position:0%
star is too blurry for us to make out
any<00:19:36.480><c> of</c><00:19:36.640><c> its</c><00:19:36.880><c> distinct</c><00:19:37.280><c> features,</c><00:19:38.720><c> by</c><00:19:39.039><c> seeing</c>

18:35.867 --> 18:35.877 align:start position:0%
any of its distinct features, by seeing
 

18:35.877 --> 18:38.346 align:start position:0%
any of its distinct features, by seeing
which<00:19:39.679><c> side</c><00:19:40.000><c> is</c><00:19:40.240><c> bluer</c><00:19:40.880><c> and</c><00:19:41.120><c> which</c><00:19:41.360><c> side</c><00:19:41.600><c> is</c>

18:38.346 --> 18:38.356 align:start position:0%
which side is bluer and which side is
 

18:38.356 --> 18:40.986 align:start position:0%
which side is bluer and which side is
redder,<00:19:42.799><c> we</c><00:19:43.039><c> can</c><00:19:43.200><c> infer</c><00:19:43.679><c> the</c><00:19:44.000><c> direction</c><00:19:44.320><c> of</c>

18:40.986 --> 18:40.996 align:start position:0%
redder, we can infer the direction of
 

18:40.996 --> 18:43.387 align:start position:0%
redder, we can infer the direction of
rotation.<00:19:45.440><c> And</c><00:19:45.679><c> by</c><00:19:45.919><c> measuring</c><00:19:46.400><c> how</c><00:19:46.720><c> different</c>

18:43.387 --> 18:43.397 align:start position:0%
rotation. And by measuring how different
 

18:43.397 --> 18:45.067 align:start position:0%
rotation. And by measuring how different
the<00:19:47.200><c> bluer</c><00:19:47.600><c> frequencies</c><00:19:48.080><c> are</c><00:19:48.320><c> from</c><00:19:48.480><c> the</c>

18:45.067 --> 18:45.077 align:start position:0%
the bluer frequencies are from the
 

18:45.077 --> 18:47.547 align:start position:0%
the bluer frequencies are from the
redder<00:19:48.960><c> ones,</c><00:19:49.600><c> we</c><00:19:49.840><c> can</c><00:19:50.000><c> calculate</c><00:19:50.480><c> the</c><00:19:50.720><c> stars</c>

18:47.547 --> 18:47.557 align:start position:0%
redder ones, we can calculate the stars
 

18:47.557 --> 18:50.027 align:start position:0%
redder ones, we can calculate the stars
rotational<00:19:51.679><c> velocity.</c><00:19:52.960><c> This</c><00:19:53.200><c> was</c><00:19:53.360><c> the</c>

18:50.027 --> 18:50.037 align:start position:0%
rotational velocity. This was the
 

18:50.037 --> 18:52.106 align:start position:0%
rotational velocity. This was the
technique<00:19:54.000><c> used</c><00:19:54.240><c> by</c><00:19:54.400><c> astronomers</c><00:19:55.039><c> to</c><00:19:55.200><c> analyze</c>

18:52.106 --> 18:52.116 align:start position:0%
technique used by astronomers to analyze
 

18:52.116 --> 18:54.587 align:start position:0%
technique used by astronomers to analyze
the<00:19:55.919><c> data</c><00:19:56.240><c> collected</c><00:19:56.559><c> by</c><00:19:56.880><c> Alma</c><00:19:57.520><c> and</c><00:19:57.840><c> conclude</c>

18:54.587 --> 18:54.597 align:start position:0%
the data collected by Alma and conclude
 

18:54.597 --> 18:56.507 align:start position:0%
the data collected by Alma and conclude
that<00:19:58.400><c> the</c><00:19:58.559><c> surface</c><00:19:58.880><c> of</c><00:19:59.039><c> Beetlejuice</c><00:19:59.840><c> was</c>

18:56.507 --> 18:56.517 align:start position:0%
that the surface of Beetlejuice was
 

18:56.517 --> 19:00.106 align:start position:0%
that the surface of Beetlejuice was
spinning<00:20:00.480><c> at</c><00:20:00.799><c> 5</c><00:20:01.200><c> km/s.</c>

19:00.106 --> 19:00.116 align:start position:0%
spinning at 5 km/s.
 

19:00.116 --> 19:02.986 align:start position:0%
spinning at 5 km/s.
That's<00:20:04.000><c> all</c><00:20:04.320><c> well</c><00:20:04.559><c> and</c><00:20:04.799><c> good</c><00:20:05.679><c> except</c><00:20:06.320><c> the</c>

19:02.986 --> 19:02.996 align:start position:0%
That's all well and good except the
 

19:02.996 --> 19:05.387 align:start position:0%
That's all well and good except the
known<00:20:06.960><c> physics</c><00:20:07.360><c> of</c><00:20:07.600><c> spinning</c><00:20:08.000><c> stars</c><00:20:08.480><c> predicts</c>

19:05.387 --> 19:05.397 align:start position:0%
known physics of spinning stars predicts
 

19:05.397 --> 19:09.307 align:start position:0%
known physics of spinning stars predicts
that<00:20:09.360><c> 5</c><00:20:09.679><c> km/s</c><00:20:10.960><c> is</c><00:20:11.280><c> far</c><00:20:11.679><c> too</c><00:20:12.000><c> large</c><00:20:12.240><c> a</c><00:20:12.480><c> velocity</c>

19:09.307 --> 19:09.317 align:start position:0%
that 5 km/s is far too large a velocity
 

19:09.317 --> 19:12.427 align:start position:0%
that 5 km/s is far too large a velocity
for<00:20:13.120><c> a</c><00:20:13.280><c> red</c><00:20:13.600><c> super</c><00:20:13.919><c> giant</c><00:20:14.320><c> like</c><00:20:14.559><c> Beetlejuice.</c>

19:12.427 --> 19:12.437 align:start position:0%
for a red super giant like Beetlejuice.
 

19:12.437 --> 19:14.667 align:start position:0%
for a red super giant like Beetlejuice.
Take<00:20:16.320><c> our</c><00:20:16.559><c> sun</c><00:20:16.799><c> as</c><00:20:16.960><c> an</c><00:20:17.120><c> example.</c><00:20:18.000><c> Its</c>

19:14.667 --> 19:14.677 align:start position:0%
Take our sun as an example. Its
 

19:14.677 --> 19:17.387 align:start position:0%
Take our sun as an example. Its
rotational<00:20:18.799><c> speed</c><00:20:19.200><c> is</c><00:20:19.440><c> in</c><00:20:19.600><c> the</c><00:20:19.840><c> same</c><00:20:20.000><c> ballpark</c>

19:17.387 --> 19:17.397 align:start position:0%
rotational speed is in the same ballpark
 

19:17.397 --> 19:21.787 align:start position:0%
rotational speed is in the same ballpark
around<00:20:21.360><c> 2</c><00:20:21.600><c> km/s</c><00:20:23.039><c> but</c><00:20:23.200><c> it's</c><00:20:23.440><c> also</c><00:20:24.080><c> 1,000</c><00:20:25.039><c> times</c>

19:21.787 --> 19:21.797 align:start position:0%
around 2 km/s but it's also 1,000 times
 

19:21.797 --> 19:24.586 align:start position:0%
around 2 km/s but it's also 1,000 times
smaller<00:20:26.080><c> and</c><00:20:26.320><c> about</c><00:20:26.799><c> 10</c><00:20:27.200><c> times</c><00:20:27.600><c> lighter</c><00:20:27.919><c> than</c>

19:24.586 --> 19:24.596 align:start position:0%
smaller and about 10 times lighter than
 

19:24.596 --> 19:27.707 align:start position:0%
smaller and about 10 times lighter than
Beetlejuice.<00:20:29.520><c> If</c><00:20:29.840><c> our</c><00:20:30.159><c> sun</c><00:20:30.480><c> expanded</c><00:20:30.960><c> to</c><00:20:31.120><c> the</c>

19:27.707 --> 19:27.717 align:start position:0%
Beetlejuice. If our sun expanded to the
 

19:27.717 --> 19:30.346 align:start position:0%
Beetlejuice. If our sun expanded to the
size<00:20:31.440><c> of</c><00:20:31.600><c> Beetlejuice,</c><00:20:32.640><c> which</c><00:20:32.960><c> would</c><00:20:33.360><c> envelop</c>

19:30.346 --> 19:30.356 align:start position:0%
size of Beetlejuice, which would envelop
 

19:30.356 --> 19:32.667 align:start position:0%
size of Beetlejuice, which would envelop
the<00:20:34.159><c> entire</c><00:20:34.559><c> inner</c><00:20:34.880><c> solar</c><00:20:35.200><c> system</c><00:20:35.600><c> and</c><00:20:35.919><c> nearly</c>

19:32.667 --> 19:32.677 align:start position:0%
the entire inner solar system and nearly
 

19:32.677 --> 19:35.307 align:start position:0%
the entire inner solar system and nearly
reach<00:20:36.559><c> Jupiter's</c><00:20:37.200><c> orbit</c><00:20:37.520><c> in</c><00:20:37.760><c> the</c><00:20:37.919><c> process,</c>

19:35.307 --> 19:35.317 align:start position:0%
reach Jupiter's orbit in the process,
 

19:35.317 --> 19:38.187 align:start position:0%
reach Jupiter's orbit in the process,
then<00:20:39.120><c> its</c><00:20:39.360><c> velocity</c><00:20:39.919><c> would</c><00:20:40.240><c> drop</c><00:20:40.559><c> to</c><00:20:40.799><c> just</c><00:20:41.280><c> 2</c>

19:38.187 --> 19:38.197 align:start position:0%
then its velocity would drop to just 2
 

19:38.197 --> 19:39.707 align:start position:0%
then its velocity would drop to just 2
m/s

19:39.707 --> 19:39.717 align:start position:0%
m/s
 

19:39.717 --> 19:42.507 align:start position:0%
m/s
in<00:20:43.600><c> order</c><00:20:43.760><c> to</c><00:20:43.919><c> conserve</c><00:20:44.400><c> angular</c><00:20:44.960><c> momentum.</c>

19:42.507 --> 19:42.517 align:start position:0%
in order to conserve angular momentum.
 

19:42.517 --> 19:44.346 align:start position:0%
in order to conserve angular momentum.
In<00:20:46.320><c> the</c><00:20:46.480><c> same</c><00:20:46.640><c> way</c><00:20:46.799><c> that</c><00:20:47.039><c> a</c><00:20:47.280><c> spinning</c><00:20:47.600><c> ice</c>

19:44.346 --> 19:44.356 align:start position:0%
In the same way that a spinning ice
 

19:44.356 --> 19:46.427 align:start position:0%
In the same way that a spinning ice
skater<00:20:48.320><c> slows</c><00:20:48.640><c> down</c><00:20:48.880><c> when</c><00:20:49.120><c> she</c><00:20:49.360><c> spreads</c><00:20:49.760><c> out</c>

19:46.427 --> 19:46.437 align:start position:0%
skater slows down when she spreads out
 

19:46.437 --> 19:49.707 align:start position:0%
skater slows down when she spreads out
her<00:20:50.240><c> arms,</c><00:20:51.120><c> and</c><00:20:51.280><c> if</c><00:20:51.520><c> the</c><00:20:51.679><c> sun</c><00:20:52.000><c> grew</c><00:20:52.480><c> 10</c><00:20:52.799><c> times</c>

19:49.707 --> 19:49.717 align:start position:0%
her arms, and if the sun grew 10 times
 

19:49.717 --> 19:51.147 align:start position:0%
her arms, and if the sun grew 10 times
heavier<00:20:53.760><c> to</c><00:20:54.000><c> match</c><00:20:54.240><c> the</c><00:20:54.400><c> mass</c><00:20:54.559><c> of</c>

19:51.147 --> 19:51.157 align:start position:0%
heavier to match the mass of
 

19:51.157 --> 19:53.947 align:start position:0%
heavier to match the mass of
Beetlejuice,<00:20:55.600><c> its</c><00:20:55.919><c> velocity</c><00:20:56.400><c> would</c><00:20:56.640><c> drop</c><00:20:57.120><c> to</c>

19:53.947 --> 19:53.957 align:start position:0%
Beetlejuice, its velocity would drop to
 

19:53.957 --> 19:56.986 align:start position:0%
Beetlejuice, its velocity would drop to
0.2<00:20:58.320><c> 2</c><00:20:58.640><c> m/s.</c>

19:56.986 --> 19:56.996 align:start position:0%
0.2 2 m/s.
 

19:56.996 --> 20:00.187 align:start position:0%
0.2 2 m/s.
So,<00:21:01.120><c> the</c><00:21:01.440><c> larger</c><00:21:01.840><c> and</c><00:21:02.159><c> heavier</c><00:21:02.559><c> a</c><00:21:02.799><c> star</c><00:21:03.039><c> is,</c>

20:00.187 --> 20:00.197 align:start position:0%
So, the larger and heavier a star is,
 

20:00.197 --> 20:02.907 align:start position:0%
So, the larger and heavier a star is,
the<00:21:04.000><c> slower</c><00:21:04.400><c> we</c><00:21:04.640><c> expect</c><00:21:04.880><c> it</c><00:21:05.120><c> to</c><00:21:05.280><c> spin.</c><00:21:06.320><c> And</c>

20:02.907 --> 20:02.917 align:start position:0%
the slower we expect it to spin. And
 

20:02.917 --> 20:06.106 align:start position:0%
the slower we expect it to spin. And
yet,<00:21:06.960><c> Beetlejuice</c><00:21:07.760><c> appears</c><00:21:08.240><c> to</c><00:21:08.480><c> defy</c><00:21:09.120><c> all</c><00:21:09.440><c> of</c>

20:06.106 --> 20:06.116 align:start position:0%
yet, Beetlejuice appears to defy all of
 

20:06.116 --> 20:08.346 align:start position:0%
yet, Beetlejuice appears to defy all of
those<00:21:10.080><c> expectations.</c>

20:08.346 --> 20:08.356 align:start position:0%
those expectations.
 

20:08.356 --> 20:12.267 align:start position:0%
those expectations.
What's<00:21:12.320><c> going</c><00:21:12.559><c> on</c><00:21:12.799><c> here?</c>

20:12.267 --> 20:12.277 align:start position:0%
 
 

20:12.277 --> 20:14.907 align:start position:0%
 
One<00:21:16.240><c> possible</c><00:21:16.960><c> explanation</c><00:21:17.840><c> is</c><00:21:18.080><c> that</c><00:21:18.320><c> even</c>

20:14.907 --> 20:14.917 align:start position:0%
One possible explanation is that even
 

20:14.917 --> 20:16.827 align:start position:0%
One possible explanation is that even
though<00:21:18.720><c> Beetlejuice</c><00:21:19.360><c> didn't</c><00:21:19.679><c> start</c><00:21:19.919><c> out</c><00:21:20.240><c> with</c>

20:16.827 --> 20:16.837 align:start position:0%
though Beetlejuice didn't start out with
 

20:16.837 --> 20:19.466 align:start position:0%
though Beetlejuice didn't start out with
this<00:21:20.640><c> much</c><00:21:20.799><c> angular</c><00:21:21.280><c> momentum,</c><00:21:22.240><c> it</c><00:21:22.480><c> gained</c><00:21:22.799><c> it</c>

20:19.466 --> 20:19.476 align:start position:0%
this much angular momentum, it gained it
 

20:19.476 --> 20:21.627 align:start position:0%
this much angular momentum, it gained it
through<00:21:23.360><c> a</c><00:21:23.600><c> process</c><00:21:24.000><c> known</c><00:21:24.400><c> as</c><00:21:24.720><c> stellar</c>

20:21.627 --> 20:21.637 align:start position:0%
through a process known as stellar
 

20:21.637 --> 20:24.187 align:start position:0%
through a process known as stellar
cannibalism.<00:21:26.320><c> As</c><00:21:26.640><c> you</c><00:21:26.799><c> might</c><00:21:27.039><c> expect,</c>

20:24.187 --> 20:24.197 align:start position:0%
cannibalism. As you might expect,
 

20:24.197 --> 20:26.586 align:start position:0%
cannibalism. As you might expect,
stellar<00:21:28.159><c> cannibalism</c><00:21:28.960><c> is</c><00:21:29.280><c> just</c><00:21:29.600><c> what</c><00:21:29.840><c> we</c><00:21:30.000><c> call</c>

20:26.586 --> 20:26.596 align:start position:0%
stellar cannibalism is just what we call
 

20:26.596 --> 20:29.947 align:start position:0%
stellar cannibalism is just what we call
it<00:21:30.559><c> when</c><00:21:30.880><c> one</c><00:21:31.200><c> star</c><00:21:31.679><c> eats</c><00:21:32.240><c> another</c><00:21:32.720><c> star,</c>

20:29.947 --> 20:29.957 align:start position:0%
it when one star eats another star,
 

20:29.957 --> 20:33.226 align:start position:0%
it when one star eats another star,
usually<00:21:34.000><c> its</c><00:21:34.240><c> companion</c><00:21:34.799><c> in</c><00:21:35.039><c> a</c><00:21:35.200><c> binary</c><00:21:35.600><c> orbit.</c>

20:33.226 --> 20:33.236 align:start position:0%
usually its companion in a binary orbit.
 

20:33.236 --> 20:35.707 align:start position:0%
usually its companion in a binary orbit.
In<00:21:37.039><c> more</c><00:21:37.360><c> scientific</c><00:21:37.919><c> terms,</c><00:21:38.559><c> the</c><00:21:38.799><c> stars</c>

20:35.707 --> 20:35.717 align:start position:0%
In more scientific terms, the stars
 

20:35.717 --> 20:39.067 align:start position:0%
In more scientific terms, the stars
gravity<00:21:39.919><c> pulls</c><00:21:40.320><c> away</c><00:21:40.720><c> its</c><00:21:41.039><c> companion's</c><00:21:41.679><c> gas</c>

20:39.067 --> 20:39.077 align:start position:0%
gravity pulls away its companion's gas
 

20:39.077 --> 20:41.867 align:start position:0%
gravity pulls away its companion's gas
layer<00:21:42.880><c> by</c><00:21:43.280><c> layer</c><00:21:43.840><c> until</c><00:21:44.320><c> only</c><00:21:44.640><c> the</c><00:21:44.880><c> inner</c><00:21:45.200><c> core</c>

20:41.867 --> 20:41.877 align:start position:0%
layer by layer until only the inner core
 

20:41.877 --> 20:45.147 align:start position:0%
layer by layer until only the inner core
remains.<00:21:46.720><c> That</c><00:21:46.960><c> gas</c><00:21:47.600><c> carries</c><00:21:48.080><c> most</c><00:21:48.320><c> of</c><00:21:48.480><c> the</c>

20:45.147 --> 20:45.157 align:start position:0%
remains. That gas carries most of the
 

20:45.157 --> 20:47.707 align:start position:0%
remains. That gas carries most of the
companion<00:21:49.200><c> stars</c><00:21:49.679><c> angular</c><00:21:50.159><c> momentum.</c><00:21:51.120><c> So,</c>

20:47.707 --> 20:47.717 align:start position:0%
companion stars angular momentum. So,
 

20:47.717 --> 20:50.106 align:start position:0%
companion stars angular momentum. So,
the<00:21:51.520><c> first</c><00:21:51.760><c> star</c><00:21:52.080><c> ends</c><00:21:52.400><c> up</c><00:21:52.720><c> not</c><00:21:53.039><c> only</c><00:21:53.280><c> growing</c>

20:50.106 --> 20:50.116 align:start position:0%
the first star ends up not only growing
 

20:50.116 --> 20:52.907 align:start position:0%
the first star ends up not only growing
larger,<00:21:54.480><c> but</c><00:21:54.799><c> also</c><00:21:55.200><c> spinning</c><00:21:55.760><c> faster</c><00:21:56.240><c> than</c>

20:52.907 --> 20:52.917 align:start position:0%
larger, but also spinning faster than
 

20:52.917 --> 20:56.427 align:start position:0%
larger, but also spinning faster than
nature<00:21:56.799><c> would</c><00:21:57.039><c> normally</c><00:21:57.440><c> allow.</c><00:21:58.720><c> But</c><00:21:59.200><c> is</c><00:21:59.520><c> this</c>

20:56.427 --> 20:56.437 align:start position:0%
nature would normally allow. But is this
 

20:56.437 --> 20:58.427 align:start position:0%
nature would normally allow. But is this
really<00:22:00.400><c> the</c><00:22:00.640><c> story</c><00:22:00.880><c> of</c><00:22:01.039><c> how</c><00:22:01.280><c> Beetlejuice</c><00:22:01.840><c> got</c>

20:58.427 --> 20:58.437 align:start position:0%
really the story of how Beetlejuice got
 

20:58.437 --> 21:00.827 align:start position:0%
really the story of how Beetlejuice got
its<00:22:02.240><c> spin?</c><00:22:02.880><c> Or</c><00:22:03.039><c> is</c><00:22:03.280><c> there</c><00:22:03.520><c> something</c><00:22:04.000><c> even</c>

21:00.827 --> 21:00.837 align:start position:0%
its spin? Or is there something even
 

21:00.837 --> 21:02.907 align:start position:0%
its spin? Or is there something even
more<00:22:04.799><c> mysterious</c><00:22:05.520><c> happening</c><00:22:05.919><c> under</c><00:22:06.240><c> the</c>

21:02.907 --> 21:02.917 align:start position:0%
more mysterious happening under the
 

21:02.917 --> 21:04.507 align:start position:0%
more mysterious happening under the
surface?

21:04.507 --> 21:04.517 align:start position:0%
surface?
 

21:04.517 --> 21:06.586 align:start position:0%
surface?
A<00:22:08.320><c> team</c><00:22:08.480><c> of</c><00:22:08.720><c> researchers</c><00:22:09.440><c> collaborating</c>

21:06.586 --> 21:06.596 align:start position:0%
A team of researchers collaborating
 

21:06.596 --> 21:08.907 align:start position:0%
A team of researchers collaborating
across<00:22:10.640><c> Europe</c><00:22:10.960><c> and</c><00:22:11.200><c> China</c><00:22:11.679><c> have</c><00:22:12.000><c> recently</c>

21:08.907 --> 21:08.917 align:start position:0%
across Europe and China have recently
 

21:08.917 --> 21:11.307 align:start position:0%
across Europe and China have recently
suggested<00:22:13.120><c> that</c><00:22:13.360><c> Beetlejuice's</c><00:22:14.240><c> apparently</c>

21:11.307 --> 21:11.317 align:start position:0%
suggested that Beetlejuice's apparently
 

21:11.317 --> 21:14.586 align:start position:0%
suggested that Beetlejuice's apparently
ludicrous<00:22:15.520><c> rotation</c><00:22:16.159><c> speed</c><00:22:16.960><c> might</c><00:22:17.280><c> just</c><00:22:17.600><c> be</c><00:22:17.840><c> a</c>

21:14.586 --> 21:14.596 align:start position:0%
ludicrous rotation speed might just be a
 

21:14.596 --> 21:17.226 align:start position:0%
ludicrous rotation speed might just be a
giant<00:22:18.640><c> optical</c><00:22:19.360><c> illusion.</c>

21:17.226 --> 21:17.236 align:start position:0%
giant optical illusion.
 

21:17.236 --> 21:19.387 align:start position:0%
giant optical illusion.
To<00:22:21.039><c> see</c><00:22:21.120><c> how</c><00:22:21.360><c> that's</c><00:22:21.679><c> possible,</c><00:22:22.400><c> let's</c><00:22:22.720><c> think</c>

21:19.387 --> 21:19.397 align:start position:0%
To see how that's possible, let's think
 

21:19.397 --> 21:21.707 align:start position:0%
To see how that's possible, let's think
back<00:22:23.280><c> to</c><00:22:23.520><c> what</c><00:22:23.760><c> the</c><00:22:23.919><c> team</c><00:22:24.080><c> at</c><00:22:24.320><c> ALMA</c><00:22:24.880><c> really</c>

21:21.707 --> 21:21.717 align:start position:0%
back to what the team at ALMA really
 

21:21.717 --> 21:23.547 align:start position:0%
back to what the team at ALMA really
measured<00:22:25.679><c> with</c><00:22:25.919><c> their</c><00:22:26.240><c> state-of-the-art</c>

21:23.547 --> 21:23.557 align:start position:0%
measured with their state-of-the-art
 

21:23.557 --> 21:26.106 align:start position:0%
measured with their state-of-the-art
array<00:22:27.520><c> of</c><00:22:27.679><c> telescopes.</c><00:22:29.120><c> Though</c><00:22:29.360><c> their</c>

21:26.106 --> 21:26.116 align:start position:0%
array of telescopes. Though their
 

21:26.116 --> 21:28.187 align:start position:0%
array of telescopes. Though their
pictures<00:22:30.000><c> of</c><00:22:30.240><c> Beetlejuice</c><00:22:30.880><c> were</c><00:22:31.039><c> blurry,</c>

21:28.187 --> 21:28.197 align:start position:0%
pictures of Beetlejuice were blurry,
 

21:28.197 --> 21:30.586 align:start position:0%
pictures of Beetlejuice were blurry,
they<00:22:32.080><c> were</c><00:22:32.240><c> still</c><00:22:32.640><c> able</c><00:22:32.960><c> to</c><00:22:33.200><c> make</c><00:22:33.360><c> out</c><00:22:33.760><c> that</c>

21:30.586 --> 21:30.596 align:start position:0%
they were still able to make out that
 

21:30.596 --> 21:32.507 align:start position:0%
they were still able to make out that
one<00:22:34.480><c> half</c><00:22:34.720><c> of</c><00:22:34.880><c> the</c><00:22:35.039><c> star</c><00:22:35.360><c> emits</c><00:22:35.760><c> slightly</c>

21:32.507 --> 21:32.517 align:start position:0%
one half of the star emits slightly
 

21:32.517 --> 21:34.667 align:start position:0%
one half of the star emits slightly
redder<00:22:36.480><c> frequencies</c><00:22:36.960><c> of</c><00:22:37.120><c> light</c><00:22:37.360><c> than</c><00:22:37.600><c> normal,</c>

21:34.667 --> 21:34.677 align:start position:0%
redder frequencies of light than normal,
 

21:34.677 --> 21:36.507 align:start position:0%
redder frequencies of light than normal,
while<00:22:38.480><c> the</c><00:22:38.720><c> other</c><00:22:38.880><c> half</c><00:22:39.200><c> emits</c><00:22:39.679><c> slightly</c>

21:36.507 --> 21:36.517 align:start position:0%
while the other half emits slightly
 

21:36.517 --> 21:39.067 align:start position:0%
while the other half emits slightly
bluer<00:22:40.559><c> frequencies.</c><00:22:41.840><c> The</c><00:22:42.080><c> obvious</c>

21:39.067 --> 21:39.077 align:start position:0%
bluer frequencies. The obvious
 

21:39.077 --> 21:42.027 align:start position:0%
bluer frequencies. The obvious
explanation<00:22:43.280><c> for</c><00:22:43.520><c> this</c><00:22:43.840><c> 50/50</c><00:22:44.559><c> split</c><00:22:45.200><c> is</c><00:22:45.440><c> that</c>

21:42.027 --> 21:42.037 align:start position:0%
explanation for this 50/50 split is that
 

21:42.037 --> 21:44.427 align:start position:0%
explanation for this 50/50 split is that
the<00:22:45.760><c> star</c><00:22:46.000><c> is</c><00:22:46.240><c> rotating</c><00:22:47.039><c> with</c><00:22:47.360><c> one</c><00:22:47.679><c> half</c>

21:44.427 --> 21:44.437 align:start position:0%
the star is rotating with one half
 

21:44.437 --> 21:46.667 align:start position:0%
the star is rotating with one half
moving<00:22:48.400><c> towards</c><00:22:48.799><c> us</c><00:22:49.360><c> and</c><00:22:49.600><c> the</c><00:22:49.760><c> other</c><00:22:49.919><c> half</c>

21:46.667 --> 21:46.677 align:start position:0%
moving towards us and the other half
 

21:46.677 --> 21:49.226 align:start position:0%
moving towards us and the other half
moving<00:22:50.640><c> away</c><00:22:50.880><c> from</c><00:22:51.039><c> us</c><00:22:51.280><c> at</c><00:22:51.520><c> the</c><00:22:51.679><c> same</c><00:22:51.840><c> time.</c>

21:49.226 --> 21:49.236 align:start position:0%
moving away from us at the same time.
 

21:49.236 --> 21:50.747 align:start position:0%
moving away from us at the same time.
The<00:22:53.120><c> green</c><00:22:53.360><c> arrow</c><00:22:53.679><c> in</c><00:22:53.919><c> the</c><00:22:54.080><c> image</c><00:22:54.159><c> of</c>

21:50.747 --> 21:50.757 align:start position:0%
The green arrow in the image of
 

21:50.757 --> 21:53.067 align:start position:0%
The green arrow in the image of
Beetlejuice<00:22:55.200><c> is</c><00:22:55.520><c> meant</c><00:22:55.760><c> to</c><00:22:55.919><c> represent</c><00:22:56.400><c> the</c>

21:53.067 --> 21:53.077 align:start position:0%
Beetlejuice is meant to represent the
 

21:53.077 --> 21:56.027 align:start position:0%
Beetlejuice is meant to represent the
axis<00:22:57.039><c> of</c><00:22:57.280><c> this</c><00:22:57.520><c> rotation.</c><00:22:58.720><c> But</c><00:22:58.960><c> what</c><00:22:59.280><c> if</c>

21:56.027 --> 21:56.037 align:start position:0%
axis of this rotation. But what if
 

21:56.037 --> 21:58.507 align:start position:0%
axis of this rotation. But what if
that's<00:22:59.919><c> not</c><00:23:00.159><c> the</c><00:23:00.480><c> only</c><00:23:01.039><c> explanation</c><00:23:01.679><c> for</c><00:23:01.919><c> the</c>

21:58.507 --> 21:58.517 align:start position:0%
that's not the only explanation for the
 

21:58.517 --> 22:01.307 align:start position:0%
that's not the only explanation for the
color<00:23:02.320><c> gradient</c><00:23:02.799><c> detected</c><00:23:03.280><c> by</c><00:23:03.520><c> Alma?</c>

22:01.307 --> 22:01.317 align:start position:0%
color gradient detected by Alma?
 

22:01.317 --> 22:03.307 align:start position:0%
color gradient detected by Alma?
Simulations<00:23:05.520><c> of</c><00:23:05.679><c> Beetlejuice</c><00:23:06.400><c> have</c><00:23:06.559><c> revealed</c>

22:03.307 --> 22:03.317 align:start position:0%
Simulations of Beetlejuice have revealed
 

22:03.317 --> 22:06.346 align:start position:0%
Simulations of Beetlejuice have revealed
that<00:23:07.120><c> its</c><00:23:07.360><c> surface</c><00:23:07.760><c> is</c><00:23:08.000><c> a</c><00:23:08.240><c> chaotic,</c><00:23:09.280><c> turbulent</c>

22:06.346 --> 22:06.356 align:start position:0%
that its surface is a chaotic, turbulent
 

22:06.356 --> 22:09.387 align:start position:0%
that its surface is a chaotic, turbulent
place,<00:23:10.880><c> constantly</c><00:23:11.600><c> bubbling</c><00:23:12.159><c> under</c><00:23:12.480><c> its</c><00:23:12.720><c> own</c>

22:09.387 --> 22:09.397 align:start position:0%
place, constantly bubbling under its own
 

22:09.397 --> 22:12.586 align:start position:0%
place, constantly bubbling under its own
heat<00:23:13.360><c> like</c><00:23:13.760><c> water</c><00:23:14.159><c> bubbling</c><00:23:14.640><c> in</c><00:23:14.880><c> an</c><00:23:15.039><c> oven.</c>

22:12.586 --> 22:12.596 align:start position:0%
heat like water bubbling in an oven.
 

22:12.596 --> 22:15.147 align:start position:0%
heat like water bubbling in an oven.
Each<00:23:16.400><c> of</c><00:23:16.480><c> these</c><00:23:16.720><c> bubbles</c><00:23:17.200><c> is</c><00:23:17.440><c> enormous</c><00:23:18.400><c> and</c>

22:15.147 --> 22:15.157 align:start position:0%
Each of these bubbles is enormous and
 

22:15.157 --> 22:16.986 align:start position:0%
Each of these bubbles is enormous and
propagates<00:23:19.360><c> outwards</c><00:23:19.840><c> at</c><00:23:20.080><c> deadly</c>

22:16.986 --> 22:16.996 align:start position:0%
propagates outwards at deadly
 

22:16.996 --> 22:21.067 align:start position:0%
propagates outwards at deadly
velocities.<00:23:22.000><c> A</c><00:23:22.240><c> single</c><00:23:22.640><c> bubble</c><00:23:23.200><c> can</c><00:23:23.440><c> be</c><00:23:23.840><c> 100</c>

22:21.067 --> 22:21.077 align:start position:0%
velocities. A single bubble can be 100
 

22:21.077 --> 22:23.787 align:start position:0%
velocities. A single bubble can be 100
million<00:23:25.039><c> km</c><00:23:25.600><c> across,</c><00:23:26.400><c> covering</c><00:23:26.799><c> a</c><00:23:27.039><c> large</c>

22:23.787 --> 22:23.797 align:start position:0%
million km across, covering a large
 

22:23.797 --> 22:26.187 align:start position:0%
million km across, covering a large
fraction<00:23:27.760><c> of</c><00:23:27.919><c> the</c><00:23:28.080><c> surface</c><00:23:28.400><c> of</c><00:23:28.559><c> Beetlejuice.</c>

22:26.187 --> 22:26.197 align:start position:0%
fraction of the surface of Beetlejuice.
 

22:26.197 --> 22:28.507 align:start position:0%
fraction of the surface of Beetlejuice.
And<00:23:30.080><c> if</c><00:23:30.400><c> one</c><00:23:30.640><c> of</c><00:23:30.799><c> these</c><00:23:31.039><c> bubbles</c><00:23:31.520><c> were</c><00:23:31.760><c> headed</c>

22:28.507 --> 22:28.517 align:start position:0%
And if one of these bubbles were headed
 

22:28.517 --> 22:31.547 align:start position:0%
And if one of these bubbles were headed
your<00:23:32.480><c> way,</c><00:23:33.280><c> even</c><00:23:33.679><c> today's</c><00:23:34.240><c> most</c><00:23:34.559><c> powerful</c>

22:31.547 --> 22:31.557 align:start position:0%
your way, even today's most powerful
 

22:31.557 --> 22:33.707 align:start position:0%
your way, even today's most powerful
spacecraft<00:23:36.000><c> wouldn't</c><00:23:36.400><c> save</c><00:23:36.640><c> you</c><00:23:36.799><c> from</c><00:23:36.960><c> its</c>

22:33.707 --> 22:33.717 align:start position:0%
spacecraft wouldn't save you from its
 

22:33.717 --> 22:38.027 align:start position:0%
spacecraft wouldn't save you from its
lightning<00:23:37.840><c> fast</c><00:23:38.080><c> speed</c><00:23:38.559><c> of</c><00:23:38.799><c> up</c><00:23:38.960><c> to</c><00:23:39.200><c> 30</c><00:23:39.520><c> km/s.</c>

22:38.027 --> 22:38.037 align:start position:0%
lightning fast speed of up to 30 km/s.
 

22:38.037 --> 22:40.027 align:start position:0%
lightning fast speed of up to 30 km/s.
Your<00:23:41.919><c> only</c><00:23:42.240><c> hope</c><00:23:42.559><c> would</c><00:23:42.720><c> be</c><00:23:42.960><c> for</c><00:23:43.120><c> the</c><00:23:43.280><c> bubble</c>

22:40.027 --> 22:40.037 align:start position:0%
Your only hope would be for the bubble
 

22:40.037 --> 22:42.267 align:start position:0%
Your only hope would be for the bubble
to<00:23:43.760><c> pop</c><00:23:44.159><c> and</c><00:23:44.480><c> crash</c><00:23:44.880><c> violently</c><00:23:45.440><c> back</c><00:23:45.679><c> down</c>

22:42.267 --> 22:42.277 align:start position:0%
to pop and crash violently back down
 

22:42.277 --> 22:44.667 align:start position:0%
to pop and crash violently back down
onto<00:23:46.159><c> the</c><00:23:46.320><c> surface</c><00:23:46.880><c> before</c><00:23:47.200><c> it</c><00:23:47.520><c> ever</c><00:23:47.840><c> reaches</c>

22:44.667 --> 22:44.677 align:start position:0%
onto the surface before it ever reaches
 

22:44.677 --> 22:48.027 align:start position:0%
onto the surface before it ever reaches
you.<00:23:49.280><c> As</c><00:23:49.600><c> gas</c><00:23:49.919><c> bubbles</c><00:23:50.400><c> all</c><00:23:50.640><c> over</c><00:23:50.880><c> Beetlejuice</c>

22:48.027 --> 22:48.037 align:start position:0%
you. As gas bubbles all over Beetlejuice
 

22:48.037 --> 22:50.667 align:start position:0%
you. As gas bubbles all over Beetlejuice
rise<00:23:52.080><c> and</c><00:23:52.400><c> fall,</c><00:23:53.120><c> its</c><00:23:53.360><c> surface</c><00:23:53.760><c> becomes</c><00:23:54.080><c> a</c>

22:50.667 --> 22:50.677 align:start position:0%
rise and fall, its surface becomes a
 

22:50.677 --> 22:52.827 align:start position:0%
rise and fall, its surface becomes a
mosaic<00:23:54.799><c> of</c><00:23:55.039><c> regions</c><00:23:55.360><c> that</c><00:23:55.600><c> are</c><00:23:55.760><c> either</c><00:23:56.080><c> moving</c>

22:52.827 --> 22:52.837 align:start position:0%
mosaic of regions that are either moving
 

22:52.837 --> 22:55.947 align:start position:0%
mosaic of regions that are either moving
towards<00:23:56.880><c> us</c><00:23:57.360><c> or</c><00:23:57.679><c> away</c><00:23:57.919><c> from</c><00:23:58.159><c> us.</c><00:23:58.640><c> as</c><00:23:58.960><c> observers</c>

22:55.947 --> 22:55.957 align:start position:0%
towards us or away from us. as observers
 

22:55.957 --> 22:59.067 align:start position:0%
towards us or away from us. as observers
on<00:23:59.760><c> Earth.</c><00:24:00.880><c> In</c><00:24:01.120><c> turn,</c><00:24:01.600><c> the</c><00:24:01.840><c> Doppler</c><00:24:02.320><c> shift</c>

22:59.067 --> 22:59.077 align:start position:0%
on Earth. In turn, the Doppler shift
 

22:59.077 --> 23:01.067 align:start position:0%
on Earth. In turn, the Doppler shift
causes<00:24:03.120><c> light</c><00:24:03.360><c> emitted</c><00:24:03.840><c> from</c><00:24:04.000><c> these</c><00:24:04.240><c> regions</c>

23:01.067 --> 23:01.077 align:start position:0%
causes light emitted from these regions
 

23:01.077 --> 23:04.267 align:start position:0%
causes light emitted from these regions
to<00:24:04.880><c> be</c><00:24:05.039><c> either</c><00:24:05.440><c> blueshifted</c><00:24:06.320><c> or</c><00:24:06.640><c> redshifted.</c>

23:04.267 --> 23:04.277 align:start position:0%
to be either blueshifted or redshifted.
 

23:04.277 --> 23:06.507 align:start position:0%
to be either blueshifted or redshifted.
In<00:24:08.080><c> a</c><00:24:08.240><c> recent</c><00:24:08.559><c> paper</c><00:24:08.799><c> that</c><00:24:09.039><c> rose</c><00:24:09.440><c> to</c><00:24:09.679><c> challenge</c>

23:06.507 --> 23:06.517 align:start position:0%
In a recent paper that rose to challenge
 

23:06.517 --> 23:08.106 align:start position:0%
In a recent paper that rose to challenge
all<00:24:10.400><c> previous</c><00:24:10.880><c> explanations</c><00:24:11.440><c> of</c>

23:08.106 --> 23:08.116 align:start position:0%
all previous explanations of
 

23:08.116 --> 23:09.947 align:start position:0%
all previous explanations of
Beetlejuice's<00:24:12.480><c> rotation,</c><00:24:13.360><c> the</c>

23:09.947 --> 23:09.957 align:start position:0%
Beetlejuice's rotation, the
 

23:09.957 --> 23:11.547 align:start position:0%
Beetlejuice's rotation, the
International<00:24:14.080><c> team</c><00:24:14.320><c> of</c><00:24:14.559><c> researchers</c>

23:11.547 --> 23:11.557 align:start position:0%
International team of researchers
 

23:11.557 --> 23:13.787 align:start position:0%
International team of researchers
proposed<00:24:15.760><c> that</c><00:24:16.000><c> Beetlejuice</c><00:24:16.640><c> might</c><00:24:16.880><c> not</c><00:24:17.120><c> be</c>

23:13.787 --> 23:13.797 align:start position:0%
proposed that Beetlejuice might not be
 

23:13.797 --> 23:17.147 align:start position:0%
proposed that Beetlejuice might not be
rotating<00:24:17.919><c> fast</c><00:24:18.240><c> at</c><00:24:18.559><c> all.</c><00:24:19.520><c> Instead,</c><00:24:20.080><c> the</c><00:24:20.240><c> Elma</c>

23:17.147 --> 23:17.157 align:start position:0%
rotating fast at all. Instead, the Elma
 

23:17.157 --> 23:19.387 align:start position:0%
rotating fast at all. Instead, the Elma
observations<00:24:21.520><c> might</c><00:24:21.760><c> be</c><00:24:22.000><c> detecting</c><00:24:22.480><c> a</c><00:24:22.720><c> range</c>

23:19.387 --> 23:19.397 align:start position:0%
observations might be detecting a range
 

23:19.397 --> 23:21.067 align:start position:0%
observations might be detecting a range
of<00:24:23.200><c> light</c><00:24:23.520><c> frequencies</c><00:24:24.240><c> coming</c><00:24:24.480><c> from</c>

23:21.067 --> 23:21.077 align:start position:0%
of light frequencies coming from
 

23:21.077 --> 23:23.466 align:start position:0%
of light frequencies coming from
Beetlejuice<00:24:25.440><c> due</c><00:24:25.679><c> to</c><00:24:25.840><c> the</c><00:24:26.080><c> turbulence</c><00:24:26.640><c> on</c><00:24:26.799><c> its</c>

23:23.466 --> 23:23.476 align:start position:0%
Beetlejuice due to the turbulence on its
 

23:23.476 --> 23:26.747 align:start position:0%
Beetlejuice due to the turbulence on its
surface.<00:24:27.919><c> Thus,</c><00:24:28.559><c> astronomers</c><00:24:29.440><c> may</c><00:24:29.760><c> have</c><00:24:30.000><c> been</c>

23:26.747 --> 23:26.757 align:start position:0%
surface. Thus, astronomers may have been
 

23:26.757 --> 23:28.507 align:start position:0%
surface. Thus, astronomers may have been
misinterpreting<00:24:31.360><c> those</c><00:24:31.600><c> shifts</c><00:24:31.919><c> in</c>

23:28.507 --> 23:28.517 align:start position:0%
misinterpreting those shifts in
 

23:28.517 --> 23:32.267 align:start position:0%
misinterpreting those shifts in
frequency<00:24:32.880><c> as</c><00:24:33.200><c> rotational</c><00:24:33.919><c> effect.</c><00:24:35.279><c> But</c><00:24:35.600><c> if</c>

23:32.267 --> 23:32.277 align:start position:0%
frequency as rotational effect. But if
 

23:32.277 --> 23:33.867 align:start position:0%
frequency as rotational effect. But if
you've<00:24:36.080><c> been</c><00:24:36.240><c> paying</c><00:24:36.559><c> close</c><00:24:36.880><c> attention</c><00:24:37.200><c> to</c>

23:33.867 --> 23:33.877 align:start position:0%
you've been paying close attention to
 

23:33.877 --> 23:36.187 align:start position:0%
you've been paying close attention to
the<00:24:37.679><c> physics,</c><00:24:38.640><c> you</c><00:24:38.880><c> might</c><00:24:39.039><c> have</c><00:24:39.200><c> noticed</c><00:24:39.600><c> that</c>

23:36.187 --> 23:36.197 align:start position:0%
the physics, you might have noticed that
 

23:36.197 --> 23:38.106 align:start position:0%
the physics, you might have noticed that
there's<00:24:40.080><c> still</c><00:24:40.320><c> a</c><00:24:40.559><c> loose</c><00:24:40.880><c> end</c><00:24:41.200><c> with</c><00:24:41.440><c> this</c>

23:38.106 --> 23:38.116 align:start position:0%
there's still a loose end with this
 

23:38.116 --> 23:41.627 align:start position:0%
there's still a loose end with this
alternative<00:24:42.400><c> explanation.</c><00:24:43.840><c> A</c><00:24:44.080><c> rotating</c><00:24:44.640><c> star</c>

23:41.627 --> 23:41.637 align:start position:0%
alternative explanation. A rotating star
 

23:41.637 --> 23:44.027 align:start position:0%
alternative explanation. A rotating star
should<00:24:45.760><c> produce</c><00:24:46.159><c> a</c><00:24:46.480><c> smooth</c><00:24:46.880><c> gradient</c><00:24:47.360><c> of</c>

23:44.027 --> 23:44.037 align:start position:0%
should produce a smooth gradient of
 

23:44.037 --> 23:46.667 align:start position:0%
should produce a smooth gradient of
light<00:24:47.919><c> frequencies,</c><00:24:49.120><c> ranging</c><00:24:49.600><c> from</c><00:24:49.840><c> bluer</c>

23:46.667 --> 23:46.677 align:start position:0%
light frequencies, ranging from bluer
 

23:46.677 --> 23:48.986 align:start position:0%
light frequencies, ranging from bluer
than<00:24:50.480><c> expected</c><00:24:50.960><c> light</c><00:24:51.200><c> on</c><00:24:51.520><c> one</c><00:24:51.760><c> edge</c><00:24:52.240><c> to</c>

23:48.986 --> 23:48.996 align:start position:0%
than expected light on one edge to
 

23:48.996 --> 23:51.706 align:start position:0%
than expected light on one edge to
redder<00:24:52.960><c> than</c><00:24:53.200><c> expected</c><00:24:53.679><c> light</c><00:24:53.919><c> on</c><00:24:54.080><c> the</c><00:24:54.240><c> other.</c>

23:51.706 --> 23:51.716 align:start position:0%
redder than expected light on the other.
 

23:51.716 --> 23:54.106 align:start position:0%
redder than expected light on the other.
Meanwhile,<00:24:56.159><c> a</c><00:24:56.400><c> turbulent</c><00:24:57.039><c> star</c><00:24:57.360><c> should</c>

23:54.106 --> 23:54.116 align:start position:0%
Meanwhile, a turbulent star should
 

23:54.116 --> 23:56.986 align:start position:0%
Meanwhile, a turbulent star should
produce<00:24:58.000><c> a</c><00:24:58.400><c> random</c><00:24:58.880><c> patchwork</c><00:24:59.520><c> of</c><00:24:59.679><c> colors</c>

23:56.986 --> 23:56.996 align:start position:0%
produce a random patchwork of colors
 

23:56.996 --> 23:59.067 align:start position:0%
produce a random patchwork of colors
with<00:25:00.799><c> bluer</c><00:25:01.279><c> patches</c><00:25:01.679><c> where</c><00:25:01.919><c> bubbles</c><00:25:02.400><c> happen</c>

23:59.067 --> 23:59.077 align:start position:0%
with bluer patches where bubbles happen
 

23:59.077 --> 24:01.547 align:start position:0%
with bluer patches where bubbles happen
to<00:25:02.799><c> be</c><00:25:02.960><c> rising</c><00:25:03.760><c> and</c><00:25:04.080><c> redder</c><00:25:04.559><c> patches</c><00:25:04.880><c> where</c>

24:01.547 --> 24:01.557 align:start position:0%
to be rising and redder patches where
 

24:01.557 --> 24:04.586 align:start position:0%
to be rising and redder patches where
bubbles<00:25:05.600><c> happen</c><00:25:05.919><c> to</c><00:25:06.080><c> be</c><00:25:06.240><c> falling</c><00:25:06.640><c> back</c><00:25:06.880><c> down.</c>

24:04.586 --> 24:04.596 align:start position:0%
bubbles happen to be falling back down.
 

24:04.596 --> 24:06.586 align:start position:0%
bubbles happen to be falling back down.
How<00:25:08.400><c> could</c><00:25:08.640><c> the</c><00:25:08.799><c> astronomers</c><00:25:09.360><c> at</c><00:25:09.520><c> ALMA</c>

24:06.586 --> 24:06.596 align:start position:0%
How could the astronomers at ALMA
 

24:06.596 --> 24:08.747 align:start position:0%
How could the astronomers at ALMA
possibly<00:25:10.720><c> have</c><00:25:10.960><c> mistaken</c><00:25:11.600><c> one</c><00:25:11.919><c> for</c><00:25:12.159><c> the</c>

24:08.747 --> 24:08.757 align:start position:0%
possibly have mistaken one for the
 

24:08.757 --> 24:12.027 align:start position:0%
possibly have mistaken one for the
other?<00:25:13.279><c> If</c><00:25:13.600><c> astronomers</c><00:25:14.320><c> observed</c><00:25:14.799><c> a</c><00:25:15.200><c> smooth</c>

24:12.027 --> 24:12.037 align:start position:0%
other? If astronomers observed a smooth
 

24:12.037 --> 24:13.466 align:start position:0%
other? If astronomers observed a smooth
gradient<00:25:16.000><c> of</c><00:25:16.240><c> colors</c><00:25:16.559><c> coming</c><00:25:16.799><c> from</c>

24:13.466 --> 24:13.476 align:start position:0%
gradient of colors coming from
 

24:13.476 --> 24:15.627 align:start position:0%
gradient of colors coming from
Beetlejuice,<00:25:18.080><c> shouldn't</c><00:25:18.400><c> the</c><00:25:18.559><c> patchwork</c>

24:15.627 --> 24:15.637 align:start position:0%
Beetlejuice, shouldn't the patchwork
 

24:15.637 --> 24:19.147 align:start position:0%
Beetlejuice, shouldn't the patchwork
explanation<00:25:20.000><c> already</c><00:25:20.480><c> be</c><00:25:20.720><c> ruled</c><00:25:21.039><c> out?</c>

24:19.147 --> 24:19.157 align:start position:0%
explanation already be ruled out?
 

24:19.157 --> 24:22.427 align:start position:0%
explanation already be ruled out?
In<00:25:23.039><c> an</c><00:25:23.279><c> ideal</c><00:25:23.760><c> world,</c><00:25:24.400><c> that</c><00:25:24.640><c> would</c><00:25:24.880><c> be</c><00:25:25.039><c> true.</c>

24:22.427 --> 24:22.437 align:start position:0%
In an ideal world, that would be true.
 

24:22.437 --> 24:24.907 align:start position:0%
In an ideal world, that would be true.
Gradients<00:25:26.559><c> would</c><00:25:26.880><c> correspond</c><00:25:27.360><c> to</c><00:25:27.520><c> rotation</c>

24:24.907 --> 24:24.917 align:start position:0%
Gradients would correspond to rotation
 

24:24.917 --> 24:27.787 align:start position:0%
Gradients would correspond to rotation
and<00:25:28.720><c> patches</c><00:25:29.200><c> would</c><00:25:29.520><c> correspond</c><00:25:30.000><c> to</c><00:25:30.159><c> bubbles.</c>

24:27.787 --> 24:27.797 align:start position:0%
and patches would correspond to bubbles.
 

24:27.797 --> 24:30.507 align:start position:0%
and patches would correspond to bubbles.
But<00:25:31.520><c> remember</c><00:25:32.000><c> that</c><00:25:32.320><c> Beetlejuice</c><00:25:33.120><c> is</c><00:25:33.440><c> so</c><00:25:33.760><c> far</c>

24:30.507 --> 24:30.517 align:start position:0%
But remember that Beetlejuice is so far
 

24:30.517 --> 24:32.986 align:start position:0%
But remember that Beetlejuice is so far
away<00:25:34.559><c> that</c><00:25:34.799><c> the</c><00:25:34.960><c> image</c><00:25:35.279><c> captured</c><00:25:35.600><c> by</c><00:25:35.760><c> Alma</c><00:25:36.320><c> is</c>

24:32.986 --> 24:32.996 align:start position:0%
away that the image captured by Alma is
 

24:32.996 --> 24:36.106 align:start position:0%
away that the image captured by Alma is
far<00:25:36.799><c> from</c><00:25:37.039><c> ideal.</c><00:25:38.080><c> And</c><00:25:38.240><c> it's</c><00:25:38.480><c> more</c><00:25:38.799><c> of</c><00:25:38.960><c> a</c><00:25:39.120><c> blur</c>

24:36.106 --> 24:36.116 align:start position:0%
far from ideal. And it's more of a blur
 

24:36.116 --> 24:39.307 align:start position:0%
far from ideal. And it's more of a blur
than<00:25:39.919><c> an</c><00:25:40.080><c> HD</c><00:25:40.559><c> photograph.</c><00:25:42.000><c> When</c><00:25:42.240><c> simulations</c>

24:39.307 --> 24:39.317 align:start position:0%
than an HD photograph. When simulations
 

24:39.317 --> 24:41.067 align:start position:0%
than an HD photograph. When simulations
of<00:25:43.039><c> the</c><00:25:43.200><c> surface</c><00:25:43.440><c> of</c><00:25:43.600><c> Beetlejuice</c><00:25:44.159><c> are</c><00:25:44.400><c> made</c>

24:41.067 --> 24:41.077 align:start position:0%
of the surface of Beetlejuice are made
 

24:41.077 --> 24:42.986 align:start position:0%
of the surface of Beetlejuice are made
to<00:25:44.880><c> account</c><00:25:45.200><c> for</c><00:25:45.360><c> the</c><00:25:45.520><c> limited</c><00:25:45.919><c> resolution</c><00:25:46.400><c> of</c>

24:42.986 --> 24:42.996 align:start position:0%
to account for the limited resolution of
 

24:42.996 --> 24:44.986 align:start position:0%
to account for the limited resolution of
observations,<00:25:47.760><c> they</c><00:25:48.000><c> predict</c><00:25:48.240><c> that</c><00:25:48.400><c> the</c>

24:44.986 --> 24:44.996 align:start position:0%
observations, they predict that the
 

24:44.996 --> 24:47.226 align:start position:0%
observations, they predict that the
bubbly<00:25:49.039><c> patches</c><00:25:49.520><c> of</c><00:25:49.760><c> red</c><00:25:50.000><c> shift</c><00:25:50.320><c> and</c><00:25:50.559><c> blue</c>

24:47.226 --> 24:47.236 align:start position:0%
bubbly patches of red shift and blue
 

24:47.236 --> 24:49.466 align:start position:0%
bubbly patches of red shift and blue
shift<00:25:51.200><c> will</c><00:25:51.440><c> be</c><00:25:51.679><c> easily</c><00:25:52.080><c> mistaken</c><00:25:52.640><c> for</c><00:25:52.799><c> a</c>

24:49.466 --> 24:49.476 align:start position:0%
shift will be easily mistaken for a
 

24:49.476 --> 24:52.027 align:start position:0%
shift will be easily mistaken for a
rotational<00:25:53.600><c> gradient</c><00:25:54.159><c> about</c><00:25:54.480><c> 90%</c><00:25:55.200><c> of</c><00:25:55.360><c> the</c>

24:52.027 --> 24:52.037 align:start position:0%
rotational gradient about 90% of the
 

24:52.037 --> 24:54.827 align:start position:0%
rotational gradient about 90% of the
time.<00:25:56.640><c> This</c><00:25:56.880><c> means</c><00:25:57.200><c> that</c><00:25:57.600><c> even</c><00:25:57.919><c> if</c><00:25:58.240><c> the</c>

24:54.827 --> 24:54.837 align:start position:0%
time. This means that even if the
 

24:54.837 --> 24:56.986 align:start position:0%
time. This means that even if the
astronomers<00:25:58.960><c> at</c><00:25:59.120><c> ALMA</c><00:25:59.520><c> did</c><00:25:59.760><c> nothing</c><00:26:00.080><c> wrong</c><00:26:00.320><c> in</c>

24:56.986 --> 24:56.996 align:start position:0%
astronomers at ALMA did nothing wrong in
 

24:56.996 --> 24:58.907 align:start position:0%
astronomers at ALMA did nothing wrong in
their<00:26:00.799><c> analysis,</c><00:26:01.679><c> they</c><00:26:01.919><c> may</c><00:26:02.080><c> have</c><00:26:02.320><c> been</c>

24:58.907 --> 24:58.917 align:start position:0%
their analysis, they may have been
 

24:58.917 --> 25:01.547 align:start position:0%
their analysis, they may have been
fooled<00:26:02.880><c> by</c><00:26:03.120><c> Beetlejuice's</c><00:26:04.000><c> boiling</c><00:26:04.400><c> surface</c>

25:01.547 --> 25:01.557 align:start position:0%
fooled by Beetlejuice's boiling surface
 

25:01.557 --> 25:04.106 align:start position:0%
fooled by Beetlejuice's boiling surface
into<00:26:05.440><c> thinking</c><00:26:05.840><c> it's</c><00:26:06.080><c> spinning</c><00:26:06.720><c> way</c><00:26:07.120><c> faster</c>

25:04.106 --> 25:04.116 align:start position:0%
into thinking it's spinning way faster
 

25:04.116 --> 25:06.986 align:start position:0%
into thinking it's spinning way faster
than<00:26:07.919><c> it</c><00:26:08.159><c> actually</c><00:26:08.480><c> is.</c><00:26:09.600><c> This</c><00:26:10.000><c> also</c><00:26:10.400><c> means</c>

25:06.986 --> 25:06.996 align:start position:0%
than it actually is. This also means
 

25:06.996 --> 25:09.147 align:start position:0%
than it actually is. This also means
that<00:26:10.799><c> astronomers</c><00:26:11.440><c> are</c><00:26:11.600><c> now</c><00:26:11.840><c> chasing</c><00:26:12.240><c> after</c>

25:09.147 --> 25:09.157 align:start position:0%
that astronomers are now chasing after
 

25:09.157 --> 25:12.187 align:start position:0%
that astronomers are now chasing after
one<00:26:13.120><c> key</c><00:26:13.440><c> objective.</c><00:26:14.720><c> Higher</c><00:26:15.200><c> resolution</c>

25:12.187 --> 25:12.197 align:start position:0%
one key objective. Higher resolution
 

25:12.197 --> 25:14.187 align:start position:0%
one key objective. Higher resolution
studies<00:26:16.080><c> of</c><00:26:16.159><c> Beetlejuice</c><00:26:16.880><c> that</c><00:26:17.120><c> could</c><00:26:17.440><c> more</c>

25:14.187 --> 25:14.197 align:start position:0%
studies of Beetlejuice that could more
 

25:14.197 --> 25:17.226 align:start position:0%
studies of Beetlejuice that could more
accurately<00:26:18.320><c> tell</c><00:26:18.640><c> the</c><00:26:18.799><c> two</c><00:26:18.960><c> scenarios</c><00:26:19.520><c> apart.</c>

25:17.226 --> 25:17.236 align:start position:0%
accurately tell the two scenarios apart.
 

25:17.236 --> 25:19.547 align:start position:0%
accurately tell the two scenarios apart.
The<00:26:21.039><c> good</c><00:26:21.200><c> news</c><00:26:21.440><c> is</c><00:26:21.840><c> that</c><00:26:22.159><c> better</c><00:26:22.559><c> images</c><00:26:22.880><c> of</c>

25:19.547 --> 25:19.557 align:start position:0%
The good news is that better images of
 

25:19.557 --> 25:22.667 align:start position:0%
The good news is that better images of
Beetlejuice<00:26:23.919><c> already</c><00:26:24.480><c> exist,</c><00:26:25.520><c> taken</c><00:26:25.840><c> by</c><00:26:26.000><c> the</c>

25:22.667 --> 25:22.677 align:start position:0%
Beetlejuice already exist, taken by the
 

25:22.677 --> 25:25.307 align:start position:0%
Beetlejuice already exist, taken by the
same<00:26:26.400><c> telescope,</c><00:26:27.200><c> but</c><00:26:27.600><c> with</c><00:26:27.919><c> longer</c><00:26:28.400><c> exposure</c>

25:25.307 --> 25:25.317 align:start position:0%
same telescope, but with longer exposure
 

25:25.317 --> 25:28.586 align:start position:0%
same telescope, but with longer exposure
times.<00:26:30.000><c> The</c><00:26:30.240><c> bad</c><00:26:30.480><c> news</c><00:26:31.120><c> for</c><00:26:31.360><c> those</c><00:26:31.600><c> of</c><00:26:31.760><c> us</c><00:26:31.919><c> who</c>

25:28.586 --> 25:28.596 align:start position:0%
times. The bad news for those of us who
 

25:28.596 --> 25:30.986 align:start position:0%
times. The bad news for those of us who
are<00:26:32.320><c> more</c><00:26:32.640><c> impatient</c><00:26:33.600><c> is</c><00:26:33.919><c> that</c><00:26:34.159><c> it</c><00:26:34.400><c> will</c>

25:30.986 --> 25:30.996 align:start position:0%
are more impatient is that it will
 

25:30.996 --> 25:32.907 align:start position:0%
are more impatient is that it will
likely<00:26:34.960><c> take</c><00:26:35.200><c> a</c><00:26:35.520><c> couple</c><00:26:35.679><c> of</c><00:26:35.840><c> years</c><00:26:36.080><c> for</c><00:26:36.320><c> them</c>

25:32.907 --> 25:32.917 align:start position:0%
likely take a couple of years for them
 

25:32.917 --> 25:36.106 align:start position:0%
likely take a couple of years for them
to<00:26:36.640><c> be</c><00:26:36.880><c> properly</c><00:26:37.360><c> analyzed.</c><00:26:38.559><c> Those</c><00:26:39.120><c> answers</c>

25:36.106 --> 25:36.116 align:start position:0%
to be properly analyzed. Those answers
 

25:36.116 --> 25:39.067 align:start position:0%
to be properly analyzed. Those answers
are<00:26:40.000><c> coming</c><00:26:40.400><c> though.</c><00:26:41.279><c> For</c><00:26:41.600><c> now,</c><00:26:42.080><c> I'm</c><00:26:42.320><c> curious</c>

25:39.067 --> 25:39.077 align:start position:0%
are coming though. For now, I'm curious
 

25:39.077 --> 25:41.387 align:start position:0%
are coming though. For now, I'm curious
to<00:26:42.799><c> know</c><00:26:42.960><c> where</c><00:26:43.279><c> you</c><00:26:43.520><c> would</c><00:26:43.679><c> place</c><00:26:44.000><c> your</c><00:26:44.159><c> bets.</c>

25:41.387 --> 25:41.397 align:start position:0%
to know where you would place your bets.
 

25:41.397 --> 25:45.226 align:start position:0%
to know where you would place your bets.
Is<00:26:45.120><c> Beetlejuice</c><00:26:46.000><c> really</c><00:26:46.400><c> spinning</c><00:26:46.799><c> at</c><00:26:47.039><c> 5</c><00:26:47.279><c> km/s</c>

25:45.226 --> 25:45.236 align:start position:0%
Is Beetlejuice really spinning at 5 km/s
 

25:45.236 --> 25:47.867 align:start position:0%
Is Beetlejuice really spinning at 5 km/s
after<00:26:49.200><c> having</c><00:26:49.520><c> eaten</c><00:26:49.919><c> its</c><00:26:50.159><c> companion</c><00:26:50.720><c> star?</c>

25:47.867 --> 25:47.877 align:start position:0%
after having eaten its companion star?
 

25:47.877 --> 25:50.106 align:start position:0%
after having eaten its companion star?
Or<00:26:51.600><c> will</c><00:26:51.840><c> the</c><00:26:52.000><c> new</c><00:26:52.240><c> claim</c><00:26:52.640><c> that</c><00:26:52.880><c> this</c><00:26:53.120><c> rotation</c>

25:50.106 --> 25:50.116 align:start position:0%
Or will the new claim that this rotation
 

25:50.116 --> 25:52.346 align:start position:0%
Or will the new claim that this rotation
speed<00:26:54.080><c> is</c><00:26:54.320><c> nothing</c><00:26:54.640><c> more</c><00:26:54.880><c> than</c><00:26:55.039><c> an</c><00:26:55.279><c> optical</c>

25:52.346 --> 25:52.356 align:start position:0%
speed is nothing more than an optical
 

25:52.356 --> 25:54.667 align:start position:0%
speed is nothing more than an optical
illusion<00:26:56.559><c> be</c><00:26:56.720><c> vindicated?</c>

25:54.667 --> 25:54.677 align:start position:0%
illusion be vindicated?
 

25:54.677 --> 25:56.267 align:start position:0%
illusion be vindicated?
Let<00:26:58.480><c> me</c><00:26:58.559><c> know</c><00:26:58.720><c> your</c><00:26:59.039><c> thoughts</c><00:26:59.440><c> in</c><00:26:59.679><c> the</c>

25:56.267 --> 25:56.277 align:start position:0%
Let me know your thoughts in the
 

25:56.277 --> 25:58.346 align:start position:0%
Let me know your thoughts in the
comments<00:27:00.240><c> below.</c>

25:58.346 --> 25:58.356 align:start position:0%
comments below.
 

25:58.356 --> 26:01.547 align:start position:0%
comments below.
In<00:27:02.320><c> 2022,</c><00:27:03.360><c> astronomers</c><00:27:04.000><c> using</c><00:27:04.240><c> the</c><00:27:04.480><c> Merchesen</c>

26:01.547 --> 26:01.557 align:start position:0%
In 2022, astronomers using the Merchesen
 

26:01.557 --> 26:04.346 align:start position:0%
In 2022, astronomers using the Merchesen
wide<00:27:05.520><c> field</c><00:27:05.840><c> array</c><00:27:06.480><c> discovered</c><00:27:07.039><c> a</c><00:27:07.360><c> strange</c>

26:04.346 --> 26:04.356 align:start position:0%
wide field array discovered a strange
 

26:04.356 --> 26:06.907 align:start position:0%
wide field array discovered a strange
new<00:27:08.240><c> radio</c><00:27:08.640><c> signal</c><00:27:08.960><c> that</c><00:27:09.200><c> was</c><00:27:09.440><c> arriving</c><00:27:09.919><c> every</c>

26:06.907 --> 26:06.917 align:start position:0%
new radio signal that was arriving every
 

26:06.917 --> 26:10.106 align:start position:0%
new radio signal that was arriving every
22<00:27:11.039><c> minutes.</c><00:27:12.320><c> The</c><00:27:12.559><c> astronomers</c><00:27:13.120><c> were</c><00:27:13.360><c> no</c>

26:10.106 --> 26:10.116 align:start position:0%
22 minutes. The astronomers were no
 

26:10.116 --> 26:12.346 align:start position:0%
22 minutes. The astronomers were no
strangers<00:27:14.159><c> to</c><00:27:14.400><c> such</c><00:27:14.720><c> repeating</c><00:27:15.120><c> signals.</c>

26:12.346 --> 26:12.356 align:start position:0%
strangers to such repeating signals.
 

26:12.356 --> 26:14.427 align:start position:0%
strangers to such repeating signals.
They<00:27:16.240><c> typically</c><00:27:16.559><c> come</c><00:27:16.720><c> from</c><00:27:16.960><c> pulsars,</c>

26:14.427 --> 26:14.437 align:start position:0%
They typically come from pulsars,
 

26:14.437 --> 26:16.667 align:start position:0%
They typically come from pulsars,
neutron<00:27:18.400><c> stars,</c><00:27:18.799><c> which</c><00:27:19.039><c> send</c><00:27:19.360><c> intense</c><00:27:19.840><c> pulses</c>

26:16.667 --> 26:16.677 align:start position:0%
neutron stars, which send intense pulses
 

26:16.677 --> 26:18.747 align:start position:0%
neutron stars, which send intense pulses
of<00:27:20.480><c> light</c><00:27:20.799><c> across</c><00:27:21.200><c> the</c><00:27:21.440><c> universe</c><00:27:21.840><c> as</c><00:27:22.080><c> they</c>

26:18.747 --> 26:18.757 align:start position:0%
of light across the universe as they
 

26:18.757 --> 26:21.307 align:start position:0%
of light across the universe as they
rotate<00:27:22.720><c> on</c><00:27:22.880><c> their</c><00:27:23.120><c> axis.</c>

26:21.307 --> 26:21.317 align:start position:0%
rotate on their axis.
 

26:21.317 --> 26:23.547 align:start position:0%
rotate on their axis.
But<00:27:25.039><c> as</c><00:27:25.279><c> they</c><00:27:25.440><c> began</c><00:27:25.760><c> to</c><00:27:26.000><c> look</c><00:27:26.240><c> deeper</c><00:27:26.720><c> into</c>

26:23.547 --> 26:23.557 align:start position:0%
But as they began to look deeper into
 

26:23.557 --> 26:25.706 align:start position:0%
But as they began to look deeper into
records<00:27:27.520><c> of</c><00:27:27.760><c> past</c><00:27:28.080><c> observations,</c><00:27:29.039><c> they</c>

26:25.706 --> 26:25.716 align:start position:0%
records of past observations, they
 

26:25.716 --> 26:27.627 align:start position:0%
records of past observations, they
realized<00:27:29.760><c> this</c><00:27:30.000><c> signal</c><00:27:30.400><c> had</c><00:27:30.720><c> been</c><00:27:30.880><c> arriving</c>

26:27.627 --> 26:27.637 align:start position:0%
realized this signal had been arriving
 

26:27.637 --> 26:30.907 align:start position:0%
realized this signal had been arriving
at<00:27:31.360><c> Earth</c><00:27:31.760><c> since</c><00:27:32.080><c> at</c><00:27:32.159><c> least</c><00:27:32.799><c> 1988</c><00:27:34.240><c> with</c>

26:30.907 --> 26:30.917 align:start position:0%
at Earth since at least 1988 with
 

26:30.917 --> 26:33.627 align:start position:0%
at Earth since at least 1988 with
remarkable<00:27:35.120><c> stability,</c><00:27:36.159><c> far</c><00:27:36.480><c> more</c><00:27:36.720><c> stable</c>

26:33.627 --> 26:33.637 align:start position:0%
remarkable stability, far more stable
 

26:33.637 --> 26:35.867 align:start position:0%
remarkable stability, far more stable
than<00:27:37.360><c> is</c><00:27:37.600><c> expected</c><00:27:38.000><c> for</c><00:27:38.159><c> a</c><00:27:38.400><c> pulsar</c><00:27:38.880><c> rotating</c>

26:35.867 --> 26:35.877 align:start position:0%
than is expected for a pulsar rotating
 

26:35.877 --> 26:38.346 align:start position:0%
than is expected for a pulsar rotating
every<00:27:39.840><c> 22</c><00:27:40.400><c> minutes.</c>

26:38.346 --> 26:38.356 align:start position:0%
every 22 minutes.
 

26:38.356 --> 26:41.226 align:start position:0%
every 22 minutes.
If<00:27:42.159><c> it</c><00:27:42.400><c> was</c><00:27:42.480><c> a</c><00:27:42.720><c> neutron</c><00:27:43.200><c> star,</c><00:27:43.760><c> it</c><00:27:44.000><c> was</c><00:27:44.159><c> unlike</c>

26:41.226 --> 26:41.236 align:start position:0%
If it was a neutron star, it was unlike
 

26:41.236 --> 26:44.907 align:start position:0%
If it was a neutron star, it was unlike
any<00:27:45.200><c> they</c><00:27:45.440><c> had</c><00:27:45.679><c> seen</c><00:27:45.919><c> before.</c><00:27:47.279><c> So</c><00:27:48.000><c> where</c><00:27:48.320><c> was</c>

26:44.907 --> 26:44.917 align:start position:0%
any they had seen before. So where was
 

26:44.917 --> 26:47.787 align:start position:0%
any they had seen before. So where was
this<00:27:48.720><c> signal</c><00:27:49.120><c> coming</c><00:27:49.360><c> from?</c>

26:47.787 --> 26:47.797 align:start position:0%
this signal coming from?
 

26:47.797 --> 26:49.787 align:start position:0%
this signal coming from?
I'm<00:27:51.679><c> Alex</c><00:27:52.080><c> Mccoan</c><00:27:52.720><c> and</c><00:27:52.880><c> you're</c><00:27:53.120><c> watching</c>

26:49.787 --> 26:49.797 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
 

26:49.797 --> 26:52.586 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
Astramm.<00:27:54.399><c> Join</c><00:27:54.640><c> me</c><00:27:54.880><c> today</c><00:27:55.120><c> as</c><00:27:55.440><c> we</c><00:27:55.679><c> grapple</c>

26:52.586 --> 26:52.596 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join me today as we grapple
 

26:52.596 --> 26:54.586 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join me today as we grapple
with<00:27:56.320><c> the</c><00:27:56.480><c> mystery</c><00:27:56.880><c> that</c><00:27:57.200><c> lies</c><00:27:57.520><c> behind</c><00:27:57.919><c> this</c>

26:54.586 --> 26:54.596 align:start position:0%
with the mystery that lies behind this
 

26:54.596 --> 26:56.427 align:start position:0%
with the mystery that lies behind this
signal<00:27:58.799><c> which</c><00:27:59.039><c> will</c><00:27:59.279><c> challenge</c><00:27:59.679><c> our</c>

26:56.427 --> 26:56.437 align:start position:0%
signal which will challenge our
 

26:56.437 --> 26:58.427 align:start position:0%
signal which will challenge our
understanding<00:28:00.559><c> of</c><00:28:00.799><c> some</c><00:28:01.039><c> of</c><00:28:01.120><c> the</c><00:28:01.360><c> most</c><00:28:01.679><c> awe</c>

26:58.427 --> 26:58.437 align:start position:0%
understanding of some of the most awe
 

26:58.437 --> 27:03.466 align:start position:0%
understanding of some of the most awe
inspiring<00:28:02.720><c> objects</c><00:28:03.120><c> in</c><00:28:03.440><c> our</c><00:28:03.679><c> cosmos.</c>

27:03.466 --> 27:03.476 align:start position:0%
 
 

27:03.476 --> 27:05.867 align:start position:0%
 
The<00:28:07.279><c> location</c><00:28:07.760><c> of</c><00:28:07.919><c> the</c><00:28:08.159><c> source</c><00:28:08.799><c> named</c>

27:05.867 --> 27:05.877 align:start position:0%
The location of the source named
 

27:05.877 --> 27:09.706 align:start position:0%
The location of the source named
GPMJ1839-10

27:09.706 --> 27:09.716 align:start position:0%
 
 

27:09.716 --> 27:13.307 align:start position:0%
 
is<00:28:13.600><c> roughly</c><00:28:14.320><c> 18,000</c><00:28:15.120><c> lighty</c><00:28:15.360><c> years</c><00:28:15.600><c> away.</c><00:28:16.559><c> Its</c>

27:13.307 --> 27:13.317 align:start position:0%
is roughly 18,000 lighty years away. Its
 

27:13.317 --> 27:15.547 align:start position:0%
is roughly 18,000 lighty years away. Its
signal<00:28:17.279><c> arrives</c><00:28:17.600><c> as</c><00:28:17.840><c> pulses</c><00:28:18.320><c> that</c><00:28:18.640><c> can</c><00:28:18.799><c> last</c>

27:15.547 --> 27:15.557 align:start position:0%
signal arrives as pulses that can last
 

27:15.557 --> 27:17.947 align:start position:0%
signal arrives as pulses that can last
any<00:28:19.440><c> amount</c><00:28:19.679><c> of</c><00:28:19.840><c> time</c><00:28:20.159><c> between</c><00:28:20.720><c> 30</c><00:28:21.039><c> seconds</c>

27:17.947 --> 27:17.957 align:start position:0%
any amount of time between 30 seconds
 

27:17.957 --> 27:20.986 align:start position:0%
any amount of time between 30 seconds
and<00:28:21.919><c> 5</c><00:28:22.159><c> minutes.</c><00:28:23.360><c> These</c><00:28:23.600><c> pulses</c><00:28:24.080><c> can</c><00:28:24.240><c> appear</c>

27:20.986 --> 27:20.996 align:start position:0%
and 5 minutes. These pulses can appear
 

27:20.996 --> 27:24.027 align:start position:0%
and 5 minutes. These pulses can appear
at<00:28:24.880><c> any</c><00:28:25.200><c> time</c><00:28:25.440><c> in</c><00:28:25.679><c> a</c><00:28:25.840><c> window</c><00:28:26.159><c> of</c><00:28:26.399><c> just</c><00:28:26.720><c> over</c><00:28:27.120><c> 6</c>

27:24.027 --> 27:24.037 align:start position:0%
at any time in a window of just over 6
 

27:24.037 --> 27:26.586 align:start position:0%
at any time in a window of just over 6
1/2<00:28:27.919><c> minutes,</c><00:28:28.559><c> which</c><00:28:28.799><c> is</c><00:28:28.960><c> centered</c><00:28:29.360><c> on</c><00:28:29.679><c> 22</c>

27:26.586 --> 27:26.596 align:start position:0%
1/2 minutes, which is centered on 22
 

27:26.596 --> 27:29.547 align:start position:0%
1/2 minutes, which is centered on 22
minutes<00:28:30.480><c> after</c><00:28:30.799><c> the</c><00:28:31.039><c> previous</c><00:28:31.360><c> pulse.</c><00:28:32.559><c> To</c><00:28:32.799><c> us,</c>

27:29.547 --> 27:29.557 align:start position:0%
minutes after the previous pulse. To us,
 

27:29.557 --> 27:31.627 align:start position:0%
minutes after the previous pulse. To us,
this<00:28:33.360><c> may</c><00:28:33.600><c> seem</c><00:28:33.919><c> like</c><00:28:34.159><c> a</c><00:28:34.480><c> great</c><00:28:34.720><c> deal</c><00:28:34.960><c> of</c>

27:31.627 --> 27:31.637 align:start position:0%
this may seem like a great deal of
 

27:31.637 --> 27:34.747 align:start position:0%
this may seem like a great deal of
variation.<00:28:36.320><c> 30</c><00:28:36.640><c> seconds</c><00:28:36.960><c> and</c><00:28:37.279><c> 5</c><00:28:37.600><c> minutes</c><00:28:38.000><c> are</c>

27:34.747 --> 27:34.757 align:start position:0%
variation. 30 seconds and 5 minutes are
 

27:34.757 --> 27:36.907 align:start position:0%
variation. 30 seconds and 5 minutes are
very<00:28:38.640><c> different</c><00:28:38.960><c> durations,</c><00:28:39.760><c> and</c><00:28:40.000><c> the</c><00:28:40.159><c> pulse</c>

27:36.907 --> 27:36.917 align:start position:0%
very different durations, and the pulse
 

27:36.917 --> 27:39.387 align:start position:0%
very different durations, and the pulse
arrival<00:28:41.039><c> varying</c><00:28:41.440><c> by</c><00:28:41.600><c> over</c><00:28:41.919><c> 6</c><00:28:42.240><c> minutes</c>

27:39.387 --> 27:39.397 align:start position:0%
arrival varying by over 6 minutes
 

27:39.397 --> 27:41.547 align:start position:0%
arrival varying by over 6 minutes
doesn't<00:28:43.279><c> paint</c><00:28:43.520><c> a</c><00:28:43.760><c> picture</c><00:28:44.000><c> of</c><00:28:44.240><c> a</c><00:28:44.399><c> very</c><00:28:44.720><c> stable</c>

27:41.547 --> 27:41.557 align:start position:0%
doesn't paint a picture of a very stable
 

27:41.557 --> 27:42.667 align:start position:0%
doesn't paint a picture of a very stable
source.

27:42.667 --> 27:42.677 align:start position:0%
source.
 

27:42.677 --> 27:45.147 align:start position:0%
source.
But<00:28:46.640><c> neutron</c><00:28:47.120><c> star</c><00:28:47.440><c> dynamics</c><00:28:48.000><c> can</c><00:28:48.240><c> be</c><00:28:48.399><c> very</c>

27:45.147 --> 27:45.157 align:start position:0%
But neutron star dynamics can be very
 

27:45.157 --> 27:47.947 align:start position:0%
But neutron star dynamics can be very
complicated<00:28:49.679><c> and</c><00:28:49.919><c> if</c><00:28:50.080><c> the</c><00:28:50.320><c> source</c><00:28:50.720><c> is</c><00:28:51.200><c> indeed</c>

27:47.947 --> 27:47.957 align:start position:0%
complicated and if the source is indeed
 

27:47.957 --> 27:50.346 align:start position:0%
complicated and if the source is indeed
a<00:28:51.679><c> neutron</c><00:28:52.159><c> star</c><00:28:52.799><c> then</c><00:28:53.039><c> many</c><00:28:53.360><c> factors</c><00:28:53.760><c> can</c>

27:50.346 --> 27:50.356 align:start position:0%
a neutron star then many factors can
 

27:50.356 --> 27:52.586 align:start position:0%
a neutron star then many factors can
affect<00:28:54.240><c> the</c><00:28:54.399><c> duration</c><00:28:54.880><c> and</c><00:28:55.120><c> arrival</c><00:28:55.600><c> times</c><00:28:56.000><c> of</c>

27:52.586 --> 27:52.596 align:start position:0%
affect the duration and arrival times of
 

27:52.596 --> 27:54.826 align:start position:0%
affect the duration and arrival times of
the<00:28:56.320><c> pulses</c><00:28:56.720><c> that</c><00:28:56.960><c> we</c><00:28:57.120><c> receive.</c>

27:54.826 --> 27:54.836 align:start position:0%
the pulses that we receive.
 

27:54.836 --> 27:57.067 align:start position:0%
the pulses that we receive.
Nevertheless,<00:28:59.360><c> the</c><00:28:59.600><c> astronomers</c><00:29:00.240><c> were</c><00:29:00.399><c> able</c>

27:57.067 --> 27:57.077 align:start position:0%
Nevertheless, the astronomers were able
 

27:57.077 --> 27:59.627 align:start position:0%
Nevertheless, the astronomers were able
to<00:29:00.799><c> spot</c><00:29:01.120><c> this</c><00:29:01.360><c> signal</c><00:29:01.840><c> hiding</c><00:29:02.240><c> in</c><00:29:02.480><c> data</c><00:29:02.960><c> from</c>

27:59.627 --> 27:59.637 align:start position:0%
to spot this signal hiding in data from
 

27:59.637 --> 28:02.747 align:start position:0%
to spot this signal hiding in data from
the<00:29:03.360><c> last</c><00:29:03.679><c> 35</c><00:29:04.240><c> years</c><00:29:04.880><c> and</c><00:29:05.120><c> used</c><00:29:05.520><c> this</c><00:29:05.840><c> expanded</c>

28:02.747 --> 28:02.757 align:start position:0%
the last 35 years and used this expanded
 

28:02.757 --> 28:04.586 align:start position:0%
the last 35 years and used this expanded
data<00:29:06.640><c> set</c><00:29:06.960><c> to</c><00:29:07.360><c> average</c><00:29:07.760><c> out</c><00:29:07.919><c> the</c>

28:04.586 --> 28:04.596 align:start position:0%
data set to average out the
 

28:04.596 --> 28:06.427 align:start position:0%
data set to average out the
fluctuations.

28:06.427 --> 28:06.437 align:start position:0%
fluctuations.
 

28:06.437 --> 28:08.187 align:start position:0%
fluctuations.
They<00:29:10.320><c> calculated</c><00:29:10.799><c> that</c><00:29:11.039><c> the</c><00:29:11.200><c> source</c><00:29:11.600><c> was</c>

28:08.187 --> 28:08.197 align:start position:0%
They calculated that the source was
 

28:08.197 --> 28:11.547 align:start position:0%
They calculated that the source was
rotating<00:29:12.399><c> once</c><00:29:12.799><c> every</c><00:29:13.279><c> 21</c><00:29:13.840><c> minutes</c><00:29:14.240><c> and</c><00:29:14.559><c> 58</c>

28:11.547 --> 28:11.557 align:start position:0%
rotating once every 21 minutes and 58
 

28:11.557 --> 28:14.187 align:start position:0%
rotating once every 21 minutes and 58
seconds<00:29:16.080><c> as</c><00:29:16.320><c> well</c><00:29:16.559><c> as</c><00:29:16.880><c> how</c><00:29:17.120><c> much</c><00:29:17.360><c> it</c><00:29:17.600><c> had</c>

28:14.187 --> 28:14.197 align:start position:0%
seconds as well as how much it had
 

28:14.197 --> 28:17.307 align:start position:0%
seconds as well as how much it had
slowed<00:29:18.080><c> down.</c><00:29:19.039><c> But</c><00:29:19.200><c> to</c><00:29:19.440><c> their</c><00:29:19.679><c> surprise,</c><00:29:20.559><c> they</c>

28:17.307 --> 28:17.317 align:start position:0%
slowed down. But to their surprise, they
 

28:17.317 --> 28:19.387 align:start position:0%
slowed down. But to their surprise, they
calculated<00:29:21.360><c> that</c><00:29:21.679><c> this</c><00:29:21.840><c> rotation</c><00:29:22.399><c> period</c>

28:19.387 --> 28:19.397 align:start position:0%
calculated that this rotation period
 

28:19.397 --> 28:22.427 align:start position:0%
calculated that this rotation period
remained<00:29:23.520><c> unchanged</c><00:29:24.480><c> over</c><00:29:24.720><c> the</c><00:29:24.960><c> past</c><00:29:25.279><c> 35</c>

28:22.427 --> 28:22.437 align:start position:0%
remained unchanged over the past 35
 

28:22.437 --> 28:25.067 align:start position:0%
remained unchanged over the past 35
years.<00:29:26.880><c> Even</c><00:29:27.200><c> though</c><00:29:27.440><c> it</c><00:29:27.679><c> is</c><00:29:27.919><c> expected</c><00:29:28.399><c> that</c>

28:25.067 --> 28:25.077 align:start position:0%
years. Even though it is expected that
 

28:25.077 --> 28:27.387 align:start position:0%
years. Even though it is expected that
the<00:29:28.880><c> source</c><00:29:29.200><c> will</c><00:29:29.440><c> slow</c><00:29:29.760><c> down</c><00:29:30.080><c> as</c><00:29:30.320><c> it</c><00:29:30.480><c> radiates</c>

28:27.387 --> 28:27.397 align:start position:0%
the source will slow down as it radiates
 

28:27.397 --> 28:30.106 align:start position:0%
the source will slow down as it radiates
energy<00:29:31.360><c> into</c><00:29:31.679><c> space,</c>

28:30.106 --> 28:30.116 align:start position:0%
energy into space,
 

28:30.116 --> 28:32.267 align:start position:0%
energy into space,
we<00:29:33.919><c> can</c><00:29:34.080><c> only</c><00:29:34.320><c> say</c><00:29:34.480><c> for</c><00:29:34.720><c> sure</c><00:29:35.200><c> that</c><00:29:35.440><c> if</c><00:29:35.600><c> the</c>

28:32.267 --> 28:32.277 align:start position:0%
we can only say for sure that if the
 

28:32.277 --> 28:34.747 align:start position:0%
we can only say for sure that if the
source<00:29:36.240><c> has</c><00:29:36.640><c> slowed</c><00:29:36.960><c> down,</c><00:29:37.520><c> its</c><00:29:37.840><c> rotation</c>

28:34.747 --> 28:34.757 align:start position:0%
source has slowed down, its rotation
 

28:34.757 --> 28:37.147 align:start position:0%
source has slowed down, its rotation
period<00:29:38.799><c> would</c><00:29:39.120><c> not</c><00:29:39.360><c> have</c><00:29:39.600><c> increased</c><00:29:40.080><c> by</c><00:29:40.399><c> more</c>

28:37.147 --> 28:37.157 align:start position:0%
period would not have increased by more
 

28:37.157 --> 28:39.067 align:start position:0%
period would not have increased by more
than<00:29:41.039><c> 0.28</c>

28:39.067 --> 28:39.077 align:start position:0%
than 0.28
 

28:39.077 --> 28:42.267 align:start position:0%
than 0.28
milliseconds<00:29:43.600><c> over</c><00:29:43.840><c> the</c><00:29:44.159><c> 35-</c><00:29:44.720><c> year</c><00:29:45.039><c> period</c>

28:42.267 --> 28:42.277 align:start position:0%
milliseconds over the 35- year period
 

28:42.277 --> 28:44.187 align:start position:0%
milliseconds over the 35- year period
because<00:29:46.159><c> otherwise</c><00:29:47.039><c> we</c><00:29:47.279><c> would</c><00:29:47.440><c> have</c><00:29:47.600><c> been</c>

28:44.187 --> 28:44.197 align:start position:0%
because otherwise we would have been
 

28:44.197 --> 28:46.907 align:start position:0%
because otherwise we would have been
able<00:29:47.919><c> to</c><00:29:48.000><c> detect</c><00:29:48.320><c> this</c><00:29:48.559><c> in</c><00:29:48.799><c> our</c><00:29:48.960><c> data.</c><00:29:50.000><c> This</c><00:29:50.320><c> is</c>

28:46.907 --> 28:46.917 align:start position:0%
able to detect this in our data. This is
 

28:46.917 --> 28:49.787 align:start position:0%
able to detect this in our data. This is
an<00:29:50.720><c> absolutely</c><00:29:51.600><c> minuscule</c><00:29:52.240><c> amount</c><00:29:52.880><c> and</c><00:29:53.120><c> it</c>

28:49.787 --> 28:49.797 align:start position:0%
an absolutely minuscule amount and it
 

28:49.797 --> 28:52.106 align:start position:0%
an absolutely minuscule amount and it
shows<00:29:53.600><c> that</c><00:29:53.760><c> whatever</c><00:29:54.159><c> the</c><00:29:54.399><c> object</c><00:29:54.799><c> is</c><00:29:55.360><c> is</c>

28:52.106 --> 28:52.116 align:start position:0%
shows that whatever the object is is
 

28:52.116 --> 28:55.387 align:start position:0%
shows that whatever the object is is
spinning<00:29:56.080><c> with</c><00:29:56.320><c> remarkable</c><00:29:57.039><c> stability.</c>

28:55.387 --> 28:55.397 align:start position:0%
spinning with remarkable stability.
 

28:55.397 --> 28:58.667 align:start position:0%
spinning with remarkable stability.
This<00:29:59.440><c> usually</c><00:30:00.159><c> isn't</c><00:30:00.559><c> odd</c><00:30:00.799><c> for</c><00:30:00.960><c> a</c><00:30:01.120><c> pulsar.</c>

28:58.667 --> 28:58.677 align:start position:0%
This usually isn't odd for a pulsar.
 

28:58.677 --> 29:00.267 align:start position:0%
This usually isn't odd for a pulsar.
These<00:30:02.640><c> are</c><00:30:02.799><c> the</c><00:30:02.960><c> timekeepers</c><00:30:03.520><c> of</c><00:30:03.679><c> the</c>

29:00.267 --> 29:00.277 align:start position:0%
These are the timekeepers of the
 

29:00.277 --> 29:02.826 align:start position:0%
These are the timekeepers of the
universe,<00:30:04.559><c> the</c><00:30:04.799><c> clocks</c><00:30:05.200><c> of</c><00:30:05.360><c> the</c><00:30:05.520><c> cosmos,</c>

29:02.826 --> 29:02.836 align:start position:0%
universe, the clocks of the cosmos,
 

29:02.836 --> 29:05.067 align:start position:0%
universe, the clocks of the cosmos,
mechanistically<00:30:07.360><c> ticking</c><00:30:07.840><c> away</c><00:30:08.080><c> with</c><00:30:08.320><c> such</c>

29:05.067 --> 29:05.077 align:start position:0%
mechanistically ticking away with such
 

29:05.077 --> 29:06.907 align:start position:0%
mechanistically ticking away with such
certainty<00:30:09.279><c> that</c><00:30:09.520><c> we</c><00:30:09.760><c> can</c><00:30:09.840><c> use</c><00:30:10.080><c> them</c><00:30:10.240><c> to</c>

29:06.907 --> 29:06.917 align:start position:0%
certainty that we can use them to
 

29:06.917 --> 29:09.147 align:start position:0%
certainty that we can use them to
measure<00:30:10.799><c> time</c><00:30:11.120><c> across</c><00:30:11.679><c> vast</c><00:30:12.080><c> stretches</c><00:30:12.559><c> of</c>

29:09.147 --> 29:09.157 align:start position:0%
measure time across vast stretches of
 

29:09.157 --> 29:10.826 align:start position:0%
measure time across vast stretches of
the<00:30:12.880><c> universe.</c>

29:10.826 --> 29:10.836 align:start position:0%
the universe.
 

29:10.836 --> 29:13.547 align:start position:0%
the universe.
However,<00:30:14.960><c> this</c><00:30:15.440><c> level</c><00:30:15.760><c> of</c><00:30:16.000><c> stability</c><00:30:16.559><c> is</c><00:30:16.799><c> odd</c>

29:13.547 --> 29:13.557 align:start position:0%
However, this level of stability is odd
 

29:13.557 --> 29:17.547 align:start position:0%
However, this level of stability is odd
for<00:30:17.279><c> a</c><00:30:17.440><c> pulsar</c><00:30:17.919><c> that</c><00:30:18.080><c> is</c><00:30:18.320><c> rotating</c><00:30:19.039><c> so</c><00:30:19.520><c> slowly.</c>

29:17.547 --> 29:17.557 align:start position:0%
for a pulsar that is rotating so slowly.
 

29:17.557 --> 29:19.706 align:start position:0%
for a pulsar that is rotating so slowly.
To<00:30:21.360><c> understand</c><00:30:21.760><c> what</c><00:30:22.000><c> makes</c><00:30:22.159><c> it</c><00:30:22.399><c> odd,</c><00:30:22.960><c> we</c><00:30:23.200><c> need</c>

29:19.706 --> 29:19.716 align:start position:0%
To understand what makes it odd, we need
 

29:19.716 --> 29:22.747 align:start position:0%
To understand what makes it odd, we need
to<00:30:23.440><c> recap</c><00:30:23.919><c> how</c><00:30:24.240><c> pulsars</c><00:30:24.880><c> work</c><00:30:25.360><c> and</c><00:30:25.679><c> what</c><00:30:26.080><c> makes</c>

29:22.747 --> 29:22.757 align:start position:0%
to recap how pulsars work and what makes
 

29:22.757 --> 29:25.466 align:start position:0%
to recap how pulsars work and what makes
them<00:30:26.559><c> slow</c><00:30:26.880><c> down</c><00:30:27.200><c> over</c><00:30:27.520><c> time.</c>

29:25.466 --> 29:25.476 align:start position:0%
them slow down over time.
 

29:25.476 --> 29:28.586 align:start position:0%
them slow down over time.
Pulsars<00:30:29.760><c> are</c><00:30:30.080><c> neutron</c><00:30:30.640><c> stars,</c><00:30:31.360><c> the</c><00:30:31.600><c> leftover</c>

29:28.586 --> 29:28.596 align:start position:0%
Pulsars are neutron stars, the leftover
 

29:28.596 --> 29:31.547 align:start position:0%
Pulsars are neutron stars, the leftover
cause<00:30:32.480><c> of</c><00:30:32.720><c> dead</c><00:30:33.200><c> super</c><00:30:33.520><c> giant</c><00:30:33.919><c> stars,</c><00:30:34.559><c> which</c>

29:31.547 --> 29:31.557 align:start position:0%
cause of dead super giant stars, which
 

29:31.557 --> 29:33.947 align:start position:0%
cause of dead super giant stars, which
barring<00:30:35.600><c> black</c><00:30:35.840><c> holes,</c><00:30:36.559><c> are</c><00:30:36.720><c> the</c><00:30:36.960><c> densest</c>

29:33.947 --> 29:33.957 align:start position:0%
barring black holes, are the densest
 

29:33.957 --> 29:36.507 align:start position:0%
barring black holes, are the densest
objects<00:30:37.840><c> in</c><00:30:38.080><c> the</c><00:30:38.240><c> universe.</c><00:30:39.440><c> Planets</c><00:30:39.919><c> like</c>

29:36.507 --> 29:36.517 align:start position:0%
objects in the universe. Planets like
 

29:36.517 --> 29:38.667 align:start position:0%
objects in the universe. Planets like
our<00:30:40.399><c> own</c><00:30:40.640><c> are</c><00:30:40.880><c> made</c><00:30:41.039><c> up</c><00:30:41.120><c> of</c><00:30:41.279><c> atoms</c><00:30:42.000><c> which</c>

29:38.667 --> 29:38.677 align:start position:0%
our own are made up of atoms which
 

29:38.677 --> 29:42.427 align:start position:0%
our own are made up of atoms which
consist<00:30:42.559><c> of</c><00:30:42.799><c> over</c><00:30:43.200><c> 99.999%</c>

29:42.427 --> 29:42.437 align:start position:0%
consist of over 99.999%
 

29:42.437 --> 29:45.147 align:start position:0%
consist of over 99.999%
empty<00:30:46.399><c> space</c><00:30:47.039><c> due</c><00:30:47.200><c> to</c><00:30:47.360><c> the</c><00:30:47.600><c> vast</c><00:30:48.080><c> separation</c>

29:45.147 --> 29:45.157 align:start position:0%
empty space due to the vast separation
 

29:45.157 --> 29:47.387 align:start position:0%
empty space due to the vast separation
between<00:30:48.960><c> the</c><00:30:49.200><c> electrons</c><00:30:49.919><c> and</c><00:30:50.080><c> the</c><00:30:50.320><c> incredibly</c>

29:47.387 --> 29:47.397 align:start position:0%
between the electrons and the incredibly
 

29:47.397 --> 29:50.106 align:start position:0%
between the electrons and the incredibly
dense<00:30:51.279><c> nucleus</c><00:30:51.760><c> they</c><00:30:51.919><c> are</c><00:30:52.080><c> whizzing</c><00:30:52.399><c> around.</c>

29:50.106 --> 29:50.116 align:start position:0%
dense nucleus they are whizzing around.
 

29:50.116 --> 29:53.787 align:start position:0%
dense nucleus they are whizzing around.
But<00:30:54.159><c> imagine</c><00:30:54.720><c> an</c><00:30:54.960><c> entire</c><00:30:55.360><c> star</c><00:30:56.000><c> made</c><00:30:56.640><c> purely</c>

29:53.787 --> 29:53.797 align:start position:0%
But imagine an entire star made purely
 

29:53.797 --> 29:55.706 align:start position:0%
But imagine an entire star made purely
out<00:30:57.600><c> of</c><00:30:57.760><c> the</c><00:30:57.919><c> neutrons</c><00:30:58.399><c> that</c><00:30:58.640><c> are</c><00:30:58.799><c> found</c><00:30:59.039><c> in</c>

29:55.706 --> 29:55.716 align:start position:0%
out of the neutrons that are found in
 

29:55.716 --> 29:59.706 align:start position:0%
out of the neutrons that are found in
the<00:30:59.440><c> nucleus.</c><00:31:00.559><c> No</c><00:31:00.880><c> electrons,</c><00:31:01.840><c> no</c><00:31:02.159><c> protons,</c>

29:59.706 --> 29:59.716 align:start position:0%
the nucleus. No electrons, no protons,
 

29:59.716 --> 30:04.027 align:start position:0%
the nucleus. No electrons, no protons,
no<00:31:03.760><c> empty</c><00:31:04.159><c> space.</c><00:31:05.600><c> merely</c><00:31:06.080><c> a</c><00:31:06.399><c> teaspoon</c><00:31:06.960><c> of</c><00:31:07.200><c> it</c>

30:04.027 --> 30:04.037 align:start position:0%
no empty space. merely a teaspoon of it
 

30:04.037 --> 30:07.226 align:start position:0%
no empty space. merely a teaspoon of it
would<00:31:07.919><c> have</c><00:31:08.080><c> as</c><00:31:08.320><c> much</c><00:31:08.480><c> mass</c><00:31:09.039><c> as</c><00:31:09.440><c> 11</c><00:31:09.919><c> times</c><00:31:10.320><c> that</c>

30:07.226 --> 30:07.236 align:start position:0%
would have as much mass as 11 times that
 

30:07.236 --> 30:10.507 align:start position:0%
would have as much mass as 11 times that
of<00:31:11.120><c> the</c><00:31:11.360><c> entire</c><00:31:11.760><c> human</c><00:31:12.159><c> population,</c><00:31:13.360><c> all</c><00:31:13.760><c> 8</c>

30:10.507 --> 30:10.517 align:start position:0%
of the entire human population, all 8
 

30:10.517 --> 30:13.147 align:start position:0%
of the entire human population, all 8
billion<00:31:14.559><c> people.</c>

30:13.147 --> 30:13.157 align:start position:0%
billion people.
 

30:13.157 --> 30:16.106 align:start position:0%
billion people.
A<00:31:16.960><c> typical</c><00:31:17.279><c> neutron</c><00:31:17.760><c> star</c><00:31:18.080><c> is</c><00:31:18.320><c> around</c><00:31:18.799><c> 35%</c>

30:16.106 --> 30:16.116 align:start position:0%
A typical neutron star is around 35%
 

30:16.116 --> 30:18.667 align:start position:0%
A typical neutron star is around 35%
more<00:31:19.919><c> massive</c><00:31:20.240><c> than</c><00:31:20.399><c> our</c><00:31:20.799><c> sun</c><00:31:21.440><c> and</c><00:31:21.760><c> squeezed</c>

30:18.667 --> 30:18.677 align:start position:0%
more massive than our sun and squeezed
 

30:18.677 --> 30:20.826 align:start position:0%
more massive than our sun and squeezed
into<00:31:22.480><c> a</c><00:31:22.640><c> sphere</c><00:31:23.039><c> that</c><00:31:23.279><c> has</c><00:31:23.440><c> the</c><00:31:23.679><c> diameter</c>

30:20.826 --> 30:20.836 align:start position:0%
into a sphere that has the diameter
 

30:20.836 --> 30:22.586 align:start position:0%
into a sphere that has the diameter
about<00:31:24.720><c> as</c><00:31:25.039><c> long</c><00:31:25.200><c> as</c><00:31:25.440><c> the</c><00:31:25.679><c> island</c><00:31:26.000><c> of</c>

30:22.586 --> 30:22.596 align:start position:0%
about as long as the island of
 

30:22.596 --> 30:25.947 align:start position:0%
about as long as the island of
Manhattan.<00:31:27.520><c> To</c><00:31:27.760><c> call</c><00:31:27.919><c> it</c><00:31:28.159><c> dense</c><00:31:28.799><c> would</c><00:31:29.120><c> be</c><00:31:29.279><c> an</c>

30:25.947 --> 30:25.957 align:start position:0%
Manhattan. To call it dense would be an
 

30:25.957 --> 30:28.507 align:start position:0%
Manhattan. To call it dense would be an
understatement.

30:28.507 --> 30:28.517 align:start position:0%
understatement.
 

30:28.517 --> 30:30.027 align:start position:0%
understatement.
For<00:31:32.399><c> reasons</c><00:31:32.720><c> still</c><00:31:32.960><c> unknown</c><00:31:33.440><c> to</c>

30:30.027 --> 30:30.037 align:start position:0%
For reasons still unknown to
 

30:30.037 --> 30:32.507 align:start position:0%
For reasons still unknown to
astrophysicists,<00:31:34.880><c> the</c><00:31:35.120><c> extreme</c><00:31:35.520><c> environment</c>

30:32.507 --> 30:32.517 align:start position:0%
astrophysicists, the extreme environment
 

30:32.517 --> 30:34.826 align:start position:0%
astrophysicists, the extreme environment
gives<00:31:36.399><c> rise</c><00:31:36.640><c> to</c><00:31:36.880><c> an</c><00:31:37.120><c> incredibly</c><00:31:37.919><c> strong</c>

30:34.826 --> 30:34.836 align:start position:0%
gives rise to an incredibly strong
 

30:34.836 --> 30:37.867 align:start position:0%
gives rise to an incredibly strong
magnetic<00:31:38.960><c> field.</c><00:31:40.399><c> What</c><00:31:40.640><c> does</c><00:31:40.799><c> this</c><00:31:41.039><c> have</c><00:31:41.200><c> to</c>

30:37.867 --> 30:37.877 align:start position:0%
magnetic field. What does this have to
 

30:37.877 --> 30:39.387 align:start position:0%
magnetic field. What does this have to
do<00:31:41.519><c> with</c><00:31:41.760><c> the</c><00:31:41.919><c> signals</c><00:31:42.320><c> we</c><00:31:42.480><c> receive</c><00:31:42.799><c> from</c>

30:39.387 --> 30:39.397 align:start position:0%
do with the signals we receive from
 

30:39.397 --> 30:42.346 align:start position:0%
do with the signals we receive from
pulsars?<00:31:44.399><c> Where</c><00:31:44.720><c> do</c><00:31:44.880><c> the</c><00:31:45.039><c> light</c><00:31:45.279><c> waves</c><00:31:45.679><c> come</c>

30:42.346 --> 30:42.356 align:start position:0%
pulsars? Where do the light waves come
 

30:42.356 --> 30:45.307 align:start position:0%
pulsars? Where do the light waves come
from?<00:31:47.279><c> To</c><00:31:47.519><c> answer</c><00:31:47.760><c> this</c><00:31:48.080><c> question,</c><00:31:48.559><c> we</c><00:31:48.720><c> need</c>

30:45.307 --> 30:45.317 align:start position:0%
from? To answer this question, we need
 

30:45.317 --> 30:47.547 align:start position:0%
from? To answer this question, we need
to<00:31:49.039><c> understand</c><00:31:49.440><c> a</c><00:31:49.760><c> complicated</c><00:31:50.399><c> process</c><00:31:50.799><c> that</c>

30:47.547 --> 30:47.557 align:start position:0%
to understand a complicated process that
 

30:47.557 --> 30:49.706 align:start position:0%
to understand a complicated process that
gives<00:31:51.360><c> rise</c><00:31:51.600><c> to</c><00:31:51.840><c> the</c><00:31:52.000><c> signal.</c><00:31:52.880><c> An</c>

30:49.706 --> 30:49.716 align:start position:0%
gives rise to the signal. An
 

30:49.716 --> 30:52.027 align:start position:0%
gives rise to the signal. An
exponentially<00:31:54.240><c> growing</c><00:31:54.640><c> shower</c><00:31:55.039><c> of</c><00:31:55.279><c> light</c>

30:52.027 --> 30:52.037 align:start position:0%
exponentially growing shower of light
 

30:52.037 --> 30:55.147 align:start position:0%
exponentially growing shower of light
and<00:31:55.840><c> matter,</c><00:31:56.640><c> all</c><00:31:56.960><c> spawning</c><00:31:57.519><c> from</c><00:31:57.840><c> a</c><00:31:58.159><c> single</c>

30:55.147 --> 30:55.157 align:start position:0%
and matter, all spawning from a single
 

30:55.157 --> 30:57.067 align:start position:0%
and matter, all spawning from a single
electron.

30:57.067 --> 30:57.077 align:start position:0%
electron.
 

30:57.077 --> 30:58.826 align:start position:0%
electron.
Near<00:32:00.880><c> the</c><00:32:01.120><c> magnetic</c><00:32:01.519><c> poles</c><00:32:01.760><c> of</c><00:32:01.840><c> a</c><00:32:02.000><c> neutron</c>

30:58.826 --> 30:58.836 align:start position:0%
Near the magnetic poles of a neutron
 

30:58.836 --> 31:01.147 align:start position:0%
Near the magnetic poles of a neutron
star,<00:32:02.960><c> an</c><00:32:03.200><c> electron</c><00:32:03.679><c> can</c><00:32:03.840><c> be</c><00:32:04.000><c> accelerated</c><00:32:04.480><c> by</c>

31:01.147 --> 31:01.157 align:start position:0%
star, an electron can be accelerated by
 

31:01.157 --> 31:04.027 align:start position:0%
star, an electron can be accelerated by
the<00:32:04.880><c> magnetic</c><00:32:05.279><c> field</c><00:32:05.679><c> and</c><00:32:05.919><c> emit</c><00:32:06.480><c> a</c><00:32:06.799><c> so-called</c>

31:04.027 --> 31:04.037 align:start position:0%
the magnetic field and emit a so-called
 

31:04.037 --> 31:06.586 align:start position:0%
the magnetic field and emit a so-called
curvature<00:32:08.320><c> photon</c><00:32:09.279><c> tangential</c><00:32:09.840><c> to</c><00:32:10.000><c> the</c>

31:06.586 --> 31:06.596 align:start position:0%
curvature photon tangential to the
 

31:06.596 --> 31:09.627 align:start position:0%
curvature photon tangential to the
magnetic<00:32:10.640><c> field</c><00:32:10.880><c> line.</c><00:32:12.000><c> This</c><00:32:12.240><c> marks,</c><00:32:12.880><c> if</c><00:32:13.039><c> you</c>

31:09.627 --> 31:09.637 align:start position:0%
magnetic field line. This marks, if you
 

31:09.637 --> 31:12.907 align:start position:0%
magnetic field line. This marks, if you
like,<00:32:13.679><c> the</c><00:32:14.000><c> start</c><00:32:14.320><c> of</c><00:32:14.480><c> a</c><00:32:14.720><c> pulse.</c><00:32:16.159><c> The</c>

31:12.907 --> 31:12.917 align:start position:0%
like, the start of a pulse. The
 

31:12.917 --> 31:15.226 align:start position:0%
like, the start of a pulse. The
curvature<00:32:17.039><c> photon</c><00:32:17.840><c> moves</c><00:32:18.159><c> in</c><00:32:18.320><c> a</c><00:32:18.559><c> straight</c>

31:15.226 --> 31:15.236 align:start position:0%
curvature photon moves in a straight
 

31:15.236 --> 31:17.387 align:start position:0%
curvature photon moves in a straight
line<00:32:19.440><c> until</c><00:32:19.760><c> the</c><00:32:20.080><c> angle</c><00:32:20.399><c> between</c><00:32:20.720><c> its</c>

31:17.387 --> 31:17.397 align:start position:0%
line until the angle between its
 

31:17.397 --> 31:19.466 align:start position:0%
line until the angle between its
momentum<00:32:21.440><c> and</c><00:32:21.679><c> the</c><00:32:21.919><c> magnetic</c><00:32:22.320><c> field</c><00:32:22.640><c> line</c>

31:19.466 --> 31:19.476 align:start position:0%
momentum and the magnetic field line
 

31:19.476 --> 31:22.427 align:start position:0%
momentum and the magnetic field line
becomes<00:32:23.519><c> too</c><00:32:23.919><c> great.</c><00:32:25.039><c> Once</c><00:32:25.360><c> this</c><00:32:25.600><c> angle</c>

31:22.427 --> 31:22.437 align:start position:0%
becomes too great. Once this angle
 

31:22.437 --> 31:24.427 align:start position:0%
becomes too great. Once this angle
reaches<00:32:26.399><c> a</c><00:32:26.640><c> threshold,</c><00:32:27.519><c> the</c><00:32:27.760><c> light</c>

31:24.427 --> 31:24.437 align:start position:0%
reaches a threshold, the light
 

31:24.437 --> 31:26.986 align:start position:0%
reaches a threshold, the light
dissipates<00:32:28.799><c> and</c><00:32:29.039><c> imbuss</c><00:32:29.600><c> its</c><00:32:29.840><c> energy</c><00:32:30.240><c> into</c>

31:26.986 --> 31:26.996 align:start position:0%
dissipates and imbuss its energy into
 

31:26.996 --> 31:29.466 align:start position:0%
dissipates and imbuss its energy into
the<00:32:30.799><c> quantum</c><00:32:31.279><c> field</c><00:32:31.519><c> of</c><00:32:31.760><c> electrons.</c><00:32:32.880><c> An</c>

31:29.466 --> 31:29.476 align:start position:0%
the quantum field of electrons. An
 

31:29.476 --> 31:31.627 align:start position:0%
the quantum field of electrons. An
electron<00:32:33.600><c> is</c><00:32:33.840><c> created</c><00:32:34.320><c> alongside</c><00:32:34.880><c> its</c>

31:31.627 --> 31:31.637 align:start position:0%
electron is created alongside its
 

31:31.637 --> 31:35.067 align:start position:0%
electron is created alongside its
antiparticle,<00:32:36.240><c> the</c><00:32:36.399><c> posetron.</c>

31:35.067 --> 31:35.077 align:start position:0%
antiparticle, the posetron.
 

31:35.077 --> 31:37.627 align:start position:0%
antiparticle, the posetron.
The<00:32:38.960><c> electron</c><00:32:39.519><c> positron</c><00:32:40.159><c> pair</c><00:32:40.720><c> has</c><00:32:40.960><c> some</c>

31:37.627 --> 31:37.637 align:start position:0%
The electron positron pair has some
 

31:37.637 --> 31:39.787 align:start position:0%
The electron positron pair has some
momentum<00:32:41.840><c> perpendicular</c><00:32:42.559><c> to</c><00:32:42.720><c> the</c><00:32:42.960><c> magnetic</c>

31:39.787 --> 31:39.797 align:start position:0%
momentum perpendicular to the magnetic
 

31:39.797 --> 31:42.106 align:start position:0%
momentum perpendicular to the magnetic
field<00:32:43.600><c> lines</c><00:32:44.240><c> which</c><00:32:44.480><c> they</c><00:32:44.799><c> spontaneously</c>

31:42.106 --> 31:42.116 align:start position:0%
field lines which they spontaneously
 

31:42.116 --> 31:44.907 align:start position:0%
field lines which they spontaneously
dispose<00:32:46.159><c> of</c><00:32:46.399><c> in</c><00:32:46.640><c> the</c><00:32:46.880><c> form</c><00:32:47.200><c> of</c><00:32:47.519><c> synretron</c>

31:44.907 --> 31:44.917 align:start position:0%
dispose of in the form of synretron
 

31:44.917 --> 31:46.586 align:start position:0%
dispose of in the form of synretron
photons.

31:46.586 --> 31:46.596 align:start position:0%
photons.
 

31:46.596 --> 31:49.627 align:start position:0%
photons.
These<00:32:50.559><c> two</c><00:32:51.120><c> synretron</c><00:32:51.919><c> photons</c><00:32:52.559><c> can</c><00:32:52.799><c> each</c>

31:49.627 --> 31:49.637 align:start position:0%
These two synretron photons can each
 

31:49.637 --> 31:52.667 align:start position:0%
These two synretron photons can each
then<00:32:53.760><c> produce</c><00:32:54.399><c> another</c><00:32:54.960><c> electron</c><00:32:55.600><c> posetron</c>

31:52.667 --> 31:52.677 align:start position:0%
then produce another electron posetron
 

31:52.677 --> 31:54.747 align:start position:0%
then produce another electron posetron
pair<00:32:56.720><c> after</c><00:32:57.039><c> they</c><00:32:57.279><c> reach</c><00:32:57.519><c> the</c><00:32:57.760><c> threshold</c>

31:54.747 --> 31:54.757 align:start position:0%
pair after they reach the threshold
 

31:54.757 --> 31:56.907 align:start position:0%
pair after they reach the threshold
angle<00:32:58.880><c> between</c><00:32:59.200><c> their</c><00:32:59.519><c> momentum</c><00:33:00.080><c> and</c><00:33:00.320><c> the</c>

31:56.907 --> 31:56.917 align:start position:0%
angle between their momentum and the
 

31:56.917 --> 31:59.067 align:start position:0%
angle between their momentum and the
magnetic<00:33:00.960><c> field</c><00:33:01.200><c> lines.</c>

31:59.067 --> 31:59.077 align:start position:0%
magnetic field lines.
 

31:59.077 --> 32:01.867 align:start position:0%
magnetic field lines.
This<00:33:02.960><c> process</c><00:33:03.440><c> repeats</c><00:33:04.000><c> again</c><00:33:04.399><c> and</c><00:33:04.640><c> again,</c>

32:01.867 --> 32:01.877 align:start position:0%
This process repeats again and again,
 

32:01.877 --> 32:03.867 align:start position:0%
This process repeats again and again,
exponentially<00:33:06.399><c> increasing</c><00:33:06.799><c> the</c><00:33:07.039><c> amount</c><00:33:07.279><c> of</c>

32:03.867 --> 32:03.877 align:start position:0%
exponentially increasing the amount of
 

32:03.877 --> 32:06.187 align:start position:0%
exponentially increasing the amount of
photons<00:33:08.000><c> and</c><00:33:08.320><c> electronosetron</c><00:33:09.360><c> pairs</c>

32:06.187 --> 32:06.197 align:start position:0%
photons and electronosetron pairs
 

32:06.197 --> 32:09.547 align:start position:0%
photons and electronosetron pairs
created<00:33:10.559><c> until</c><00:33:10.880><c> the</c><00:33:11.120><c> synrotron</c><00:33:11.919><c> photons</c><00:33:12.880><c> no</c>

32:09.547 --> 32:09.557 align:start position:0%
created until the synrotron photons no
 

32:09.557 --> 32:11.466 align:start position:0%
created until the synrotron photons no
longer<00:33:13.519><c> have</c><00:33:13.679><c> enough</c><00:33:14.000><c> energy</c><00:33:14.320><c> to</c><00:33:14.559><c> create</c>

32:11.466 --> 32:11.476 align:start position:0%
longer have enough energy to create
 

32:11.476 --> 32:13.946 align:start position:0%
longer have enough energy to create
electron<00:33:15.600><c> positron</c><00:33:16.159><c> pairs,</c><00:33:16.799><c> putting</c><00:33:17.120><c> an</c><00:33:17.360><c> end</c>

32:13.946 --> 32:13.956 align:start position:0%
electron positron pairs, putting an end
 

32:13.956 --> 32:15.867 align:start position:0%
electron positron pairs, putting an end
to<00:33:17.679><c> the</c><00:33:17.840><c> cascade.</c>

32:15.867 --> 32:15.877 align:start position:0%
to the cascade.
 

32:15.877 --> 32:18.907 align:start position:0%
to the cascade.
These<00:33:19.760><c> photons</c><00:33:20.240><c> then</c><00:33:20.640><c> beam</c><00:33:21.120><c> out</c><00:33:21.440><c> into</c><00:33:21.840><c> space</c>

32:18.907 --> 32:18.917 align:start position:0%
These photons then beam out into space
 

32:18.917 --> 32:20.826 align:start position:0%
These photons then beam out into space
while<00:33:22.799><c> the</c><00:33:23.039><c> original</c><00:33:23.440><c> electron</c><00:33:24.000><c> continues</c>

32:20.826 --> 32:20.836 align:start position:0%
while the original electron continues
 

32:20.836 --> 32:23.147 align:start position:0%
while the original electron continues
its<00:33:24.640><c> journey</c><00:33:25.200><c> generating</c><00:33:25.840><c> more</c><00:33:26.159><c> curvature</c>

32:23.147 --> 32:23.157 align:start position:0%
its journey generating more curvature
 

32:23.157 --> 32:25.706 align:start position:0%
its journey generating more curvature
photons<00:33:27.360><c> and</c><00:33:27.600><c> more</c><00:33:27.919><c> cascades</c><00:33:28.640><c> as</c><00:33:28.880><c> it</c><00:33:29.039><c> moves</c>

32:25.706 --> 32:25.716 align:start position:0%
photons and more cascades as it moves
 

32:25.716 --> 32:28.507 align:start position:0%
photons and more cascades as it moves
along<00:33:29.600><c> the</c><00:33:29.760><c> magnetic</c><00:33:30.159><c> field</c><00:33:30.480><c> lines.</c><00:33:31.760><c> This</c>

32:28.507 --> 32:28.517 align:start position:0%
along the magnetic field lines. This
 

32:28.517 --> 32:31.147 align:start position:0%
along the magnetic field lines. This
pair<00:33:32.559><c> production</c><00:33:33.039><c> cascade</c><00:33:33.760><c> is</c><00:33:34.080><c> why</c><00:33:34.320><c> the</c><00:33:34.480><c> light</c>

32:31.147 --> 32:31.157 align:start position:0%
pair production cascade is why the light
 

32:31.157 --> 32:34.027 align:start position:0%
pair production cascade is why the light
of<00:33:34.880><c> a</c><00:33:35.039><c> pulsar</c><00:33:35.600><c> is</c><00:33:35.919><c> so</c><00:33:36.320><c> intense</c><00:33:37.039><c> that</c><00:33:37.279><c> we</c><00:33:37.440><c> can</c>

32:34.027 --> 32:34.037 align:start position:0%
of a pulsar is so intense that we can
 

32:34.037 --> 32:36.826 align:start position:0%
of a pulsar is so intense that we can
detect<00:33:37.919><c> a</c><00:33:38.240><c> signal</c><00:33:38.799><c> from</c><00:33:39.039><c> this</c><00:33:39.360><c> tiny</c><00:33:39.919><c> stellar</c>

32:36.826 --> 32:36.836 align:start position:0%
detect a signal from this tiny stellar
 

32:36.836 --> 32:40.267 align:start position:0%
detect a signal from this tiny stellar
remnant<00:33:41.120><c> thousands</c><00:33:41.679><c> of</c><00:33:41.840><c> light</c><00:33:42.080><c> years</c><00:33:42.320><c> away.</c>

32:40.267 --> 32:40.277 align:start position:0%
remnant thousands of light years away.
 

32:40.277 --> 32:43.147 align:start position:0%
remnant thousands of light years away.
But<00:33:44.240><c> why</c><00:33:44.399><c> do</c><00:33:44.559><c> we</c><00:33:44.720><c> see</c><00:33:44.960><c> this</c><00:33:45.200><c> light</c><00:33:45.519><c> as</c><00:33:45.760><c> pulses</c>

32:43.147 --> 32:43.157 align:start position:0%
But why do we see this light as pulses
 

32:43.157 --> 32:45.547 align:start position:0%
But why do we see this light as pulses
rather<00:33:47.200><c> than</c><00:33:47.519><c> a</c><00:33:47.840><c> continuously</c><00:33:48.640><c> glowing</c>

32:45.547 --> 32:45.557 align:start position:0%
rather than a continuously glowing
 

32:45.557 --> 32:48.427 align:start position:0%
rather than a continuously glowing
beacon<00:33:49.440><c> of</c><00:33:49.600><c> light</c><00:33:50.000><c> shining</c><00:33:50.320><c> at</c><00:33:50.559><c> us?</c><00:33:51.600><c> This</c><00:33:51.840><c> is</c>

32:48.427 --> 32:48.437 align:start position:0%
beacon of light shining at us? This is
 

32:48.437 --> 32:50.586 align:start position:0%
beacon of light shining at us? This is
because<00:33:52.480><c> the</c><00:33:52.720><c> magnetic</c><00:33:53.200><c> poles</c><00:33:53.519><c> of</c><00:33:53.600><c> a</c><00:33:53.760><c> neutron</c>

32:50.586 --> 32:50.596 align:start position:0%
because the magnetic poles of a neutron
 

32:50.596 --> 32:53.147 align:start position:0%
because the magnetic poles of a neutron
star<00:33:54.799><c> are</c><00:33:55.039><c> rarely</c><00:33:55.519><c> ever</c><00:33:55.840><c> aligned</c><00:33:56.320><c> with</c><00:33:56.480><c> its</c>

32:53.147 --> 32:53.157 align:start position:0%
star are rarely ever aligned with its
 

32:53.157 --> 32:55.387 align:start position:0%
star are rarely ever aligned with its
axis<00:33:57.120><c> of</c><00:33:57.279><c> rotation.</c>

32:55.387 --> 32:55.397 align:start position:0%
axis of rotation.
 

32:55.397 --> 32:57.706 align:start position:0%
axis of rotation.
Just<00:33:59.200><c> like</c><00:33:59.360><c> on</c><00:33:59.600><c> Earth,</c><00:34:00.080><c> the</c><00:34:00.399><c> magnetic</c><00:34:01.039><c> north</c>

32:57.706 --> 32:57.716 align:start position:0%
Just like on Earth, the magnetic north
 

32:57.716 --> 33:00.586 align:start position:0%
Just like on Earth, the magnetic north
pole<00:34:01.679><c> that</c><00:34:01.919><c> our</c><00:34:02.240><c> compasses</c><00:34:02.799><c> point</c><00:34:03.039><c> to</c><00:34:03.679><c> isn't</c>

33:00.586 --> 33:00.596 align:start position:0%
pole that our compasses point to isn't
 

33:00.596 --> 33:02.986 align:start position:0%
pole that our compasses point to isn't
the<00:34:04.399><c> actual</c><00:34:04.880><c> geographic</c><00:34:05.679><c> north</c><00:34:06.000><c> pole</c><00:34:06.320><c> the</c>

33:02.986 --> 33:02.996 align:start position:0%
the actual geographic north pole the
 

33:02.996 --> 33:06.427 align:start position:0%
the actual geographic north pole the
Earth<00:34:06.880><c> rotates</c><00:34:07.360><c> around.</c><00:34:08.560><c> So,</c><00:34:09.040><c> the</c><00:34:09.280><c> pulsars</c>

33:06.427 --> 33:06.437 align:start position:0%
Earth rotates around. So, the pulsars
 

33:06.437 --> 33:09.707 align:start position:0%
Earth rotates around. So, the pulsars
are<00:34:10.240><c> like</c><00:34:10.639><c> great</c><00:34:11.200><c> lighouses</c><00:34:12.480><c> sweeping</c><00:34:13.040><c> their</c>

33:09.707 --> 33:09.717 align:start position:0%
are like great lighouses sweeping their
 

33:09.717 --> 33:12.346 align:start position:0%
are like great lighouses sweeping their
beams<00:34:13.679><c> of</c><00:34:13.839><c> light</c><00:34:14.240><c> around</c><00:34:14.560><c> the</c><00:34:14.800><c> cosmos</c><00:34:15.359><c> as</c><00:34:15.679><c> they</c>

33:12.346 --> 33:12.356 align:start position:0%
beams of light around the cosmos as they
 

33:12.356 --> 33:16.106 align:start position:0%
beams of light around the cosmos as they
spin.<00:34:17.119><c> And</c><00:34:17.359><c> for</c><00:34:17.599><c> an</c><00:34:17.760><c> observer</c><00:34:18.399><c> far</c><00:34:18.720><c> away,</c><00:34:19.440><c> like</c>

33:16.106 --> 33:16.116 align:start position:0%
spin. And for an observer far away, like
 

33:16.116 --> 33:18.667 align:start position:0%
spin. And for an observer far away, like
us<00:34:19.919><c> on</c><00:34:20.159><c> planet</c><00:34:20.480><c> Earth,</c><00:34:21.200><c> we</c><00:34:21.440><c> see</c><00:34:21.599><c> the</c><00:34:21.839><c> beams</c>

33:18.667 --> 33:18.677 align:start position:0%
us on planet Earth, we see the beams
 

33:18.677 --> 33:21.546 align:start position:0%
us on planet Earth, we see the beams
sweep<00:34:22.639><c> past</c><00:34:22.960><c> us</c><00:34:23.280><c> again</c><00:34:23.760><c> and</c><00:34:24.079><c> again</c><00:34:24.639><c> as</c><00:34:24.879><c> the</c>

33:21.546 --> 33:21.556 align:start position:0%
sweep past us again and again as the
 

33:21.556 --> 33:23.467 align:start position:0%
sweep past us again and again as the
pulsar<00:34:25.599><c> completes</c><00:34:26.000><c> its</c><00:34:26.240><c> rotation</c><00:34:26.639><c> on</c><00:34:26.800><c> its</c>

33:23.467 --> 33:23.477 align:start position:0%
pulsar completes its rotation on its
 

33:23.477 --> 33:26.346 align:start position:0%
pulsar completes its rotation on its
axis.<00:34:28.320><c> These</c><00:34:28.639><c> are</c><00:34:28.800><c> the</c><00:34:28.960><c> pulses</c><00:34:29.359><c> of</c><00:34:29.520><c> light</c><00:34:29.679><c> that</c>

33:26.346 --> 33:26.356 align:start position:0%
axis. These are the pulses of light that
 

33:26.356 --> 33:29.947 align:start position:0%
axis. These are the pulses of light that
our<00:34:30.240><c> telescopes</c><00:34:30.800><c> can</c><00:34:30.960><c> detect.</c><00:34:32.399><c> However,</c><00:34:33.280><c> this</c>

33:29.947 --> 33:29.957 align:start position:0%
our telescopes can detect. However, this
 

33:29.957 --> 33:32.907 align:start position:0%
our telescopes can detect. However, this
is<00:34:33.839><c> light</c><00:34:34.159><c> with</c><00:34:34.639><c> very</c><00:34:35.200><c> long</c><00:34:35.520><c> wavelengths</c><00:34:36.240><c> in</c>

33:32.907 --> 33:32.917 align:start position:0%
is light with very long wavelengths in
 

33:32.917 --> 33:35.147 align:start position:0%
is light with very long wavelengths in
the<00:34:36.639><c> radio</c><00:34:37.040><c> part</c><00:34:37.200><c> of</c><00:34:37.359><c> the</c><00:34:37.520><c> spectrum.</c><00:34:38.320><c> Meaning</c>

33:35.147 --> 33:35.157 align:start position:0%
the radio part of the spectrum. Meaning
 

33:35.157 --> 33:38.586 align:start position:0%
the radio part of the spectrum. Meaning
only<00:34:39.040><c> a</c><00:34:39.280><c> radio</c><00:34:39.760><c> telescope</c><00:34:40.320><c> can</c><00:34:40.560><c> detect</c><00:34:40.879><c> it.</c>

33:38.586 --> 33:38.596 align:start position:0%
only a radio telescope can detect it.
 

33:38.596 --> 33:40.586 align:start position:0%
only a radio telescope can detect it.
The<00:34:42.399><c> light</c><00:34:42.560><c> that</c><00:34:42.720><c> the</c><00:34:42.879><c> cascade</c><00:34:43.440><c> produced</c><00:34:43.839><c> is</c>

33:40.586 --> 33:40.596 align:start position:0%
The light that the cascade produced is
 

33:40.596 --> 33:42.747 align:start position:0%
The light that the cascade produced is
of<00:34:44.399><c> the</c><00:34:44.639><c> same</c><00:34:44.800><c> wavelength</c><00:34:45.679><c> with</c><00:34:45.839><c> the</c><00:34:46.079><c> peaks</c>

33:42.747 --> 33:42.757 align:start position:0%
of the same wavelength with the peaks
 

33:42.757 --> 33:44.266 align:start position:0%
of the same wavelength with the peaks
and<00:34:46.560><c> troughs</c><00:34:46.879><c> of</c><00:34:47.040><c> the</c><00:34:47.119><c> light</c><00:34:47.359><c> waves</c>

33:44.266 --> 33:44.276 align:start position:0%
and troughs of the light waves
 

33:44.276 --> 33:47.227 align:start position:0%
and troughs of the light waves
fluctuating<00:34:48.560><c> in</c><00:34:48.879><c> unison.</c><00:34:50.079><c> The</c><00:34:50.320><c> light</c><00:34:50.480><c> waves</c>

33:47.227 --> 33:47.237 align:start position:0%
fluctuating in unison. The light waves
 

33:47.237 --> 33:49.546 align:start position:0%
fluctuating in unison. The light waves
are<00:34:51.040><c> also</c><00:34:51.359><c> polarized</c><00:34:52.320><c> which</c><00:34:52.560><c> means</c><00:34:52.720><c> they</c><00:34:52.960><c> are</c>

33:49.546 --> 33:49.556 align:start position:0%
are also polarized which means they are
 

33:49.556 --> 33:52.506 align:start position:0%
are also polarized which means they are
all<00:34:53.359><c> aligned</c><00:34:53.839><c> along</c><00:34:54.159><c> the</c><00:34:54.399><c> same</c><00:34:54.560><c> axis.</c><00:34:55.760><c> This</c><00:34:55.919><c> is</c>

33:52.506 --> 33:52.516 align:start position:0%
all aligned along the same axis. This is
 

33:52.516 --> 33:55.067 align:start position:0%
all aligned along the same axis. This is
a<00:34:56.240><c> hallmark</c><00:34:56.639><c> of</c><00:34:56.800><c> neutron</c><00:34:57.280><c> stars</c><00:34:58.000><c> and</c><00:34:58.240><c> this</c><00:34:58.400><c> is</c>

33:55.067 --> 33:55.077 align:start position:0%
a hallmark of neutron stars and this is
 

33:55.077 --> 33:57.786 align:start position:0%
a hallmark of neutron stars and this is
precisely<00:34:59.200><c> what</c><00:34:59.440><c> we</c><00:34:59.599><c> observe</c><00:35:00.000><c> in</c><00:35:00.240><c> the</c><00:35:00.480><c> 22minut</c>

33:57.786 --> 33:57.796 align:start position:0%
precisely what we observe in the 22minut
 

33:57.796 --> 34:00.827 align:start position:0%
precisely what we observe in the 22minut
signal.<00:35:02.640><c> The</c><00:35:02.880><c> signal</c><00:35:03.200><c> also</c><00:35:03.520><c> has</c><00:35:03.839><c> fluctuations</c>

34:00.827 --> 34:00.837 align:start position:0%
signal. The signal also has fluctuations
 

34:00.837 --> 34:04.266 align:start position:0%
signal. The signal also has fluctuations
that<00:35:04.720><c> last</c><00:35:05.040><c> between</c><00:35:05.440><c> 0.2</c><00:35:06.240><c> to</c><00:35:06.560><c> 4</c><00:35:06.800><c> seconds</c><00:35:07.599><c> where</c>

34:04.266 --> 34:04.276 align:start position:0%
that last between 0.2 to 4 seconds where
 

34:04.276 --> 34:06.506 align:start position:0%
that last between 0.2 to 4 seconds where
the<00:35:08.000><c> axis</c><00:35:08.480><c> of</c><00:35:08.640><c> the</c><00:35:08.800><c> light's</c><00:35:09.119><c> polarization</c>

34:06.506 --> 34:06.516 align:start position:0%
the axis of the light's polarization
 

34:06.516 --> 34:09.867 align:start position:0%
the axis of the light's polarization
suddenly<00:35:10.480><c> changes</c><00:35:10.880><c> by</c><00:35:11.200><c> 90°</c><00:35:12.320><c> perpendicular</c><00:35:13.200><c> to</c>

34:09.867 --> 34:09.877 align:start position:0%
suddenly changes by 90° perpendicular to
 

34:09.877 --> 34:12.907 align:start position:0%
suddenly changes by 90° perpendicular to
the<00:35:13.760><c> original</c><00:35:14.160><c> axis</c><00:35:14.640><c> and</c><00:35:14.880><c> then</c><00:35:15.119><c> back</c><00:35:15.359><c> again.</c>

34:12.907 --> 34:12.917 align:start position:0%
the original axis and then back again.
 

34:12.917 --> 34:15.067 align:start position:0%
the original axis and then back again.
This<00:35:16.800><c> effect</c><00:35:17.200><c> is</c><00:35:17.440><c> yet</c><00:35:17.680><c> another</c><00:35:18.079><c> signature</c><00:35:18.480><c> of</c>

34:15.067 --> 34:15.077 align:start position:0%
This effect is yet another signature of
 

34:15.077 --> 34:16.587 align:start position:0%
This effect is yet another signature of
the<00:35:18.800><c> cascades</c><00:35:19.280><c> at</c><00:35:19.440><c> the</c><00:35:19.599><c> poles</c><00:35:19.920><c> of</c><00:35:20.000><c> the</c>

34:16.587 --> 34:16.597 align:start position:0%
the cascades at the poles of the
 

34:16.597 --> 34:19.227 align:start position:0%
the cascades at the poles of the
pulsars.

34:19.227 --> 34:19.237 align:start position:0%
pulsars.
 

34:19.237 --> 34:21.707 align:start position:0%
pulsars.
So<00:35:23.040><c> much</c><00:35:23.200><c> of</c><00:35:23.359><c> our</c><00:35:23.599><c> data</c><00:35:24.079><c> points</c><00:35:24.400><c> to</c><00:35:24.560><c> a</c><00:35:24.720><c> pulsar</c>

34:21.707 --> 34:21.717 align:start position:0%
So much of our data points to a pulsar
 

34:21.717 --> 34:23.627 align:start position:0%
So much of our data points to a pulsar
being<00:35:25.520><c> the</c><00:35:25.680><c> signal</c><00:35:26.240><c> that</c><00:35:26.480><c> you'd</c><00:35:26.720><c> think</c><00:35:26.960><c> this</c>

34:23.627 --> 34:23.637 align:start position:0%
being the signal that you'd think this
 

34:23.637 --> 34:26.667 align:start position:0%
being the signal that you'd think this
was<00:35:27.359><c> an</c><00:35:27.599><c> open</c><00:35:27.920><c> andsh</c><00:35:28.160><c> shut</c><00:35:28.400><c> case.</c><00:35:29.599><c> But</c><00:35:29.920><c> one</c>

34:26.667 --> 34:26.677 align:start position:0%
was an open andsh shut case. But one
 

34:26.677 --> 34:28.667 align:start position:0%
was an open andsh shut case. But one
variable<00:35:30.720><c> that</c><00:35:30.960><c> we've</c><00:35:31.200><c> mentioned</c><00:35:31.599><c> earlier</c>

34:28.667 --> 34:28.677 align:start position:0%
variable that we've mentioned earlier
 

34:28.677 --> 34:31.546 align:start position:0%
variable that we've mentioned earlier
throws<00:35:32.640><c> this</c><00:35:32.880><c> entire</c><00:35:33.359><c> theory</c><00:35:33.839><c> into</c><00:35:34.160><c> doubt.</c>

34:31.546 --> 34:31.556 align:start position:0%
throws this entire theory into doubt.
 

34:31.556 --> 34:33.707 align:start position:0%
throws this entire theory into doubt.
The<00:35:35.359><c> slow</c><00:35:35.680><c> rotation</c><00:35:36.240><c> rate</c><00:35:36.480><c> of</c><00:35:36.640><c> the</c><00:35:36.800><c> neutron</c>

34:33.707 --> 34:33.717 align:start position:0%
The slow rotation rate of the neutron
 

34:33.717 --> 34:37.307 align:start position:0%
The slow rotation rate of the neutron
star<00:35:38.320><c> or</c><00:35:38.560><c> rather</c><00:35:39.200><c> the</c><00:35:39.520><c> combination</c><00:35:40.400><c> of</c><00:35:40.640><c> the</c>

34:37.307 --> 34:37.317 align:start position:0%
star or rather the combination of the
 

34:37.317 --> 34:39.467 align:start position:0%
star or rather the combination of the
slow<00:35:41.200><c> rotation</c><00:35:41.680><c> rate</c><00:35:42.240><c> and</c><00:35:42.560><c> the</c><00:35:42.800><c> high</c>

34:39.467 --> 34:39.477 align:start position:0%
slow rotation rate and the high
 

34:39.477 --> 34:41.467 align:start position:0%
slow rotation rate and the high
stability<00:35:43.680><c> of</c><00:35:43.839><c> the</c><00:35:44.000><c> rotation</c><00:35:44.480><c> rate</c><00:35:44.720><c> of</c><00:35:44.880><c> the</c>

34:41.467 --> 34:41.477 align:start position:0%
stability of the rotation rate of the
 

34:41.477 --> 34:43.786 align:start position:0%
stability of the rotation rate of the
source.

34:43.786 --> 34:43.796 align:start position:0%
source.
 

34:43.796 --> 34:46.667 align:start position:0%
source.
You<00:35:47.680><c> see,</c><00:35:48.240><c> as</c><00:35:48.480><c> pulsars</c><00:35:49.119><c> lose</c><00:35:49.520><c> energy</c><00:35:50.000><c> by</c>

34:46.667 --> 34:46.677 align:start position:0%
You see, as pulsars lose energy by
 

34:46.677 --> 34:48.747 align:start position:0%
You see, as pulsars lose energy by
shining<00:35:50.640><c> their</c><00:35:51.040><c> powerful</c><00:35:51.520><c> beams</c><00:35:51.920><c> into</c><00:35:52.079><c> the</c>

34:48.747 --> 34:48.757 align:start position:0%
shining their powerful beams into the
 

34:48.757 --> 34:51.067 align:start position:0%
shining their powerful beams into the
cosmos,<00:35:53.200><c> conservation</c><00:35:53.760><c> of</c><00:35:54.000><c> energy</c><00:35:54.400><c> will</c>

34:51.067 --> 34:51.077 align:start position:0%
cosmos, conservation of energy will
 

34:51.077 --> 34:54.107 align:start position:0%
cosmos, conservation of energy will
ensure<00:35:55.040><c> that</c><00:35:55.280><c> the</c><00:35:55.440><c> pulsar</c><00:35:56.079><c> slows</c><00:35:56.480><c> down.</c>

34:54.107 --> 34:54.117 align:start position:0%
ensure that the pulsar slows down.
 

34:54.117 --> 34:56.347 align:start position:0%
ensure that the pulsar slows down.
Eventually,<00:35:58.240><c> the</c><00:35:58.480><c> pulsar</c><00:35:58.960><c> will</c><00:35:59.119><c> slow</c><00:35:59.359><c> down</c><00:35:59.599><c> so</c>

34:56.347 --> 34:56.357 align:start position:0%
Eventually, the pulsar will slow down so
 

34:56.357 --> 34:58.347 align:start position:0%
Eventually, the pulsar will slow down so
much<00:36:00.240><c> that</c><00:36:00.480><c> it</c><00:36:00.720><c> can</c><00:36:00.880><c> no</c><00:36:01.040><c> longer</c><00:36:01.359><c> power</c><00:36:01.680><c> the</c>

34:58.347 --> 34:58.357 align:start position:0%
much that it can no longer power the
 

34:58.357 --> 35:00.747 align:start position:0%
much that it can no longer power the
pair<00:36:02.240><c> production</c><00:36:02.720><c> cascades</c><00:36:03.599><c> and</c><00:36:03.839><c> the</c><00:36:04.079><c> light</c>

35:00.747 --> 35:00.757 align:start position:0%
pair production cascades and the light
 

35:00.757 --> 35:03.707 align:start position:0%
pair production cascades and the light
emission<00:36:04.960><c> starts</c><00:36:05.280><c> to</c><00:36:05.440><c> shut</c><00:36:05.680><c> off.</c><00:36:06.560><c> The</c><00:36:06.800><c> pulsar</c>

35:03.707 --> 35:03.717 align:start position:0%
emission starts to shut off. The pulsar
 

35:03.717 --> 35:07.947 align:start position:0%
emission starts to shut off. The pulsar
has<00:36:07.520><c> entered</c><00:36:07.839><c> the</c><00:36:08.079><c> so-called</c><00:36:09.040><c> death</c><00:36:09.520><c> valley.</c>

35:07.947 --> 35:07.957 align:start position:0%
has entered the so-called death valley.
 

35:07.957 --> 35:10.427 align:start position:0%
has entered the so-called death valley.
This<00:36:11.760><c> graph</c><00:36:12.160><c> plots</c><00:36:12.560><c> neutron</c><00:36:13.040><c> stars</c><00:36:13.440><c> based</c><00:36:13.760><c> on</c>

35:10.427 --> 35:10.437 align:start position:0%
This graph plots neutron stars based on
 

35:10.437 --> 35:13.147 align:start position:0%
This graph plots neutron stars based on
their<00:36:14.160><c> rotation</c><00:36:14.640><c> period</c><00:36:15.040><c> on</c><00:36:15.200><c> the</c><00:36:15.440><c> x-axis</c><00:36:16.480><c> and</c>

35:13.147 --> 35:13.157 align:start position:0%
their rotation period on the x-axis and
 

35:13.157 --> 35:14.747 align:start position:0%
their rotation period on the x-axis and
the<00:36:16.960><c> rate</c><00:36:17.119><c> of</c><00:36:17.359><c> change</c><00:36:17.520><c> of</c><00:36:17.680><c> their</c><00:36:17.920><c> rotation</c>

35:14.747 --> 35:14.757 align:start position:0%
the rate of change of their rotation
 

35:14.757 --> 35:17.227 align:start position:0%
the rate of change of their rotation
period<00:36:18.800><c> on</c><00:36:18.960><c> the</c><00:36:19.200><c> yaxis.</c>

35:17.227 --> 35:17.237 align:start position:0%
period on the yaxis.
 

35:17.237 --> 35:19.947 align:start position:0%
period on the yaxis.
Death<00:36:21.200><c> Valley</c><00:36:21.599><c> is</c><00:36:21.920><c> shown</c><00:36:22.240><c> in</c><00:36:22.480><c> this</c><00:36:22.800><c> gray</c><00:36:23.119><c> band</c>

35:19.947 --> 35:19.957 align:start position:0%
Death Valley is shown in this gray band
 

35:19.957 --> 35:21.867 align:start position:0%
Death Valley is shown in this gray band
running<00:36:23.920><c> through</c><00:36:24.160><c> the</c><00:36:24.320><c> middle.</c><00:36:24.960><c> And</c><00:36:25.200><c> any</c>

35:21.867 --> 35:21.877 align:start position:0%
running through the middle. And any
 

35:21.877 --> 35:23.867 align:start position:0%
running through the middle. And any
pulsar<00:36:25.920><c> that</c><00:36:26.079><c> has</c><00:36:26.240><c> properties</c><00:36:26.800><c> below</c><00:36:27.119><c> this</c>

35:23.867 --> 35:23.877 align:start position:0%
pulsar that has properties below this
 

35:23.877 --> 35:26.266 align:start position:0%
pulsar that has properties below this
line<00:36:27.920><c> should</c><00:36:28.240><c> not</c><00:36:28.480><c> be</c><00:36:28.640><c> shining</c><00:36:29.119><c> as</c><00:36:29.359><c> the</c><00:36:29.520><c> bright</c>

35:26.266 --> 35:26.276 align:start position:0%
line should not be shining as the bright
 

35:26.276 --> 35:29.387 align:start position:0%
line should not be shining as the bright
lighouses<00:36:30.480><c> they</c><00:36:30.720><c> usually</c><00:36:31.040><c> are.</c>

35:29.387 --> 35:29.397 align:start position:0%
lighouses they usually are.
 

35:29.397 --> 35:31.707 align:start position:0%
lighouses they usually are.
We<00:36:33.200><c> see</c><00:36:33.280><c> that</c><00:36:33.520><c> our</c><00:36:33.839><c> signal</c><00:36:34.160><c> is</c><00:36:34.400><c> below</c><00:36:34.800><c> even</c><00:36:35.040><c> the</c>

35:31.707 --> 35:31.717 align:start position:0%
We see that our signal is below even the
 

35:31.717 --> 35:34.107 align:start position:0%
We see that our signal is below even the
lowest<00:36:35.680><c> line</c><00:36:36.079><c> marking</c><00:36:36.400><c> the</c><00:36:36.560><c> death</c><00:36:36.880><c> valley.</c>

35:34.107 --> 35:34.117 align:start position:0%
lowest line marking the death valley.
 

35:34.117 --> 35:36.827 align:start position:0%
lowest line marking the death valley.
meaning<00:36:38.000><c> that</c><00:36:38.560><c> if</c><00:36:38.800><c> it</c><00:36:38.960><c> were</c><00:36:39.119><c> a</c><00:36:39.280><c> pulsar,</c><00:36:40.160><c> it</c>

35:36.827 --> 35:36.837 align:start position:0%
meaning that if it were a pulsar, it
 

35:36.837 --> 35:39.867 align:start position:0%
meaning that if it were a pulsar, it
should<00:36:40.720><c> be</c><00:36:40.960><c> well</c><00:36:41.359><c> and</c><00:36:41.599><c> truly</c><00:36:42.160><c> switched</c><00:36:42.560><c> off.</c>

35:39.867 --> 35:39.877 align:start position:0%
should be well and truly switched off.
 

35:39.877 --> 35:43.227 align:start position:0%
should be well and truly switched off.
And<00:36:43.680><c> yet,</c><00:36:44.079><c> we</c><00:36:44.400><c> are</c><00:36:44.560><c> detecting</c><00:36:45.040><c> it.</c><00:36:46.480><c> Look</c><00:36:46.640><c> at</c>

35:43.227 --> 35:43.237 align:start position:0%
And yet, we are detecting it. Look at
 

35:43.237 --> 35:45.227 align:start position:0%
And yet, we are detecting it. Look at
the<00:36:46.960><c> cluster</c><00:36:47.359><c> of</c><00:36:47.520><c> other</c><00:36:47.760><c> known</c><00:36:48.079><c> neutron</c><00:36:48.480><c> stars</c>

35:45.227 --> 35:45.237 align:start position:0%
the cluster of other known neutron stars
 

35:45.237 --> 35:47.947 align:start position:0%
the cluster of other known neutron stars
on<00:36:49.040><c> this</c><00:36:49.200><c> graph.</c><00:36:50.000><c> They</c><00:36:50.320><c> usually</c><00:36:50.800><c> spin</c><00:36:51.119><c> between</c>

35:47.947 --> 35:47.957 align:start position:0%
on this graph. They usually spin between
 

35:47.957 --> 35:51.147 align:start position:0%
on this graph. They usually spin between
10<00:36:51.760><c> times</c><00:36:52.079><c> a</c><00:36:52.240><c> second</c><00:36:52.880><c> to</c><00:36:53.119><c> once</c><00:36:53.440><c> every</c><00:36:53.760><c> second.</c>

35:51.147 --> 35:51.157 align:start position:0%
10 times a second to once every second.
 

35:51.157 --> 35:53.786 align:start position:0%
10 times a second to once every second.
In<00:36:55.040><c> comparison,</c><00:36:56.000><c> our</c><00:36:56.320><c> signal</c><00:36:56.720><c> has</c><00:36:56.880><c> a</c><00:36:57.040><c> spin</c>

35:53.786 --> 35:53.796 align:start position:0%
In comparison, our signal has a spin
 

35:53.796 --> 35:57.867 align:start position:0%
In comparison, our signal has a spin
rate<00:36:57.680><c> of</c><00:36:57.920><c> once</c><00:36:58.400><c> every</c><00:36:59.040><c> 1,318</c>

35:57.867 --> 35:57.877 align:start position:0%
rate of once every 1,318
 

35:57.877 --> 36:00.506 align:start position:0%
rate of once every 1,318
seconds,<00:37:02.400><c> over</c><00:37:02.720><c> a</c><00:37:02.880><c> thousand</c><00:37:03.359><c> times</c><00:37:03.680><c> slower</c>

36:00.506 --> 36:00.516 align:start position:0%
seconds, over a thousand times slower
 

36:00.516 --> 36:02.827 align:start position:0%
seconds, over a thousand times slower
than<00:37:04.320><c> the</c><00:37:04.480><c> typical</c><00:37:04.880><c> pulsar.</c>

36:02.827 --> 36:02.837 align:start position:0%
than the typical pulsar.
 

36:02.837 --> 36:04.987 align:start position:0%
than the typical pulsar.
This<00:37:06.720><c> would</c><00:37:06.880><c> be</c><00:37:07.040><c> fine</c><00:37:07.440><c> if</c><00:37:07.680><c> it</c><00:37:07.920><c> was</c><00:37:08.160><c> also</c>

36:04.987 --> 36:04.997 align:start position:0%
This would be fine if it was also
 

36:04.997 --> 36:07.307 align:start position:0%
This would be fine if it was also
slowing<00:37:08.960><c> down</c><00:37:09.280><c> quickly,</c><00:37:10.000><c> which</c><00:37:10.240><c> equates</c><00:37:10.640><c> to</c>

36:07.307 --> 36:07.317 align:start position:0%
slowing down quickly, which equates to
 

36:07.317 --> 36:09.546 align:start position:0%
slowing down quickly, which equates to
moving<00:37:11.280><c> this</c><00:37:11.599><c> data</c><00:37:12.000><c> point</c><00:37:12.240><c> upwards</c><00:37:12.720><c> on</c><00:37:12.960><c> this</c>

36:09.546 --> 36:09.556 align:start position:0%
moving this data point upwards on this
 

36:09.556 --> 36:12.667 align:start position:0%
moving this data point upwards on this
graph<00:37:13.520><c> above</c><00:37:13.920><c> the</c><00:37:14.160><c> Death</c><00:37:14.400><c> Valley.</c><00:37:15.599><c> Such</c><00:37:15.920><c> rapid</c>

36:12.667 --> 36:12.677 align:start position:0%
graph above the Death Valley. Such rapid
 

36:12.677 --> 36:14.347 align:start position:0%
graph above the Death Valley. Such rapid
energy<00:37:16.640><c> loss</c><00:37:16.880><c> would</c><00:37:17.119><c> power</c><00:37:17.440><c> the</c><00:37:17.599><c> pair</c>

36:14.347 --> 36:14.357 align:start position:0%
energy loss would power the pair
 

36:14.357 --> 36:16.506 align:start position:0%
energy loss would power the pair
production<00:37:18.400><c> cascade</c><00:37:19.040><c> necessary</c><00:37:19.520><c> to</c><00:37:19.760><c> light</c>

36:16.506 --> 36:16.516 align:start position:0%
production cascade necessary to light
 

36:16.516 --> 36:19.707 align:start position:0%
production cascade necessary to light
the<00:37:20.240><c> beacon</c><00:37:20.560><c> of</c><00:37:20.720><c> the</c><00:37:20.880><c> neutron</c><00:37:21.359><c> star.</c><00:37:22.640><c> Yet,</c><00:37:23.040><c> the</c>

36:19.707 --> 36:19.717 align:start position:0%
the beacon of the neutron star. Yet, the
 

36:19.717 --> 36:23.467 align:start position:0%
the beacon of the neutron star. Yet, the
neutron<00:37:23.760><c> star</c><00:37:24.320><c> is</c><00:37:24.720><c> mindbogglingly</c><00:37:26.000><c> stable,</c>

36:23.467 --> 36:23.477 align:start position:0%
neutron star is mindbogglingly stable,
 

36:23.477 --> 36:25.467 align:start position:0%
neutron star is mindbogglingly stable,
and<00:37:27.280><c> it</c><00:37:27.440><c> makes</c><00:37:27.680><c> no</c><00:37:27.920><c> sense</c><00:37:28.160><c> that</c><00:37:28.400><c> we</c><00:37:28.560><c> can</c><00:37:28.720><c> detect</c>

36:25.467 --> 36:25.477 align:start position:0%
and it makes no sense that we can detect
 

36:25.477 --> 36:28.347 align:start position:0%
and it makes no sense that we can detect
it.<00:37:30.079><c> The</c><00:37:30.320><c> astronomers</c><00:37:30.800><c> who</c><00:37:31.040><c> found</c><00:37:31.200><c> the</c><00:37:31.440><c> signal</c>

36:28.347 --> 36:28.357 align:start position:0%
it. The astronomers who found the signal
 

36:28.357 --> 36:30.667 align:start position:0%
it. The astronomers who found the signal
considered<00:37:32.480><c> an</c><00:37:32.720><c> alternative</c><00:37:33.359><c> mechanism</c><00:37:33.920><c> that</c>

36:30.667 --> 36:30.677 align:start position:0%
considered an alternative mechanism that
 

36:30.677 --> 36:32.747 align:start position:0%
considered an alternative mechanism that
might<00:37:34.560><c> explain</c><00:37:34.960><c> how</c><00:37:35.200><c> a</c><00:37:35.359><c> neutron</c><00:37:35.839><c> star</c><00:37:36.079><c> with</c>

36:32.747 --> 36:32.757 align:start position:0%
might explain how a neutron star with
 

36:32.757 --> 36:34.987 align:start position:0%
might explain how a neutron star with
such<00:37:36.640><c> properties</c><00:37:37.440><c> might</c><00:37:37.760><c> have</c><00:37:38.000><c> produced</c><00:37:38.320><c> this</c>

36:34.987 --> 36:34.997 align:start position:0%
such properties might have produced this
 

36:34.997 --> 36:37.867 align:start position:0%
such properties might have produced this
light.<00:37:39.680><c> Maybe</c><00:37:39.920><c> the</c><00:37:40.160><c> neutron</c><00:37:40.560><c> star</c><00:37:40.960><c> is</c><00:37:41.200><c> a</c>

36:37.867 --> 36:37.877 align:start position:0%
light. Maybe the neutron star is a
 

36:37.877 --> 36:40.987 align:start position:0%
light. Maybe the neutron star is a
magnetar,<00:37:42.880><c> a</c><00:37:43.119><c> neutron</c><00:37:43.520><c> star</c><00:37:43.839><c> that</c><00:37:44.160><c> has</c><00:37:44.320><c> an</c>

36:40.987 --> 36:40.997 align:start position:0%
magnetar, a neutron star that has an
 

36:40.997 --> 36:43.707 align:start position:0%
magnetar, a neutron star that has an
unusually<00:37:45.280><c> strong</c><00:37:45.680><c> magnetic</c><00:37:46.240><c> field,</c><00:37:46.880><c> greater</c>

36:43.707 --> 36:43.717 align:start position:0%
unusually strong magnetic field, greater
 

36:43.717 --> 36:46.107 align:start position:0%
unusually strong magnetic field, greater
than<00:37:47.520><c> 10,000</c><00:37:48.400><c> times</c><00:37:48.720><c> the</c><00:37:48.960><c> strength</c><00:37:49.359><c> of</c><00:37:49.520><c> the</c>

36:46.107 --> 36:46.117 align:start position:0%
than 10,000 times the strength of the
 

36:46.117 --> 36:50.107 align:start position:0%
than 10,000 times the strength of the
weakest<00:37:50.079><c> neutron</c><00:37:50.560><c> star</c><00:37:50.800><c> magnetic</c><00:37:51.280><c> fields.</c>

36:50.107 --> 36:50.117 align:start position:0%
weakest neutron star magnetic fields.
 

36:50.117 --> 36:52.347 align:start position:0%
weakest neutron star magnetic fields.
Magnetars<00:37:54.400><c> are</c><00:37:54.640><c> known</c><00:37:54.800><c> to</c><00:37:54.880><c> undergo</c><00:37:55.599><c> star</c>

36:52.347 --> 36:52.357 align:start position:0%
Magnetars are known to undergo star
 

36:52.357 --> 36:55.387 align:start position:0%
Magnetars are known to undergo star
quakes,<00:37:56.960><c> cataclysmic</c><00:37:57.920><c> events</c><00:37:58.320><c> that</c><00:37:58.640><c> release</c>

36:55.387 --> 36:55.397 align:start position:0%
quakes, cataclysmic events that release
 

36:55.397 --> 36:57.227 align:start position:0%
quakes, cataclysmic events that release
the<00:37:59.200><c> tension</c><00:37:59.680><c> in</c><00:37:59.839><c> the</c><00:38:00.000><c> upper</c><00:38:00.320><c> crust</c><00:38:00.560><c> of</c><00:38:00.640><c> a</c>

36:57.227 --> 36:57.237 align:start position:0%
the tension in the upper crust of a
 

36:57.237 --> 36:59.947 align:start position:0%
the tension in the upper crust of a
neutron<00:38:01.280><c> star.</c><00:38:02.480><c> These</c><00:38:02.800><c> stresses</c><00:38:03.280><c> are</c>

36:59.947 --> 36:59.957 align:start position:0%
neutron star. These stresses are
 

36:59.957 --> 37:02.266 align:start position:0%
neutron star. These stresses are
produced<00:38:04.000><c> by</c><00:38:04.240><c> the</c><00:38:04.480><c> strong</c><00:38:04.960><c> magnetic</c><00:38:05.520><c> fields</c>

37:02.266 --> 37:02.276 align:start position:0%
produced by the strong magnetic fields
 

37:02.276 --> 37:04.987 align:start position:0%
produced by the strong magnetic fields
of<00:38:06.000><c> the</c><00:38:06.160><c> magnetar</c><00:38:07.119><c> as</c><00:38:07.440><c> well</c><00:38:07.599><c> as</c><00:38:07.839><c> the</c><00:38:08.079><c> slowing</c>

37:04.987 --> 37:04.997 align:start position:0%
of the magnetar as well as the slowing
 

37:04.997 --> 37:08.107 align:start position:0%
of the magnetar as well as the slowing
down<00:38:08.720><c> of</c><00:38:08.960><c> the</c><00:38:09.119><c> magnetar</c><00:38:09.680><c> rotation.</c><00:38:11.040><c> A</c><00:38:11.359><c> fast</c>

37:08.107 --> 37:08.117 align:start position:0%
down of the magnetar rotation. A fast
 

37:08.117 --> 37:10.187 align:start position:0%
down of the magnetar rotation. A fast
spinning<00:38:12.079><c> magnetar</c><00:38:12.800><c> will</c><00:38:13.040><c> bulge</c><00:38:13.440><c> in</c><00:38:13.599><c> the</c>

37:10.187 --> 37:10.197 align:start position:0%
spinning magnetar will bulge in the
 

37:10.197 --> 37:12.107 align:start position:0%
spinning magnetar will bulge in the
middle<00:38:14.000><c> due</c><00:38:14.160><c> to</c><00:38:14.320><c> the</c><00:38:14.480><c> centrifugal</c><00:38:15.200><c> force</c>

37:12.107 --> 37:12.117 align:start position:0%
middle due to the centrifugal force
 

37:12.117 --> 37:13.947 align:start position:0%
middle due to the centrifugal force
distorting<00:38:16.320><c> the</c><00:38:16.480><c> star</c><00:38:16.800><c> from</c><00:38:16.960><c> a</c><00:38:17.200><c> perfect</c>

37:13.947 --> 37:13.957 align:start position:0%
distorting the star from a perfect
 

37:13.957 --> 37:17.546 align:start position:0%
distorting the star from a perfect
sphere.<00:38:18.800><c> As</c><00:38:19.119><c> the</c><00:38:19.280><c> magnetar</c><00:38:19.920><c> slows</c><00:38:20.320><c> down,</c><00:38:20.880><c> the</c>

37:17.546 --> 37:17.556 align:start position:0%
sphere. As the magnetar slows down, the
 

37:17.556 --> 37:19.707 align:start position:0%
sphere. As the magnetar slows down, the
outer<00:38:21.520><c> layers</c><00:38:21.760><c> need</c><00:38:21.920><c> to</c><00:38:22.160><c> readjust</c><00:38:22.720><c> to</c><00:38:22.960><c> a</c><00:38:23.119><c> new</c>

37:19.707 --> 37:19.717 align:start position:0%
outer layers need to readjust to a new
 

37:19.717 --> 37:22.107 align:start position:0%
outer layers need to readjust to a new
equilibrium<00:38:24.240><c> and</c><00:38:24.560><c> lose</c><00:38:24.880><c> some</c><00:38:25.040><c> of</c><00:38:25.119><c> the</c><00:38:25.280><c> bulge</c>

37:22.107 --> 37:22.117 align:start position:0%
equilibrium and lose some of the bulge
 

37:22.117 --> 37:25.067 align:start position:0%
equilibrium and lose some of the bulge
they<00:38:25.920><c> have.</c><00:38:26.800><c> The</c><00:38:27.040><c> crust</c><00:38:27.440><c> snaps</c><00:38:28.000><c> into</c><00:38:28.240><c> a</c><00:38:28.480><c> new</c>

37:25.067 --> 37:25.077 align:start position:0%
they have. The crust snaps into a new
 

37:25.077 --> 37:27.387 align:start position:0%
they have. The crust snaps into a new
position,<00:38:29.440><c> causing</c><00:38:29.839><c> magnetic</c><00:38:30.320><c> fields</c><00:38:30.720><c> to</c>

37:27.387 --> 37:27.397 align:start position:0%
position, causing magnetic fields to
 

37:27.397 --> 37:29.707 align:start position:0%
position, causing magnetic fields to
temporarily<00:38:31.680><c> realign</c><00:38:32.560><c> and</c><00:38:32.720><c> powering</c><00:38:33.040><c> the</c>

37:29.707 --> 37:29.717 align:start position:0%
temporarily realign and powering the
 

37:29.717 --> 37:31.867 align:start position:0%
temporarily realign and powering the
release<00:38:33.520><c> of</c><00:38:33.680><c> the</c><00:38:33.839><c> energy</c><00:38:34.400><c> as</c><00:38:34.800><c> light</c><00:38:35.040><c> that</c><00:38:35.280><c> we</c>

37:31.867 --> 37:31.877 align:start position:0%
release of the energy as light that we
 

37:31.877 --> 37:34.907 align:start position:0%
release of the energy as light that we
can<00:38:35.599><c> detect</c><00:38:35.920><c> on</c><00:38:36.160><c> Earth.</c>

37:34.907 --> 37:34.917 align:start position:0%
can detect on Earth.
 

37:34.917 --> 37:37.707 align:start position:0%
can detect on Earth.
The<00:38:38.720><c> most</c><00:38:39.040><c> powerful</c><00:38:39.520><c> star</c><00:38:39.839><c> quake</c><00:38:40.160><c> detected,</c>

37:37.707 --> 37:37.717 align:start position:0%
The most powerful star quake detected,
 

37:37.717 --> 37:41.707 align:start position:0%
The most powerful star quake detected,
that<00:38:41.599><c> of</c><00:38:42.000><c> SG1806-20</c>

37:41.707 --> 37:41.717 align:start position:0%
 
 

37:41.717 --> 37:46.026 align:start position:0%
 
in<00:38:45.760><c> 2004,</c><00:38:47.119><c> released</c><00:38:47.760><c> so</c><00:38:48.160><c> much</c><00:38:48.400><c> energy</c><00:38:49.119><c> that</c><00:38:49.359><c> if</c>

37:46.026 --> 37:46.036 align:start position:0%
in 2004, released so much energy that if
 

37:46.036 --> 37:48.506 align:start position:0%
in 2004, released so much energy that if
it<00:38:49.760><c> had</c><00:38:49.920><c> taken</c><00:38:50.240><c> place</c><00:38:50.560><c> as</c><00:38:50.800><c> far</c><00:38:51.040><c> away</c><00:38:51.359><c> as</c><00:38:51.680><c> 10</c>

37:48.506 --> 37:48.516 align:start position:0%
it had taken place as far away as 10
 

37:48.516 --> 37:50.747 align:start position:0%
it had taken place as far away as 10
light<00:38:52.320><c> years</c><00:38:52.640><c> from</c><00:38:52.880><c> Earth,</c><00:38:53.680><c> it</c><00:38:53.920><c> would</c><00:38:54.079><c> have</c>

37:50.747 --> 37:50.757 align:start position:0%
light years from Earth, it would have
 

37:50.757 --> 37:54.026 align:start position:0%
light years from Earth, it would have
caused<00:38:54.720><c> a</c><00:38:55.040><c> mass</c><00:38:55.440><c> extinction</c><00:38:56.079><c> event.</c><00:38:57.359><c> If</c>

37:54.026 --> 37:54.036 align:start position:0%
caused a mass extinction event. If
 

37:54.036 --> 37:56.107 align:start position:0%
caused a mass extinction event. If
something<00:38:57.920><c> is</c><00:38:58.160><c> able</c><00:38:58.400><c> to</c><00:38:58.560><c> light</c><00:38:58.880><c> the</c><00:38:59.119><c> beacon</c><00:38:59.520><c> of</c>

37:56.107 --> 37:56.117 align:start position:0%
something is able to light the beacon of
 

37:56.117 --> 37:59.867 align:start position:0%
something is able to light the beacon of
a<00:38:59.839><c> dead</c><00:39:00.079><c> pulsar,</c><00:39:00.960><c> it</c><00:39:01.200><c> would</c><00:39:01.359><c> be</c><00:39:01.599><c> this.</c><00:39:02.880><c> So,</c>

37:59.867 --> 37:59.877 align:start position:0%
a dead pulsar, it would be this. So,
 

37:59.877 --> 38:03.627 align:start position:0%
a dead pulsar, it would be this. So,
could<00:39:04.000><c> GPMJ1839-10</c>

38:03.627 --> 38:03.637 align:start position:0%
 
 

38:03.637 --> 38:06.026 align:start position:0%
 
be<00:39:07.440><c> a</c><00:39:07.680><c> magnetar</c><00:39:08.240><c> that</c><00:39:08.480><c> has</c><00:39:08.640><c> undergone</c><00:39:09.119><c> a</c><00:39:09.280><c> star</c>

38:06.026 --> 38:06.036 align:start position:0%
be a magnetar that has undergone a star
 

38:06.036 --> 38:08.506 align:start position:0%
be a magnetar that has undergone a star
quake?<00:39:10.480><c> Have</c><00:39:10.720><c> we</c><00:39:10.960><c> resolved</c><00:39:11.359><c> the</c><00:39:11.599><c> mystery</c><00:39:11.920><c> of</c>

38:08.506 --> 38:08.516 align:start position:0%
quake? Have we resolved the mystery of
 

38:08.516 --> 38:12.827 align:start position:0%
quake? Have we resolved the mystery of
the<00:39:12.320><c> 22-minute</c><00:39:13.040><c> signal?</c><00:39:14.240><c> It</c><00:39:14.560><c> seems</c><00:39:14.880><c> not.</c><00:39:16.079><c> We</c>

38:12.827 --> 38:12.837 align:start position:0%
the 22-minute signal? It seems not. We
 

38:12.837 --> 38:14.907 align:start position:0%
the 22-minute signal? It seems not. We
expect<00:39:16.720><c> these</c><00:39:16.960><c> star</c><00:39:17.200><c> quakes</c><00:39:17.599><c> to</c><00:39:17.760><c> also</c><00:39:18.079><c> emit</c>

38:14.907 --> 38:14.917 align:start position:0%
expect these star quakes to also emit
 

38:14.917 --> 38:17.786 align:start position:0%
expect these star quakes to also emit
light<00:39:18.800><c> in</c><00:39:18.960><c> the</c><00:39:19.200><c> X-ray</c><00:39:19.839><c> part</c><00:39:20.079><c> of</c><00:39:20.240><c> the</c><00:39:20.400><c> spectrum.</c>

38:17.786 --> 38:17.796 align:start position:0%
light in the X-ray part of the spectrum.
 

38:17.796 --> 38:20.667 align:start position:0%
light in the X-ray part of the spectrum.
Yet,<00:39:21.839><c> no</c><00:39:22.320><c> X-rays</c><00:39:22.880><c> can</c><00:39:23.119><c> be</c><00:39:23.280><c> detected</c><00:39:23.839><c> from</c><00:39:24.079><c> the</c>

38:20.667 --> 38:20.677 align:start position:0%
Yet, no X-rays can be detected from the
 

38:20.677 --> 38:22.907 align:start position:0%
Yet, no X-rays can be detected from the
position<00:39:24.560><c> of</c><00:39:24.720><c> the</c><00:39:24.880><c> source</c><00:39:25.280><c> roughly</c><00:39:25.839><c> 18,000</c>

38:22.907 --> 38:22.917 align:start position:0%
position of the source roughly 18,000
 

38:22.917 --> 38:24.907 align:start position:0%
position of the source roughly 18,000
lighty<00:39:26.800><c> years</c><00:39:26.960><c> away.</c>

38:24.907 --> 38:24.917 align:start position:0%
lighty years away.
 

38:24.917 --> 38:26.506 align:start position:0%
lighty years away.
It<00:39:28.720><c> also</c><00:39:29.040><c> wouldn't</c><00:39:29.280><c> make</c><00:39:29.520><c> sense</c><00:39:29.760><c> for</c><00:39:29.920><c> a</c>

38:26.506 --> 38:26.516 align:start position:0%
It also wouldn't make sense for a
 

38:26.516 --> 38:28.587 align:start position:0%
It also wouldn't make sense for a
magnetar<00:39:30.640><c> outburst</c><00:39:31.119><c> to</c><00:39:31.280><c> be</c><00:39:31.440><c> going</c><00:39:31.599><c> on</c><00:39:31.839><c> for</c>

38:28.587 --> 38:28.597 align:start position:0%
magnetar outburst to be going on for
 

38:28.597 --> 38:31.467 align:start position:0%
magnetar outburst to be going on for
three<00:39:32.480><c> decades.</c><00:39:33.920><c> The</c><00:39:34.079><c> star</c><00:39:34.320><c> quake</c><00:39:34.640><c> is</c><00:39:34.800><c> a</c>

38:31.467 --> 38:31.477 align:start position:0%
three decades. The star quake is a
 

38:31.477 --> 38:33.627 align:start position:0%
three decades. The star quake is a
temporary<00:39:35.440><c> phenomenon</c><00:39:36.320><c> and</c><00:39:36.560><c> the</c><00:39:36.800><c> energy</c>

38:33.627 --> 38:33.637 align:start position:0%
temporary phenomenon and the energy
 

38:33.637 --> 38:36.347 align:start position:0%
temporary phenomenon and the energy
dissipates<00:39:37.760><c> within</c><00:39:38.079><c> a</c><00:39:38.240><c> few</c><00:39:38.400><c> years</c><00:39:38.640><c> at</c><00:39:38.880><c> most.</c>

38:36.347 --> 38:36.357 align:start position:0%
dissipates within a few years at most.
 

38:36.357 --> 38:38.827 align:start position:0%
dissipates within a few years at most.
It<00:39:40.160><c> is</c><00:39:40.320><c> simply</c><00:39:40.880><c> incomprehensible</c><00:39:41.920><c> that</c><00:39:42.160><c> this</c>

38:38.827 --> 38:38.837 align:start position:0%
It is simply incomprehensible that this
 

38:38.837 --> 38:41.387 align:start position:0%
It is simply incomprehensible that this
signal<00:39:42.800><c> would</c><00:39:42.960><c> have</c><00:39:43.119><c> existed</c><00:39:43.520><c> for</c><00:39:43.839><c> 35</c><00:39:44.480><c> years</c>

38:41.387 --> 38:41.397 align:start position:0%
signal would have existed for 35 years
 

38:41.397 --> 38:44.747 align:start position:0%
signal would have existed for 35 years
if<00:39:45.200><c> it</c><00:39:45.359><c> was</c><00:39:45.520><c> indeed</c><00:39:46.000><c> a</c><00:39:46.240><c> magnetar.</c>

38:44.747 --> 38:44.757 align:start position:0%
if it was indeed a magnetar.
 

38:44.757 --> 38:47.067 align:start position:0%
if it was indeed a magnetar.
Once<00:39:48.640><c> again,</c><00:39:49.200><c> the</c><00:39:49.520><c> unique</c><00:39:49.839><c> properties</c><00:39:50.160><c> of</c><00:39:50.320><c> our</c>

38:47.067 --> 38:47.077 align:start position:0%
Once again, the unique properties of our
 

38:47.077 --> 38:49.307 align:start position:0%
Once again, the unique properties of our
signal<00:39:51.119><c> exclude</c><00:39:51.599><c> it</c><00:39:51.839><c> from</c><00:39:52.079><c> being</c><00:39:52.240><c> a</c><00:39:52.480><c> neutron</c>

38:49.307 --> 38:49.317 align:start position:0%
signal exclude it from being a neutron
 

38:49.317 --> 38:52.266 align:start position:0%
signal exclude it from being a neutron
star,<00:39:53.839><c> even</c><00:39:54.160><c> an</c><00:39:54.480><c> unusually</c><00:39:55.200><c> powerful</c><00:39:55.599><c> one</c>

38:52.266 --> 38:52.276 align:start position:0%
star, even an unusually powerful one
 

38:52.276 --> 38:54.266 align:start position:0%
star, even an unusually powerful one
that<00:39:56.079><c> has</c><00:39:56.240><c> undergone</c><00:39:56.720><c> a</c><00:39:56.960><c> special</c><00:39:57.280><c> event,</c><00:39:57.680><c> such</c>

38:54.266 --> 38:54.276 align:start position:0%
that has undergone a special event, such
 

38:54.276 --> 38:57.627 align:start position:0%
that has undergone a special event, such
as<00:39:58.000><c> a</c><00:39:58.160><c> star</c><00:39:58.480><c> quake.</c><00:39:59.680><c> But</c><00:40:00.079><c> what</c><00:40:00.480><c> else</c><00:40:00.720><c> could</c><00:40:00.960><c> the</c>

38:57.627 --> 38:57.637 align:start position:0%
as a star quake. But what else could the
 

38:57.637 --> 38:59.307 align:start position:0%
as a star quake. But what else could the
source<00:40:01.440><c> of</c><00:40:01.599><c> this</c><00:40:01.839><c> mysterious</c><00:40:02.400><c> signal</c>

38:59.307 --> 38:59.317 align:start position:0%
source of this mysterious signal
 

38:59.317 --> 39:01.786 align:start position:0%
source of this mysterious signal
possibly<00:40:03.359><c> be?</c><00:40:04.480><c> The</c><00:40:04.640><c> astronomers</c><00:40:05.200><c> who</c>

39:01.786 --> 39:01.796 align:start position:0%
possibly be? The astronomers who
 

39:01.796 --> 39:03.867 align:start position:0%
possibly be? The astronomers who
discovered<00:40:05.760><c> the</c><00:40:05.920><c> signal</c><00:40:06.240><c> proposed</c><00:40:06.880><c> a</c><00:40:07.200><c> few</c>

39:03.867 --> 39:03.877 align:start position:0%
discovered the signal proposed a few
 

39:03.877 --> 39:05.546 align:start position:0%
discovered the signal proposed a few
alternatives<00:40:08.079><c> for</c><00:40:08.240><c> the</c><00:40:08.480><c> identity</c><00:40:08.800><c> of</c><00:40:08.960><c> the</c>

39:05.546 --> 39:05.556 align:start position:0%
alternatives for the identity of the
 

39:05.556 --> 39:08.827 align:start position:0%
alternatives for the identity of the
source.<00:40:10.320><c> One</c><00:40:10.640><c> possibility</c><00:40:11.440><c> is</c><00:40:11.680><c> a</c><00:40:11.920><c> highly</c>

39:08.827 --> 39:08.837 align:start position:0%
source. One possibility is a highly
 

39:08.837 --> 39:11.786 align:start position:0%
source. One possibility is a highly
magnetic<00:40:12.880><c> white</c><00:40:13.119><c> dwarf.</c><00:40:14.320><c> A</c><00:40:14.560><c> white</c><00:40:14.720><c> dwarf</c><00:40:15.119><c> is</c>

39:11.786 --> 39:11.796 align:start position:0%
magnetic white dwarf. A white dwarf is
 

39:11.796 --> 39:13.467 align:start position:0%
magnetic white dwarf. A white dwarf is
another<00:40:15.599><c> type</c><00:40:15.839><c> of</c><00:40:16.000><c> remnant</c><00:40:16.400><c> left</c><00:40:16.640><c> from</c><00:40:16.880><c> the</c>

39:13.467 --> 39:13.477 align:start position:0%
another type of remnant left from the
 

39:13.477 --> 39:15.546 align:start position:0%
another type of remnant left from the
recent<00:40:17.359><c> death</c><00:40:17.599><c> of</c><00:40:17.760><c> a</c><00:40:17.920><c> star,</c><00:40:18.480><c> but</c><00:40:18.720><c> one</c><00:40:18.960><c> that</c>

39:15.546 --> 39:15.556 align:start position:0%
recent death of a star, but one that
 

39:15.556 --> 39:17.147 align:start position:0%
recent death of a star, but one that
didn't<00:40:19.359><c> have</c><00:40:19.520><c> enough</c><00:40:19.760><c> mass</c><00:40:20.000><c> to</c><00:40:20.160><c> collapse</c><00:40:20.480><c> the</c>

39:17.147 --> 39:17.157 align:start position:0%
didn't have enough mass to collapse the
 

39:17.157 --> 39:19.067 align:start position:0%
didn't have enough mass to collapse the
empty<00:40:21.040><c> space</c><00:40:21.280><c> in</c><00:40:21.440><c> the</c><00:40:21.599><c> atoms</c><00:40:22.000><c> to</c><00:40:22.160><c> become</c><00:40:22.480><c> a</c>

39:19.067 --> 39:19.077 align:start position:0%
empty space in the atoms to become a
 

39:19.077 --> 39:22.026 align:start position:0%
empty space in the atoms to become a
neutron<00:40:23.119><c> star.</c><00:40:24.400><c> A</c><00:40:24.560><c> remnant</c><00:40:24.960><c> that</c><00:40:25.200><c> has</c><00:40:25.359><c> an</c>

39:22.026 --> 39:22.036 align:start position:0%
neutron star. A remnant that has an
 

39:22.036 --> 39:24.747 align:start position:0%
neutron star. A remnant that has an
unusually<00:40:26.320><c> strong</c><00:40:26.720><c> magnetic</c><00:40:27.280><c> field</c><00:40:27.920><c> could</c>

39:24.747 --> 39:24.757 align:start position:0%
unusually strong magnetic field could
 

39:24.757 --> 39:27.307 align:start position:0%
unusually strong magnetic field could
produce<00:40:28.720><c> radio</c><00:40:29.119><c> emissions.</c><00:40:30.079><c> And</c><00:40:30.240><c> as</c><00:40:30.480><c> it</c><00:40:30.720><c> is</c>

39:27.307 --> 39:27.317 align:start position:0%
produce radio emissions. And as it is
 

39:27.317 --> 39:29.546 align:start position:0%
produce radio emissions. And as it is
not<00:40:31.040><c> a</c><00:40:31.200><c> neutron</c><00:40:31.599><c> star,</c><00:40:32.240><c> it</c><00:40:32.480><c> could</c><00:40:32.720><c> get</c><00:40:32.880><c> away</c>

39:29.546 --> 39:29.556 align:start position:0%
not a neutron star, it could get away
 

39:29.556 --> 39:32.107 align:start position:0%
not a neutron star, it could get away
with<00:40:33.359><c> being</c><00:40:33.680><c> as</c><00:40:33.920><c> slow</c><00:40:34.240><c> and</c><00:40:34.560><c> stably</c><00:40:35.040><c> rotating</c>

39:32.107 --> 39:32.117 align:start position:0%
with being as slow and stably rotating
 

39:32.117 --> 39:34.266 align:start position:0%
with being as slow and stably rotating
as<00:40:35.920><c> the</c><00:40:36.079><c> source</c><00:40:36.320><c> of</c><00:40:36.480><c> our</c><00:40:36.800><c> object</c><00:40:37.280><c> while</c><00:40:37.599><c> doing</c>

39:34.266 --> 39:34.276 align:start position:0%
as the source of our object while doing
 

39:34.276 --> 39:35.627 align:start position:0%
as the source of our object while doing
so.

39:35.627 --> 39:35.637 align:start position:0%
so.
 

39:35.637 --> 39:38.427 align:start position:0%
so.
The<00:40:39.520><c> issue</c><00:40:39.839><c> is</c><00:40:40.480><c> this</c><00:40:40.720><c> would</c><00:40:41.040><c> require</c><00:40:41.680><c> an</c>

39:38.427 --> 39:38.437 align:start position:0%
The issue is this would require an
 

39:38.437 --> 39:40.747 align:start position:0%
The issue is this would require an
exceptionally<00:40:42.800><c> strong</c><00:40:43.119><c> magnetic</c><00:40:43.680><c> field</c>

39:40.747 --> 39:40.757 align:start position:0%
exceptionally strong magnetic field
 

39:40.757 --> 39:43.147 align:start position:0%
exceptionally strong magnetic field
greater<00:40:44.720><c> than</c><00:40:45.119><c> any</c><00:40:45.520><c> we</c><00:40:45.839><c> have</c><00:40:46.000><c> spotted</c><00:40:46.400><c> on</c><00:40:46.560><c> a</c>

39:43.147 --> 39:43.157 align:start position:0%
greater than any we have spotted on a
 

39:43.157 --> 39:46.987 align:start position:0%
greater than any we have spotted on a
white<00:40:46.960><c> dwarf.</c><00:40:48.400><c> A</c><00:40:48.880><c> sco</c><00:40:49.280><c> is</c><00:40:49.520><c> the</c><00:40:49.760><c> only</c><00:40:50.000><c> known</c>

39:46.987 --> 39:46.997 align:start position:0%
white dwarf. A sco is the only known
 

39:46.997 --> 39:49.147 align:start position:0%
white dwarf. A sco is the only known
radio<00:40:50.960><c> pulsar</c><00:40:51.440><c> that</c><00:40:51.680><c> is</c><00:40:51.920><c> actually</c><00:40:52.320><c> a</c><00:40:52.560><c> white</c>

39:49.147 --> 39:49.157 align:start position:0%
radio pulsar that is actually a white
 

39:49.157 --> 39:52.107 align:start position:0%
radio pulsar that is actually a white
dwarf<00:40:53.520><c> and</c><00:40:53.760><c> its</c><00:40:54.079><c> radio</c><00:40:54.480><c> missions</c><00:40:54.960><c> are</c><00:40:55.280><c> a</c>

39:52.107 --> 39:52.117 align:start position:0%
dwarf and its radio missions are a
 

39:52.117 --> 39:54.187 align:start position:0%
dwarf and its radio missions are a
thousand<00:40:56.160><c> times</c><00:40:56.640><c> less</c><00:40:56.880><c> luminous</c><00:40:57.440><c> than</c><00:40:57.599><c> the</c>

39:54.187 --> 39:54.197 align:start position:0%
thousand times less luminous than the
 

39:54.197 --> 39:57.467 align:start position:0%
thousand times less luminous than the
source<00:40:58.079><c> of</c><00:40:58.319><c> our</c><00:40:58.640><c> 22-minute</c><00:40:59.359><c> signal.</c>

39:57.467 --> 39:57.477 align:start position:0%
source of our 22-minute signal.
 

39:57.477 --> 40:00.506 align:start position:0%
source of our 22-minute signal.
So<00:41:01.599><c> if</c><00:41:01.760><c> a</c><00:41:01.920><c> white</c><00:41:02.160><c> dwarf</c><00:41:02.560><c> is</c><00:41:02.720><c> unlikely,</c><00:41:03.760><c> what</c>

40:00.506 --> 40:00.516 align:start position:0%
So if a white dwarf is unlikely, what
 

40:00.516 --> 40:03.147 align:start position:0%
So if a white dwarf is unlikely, what
are<00:41:04.400><c> our</c><00:41:04.720><c> other</c><00:41:04.960><c> options?</c>

40:03.147 --> 40:03.157 align:start position:0%
are our other options?
 

40:03.157 --> 40:05.546 align:start position:0%
are our other options?
Astronomers<00:41:07.359><c> have</c><00:41:07.680><c> observed</c><00:41:08.319><c> low</c><00:41:08.640><c> frequency</c>

40:05.546 --> 40:05.556 align:start position:0%
Astronomers have observed low frequency
 

40:05.556 --> 40:07.627 align:start position:0%
Astronomers have observed low frequency
radio<00:41:09.520><c> waves</c><00:41:09.920><c> coming</c><00:41:10.240><c> from</c><00:41:10.400><c> the</c><00:41:10.640><c> interactions</c>

40:07.627 --> 40:07.637 align:start position:0%
radio waves coming from the interactions
 

40:07.637 --> 40:10.746 align:start position:0%
radio waves coming from the interactions
between<00:41:11.680><c> stars</c><00:41:12.079><c> and</c><00:41:12.319><c> exoplanets</c><00:41:13.680><c> as</c><00:41:13.920><c> well</c><00:41:14.079><c> as</c>

40:10.746 --> 40:10.756 align:start position:0%
between stars and exoplanets as well as
 

40:10.756 --> 40:13.387 align:start position:0%
between stars and exoplanets as well as
a<00:41:14.560><c> binary</c><00:41:15.040><c> of</c><00:41:15.280><c> two</c><00:41:15.599><c> brown</c><00:41:15.920><c> dwarfs</c><00:41:16.400><c> rotating</c>

40:13.387 --> 40:13.397 align:start position:0%
a binary of two brown dwarfs rotating
 

40:13.397 --> 40:16.026 align:start position:0%
a binary of two brown dwarfs rotating
around<00:41:17.280><c> each</c><00:41:17.520><c> other.</c><00:41:18.480><c> But</c><00:41:18.640><c> this</c><00:41:18.880><c> emission</c><00:41:19.359><c> is</c>

40:16.026 --> 40:16.036 align:start position:0%
around each other. But this emission is
 

40:16.036 --> 40:18.827 align:start position:0%
around each other. But this emission is
typically<00:41:20.000><c> weaker,</c><00:41:20.880><c> around</c><00:41:21.440><c> 100</c><00:41:22.000><c> million</c>

40:18.827 --> 40:18.837 align:start position:0%
typically weaker, around 100 million
 

40:18.837 --> 40:20.587 align:start position:0%
typically weaker, around 100 million
times<00:41:22.800><c> weaker</c><00:41:23.200><c> than</c><00:41:23.359><c> the</c><00:41:23.520><c> source</c><00:41:23.760><c> of</c><00:41:23.920><c> our</c>

40:20.587 --> 40:20.597 align:start position:0%
times weaker than the source of our
 

40:20.597 --> 40:24.187 align:start position:0%
times weaker than the source of our
signal.<00:41:25.440><c> In</c><00:41:25.680><c> the</c><00:41:25.839><c> end,</c><00:41:26.480><c> it</c><00:41:26.720><c> seems</c><00:41:27.040><c> like</c><00:41:27.440><c> none</c>

40:24.187 --> 40:24.197 align:start position:0%
signal. In the end, it seems like none
 

40:24.197 --> 40:27.227 align:start position:0%
signal. In the end, it seems like none
of<00:41:28.000><c> our</c><00:41:28.240><c> theories</c><00:41:28.720><c> can</c><00:41:28.960><c> explain</c><00:41:29.520><c> the</c><00:41:29.920><c> 22minut</c>

40:27.227 --> 40:27.237 align:start position:0%
of our theories can explain the 22minut
 

40:27.237 --> 40:30.026 align:start position:0%
of our theories can explain the 22minut
signal.<00:41:32.240><c> While</c><00:41:32.560><c> the</c><00:41:32.720><c> unresolved</c><00:41:33.359><c> question</c>

40:30.026 --> 40:30.036 align:start position:0%
signal. While the unresolved question
 

40:30.036 --> 40:32.026 align:start position:0%
signal. While the unresolved question
about<00:41:33.839><c> the</c><00:41:34.079><c> source</c><00:41:34.319><c> of</c><00:41:34.400><c> the</c><00:41:34.560><c> signal</c><00:41:35.040><c> may</c><00:41:35.359><c> feel</c>

40:32.026 --> 40:32.036 align:start position:0%
about the source of the signal may feel
 

40:32.036 --> 40:34.427 align:start position:0%
about the source of the signal may feel
frustrating,<00:41:36.720><c> this</c><00:41:36.960><c> is</c><00:41:37.119><c> precisely</c><00:41:37.599><c> the</c><00:41:37.839><c> kind</c>

40:34.427 --> 40:34.437 align:start position:0%
frustrating, this is precisely the kind
 

40:34.437 --> 40:36.266 align:start position:0%
frustrating, this is precisely the kind
of<00:41:38.160><c> mystery</c><00:41:38.480><c> that</c><00:41:38.720><c> astrophysicists</c><00:41:39.680><c> look</c>

40:36.266 --> 40:36.276 align:start position:0%
of mystery that astrophysicists look
 

40:36.276 --> 40:38.987 align:start position:0%
of mystery that astrophysicists look
for.<00:41:40.800><c> When</c><00:41:41.119><c> scientists</c><00:41:41.599><c> find</c><00:41:41.839><c> new</c><00:41:42.079><c> data</c><00:41:42.319><c> that</c>

40:38.987 --> 40:38.997 align:start position:0%
for. When scientists find new data that
 

40:38.997 --> 40:41.387 align:start position:0%
for. When scientists find new data that
challenges<00:41:43.040><c> our</c><00:41:43.359><c> long-held</c><00:41:44.000><c> theories,</c><00:41:44.720><c> they</c>

40:41.387 --> 40:41.397 align:start position:0%
challenges our long-held theories, they
 

40:41.397 --> 40:43.307 align:start position:0%
challenges our long-held theories, they
can<00:41:45.119><c> usher</c><00:41:45.520><c> in</c><00:41:45.760><c> revolutions</c><00:41:46.400><c> in</c><00:41:46.640><c> our</c>

40:43.307 --> 40:43.317 align:start position:0%
can usher in revolutions in our
 

40:43.317 --> 40:45.786 align:start position:0%
can usher in revolutions in our
understanding<00:41:47.359><c> of</c><00:41:47.520><c> the</c><00:41:47.760><c> universe</c><00:41:48.160><c> around</c><00:41:48.480><c> us.</c>

40:45.786 --> 40:45.796 align:start position:0%
understanding of the universe around us.
 

40:45.796 --> 40:48.506 align:start position:0%
understanding of the universe around us.
Here,<00:41:50.079><c> our</c><00:41:50.480><c> already</c><00:41:50.880><c> shaky</c><00:41:51.440><c> understanding</c><00:41:51.920><c> of</c>

40:48.506 --> 40:48.516 align:start position:0%
Here, our already shaky understanding of
 

40:48.516 --> 40:51.867 align:start position:0%
Here, our already shaky understanding of
neutron<00:41:52.560><c> stars</c><00:41:53.200><c> is</c><00:41:53.520><c> being</c><00:41:53.839><c> challenged.</c><00:41:55.280><c> The</c>

40:51.867 --> 40:51.877 align:start position:0%
neutron stars is being challenged. The
 

40:51.877 --> 40:53.947 align:start position:0%
neutron stars is being challenged. The
astronomers<00:41:56.079><c> are</c><00:41:56.319><c> confident</c><00:41:56.720><c> that</c><00:41:56.960><c> the</c><00:41:57.200><c> ease</c>

40:53.947 --> 40:53.957 align:start position:0%
astronomers are confident that the ease
 

40:53.957 --> 40:55.947 align:start position:0%
astronomers are confident that the ease
with<00:41:57.760><c> which</c><00:41:57.920><c> they</c><00:41:58.319><c> identified</c><00:41:58.720><c> this</c><00:41:58.960><c> signal</c>

40:55.947 --> 40:55.957 align:start position:0%
with which they identified this signal
 

40:55.957 --> 40:58.107 align:start position:0%
with which they identified this signal
means<00:41:59.920><c> similar</c><00:42:00.319><c> sources</c><00:42:00.720><c> lie</c><00:42:01.119><c> out</c><00:42:01.280><c> there</c><00:42:01.440><c> in</c>

40:58.107 --> 40:58.117 align:start position:0%
means similar sources lie out there in
 

40:58.117 --> 41:00.266 align:start position:0%
means similar sources lie out there in
the<00:42:01.760><c> galactic</c><00:42:02.319><c> plane</c><00:42:02.960><c> waiting</c><00:42:03.280><c> to</c><00:42:03.520><c> be</c>

41:00.266 --> 41:00.276 align:start position:0%
the galactic plane waiting to be
 

41:00.276 --> 41:05.387 align:start position:0%
the galactic plane waiting to be
identified.<00:42:05.119><c> Just</c><00:42:05.440><c> like</c><00:42:05.839><c> GPMJ1839-10,</c>

41:05.387 --> 41:05.397 align:start position:0%
 
 

41:05.397 --> 41:07.227 align:start position:0%
 
the<00:42:09.200><c> other</c><00:42:09.440><c> signals</c><00:42:09.920><c> might</c><00:42:10.240><c> already</c><00:42:10.640><c> be</c>

41:07.227 --> 41:07.237 align:start position:0%
the other signals might already be
 

41:07.237 --> 41:09.947 align:start position:0%
the other signals might already be
lurking<00:42:11.200><c> in</c><00:42:11.359><c> the</c><00:42:11.520><c> data</c><00:42:11.760><c> we</c><00:42:12.000><c> have</c><00:42:12.160><c> collected.</c>

41:09.947 --> 41:09.957 align:start position:0%
lurking in the data we have collected.
 

41:09.957 --> 41:12.187 align:start position:0%
lurking in the data we have collected.
Identifying<00:42:14.160><c> more</c><00:42:14.480><c> of</c><00:42:14.640><c> these</c><00:42:14.880><c> signals</c><00:42:15.440><c> will</c>

41:12.187 --> 41:12.197 align:start position:0%
Identifying more of these signals will
 

41:12.197 --> 41:13.947 align:start position:0%
Identifying more of these signals will
shed<00:42:16.000><c> light</c><00:42:16.240><c> on</c><00:42:16.480><c> the</c><00:42:16.640><c> process</c><00:42:17.119><c> powering</c>

41:13.947 --> 41:13.957 align:start position:0%
shed light on the process powering
 

41:13.957 --> 41:16.026 align:start position:0%
shed light on the process powering
emission<00:42:18.000><c> beyond</c><00:42:18.319><c> the</c><00:42:18.480><c> neutron</c><00:42:18.960><c> star</c><00:42:19.280><c> Death</c>

41:16.026 --> 41:16.036 align:start position:0%
emission beyond the neutron star Death
 

41:16.036 --> 41:17.467 align:start position:0%
emission beyond the neutron star Death
Valley.

41:17.467 --> 41:17.477 align:start position:0%
Valley.
 

41:17.477 --> 41:19.387 align:start position:0%
Valley.
Whatever<00:42:21.440><c> lies</c><00:42:21.760><c> behind</c><00:42:22.079><c> the</c><00:42:22.319><c> 22-minute</c>

41:19.387 --> 41:19.397 align:start position:0%
Whatever lies behind the 22-minute
 

41:19.397 --> 41:21.707 align:start position:0%
Whatever lies behind the 22-minute
signal,<00:42:23.680><c> we</c><00:42:23.920><c> are</c><00:42:24.079><c> sure</c><00:42:24.319><c> to</c><00:42:24.560><c> learn</c><00:42:24.800><c> of</c><00:42:25.119><c> an</c>

41:21.707 --> 41:21.717 align:start position:0%
signal, we are sure to learn of an
 

41:21.717 --> 41:23.867 align:start position:0%
signal, we are sure to learn of an
entirely<00:42:25.839><c> new</c><00:42:26.160><c> phenomenon</c><00:42:26.720><c> that</c><00:42:27.040><c> we</c><00:42:27.200><c> have</c>

41:23.867 --> 41:23.877 align:start position:0%
entirely new phenomenon that we have
 

41:23.877 --> 41:27.867 align:start position:0%
entirely new phenomenon that we have
never<00:42:27.680><c> seen</c><00:42:28.000><c> before.</c><00:42:29.040><c> Isn't</c><00:42:29.359><c> that</c><00:42:29.760><c> exciting?</c>

41:27.867 --> 41:27.877 align:start position:0%
never seen before. Isn't that exciting?
 

41:27.877 --> 41:29.627 align:start position:0%
never seen before. Isn't that exciting?
What<00:42:31.680><c> do</c><00:42:31.839><c> you</c><00:42:32.079><c> think</c><00:42:32.240><c> could</c><00:42:32.480><c> be</c><00:42:32.640><c> the</c><00:42:32.800><c> source</c><00:42:33.040><c> of</c>

41:29.627 --> 41:29.637 align:start position:0%
What do you think could be the source of
 

41:29.637 --> 41:32.347 align:start position:0%
What do you think could be the source of
the<00:42:33.359><c> 22-minute</c><00:42:34.079><c> signal?</c><00:42:34.960><c> Let</c><00:42:35.200><c> me</c><00:42:35.359><c> know</c><00:42:35.520><c> in</c><00:42:35.760><c> the</c>

41:32.347 --> 41:32.357 align:start position:0%
the 22-minute signal? Let me know in the
 

41:32.357 --> 41:35.227 align:start position:0%
the 22-minute signal? Let me know in the
comments<00:42:36.160><c> below.</c>

41:35.227 --> 41:35.237 align:start position:0%
comments below.
 

41:35.237 --> 41:38.827 align:start position:0%
comments below.
800<00:42:39.440><c> light</c><00:42:39.760><c> years</c><00:42:40.000><c> away,</c><00:42:40.800><c> there's</c><00:42:41.119><c> an</c><00:42:41.440><c> unseen</c>

41:38.827 --> 41:38.837 align:start position:0%
800 light years away, there's an unseen
 

41:38.837 --> 41:42.266 align:start position:0%
800 light years away, there's an unseen
antimatter<00:42:43.359><c> factory</c><00:42:44.319><c> churning</c><00:42:44.800><c> out</c><00:42:45.440><c> high</c>

41:42.266 --> 41:42.276 align:start position:0%
antimatter factory churning out high
 

41:42.276 --> 41:44.506 align:start position:0%
antimatter factory churning out high
energy<00:42:46.480><c> posetrons.</c>

41:44.506 --> 41:44.516 align:start position:0%
energy posetrons.
 

41:44.516 --> 41:46.827 align:start position:0%
energy posetrons.
Tiny<00:42:48.640><c> particles</c><00:42:49.119><c> of</c><00:42:49.280><c> antimatter</c><00:42:49.920><c> that</c><00:42:50.160><c> are</c>

41:46.827 --> 41:46.837 align:start position:0%
Tiny particles of antimatter that are
 

41:46.837 --> 41:48.907 align:start position:0%
Tiny particles of antimatter that are
streaming<00:42:50.960><c> through</c><00:42:51.200><c> the</c><00:42:51.440><c> cosmos</c><00:42:52.160><c> and</c>

41:48.907 --> 41:48.917 align:start position:0%
streaming through the cosmos and
 

41:48.917 --> 41:52.026 align:start position:0%
streaming through the cosmos and
colliding<00:42:53.040><c> with</c><00:42:53.599><c> our</c><00:42:54.000><c> planet.</c>

41:52.026 --> 41:52.036 align:start position:0%
colliding with our planet.
 

41:52.036 --> 41:54.107 align:start position:0%
colliding with our planet.
For<00:42:55.839><c> much</c><00:42:56.000><c> of</c><00:42:56.160><c> history,</c><00:42:56.640><c> we</c><00:42:56.880><c> didn't</c><00:42:57.119><c> know</c><00:42:57.440><c> this</c>

41:54.107 --> 41:54.117 align:start position:0%
For much of history, we didn't know this
 

41:54.117 --> 41:56.427 align:start position:0%
For much of history, we didn't know this
strange<00:42:58.079><c> source</c><00:42:58.480><c> existed.</c><00:42:59.440><c> Most</c><00:42:59.680><c> of</c><00:42:59.839><c> the</c>

41:56.427 --> 41:56.437 align:start position:0%
strange source existed. Most of the
 

41:56.437 --> 41:58.587 align:start position:0%
strange source existed. Most of the
positrons<00:43:00.640><c> bombarding</c><00:43:01.119><c> us</c><00:43:01.359><c> went</c><00:43:01.680><c> completely</c>

41:58.587 --> 41:58.597 align:start position:0%
positrons bombarding us went completely
 

41:58.597 --> 42:01.307 align:start position:0%
positrons bombarding us went completely
undetected,<00:43:03.280><c> instead</c><00:43:03.839><c> getting</c><00:43:04.160><c> absorbed</c><00:43:04.640><c> in</c>

42:01.307 --> 42:01.317 align:start position:0%
undetected, instead getting absorbed in
 

42:01.317 --> 42:04.107 align:start position:0%
undetected, instead getting absorbed in
our<00:43:05.119><c> planet's</c><00:43:05.520><c> atmosphere.</c><00:43:06.880><c> It</c><00:43:07.119><c> wasn't</c><00:43:07.359><c> until</c>

42:04.107 --> 42:04.117 align:start position:0%
our planet's atmosphere. It wasn't until
 

42:04.117 --> 42:06.107 align:start position:0%
our planet's atmosphere. It wasn't until
we<00:43:07.839><c> started</c><00:43:08.160><c> looking</c><00:43:08.480><c> from</c><00:43:08.960><c> beyond</c><00:43:09.440><c> the</c>

42:06.107 --> 42:06.117 align:start position:0%
we started looking from beyond the
 

42:06.117 --> 42:08.266 align:start position:0%
we started looking from beyond the
bounds<00:43:10.000><c> of</c><00:43:10.160><c> our</c><00:43:10.400><c> planet</c><00:43:11.040><c> that</c><00:43:11.280><c> we</c><00:43:11.440><c> noticed</c>

42:08.266 --> 42:08.276 align:start position:0%
bounds of our planet that we noticed
 

42:08.276 --> 42:12.746 align:start position:0%
bounds of our planet that we noticed
them.<00:43:13.040><c> In</c><00:43:13.599><c> 2011,</c><00:43:14.640><c> NASA's</c><00:43:15.280><c> Alpha</c><00:43:15.839><c> Magnetic</c>

42:12.746 --> 42:12.756 align:start position:0%
them. In 2011, NASA's Alpha Magnetic
 

42:12.756 --> 42:14.987 align:start position:0%
them. In 2011, NASA's Alpha Magnetic
Spectrometer,<00:43:17.440><c> a</c><00:43:17.680><c> state-of-the-art</c>

42:14.987 --> 42:14.997 align:start position:0%
Spectrometer, a state-of-the-art
 

42:14.997 --> 42:17.707 align:start position:0%
Spectrometer, a state-of-the-art
particle<00:43:19.040><c> detector</c><00:43:19.599><c> some</c><00:43:20.000><c> 200</c><00:43:20.480><c> m</c><00:43:20.800><c> up</c><00:43:20.960><c> aboard</c>

42:17.707 --> 42:17.717 align:start position:0%
particle detector some 200 m up aboard
 

42:17.717 --> 42:19.867 align:start position:0%
particle detector some 200 m up aboard
the<00:43:21.520><c> International</c><00:43:22.079><c> Space</c><00:43:22.400><c> Station,</c><00:43:23.119><c> was</c>

42:19.867 --> 42:19.877 align:start position:0%
the International Space Station, was
 

42:19.877 --> 42:22.746 align:start position:0%
the International Space Station, was
switched<00:43:23.760><c> on.</c><00:43:24.560><c> What</c><00:43:24.800><c> did</c><00:43:24.960><c> it</c><00:43:25.200><c> find?</c><00:43:26.000><c> You</c>

42:22.746 --> 42:22.756 align:start position:0%
switched on. What did it find? You
 

42:22.756 --> 42:25.227 align:start position:0%
switched on. What did it find? You
guessed<00:43:26.480><c> it,</c><00:43:27.200><c> posetrons.</c>

42:25.227 --> 42:25.237 align:start position:0%
guessed it, posetrons.
 

42:25.237 --> 42:26.987 align:start position:0%
guessed it, posetrons.
The<00:43:29.040><c> presence</c><00:43:29.359><c> of</c><00:43:29.440><c> these</c><00:43:29.839><c> subatomic</c>

42:26.987 --> 42:26.997 align:start position:0%
The presence of these subatomic
 

42:26.997 --> 42:30.587 align:start position:0%
The presence of these subatomic
particles<00:43:31.280><c> was</c><00:43:31.520><c> to</c><00:43:31.760><c> be</c><00:43:32.000><c> expected,</c><00:43:33.040><c> but</c><00:43:33.359><c> not</c><00:43:34.000><c> in</c>

42:30.587 --> 42:30.597 align:start position:0%
particles was to be expected, but not in
 

42:30.597 --> 42:32.827 align:start position:0%
particles was to be expected, but not in
the<00:43:34.400><c> numbers</c><00:43:34.720><c> they</c><00:43:34.960><c> were</c><00:43:35.200><c> finding.</c>

42:32.827 --> 42:32.837 align:start position:0%
the numbers they were finding.
 

42:32.837 --> 42:35.546 align:start position:0%
the numbers they were finding.
Such<00:43:36.800><c> was</c><00:43:37.040><c> the</c><00:43:37.280><c> sheer</c><00:43:37.760><c> volume</c><00:43:38.079><c> of</c><00:43:38.319><c> posetrons</c>

42:35.546 --> 42:35.556 align:start position:0%
Such was the sheer volume of posetrons
 

42:35.556 --> 42:37.867 align:start position:0%
Such was the sheer volume of posetrons
being<00:43:39.359><c> detected</c><00:43:40.000><c> that</c><00:43:40.319><c> the</c><00:43:40.560><c> usual</c><00:43:40.960><c> sources</c>

42:37.867 --> 42:37.877 align:start position:0%
being detected that the usual sources
 

42:37.877 --> 42:40.347 align:start position:0%
being detected that the usual sources
like<00:43:41.839><c> natural</c><00:43:42.319><c> radioactive</c><00:43:43.040><c> decay</c><00:43:43.680><c> and</c>

42:40.347 --> 42:40.357 align:start position:0%
like natural radioactive decay and
 

42:40.357 --> 42:43.467 align:start position:0%
like natural radioactive decay and
cosmic<00:43:44.400><c> rays</c><00:43:45.520><c> no</c><00:43:45.839><c> longer</c><00:43:46.319><c> offered</c><00:43:46.800><c> a</c>

42:43.467 --> 42:43.477 align:start position:0%
cosmic rays no longer offered a
 

42:43.477 --> 42:45.786 align:start position:0%
cosmic rays no longer offered a
sufficient<00:43:47.680><c> explanation.</c>

42:45.786 --> 42:45.796 align:start position:0%
sufficient explanation.
 

42:45.796 --> 42:49.546 align:start position:0%
sufficient explanation.
So<00:43:50.000><c> where</c><00:43:50.319><c> were</c><00:43:50.880><c> they</c><00:43:51.200><c> coming</c><00:43:51.440><c> from?</c>

42:49.546 --> 42:49.556 align:start position:0%
So where were they coming from?
 

42:49.556 --> 42:52.026 align:start position:0%
So where were they coming from?
We've<00:43:53.520><c> only</c><00:43:54.079><c> recently</c><00:43:54.800><c> been</c><00:43:55.040><c> able</c><00:43:55.200><c> to</c><00:43:55.359><c> trace</c>

42:52.026 --> 42:52.036 align:start position:0%
We've only recently been able to trace
 

42:52.036 --> 42:54.587 align:start position:0%
We've only recently been able to trace
the<00:43:55.839><c> culprit</c><00:43:56.319><c> of</c><00:43:56.480><c> this</c><00:43:56.960><c> cosmic</c><00:43:57.440><c> antimatter</c>

42:54.587 --> 42:54.597 align:start position:0%
the culprit of this cosmic antimatter
 

42:54.597 --> 42:57.546 align:start position:0%
the culprit of this cosmic antimatter
shower.<00:43:58.880><c> And</c><00:43:59.040><c> it</c><00:43:59.280><c> all</c><00:43:59.440><c> comes</c><00:43:59.760><c> down</c><00:43:59.920><c> to</c><00:44:00.319><c> another</c>

42:57.546 --> 42:57.556 align:start position:0%
shower. And it all comes down to another
 

42:57.556 --> 43:00.987 align:start position:0%
shower. And it all comes down to another
high<00:44:01.520><c> energy</c><00:44:02.000><c> discovery.</c><00:44:03.359><c> a</c><00:44:03.760><c> strange</c>

43:00.987 --> 43:00.997 align:start position:0%
high energy discovery. a strange
 

43:00.997 --> 43:04.746 align:start position:0%
high energy discovery. a strange
gammaray<00:44:05.440><c> haze</c><00:44:06.079><c> named</c><00:44:06.560><c> gaminga</c><00:44:07.760><c> first</c>

43:04.746 --> 43:04.756 align:start position:0%
gammaray haze named gaminga first
 

43:04.756 --> 43:07.627 align:start position:0%
gammaray haze named gaminga first
identified<00:44:08.880><c> in</c><00:44:09.119><c> the</c><00:44:09.359><c> 1970s.</c>

43:07.627 --> 43:07.637 align:start position:0%
identified in the 1970s.
 

43:07.637 --> 43:10.427 align:start position:0%
identified in the 1970s.
What<00:44:11.599><c> is</c><00:44:12.160><c> this</c><00:44:12.480><c> mysterious</c><00:44:13.119><c> source</c><00:44:13.440><c> of</c><00:44:13.599><c> gamma</c>

43:10.427 --> 43:10.437 align:start position:0%
What is this mysterious source of gamma
 

43:10.437 --> 43:13.147 align:start position:0%
What is this mysterious source of gamma
radiation<00:44:15.200><c> and</c><00:44:15.440><c> what</c><00:44:15.839><c> does</c><00:44:16.000><c> it</c><00:44:16.240><c> have</c><00:44:16.400><c> to</c><00:44:16.560><c> do</c>

43:13.147 --> 43:13.157 align:start position:0%
radiation and what does it have to do
 

43:13.157 --> 43:15.867 align:start position:0%
radiation and what does it have to do
with<00:44:16.960><c> the</c><00:44:17.200><c> unusual</c><00:44:17.920><c> abundance</c><00:44:18.640><c> of</c><00:44:19.040><c> high</c>

43:15.867 --> 43:15.877 align:start position:0%
with the unusual abundance of high
 

43:15.877 --> 43:19.707 align:start position:0%
with the unusual abundance of high
energergy<00:44:20.000><c> posetrons</c><00:44:20.800><c> hitting</c><00:44:21.119><c> our</c><00:44:21.440><c> planet?</c>

43:19.707 --> 43:19.717 align:start position:0%
energergy posetrons hitting our planet?
 

43:19.717 --> 43:21.786 align:start position:0%
energergy posetrons hitting our planet?
I'm<00:44:23.599><c> Alex</c><00:44:23.920><c> Mccoan</c><00:44:24.640><c> and</c><00:44:24.800><c> you're</c><00:44:25.119><c> watching</c>

43:21.786 --> 43:21.796 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
 

43:21.796 --> 43:24.746 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
Astramm.<00:44:26.240><c> Join</c><00:44:26.560><c> me</c><00:44:26.720><c> today</c><00:44:27.040><c> as</c><00:44:27.280><c> we</c><00:44:27.520><c> tune</c><00:44:27.920><c> into</c>

43:24.746 --> 43:24.756 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join me today as we tune into
 

43:24.756 --> 43:27.707 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join me today as we tune into
the<00:44:28.640><c> enigmatic</c><00:44:29.520><c> frequency</c><00:44:30.000><c> of</c><00:44:30.160><c> Gaminga</c><00:44:30.880><c> whose</c>

43:27.707 --> 43:27.717 align:start position:0%
the enigmatic frequency of Gaminga whose
 

43:27.717 --> 43:30.347 align:start position:0%
the enigmatic frequency of Gaminga whose
gamma<00:44:31.680><c> radiation</c><00:44:32.480><c> has</c><00:44:32.800><c> lit</c><00:44:33.119><c> up</c><00:44:33.280><c> the</c><00:44:33.520><c> world</c><00:44:33.680><c> of</c>

43:30.347 --> 43:30.357 align:start position:0%
gamma radiation has lit up the world of
 

43:30.357 --> 43:35.307 align:start position:0%
gamma radiation has lit up the world of
astrophysics<00:44:34.880><c> for</c><00:44:35.200><c> decades.</c>

43:35.307 --> 43:35.317 align:start position:0%
 
 

43:35.317 --> 43:37.947 align:start position:0%
 
Up<00:44:39.359><c> in</c><00:44:39.599><c> our</c><00:44:39.839><c> night</c><00:44:40.079><c> sky,</c><00:44:40.720><c> nestled</c><00:44:41.200><c> in</c><00:44:41.359><c> the</c>

43:37.947 --> 43:37.957 align:start position:0%
Up in our night sky, nestled in the
 

43:37.957 --> 43:40.026 align:start position:0%
Up in our night sky, nestled in the
Gemini<00:44:42.079><c> constellation</c><00:44:42.720><c> in</c><00:44:42.960><c> the</c><00:44:43.119><c> northern</c>

43:40.026 --> 43:40.036 align:start position:0%
Gemini constellation in the northern
 

43:40.036 --> 43:42.347 align:start position:0%
Gemini constellation in the northern
celestial<00:44:44.160><c> hemisphere,</c><00:44:45.040><c> there</c><00:44:45.200><c> is</c><00:44:45.520><c> something</c>

43:42.347 --> 43:42.357 align:start position:0%
celestial hemisphere, there is something
 

43:42.357 --> 43:47.067 align:start position:0%
celestial hemisphere, there is something
peculiar<00:44:46.640><c> going</c><00:44:46.880><c> on.</c><00:44:48.000><c> In</c><00:44:48.400><c> 1972,</c><00:44:49.599><c> NASA's</c><00:44:50.240><c> small</c>

43:47.067 --> 43:47.077 align:start position:0%
peculiar going on. In 1972, NASA's small
 

43:47.077 --> 43:51.067 align:start position:0%
peculiar going on. In 1972, NASA's small
astronomy<00:44:51.200><c> satellite</c><00:44:51.839><c> 2</c><00:44:52.319><c> or</c><00:44:52.640><c> SAS2</c><00:44:54.079><c> identified</c>

43:51.067 --> 43:51.077 align:start position:0%
astronomy satellite 2 or SAS2 identified
 

43:51.077 --> 43:54.187 align:start position:0%
astronomy satellite 2 or SAS2 identified
an<00:44:54.960><c> unknown</c><00:44:55.520><c> source</c><00:44:55.760><c> of</c><00:44:56.000><c> gamma</c><00:44:56.400><c> radiation.</c>

43:54.187 --> 43:54.197 align:start position:0%
an unknown source of gamma radiation.
 

43:54.197 --> 43:56.266 align:start position:0%
an unknown source of gamma radiation.
But<00:44:58.000><c> with</c><00:44:58.240><c> the</c><00:44:58.480><c> technology</c><00:44:59.040><c> available</c><00:44:59.440><c> at</c><00:44:59.680><c> the</c>

43:56.266 --> 43:56.276 align:start position:0%
But with the technology available at the
 

43:56.276 --> 43:59.067 align:start position:0%
But with the technology available at the
time,<00:45:00.400><c> the</c><00:45:00.640><c> best</c><00:45:00.880><c> it</c><00:45:01.119><c> could</c><00:45:01.359><c> do</c><00:45:01.599><c> was</c><00:45:02.000><c> trace</c><00:45:02.319><c> its</c>

43:59.067 --> 43:59.077 align:start position:0%
time, the best it could do was trace its
 

43:59.077 --> 44:02.026 align:start position:0%
time, the best it could do was trace its
origin<00:45:03.040><c> to</c><00:45:03.359><c> this</c><00:45:03.760><c> wider</c><00:45:04.400><c> region</c><00:45:04.800><c> of</c><00:45:04.960><c> our</c><00:45:05.280><c> Milky</c>

44:02.026 --> 44:02.036 align:start position:0%
origin to this wider region of our Milky
 

44:02.036 --> 44:05.867 align:start position:0%
origin to this wider region of our Milky
Way.<00:45:06.800><c> So,</c><00:45:07.359><c> the</c><00:45:07.599><c> radiation's</c><00:45:08.480><c> ultimate</c><00:45:08.880><c> source</c>

44:05.867 --> 44:05.877 align:start position:0%
Way. So, the radiation's ultimate source
 

44:05.877 --> 44:08.107 align:start position:0%
Way. So, the radiation's ultimate source
remained<00:45:09.920><c> hidden</c><00:45:10.400><c> among</c><00:45:10.720><c> the</c><00:45:10.880><c> stars</c><00:45:11.359><c> for</c>

44:08.107 --> 44:08.117 align:start position:0%
remained hidden among the stars for
 

44:08.117 --> 44:11.387 align:start position:0%
remained hidden among the stars for
decades.<00:45:12.960><c> Nevertheless,</c><00:45:13.680><c> it</c><00:45:14.000><c> was</c><00:45:14.319><c> given</c><00:45:14.640><c> a</c>

44:11.387 --> 44:11.397 align:start position:0%
decades. Nevertheless, it was given a
 

44:11.397 --> 44:15.467 align:start position:0%
decades. Nevertheless, it was given a
name,<00:45:15.520><c> Gaminga,</c><00:45:16.640><c> as</c><00:45:16.960><c> coined</c><00:45:17.440><c> in</c><00:45:17.760><c> 1976</c><00:45:18.720><c> by</c>

44:15.467 --> 44:15.477 align:start position:0%
name, Gaminga, as coined in 1976 by
 

44:15.477 --> 44:18.907 align:start position:0%
name, Gaminga, as coined in 1976 by
Italian<00:45:19.520><c> physicist</c><00:45:20.319><c> Giovanni</c><00:45:21.040><c> Binyami,</c><00:45:22.160><c> who</c>

44:18.907 --> 44:18.917 align:start position:0%
Italian physicist Giovanni Binyami, who
 

44:18.917 --> 44:20.907 align:start position:0%
Italian physicist Giovanni Binyami, who
would<00:45:22.720><c> dedicate</c><00:45:23.200><c> his</c><00:45:23.440><c> career</c><00:45:23.760><c> to</c><00:45:24.000><c> studying</c>

44:20.907 --> 44:20.917 align:start position:0%
would dedicate his career to studying
 

44:20.917 --> 44:23.786 align:start position:0%
would dedicate his career to studying
it.<00:45:25.280><c> It's</c><00:45:25.440><c> a</c><00:45:25.599><c> play</c><00:45:25.760><c> on</c><00:45:26.000><c> words,</c><00:45:26.640><c> a</c><00:45:26.880><c> combination</c>

44:23.786 --> 44:23.796 align:start position:0%
it. It's a play on words, a combination
 

44:23.796 --> 44:25.947 align:start position:0%
it. It's a play on words, a combination
of<00:45:27.839><c> Gemini,</c><00:45:28.560><c> the</c><00:45:28.800><c> region</c><00:45:29.040><c> where</c><00:45:29.280><c> it's</c>

44:25.947 --> 44:25.957 align:start position:0%
of Gemini, the region where it's
 

44:25.957 --> 44:28.506 align:start position:0%
of Gemini, the region where it's
located,<00:45:30.400><c> and</c><00:45:30.880><c> gamma,</c><00:45:31.599><c> the</c><00:45:31.760><c> type</c><00:45:31.920><c> of</c>

44:28.506 --> 44:28.516 align:start position:0%
located, and gamma, the type of
 

44:28.516 --> 44:31.867 align:start position:0%
located, and gamma, the type of
radiation<00:45:32.640><c> it</c><00:45:32.880><c> emits.</c><00:45:34.079><c> Gaminga</c><00:45:34.720><c> is</c><00:45:34.960><c> also</c><00:45:35.200><c> a</c>

44:31.867 --> 44:31.877 align:start position:0%
radiation it emits. Gaminga is also a
 

44:31.877 --> 44:34.907 align:start position:0%
radiation it emits. Gaminga is also a
pun<00:45:35.760><c> in</c><00:45:36.079><c> Bingyami's</c><00:45:36.880><c> Nelan</c><00:45:37.520><c> dialect,</c><00:45:38.079><c> meaning</c>

44:34.907 --> 44:34.917 align:start position:0%
pun in Bingyami's Nelan dialect, meaning
 

44:34.917 --> 44:37.707 align:start position:0%
pun in Bingyami's Nelan dialect, meaning
it's<00:45:38.800><c> not</c><00:45:39.040><c> there.</c><00:45:39.920><c> A</c><00:45:40.160><c> fitting</c><00:45:40.480><c> name</c><00:45:40.800><c> for</c><00:45:41.040><c> a</c>

44:37.707 --> 44:37.717 align:start position:0%
it's not there. A fitting name for a
 

44:37.717 --> 44:41.546 align:start position:0%
it's not there. A fitting name for a
gamma<00:45:41.680><c> ray</c><00:45:42.000><c> haze</c><00:45:42.560><c> with</c><00:45:42.960><c> unknown</c><00:45:43.520><c> origin.</c>

44:41.546 --> 44:41.556 align:start position:0%
gamma ray haze with unknown origin.
 

44:41.556 --> 44:45.227 align:start position:0%
gamma ray haze with unknown origin.
It<00:45:45.359><c> wasn't</c><00:45:45.599><c> until</c><00:45:46.240><c> 1983</c><00:45:47.599><c> when</c><00:45:47.920><c> Binyami</c><00:45:48.560><c> and</c>

44:45.227 --> 44:45.237 align:start position:0%
It wasn't until 1983 when Binyami and
 

44:45.237 --> 44:48.827 align:start position:0%
It wasn't until 1983 when Binyami and
his<00:45:49.119><c> team</c><00:45:49.680><c> finally</c><00:45:50.240><c> had</c><00:45:50.640><c> their</c><00:45:51.040><c> big</c><00:45:51.359><c> break.</c>

44:48.827 --> 44:48.837 align:start position:0%
his team finally had their big break.
 

44:48.837 --> 44:51.627 align:start position:0%
his team finally had their big break.
They<00:45:52.640><c> managed</c><00:45:52.960><c> to</c><00:45:53.280><c> identify</c><00:45:53.760><c> a</c><00:45:54.079><c> weak</c><00:45:54.640><c> X-ray</c>

44:51.627 --> 44:51.637 align:start position:0%
They managed to identify a weak X-ray
 

44:51.637 --> 44:54.667 align:start position:0%
They managed to identify a weak X-ray
signal<00:45:55.520><c> from</c><00:45:55.839><c> Gaminga</c><00:45:56.800><c> using</c><00:45:57.119><c> the</c><00:45:57.440><c> Einstein</c>

44:54.667 --> 44:54.677 align:start position:0%
signal from Gaminga using the Einstein
 

44:54.677 --> 44:57.867 align:start position:0%
signal from Gaminga using the Einstein
X-ray<00:45:58.720><c> satellite.</c><00:45:59.920><c> This</c><00:46:00.240><c> meant</c><00:46:00.800><c> although</c><00:46:01.119><c> its</c>

44:57.867 --> 44:57.877 align:start position:0%
X-ray satellite. This meant although its
 

44:57.877 --> 45:00.347 align:start position:0%
X-ray satellite. This meant although its
exact<00:46:01.760><c> position</c><00:46:02.160><c> remained</c><00:46:02.640><c> unknown,</c><00:46:03.599><c> they</c>

45:00.347 --> 45:00.357 align:start position:0%
exact position remained unknown, they
 

45:00.357 --> 45:02.907 align:start position:0%
exact position remained unknown, they
could<00:46:04.240><c> narrow</c><00:46:04.640><c> down</c><00:46:04.880><c> their</c><00:46:05.119><c> search</c><00:46:05.520><c> area</c><00:46:06.160><c> and</c>

45:02.907 --> 45:02.917 align:start position:0%
could narrow down their search area and
 

45:02.917 --> 45:04.667 align:start position:0%
could narrow down their search area and
were<00:46:06.720><c> getting</c><00:46:07.040><c> closer</c><00:46:07.359><c> to</c><00:46:07.599><c> uncovering</c>

45:04.667 --> 45:04.677 align:start position:0%
were getting closer to uncovering
 

45:04.677 --> 45:06.987 align:start position:0%
were getting closer to uncovering
Gaminga's<00:46:08.880><c> hiding</c><00:46:09.200><c> place.</c><00:46:10.000><c> But</c><00:46:10.160><c> it</c><00:46:10.319><c> didn't</c>

45:06.987 --> 45:06.997 align:start position:0%
Gaminga's hiding place. But it didn't
 

45:06.997 --> 45:10.427 align:start position:0%
Gaminga's hiding place. But it didn't
answer<00:46:10.800><c> the</c><00:46:11.040><c> big</c><00:46:11.280><c> question,</c><00:46:12.319><c> what</c><00:46:12.640><c> is</c><00:46:12.880><c> it?</c><00:46:13.599><c> As</c>

45:10.427 --> 45:10.437 align:start position:0%
answer the big question, what is it? As
 

45:10.437 --> 45:13.307 align:start position:0%
answer the big question, what is it? As
astronomers<00:46:14.720><c> could</c><00:46:15.040><c> still</c><00:46:15.440><c> only</c><00:46:15.760><c> offer</c><00:46:16.319><c> vague</c>

45:13.307 --> 45:13.317 align:start position:0%
astronomers could still only offer vague
 

45:13.317 --> 45:15.627 align:start position:0%
astronomers could still only offer vague
guesses<00:46:17.520><c> about</c><00:46:17.760><c> the</c><00:46:18.079><c> true</c><00:46:18.400><c> nature</c><00:46:18.800><c> of</c><00:46:18.960><c> the</c>

45:15.627 --> 45:15.637 align:start position:0%
guesses about the true nature of the
 

45:15.637 --> 45:17.147 align:start position:0%
guesses about the true nature of the
source.

45:17.147 --> 45:17.157 align:start position:0%
source.
 

45:17.157 --> 45:20.827 align:start position:0%
source.
That<00:46:20.960><c> was</c><00:46:21.520><c> until</c><00:46:22.160><c> 1991</c><00:46:23.599><c> when</c><00:46:23.839><c> they</c><00:46:24.079><c> had</c>

45:20.827 --> 45:20.837 align:start position:0%
That was until 1991 when they had
 

45:20.837 --> 45:23.227 align:start position:0%
That was until 1991 when they had
another<00:46:24.960><c> lucky</c><00:46:25.359><c> break.</c><00:46:26.160><c> Two</c><00:46:26.480><c> separate</c>

45:23.227 --> 45:23.237 align:start position:0%
another lucky break. Two separate
 

45:23.237 --> 45:25.147 align:start position:0%
another lucky break. Two separate
missions<00:46:27.440><c> identified</c><00:46:27.839><c> radiation</c><00:46:28.480><c> coming</c>

45:25.147 --> 45:25.157 align:start position:0%
missions identified radiation coming
 

45:25.157 --> 45:27.867 align:start position:0%
missions identified radiation coming
from<00:46:28.880><c> Gaminga,</c><00:46:29.839><c> and</c><00:46:30.000><c> they</c><00:46:30.319><c> weren't</c><00:46:30.880><c> constant</c>

45:27.867 --> 45:27.877 align:start position:0%
from Gaminga, and they weren't constant
 

45:27.877 --> 45:31.546 align:start position:0%
from Gaminga, and they weren't constant
signals,<00:46:32.319><c> but</c><00:46:32.880><c> pulses.</c><00:46:34.319><c> The</c><00:46:34.560><c> first</c><00:46:34.720><c> of</c><00:46:34.880><c> these</c>

45:31.546 --> 45:31.556 align:start position:0%
signals, but pulses. The first of these
 

45:31.556 --> 45:33.947 align:start position:0%
signals, but pulses. The first of these
discoveries<00:46:35.680><c> was</c><00:46:35.920><c> made</c><00:46:36.160><c> with</c><00:46:36.480><c> a</c><00:46:36.720><c> Germanbuilt</c>

45:33.947 --> 45:33.957 align:start position:0%
discoveries was made with a Germanbuilt
 

45:33.957 --> 45:36.907 align:start position:0%
discoveries was made with a Germanbuilt
X-ray<00:46:38.000><c> telescope</c><00:46:38.720><c> known</c><00:46:38.960><c> as</c><00:46:39.280><c> Rosat,</c><00:46:40.240><c> short</c>

45:36.907 --> 45:36.917 align:start position:0%
X-ray telescope known as Rosat, short
 

45:36.917 --> 45:40.187 align:start position:0%
X-ray telescope known as Rosat, short
for<00:46:41.119><c> Rken</c><00:46:41.920><c> Satellite,</c><00:46:42.880><c> named</c><00:46:43.280><c> after</c><00:46:43.520><c> the</c>

45:40.187 --> 45:40.197 align:start position:0%
for Rken Satellite, named after the
 

45:40.197 --> 45:42.587 align:start position:0%
for Rken Satellite, named after the
German<00:46:44.079><c> word</c><00:46:44.319><c> for</c><00:46:44.640><c> X-rays.</c>

45:42.587 --> 45:42.597 align:start position:0%
German word for X-rays.
 

45:42.597 --> 45:45.546 align:start position:0%
German word for X-rays.
Rosat<00:46:46.800><c> was</c><00:46:47.040><c> the</c><00:46:47.280><c> first</c><00:46:47.520><c> to</c><00:46:47.920><c> identify</c><00:46:48.480><c> pulses</c>

45:45.546 --> 45:45.556 align:start position:0%
Rosat was the first to identify pulses
 

45:45.556 --> 45:47.947 align:start position:0%
Rosat was the first to identify pulses
in<00:46:49.359><c> the</c><00:46:49.520><c> X-ray</c><00:46:49.920><c> signal</c><00:46:50.319><c> coming</c><00:46:50.480><c> from</c><00:46:50.720><c> Gaminga</c>

45:47.947 --> 45:47.957 align:start position:0%
in the X-ray signal coming from Gaminga
 

45:47.957 --> 45:50.667 align:start position:0%
in the X-ray signal coming from Gaminga
and<00:46:51.760><c> soon</c><00:46:52.079><c> after</c><00:46:52.880><c> they</c><00:46:53.119><c> were</c><00:46:53.359><c> also</c><00:46:53.680><c> confirmed</c>

45:50.667 --> 45:50.677 align:start position:0%
and soon after they were also confirmed
 

45:50.677 --> 45:52.827 align:start position:0%
and soon after they were also confirmed
in<00:46:54.560><c> the</c><00:46:54.800><c> gamma</c><00:46:55.200><c> wavelengths</c><00:46:55.920><c> by</c><00:46:56.160><c> the</c>

45:52.827 --> 45:52.837 align:start position:0%
in the gamma wavelengths by the
 

45:52.837 --> 45:55.627 align:start position:0%
in the gamma wavelengths by the
energetic<00:46:56.960><c> gammaray</c><00:46:57.760><c> experiment</c><00:46:58.319><c> telescope</c>

45:55.627 --> 45:55.637 align:start position:0%
energetic gammaray experiment telescope
 

45:55.637 --> 45:59.067 align:start position:0%
energetic gammaray experiment telescope
or<00:46:59.760><c> egret</c><00:47:00.640><c> a</c><00:47:00.880><c> telescope</c><00:47:01.440><c> aboard</c><00:47:02.000><c> NASA's</c>

45:59.067 --> 45:59.077 align:start position:0%
or egret a telescope aboard NASA's
 

45:59.077 --> 46:02.827 align:start position:0%
or egret a telescope aboard NASA's
Compton<00:47:03.200><c> Gammaray</c><00:47:03.920><c> Observatory</c><00:47:04.640><c> satellite</c>

46:02.827 --> 46:02.837 align:start position:0%
Compton Gammaray Observatory satellite
 

46:02.837 --> 46:04.587 align:start position:0%
Compton Gammaray Observatory satellite
not<00:47:06.720><c> only</c><00:47:06.960><c> did</c><00:47:07.119><c> these</c><00:47:07.520><c> complimentary</c>

46:04.587 --> 46:04.597 align:start position:0%
not only did these complimentary
 

46:04.597 --> 46:06.827 align:start position:0%
not only did these complimentary
observations<00:47:09.040><c> demonstrate</c><00:47:09.440><c> that</c><00:47:09.680><c> the</c><00:47:09.839><c> X-rays</c>

46:06.827 --> 46:06.837 align:start position:0%
observations demonstrate that the X-rays
 

46:06.837 --> 46:08.907 align:start position:0%
observations demonstrate that the X-rays
and<00:47:10.560><c> the</c><00:47:10.640><c> gamma</c><00:47:10.960><c> rays</c><00:47:11.440><c> were</c><00:47:11.680><c> both</c><00:47:11.920><c> coming</c><00:47:12.240><c> from</c>

46:08.907 --> 46:08.917 align:start position:0%
and the gamma rays were both coming from
 

46:08.917 --> 46:11.067 align:start position:0%
and the gamma rays were both coming from
Gaminga<00:47:13.280><c> but</c><00:47:13.520><c> for</c><00:47:13.680><c> the</c><00:47:13.839><c> first</c><00:47:14.079><c> time</c><00:47:14.400><c> they</c>

46:11.067 --> 46:11.077 align:start position:0%
Gaminga but for the first time they
 

46:11.077 --> 46:15.147 align:start position:0%
Gaminga but for the first time they
revealed<00:47:15.440><c> what</c><00:47:15.839><c> Gaminga</c><00:47:16.560><c> was</c><00:47:17.839><c> with</c><00:47:18.079><c> a</c><00:47:18.319><c> period</c>

46:15.147 --> 46:15.157 align:start position:0%
revealed what Gaminga was with a period
 

46:15.157 --> 46:17.786 align:start position:0%
revealed what Gaminga was with a period
of<00:47:19.200><c> 0.237</c>

46:17.786 --> 46:17.796 align:start position:0%
of 0.237
 

46:17.796 --> 46:20.667 align:start position:0%
of 0.237
seconds<00:47:22.480><c> flashing</c><00:47:22.960><c> as</c><00:47:23.200><c> it</c><00:47:23.440><c> spins</c><00:47:23.760><c> around</c><00:47:24.000><c> its</c>

46:20.667 --> 46:20.677 align:start position:0%
seconds flashing as it spins around its
 

46:20.677 --> 46:23.546 align:start position:0%
seconds flashing as it spins around its
axis<00:47:24.720><c> a</c><00:47:24.960><c> little</c><00:47:25.119><c> more</c><00:47:25.359><c> than</c><00:47:25.680><c> four</c><00:47:26.000><c> hertz</c><00:47:26.640><c> or</c>

46:23.546 --> 46:23.556 align:start position:0%
axis a little more than four hertz or
 

46:23.556 --> 46:26.587 align:start position:0%
axis a little more than four hertz or
four<00:47:27.440><c> times</c><00:47:27.760><c> per</c><00:47:28.000><c> second.</c><00:47:28.960><c> Gaminga</c><00:47:29.599><c> behaved</c>

46:26.587 --> 46:26.597 align:start position:0%
four times per second. Gaminga behaved
 

46:26.597 --> 46:30.987 align:start position:0%
four times per second. Gaminga behaved
like<00:47:30.560><c> a</c><00:47:30.880><c> pulsar.</c>

46:30.987 --> 46:30.997 align:start position:0%
 
 

46:30.997 --> 46:33.627 align:start position:0%
 
A<00:47:34.720><c> pulsar</c><00:47:35.280><c> is</c><00:47:35.440><c> a</c><00:47:35.680><c> type</c><00:47:35.920><c> of</c><00:47:36.079><c> neutron</c><00:47:36.560><c> star</c><00:47:36.880><c> that</c>

46:33.627 --> 46:33.637 align:start position:0%
A pulsar is a type of neutron star that
 

46:33.637 --> 46:36.266 align:start position:0%
A pulsar is a type of neutron star that
spins<00:47:37.839><c> rapidly,</c><00:47:38.720><c> emitting</c><00:47:39.280><c> beams</c><00:47:39.680><c> of</c>

46:36.266 --> 46:36.276 align:start position:0%
spins rapidly, emitting beams of
 

46:36.276 --> 46:38.746 align:start position:0%
spins rapidly, emitting beams of
radiation<00:47:40.319><c> that</c><00:47:40.720><c> sweep</c><00:47:41.119><c> across</c><00:47:41.520><c> space</c><00:47:41.920><c> like</c><00:47:42.079><c> a</c>

46:38.746 --> 46:38.756 align:start position:0%
radiation that sweep across space like a
 

46:38.756 --> 46:41.307 align:start position:0%
radiation that sweep across space like a
cosmic<00:47:42.800><c> lighthouse.</c><00:47:44.000><c> From</c><00:47:44.319><c> across</c><00:47:44.640><c> the</c>

46:41.307 --> 46:41.317 align:start position:0%
cosmic lighthouse. From across the
 

46:41.317 --> 46:44.107 align:start position:0%
cosmic lighthouse. From across the
galaxy,<00:47:45.680><c> most</c><00:47:46.000><c> pulsars</c><00:47:46.640><c> appear</c><00:47:46.960><c> to</c><00:47:47.119><c> flash</c><00:47:47.440><c> in</c>

46:44.107 --> 46:44.117 align:start position:0%
galaxy, most pulsars appear to flash in
 

46:44.117 --> 46:46.827 align:start position:0%
galaxy, most pulsars appear to flash in
radio<00:47:48.079><c> waves</c><00:47:48.800><c> anywhere</c><00:47:49.280><c> from</c><00:47:49.520><c> a</c><00:47:49.760><c> few</c><00:47:49.920><c> times</c><00:47:50.160><c> a</c>

46:46.827 --> 46:46.837 align:start position:0%
radio waves anywhere from a few times a
 

46:46.837 --> 46:50.427 align:start position:0%
radio waves anywhere from a few times a
minute<00:47:50.880><c> to</c><00:47:51.119><c> as</c><00:47:51.359><c> fast</c><00:47:51.680><c> as</c><00:47:52.240><c> 700</c><00:47:53.040><c> times</c><00:47:53.599><c> per</c>

46:50.427 --> 46:50.437 align:start position:0%
minute to as fast as 700 times per
 

46:50.437 --> 46:53.387 align:start position:0%
minute to as fast as 700 times per
second.<00:47:55.359><c> And</c><00:47:55.680><c> at</c><00:47:55.920><c> this</c><00:47:56.160><c> point</c><00:47:56.319><c> in</c><00:47:56.560><c> the</c><00:47:56.720><c> early</c>

46:53.387 --> 46:53.397 align:start position:0%
second. And at this point in the early
 

46:53.397 --> 46:56.987 align:start position:0%
second. And at this point in the early
'90s,<00:47:57.760><c> they</c><00:47:58.160><c> were</c><00:47:58.560><c> incredibly</c><00:47:59.200><c> rare.</c><00:48:00.240><c> You</c>

46:56.987 --> 46:56.997 align:start position:0%
'90s, they were incredibly rare. You
 

46:56.997 --> 47:00.107 align:start position:0%
'90s, they were incredibly rare. You
see,<00:48:00.880><c> before</c><00:48:01.200><c> Rosat</c><00:48:01.839><c> and</c><00:48:02.000><c> Egret,</c><00:48:02.960><c> only</c><00:48:03.359><c> two</c>

47:00.107 --> 47:00.117 align:start position:0%
see, before Rosat and Egret, only two
 

47:00.117 --> 47:02.667 align:start position:0%
see, before Rosat and Egret, only two
other<00:48:04.000><c> high</c><00:48:04.400><c> energy</c><00:48:04.720><c> gammaray</c><00:48:05.359><c> pulsars</c><00:48:06.000><c> had</c>

47:02.667 --> 47:02.677 align:start position:0%
other high energy gammaray pulsars had
 

47:02.677 --> 47:05.947 align:start position:0%
other high energy gammaray pulsars had
ever<00:48:06.560><c> been</c><00:48:06.960><c> identified.</c><00:48:07.839><c> The</c><00:48:08.079><c> crab</c><00:48:08.720><c> and</c><00:48:09.040><c> Vela</c>

47:05.947 --> 47:05.957 align:start position:0%
ever been identified. The crab and Vela
 

47:05.957 --> 47:08.987 align:start position:0%
ever been identified. The crab and Vela
pulsars.<00:48:10.880><c> And</c><00:48:11.119><c> Crab</c><00:48:11.440><c> and</c><00:48:11.599><c> Vela</c><00:48:12.319><c> were</c>

47:08.987 --> 47:08.997 align:start position:0%
pulsars. And Crab and Vela were
 

47:08.997 --> 47:11.546 align:start position:0%
pulsars. And Crab and Vela were
different<00:48:12.960><c> to</c><00:48:13.200><c> Kaminga</c><00:48:13.839><c> in</c><00:48:14.000><c> a</c><00:48:14.240><c> couple</c><00:48:14.480><c> of</c><00:48:14.720><c> key</c>

47:11.546 --> 47:11.556 align:start position:0%
different to Kaminga in a couple of key
 

47:11.556 --> 47:14.907 align:start position:0%
different to Kaminga in a couple of key
ways.<00:48:16.400><c> First,</c><00:48:16.960><c> in</c><00:48:17.200><c> addition</c><00:48:17.440><c> to</c><00:48:17.599><c> gamma</c><00:48:18.000><c> rays,</c>

47:14.907 --> 47:14.917 align:start position:0%
ways. First, in addition to gamma rays,
 

47:14.917 --> 47:17.227 align:start position:0%
ways. First, in addition to gamma rays,
both<00:48:18.720><c> of</c><00:48:18.880><c> these</c><00:48:19.119><c> pulsars</c><00:48:19.760><c> also</c><00:48:20.160><c> produced</c>

47:17.227 --> 47:17.237 align:start position:0%
both of these pulsars also produced
 

47:17.237 --> 47:19.627 align:start position:0%
both of these pulsars also produced
radio<00:48:21.200><c> waves</c><00:48:21.760><c> and</c><00:48:22.079><c> were</c><00:48:22.240><c> therefore</c><00:48:22.720><c> visible</c>

47:19.627 --> 47:19.637 align:start position:0%
radio waves and were therefore visible
 

47:19.637 --> 47:23.467 align:start position:0%
radio waves and were therefore visible
using<00:48:23.760><c> radio</c><00:48:24.240><c> telescopes.</c><00:48:25.680><c> So</c><00:48:26.079><c> if</c><00:48:26.400><c> Kaminga</c>

47:23.467 --> 47:23.477 align:start position:0%
using radio telescopes. So if Kaminga
 

47:23.477 --> 47:25.867 align:start position:0%
using radio telescopes. So if Kaminga
was<00:48:27.200><c> a</c><00:48:27.359><c> pulsar,</c><00:48:28.319><c> then</c><00:48:28.559><c> it</c><00:48:28.720><c> would</c><00:48:28.880><c> be</c><00:48:28.960><c> the</c><00:48:29.200><c> first</c>

47:25.867 --> 47:25.877 align:start position:0%
was a pulsar, then it would be the first
 

47:25.877 --> 47:28.347 align:start position:0%
was a pulsar, then it would be the first
discovery<00:48:30.000><c> of</c><00:48:30.319><c> one</c><00:48:30.720><c> that</c><00:48:30.960><c> was</c><00:48:31.119><c> apparently</c>

47:28.347 --> 47:28.357 align:start position:0%
discovery of one that was apparently
 

47:28.357 --> 47:31.307 align:start position:0%
discovery of one that was apparently
radio<00:48:32.480><c> silent</c><00:48:33.680><c> only</c><00:48:34.079><c> emitting</c><00:48:34.559><c> enough</c>

47:31.307 --> 47:31.317 align:start position:0%
radio silent only emitting enough
 

47:31.317 --> 47:33.786 align:start position:0%
radio silent only emitting enough
radiation<00:48:35.359><c> to</c><00:48:35.599><c> be</c><00:48:35.680><c> seen</c><00:48:35.920><c> in</c><00:48:36.160><c> the</c><00:48:36.319><c> gamma</c><00:48:36.960><c> and</c>

47:33.786 --> 47:33.796 align:start position:0%
radiation to be seen in the gamma and
 

47:33.796 --> 47:35.867 align:start position:0%
radiation to be seen in the gamma and
X-ray<00:48:37.920><c> wavelengths.</c>

47:35.867 --> 47:35.877 align:start position:0%
X-ray wavelengths.
 

47:35.877 --> 47:38.587 align:start position:0%
X-ray wavelengths.
And<00:48:39.760><c> second,</c><00:48:40.640><c> Crab</c><00:48:41.040><c> and</c><00:48:41.280><c> Veil</c><00:48:41.839><c> were</c>

47:38.587 --> 47:38.597 align:start position:0%
And second, Crab and Veil were
 

47:38.597 --> 47:41.467 align:start position:0%
And second, Crab and Veil were
surrounded<00:48:42.640><c> by</c><00:48:42.960><c> their</c><00:48:43.200><c> respective</c><00:48:43.839><c> nebula,</c>

47:41.467 --> 47:41.477 align:start position:0%
surrounded by their respective nebula,
 

47:41.477 --> 47:43.707 align:start position:0%
surrounded by their respective nebula,
remnants<00:48:45.599><c> from</c><00:48:45.920><c> when</c><00:48:46.240><c> they</c><00:48:46.480><c> were</c><00:48:46.720><c> created</c>

47:43.707 --> 47:43.717 align:start position:0%
remnants from when they were created
 

47:43.717 --> 47:46.347 align:start position:0%
remnants from when they were created
from<00:48:47.680><c> supernova</c><00:48:48.400><c> explosions.</c>

47:46.347 --> 47:46.357 align:start position:0%
from supernova explosions.
 

47:46.357 --> 47:49.546 align:start position:0%
from supernova explosions.
But<00:48:50.160><c> Ginga's</c><00:48:50.880><c> nebula</c><00:48:51.440><c> was</c><00:48:51.920><c> conspicuous</c><00:48:52.880><c> by</c>

47:49.546 --> 47:49.556 align:start position:0%
But Ginga's nebula was conspicuous by
 

47:49.556 --> 47:51.467 align:start position:0%
But Ginga's nebula was conspicuous by
its<00:48:53.359><c> absence.</c>

47:51.467 --> 47:51.477 align:start position:0%
its absence.
 

47:51.477 --> 47:55.147 align:start position:0%
its absence.
So<00:48:55.440><c> why</c><00:48:55.760><c> is</c><00:48:56.240><c> Gaminga,</c><00:48:57.200><c> this</c><00:48:57.760><c> powerful</c><00:48:58.400><c> source</c>

47:55.147 --> 47:55.157 align:start position:0%
So why is Gaminga, this powerful source
 

47:55.157 --> 47:58.266 align:start position:0%
So why is Gaminga, this powerful source
of<00:48:58.960><c> gamma</c><00:48:59.359><c> rays,</c><00:49:00.400><c> so</c><00:49:00.720><c> good</c><00:49:00.960><c> at</c><00:49:01.119><c> hiding</c><00:49:01.599><c> from</c>

47:58.266 --> 47:58.276 align:start position:0%
of gamma rays, so good at hiding from
 

47:58.276 --> 48:01.227 align:start position:0%
of gamma rays, so good at hiding from
our<00:49:02.240><c> radio</c><00:49:02.800><c> telescopes?</c><00:49:04.000><c> Where</c><00:49:04.319><c> is</c><00:49:04.480><c> its</c>

48:01.227 --> 48:01.237 align:start position:0%
our radio telescopes? Where is its
 

48:01.237 --> 48:04.187 align:start position:0%
our radio telescopes? Where is its
nebula?<00:49:05.920><c> Or</c><00:49:06.079><c> could</c><00:49:06.319><c> it</c><00:49:06.480><c> be</c><00:49:06.720><c> a</c><00:49:07.200><c> different</c><00:49:07.599><c> type</c>

48:04.187 --> 48:04.197 align:start position:0%
nebula? Or could it be a different type
 

48:04.197 --> 48:08.427 align:start position:0%
nebula? Or could it be a different type
of<00:49:08.000><c> object</c><00:49:08.640><c> altogether?</c>

48:08.427 --> 48:08.437 align:start position:0%
 
 

48:08.437 --> 48:10.266 align:start position:0%
 
Well,<00:49:12.400><c> the</c><00:49:12.640><c> answer</c><00:49:12.800><c> to</c><00:49:13.040><c> the</c><00:49:13.200><c> first</c><00:49:13.440><c> question</c>

48:10.266 --> 48:10.276 align:start position:0%
Well, the answer to the first question
 

48:10.276 --> 48:13.147 align:start position:0%
Well, the answer to the first question
is<00:49:14.400><c> in</c><00:49:14.640><c> part</c><00:49:15.520><c> because</c><00:49:15.839><c> we</c><00:49:16.079><c> hadn't</c><00:49:16.400><c> been</c>

48:13.147 --> 48:13.157 align:start position:0%
is in part because we hadn't been
 

48:13.157 --> 48:14.907 align:start position:0%
is in part because we hadn't been
listening<00:49:17.200><c> properly</c><00:49:17.920><c> due</c><00:49:18.160><c> to</c><00:49:18.319><c> the</c>

48:14.907 --> 48:14.917 align:start position:0%
listening properly due to the
 

48:14.917 --> 48:17.147 align:start position:0%
listening properly due to the
limitations<00:49:18.960><c> of</c><00:49:19.200><c> the</c><00:49:19.359><c> available</c><00:49:19.839><c> technology</c>

48:17.147 --> 48:17.157 align:start position:0%
limitations of the available technology
 

48:17.157 --> 48:19.307 align:start position:0%
limitations of the available technology
and<00:49:21.040><c> due</c><00:49:21.280><c> to</c><00:49:21.440><c> our</c><00:49:21.760><c> understanding</c><00:49:22.480><c> of</c><00:49:22.640><c> the</c>

48:19.307 --> 48:19.317 align:start position:0%
and due to our understanding of the
 

48:19.317 --> 48:21.227 align:start position:0%
and due to our understanding of the
radio<00:49:23.200><c> emissions</c><00:49:23.680><c> of</c><00:49:23.920><c> such</c><00:49:24.400><c> stellar</c>

48:21.227 --> 48:21.237 align:start position:0%
radio emissions of such stellar
 

48:21.237 --> 48:24.746 align:start position:0%
radio emissions of such stellar
remnants.<00:49:26.000><c> You</c><00:49:26.240><c> see,</c><00:49:26.880><c> while</c><00:49:27.280><c> radio</c><00:49:27.680><c> pulsars</c>

48:24.746 --> 48:24.756 align:start position:0%
remnants. You see, while radio pulsars
 

48:24.756 --> 48:27.147 align:start position:0%
remnants. You see, while radio pulsars
can<00:49:28.480><c> emit</c><00:49:28.880><c> radio</c><00:49:29.280><c> waves</c><00:49:29.599><c> across</c><00:49:30.000><c> a</c><00:49:30.319><c> wide</c>

48:27.147 --> 48:27.157 align:start position:0%
can emit radio waves across a wide
 

48:27.157 --> 48:31.147 align:start position:0%
can emit radio waves across a wide
bandwidth<00:49:31.359><c> from</c><00:49:31.599><c> as</c><00:49:31.760><c> low</c><00:49:32.000><c> as</c><00:49:32.480><c> 17</c><00:49:32.960><c> MHz</c><00:49:33.760><c> to</c><00:49:34.000><c> above</c>

48:31.147 --> 48:31.157 align:start position:0%
bandwidth from as low as 17 MHz to above
 

48:31.157 --> 48:35.707 align:start position:0%
bandwidth from as low as 17 MHz to above
87<00:49:35.440><c> GHz,</c><00:49:36.720><c> around</c><00:49:37.200><c> half</c><00:49:37.520><c> the</c><00:49:37.760><c> radio</c><00:49:38.160><c> spectrum.</c>

48:35.707 --> 48:35.717 align:start position:0%
87 GHz, around half the radio spectrum.
 

48:35.717 --> 48:37.947 align:start position:0%
87 GHz, around half the radio spectrum.
Not<00:49:39.599><c> all</c><00:49:39.760><c> of</c><00:49:39.920><c> these</c><00:49:40.160><c> frequencies</c><00:49:40.800><c> travel</c><00:49:41.200><c> well</c>

48:37.947 --> 48:37.957 align:start position:0%
Not all of these frequencies travel well
 

48:37.957 --> 48:40.506 align:start position:0%
Not all of these frequencies travel well
through<00:49:41.839><c> space.</c><00:49:43.040><c> Even</c><00:49:43.280><c> though</c><00:49:43.520><c> we've</c><00:49:43.760><c> known</c>

48:40.506 --> 48:40.516 align:start position:0%
through space. Even though we've known
 

48:40.516 --> 48:43.546 align:start position:0%
through space. Even though we've known
since<00:49:44.319><c> the</c><00:49:44.559><c> 1970s</c><00:49:45.280><c> that</c><00:49:45.680><c> radio</c><00:49:46.079><c> pulsars</c><00:49:46.720><c> often</c>

48:43.546 --> 48:43.556 align:start position:0%
since the 1970s that radio pulsars often
 

48:43.556 --> 48:47.307 align:start position:0%
since the 1970s that radio pulsars often
peak<00:49:47.520><c> between</c><00:49:48.079><c> 100</c><00:49:48.559><c> to</c><00:49:48.960><c> 200</c><00:49:49.359><c> MHz,</c><00:49:50.480><c> where</c><00:49:50.720><c> they</c>

48:47.307 --> 48:47.317 align:start position:0%
peak between 100 to 200 MHz, where they
 

48:47.317 --> 48:50.107 align:start position:0%
peak between 100 to 200 MHz, where they
are<00:49:51.280><c> intrinsically</c><00:49:52.079><c> brightest,</c><00:49:53.280><c> things</c><00:49:53.520><c> like</c>

48:50.107 --> 48:50.117 align:start position:0%
are intrinsically brightest, things like
 

48:50.117 --> 48:52.506 align:start position:0%
are intrinsically brightest, things like
the<00:49:53.839><c> interstellar</c><00:49:54.400><c> medium,</c><00:49:55.040><c> background</c><00:49:55.680><c> sky</c>

48:52.506 --> 48:52.516 align:start position:0%
the interstellar medium, background sky
 

48:52.516 --> 48:54.347 align:start position:0%
the interstellar medium, background sky
temperature,<00:49:56.800><c> and</c><00:49:57.040><c> effects</c><00:49:57.359><c> from</c><00:49:57.599><c> the</c>

48:54.347 --> 48:54.357 align:start position:0%
temperature, and effects from the
 

48:54.357 --> 48:56.907 align:start position:0%
temperature, and effects from the
ionosphere<00:49:59.040><c> mean</c><00:49:59.280><c> that</c><00:49:59.520><c> lower</c><00:49:59.839><c> frequencies</c>

48:56.907 --> 48:56.917 align:start position:0%
ionosphere mean that lower frequencies
 

48:56.917 --> 48:58.907 align:start position:0%
ionosphere mean that lower frequencies
are<00:50:00.800><c> dampened</c><00:50:01.440><c> as</c><00:50:01.760><c> they</c><00:50:01.920><c> make</c><00:50:02.079><c> their</c><00:50:02.319><c> way</c>

48:58.907 --> 48:58.917 align:start position:0%
are dampened as they make their way
 

48:58.917 --> 49:01.546 align:start position:0%
are dampened as they make their way
across<00:50:02.880><c> space,</c><00:50:03.680><c> resulting</c><00:50:04.160><c> in</c><00:50:04.559><c> very</c><00:50:04.880><c> weak</c>

49:01.546 --> 49:01.556 align:start position:0%
across space, resulting in very weak
 

49:01.556 --> 49:03.947 align:start position:0%
across space, resulting in very weak
signals<00:50:05.680><c> that</c><00:50:05.920><c> are</c><00:50:06.160><c> much</c><00:50:06.559><c> more</c><00:50:06.880><c> difficult</c><00:50:07.359><c> to</c>

49:03.947 --> 49:03.957 align:start position:0%
signals that are much more difficult to
 

49:03.957 --> 49:05.307 align:start position:0%
signals that are much more difficult to
detect.

49:05.307 --> 49:05.317 align:start position:0%
detect.
 

49:05.317 --> 49:07.707 align:start position:0%
detect.
Because<00:50:09.280><c> those</c><00:50:09.599><c> radio</c><00:50:09.920><c> signals</c><00:50:10.240><c> are</c><00:50:10.480><c> so</c><00:50:10.640><c> weak,</c>

49:07.707 --> 49:07.717 align:start position:0%
Because those radio signals are so weak,
 

49:07.717 --> 49:09.627 align:start position:0%
Because those radio signals are so weak,
most<00:50:11.599><c> radio</c><00:50:11.920><c> telescopes</c><00:50:12.640><c> hadn't</c><00:50:13.040><c> been</c>

49:09.627 --> 49:09.637 align:start position:0%
most radio telescopes hadn't been
 

49:09.637 --> 49:11.707 align:start position:0%
most radio telescopes hadn't been
looking<00:50:13.440><c> for</c><00:50:13.680><c> them.</c><00:50:14.319><c> Instead,</c><00:50:14.800><c> confining</c>

49:11.707 --> 49:11.717 align:start position:0%
looking for them. Instead, confining
 

49:11.717 --> 49:13.307 align:start position:0%
looking for them. Instead, confining
themselves<00:50:15.680><c> to</c><00:50:16.000><c> searching</c><00:50:16.319><c> for</c><00:50:16.480><c> signals</c>

49:13.307 --> 49:13.317 align:start position:0%
themselves to searching for signals
 

49:13.317 --> 49:18.427 align:start position:0%
themselves to searching for signals
between<00:50:17.520><c> 430</c><00:50:18.880><c> and</c><00:50:19.200><c> 1,600</c><00:50:20.480><c> MGHertz.</c>

49:18.427 --> 49:18.437 align:start position:0%
between 430 and 1,600 MGHertz.
 

49:18.437 --> 49:20.827 align:start position:0%
between 430 and 1,600 MGHertz.
This<00:50:22.319><c> would</c><00:50:22.480><c> have</c><00:50:22.640><c> been</c><00:50:22.880><c> fine</c><00:50:23.440><c> had</c><00:50:23.760><c> gaming</c>

49:20.827 --> 49:20.837 align:start position:0%
This would have been fine had gaming
 

49:20.837 --> 49:24.506 align:start position:0%
This would have been fine had gaming
behaved<00:50:24.800><c> as</c><00:50:25.040><c> expected</c><00:50:25.839><c> for</c><00:50:26.160><c> one</c><00:50:26.319><c> of</c><00:50:26.480><c> its</c><00:50:26.720><c> kind.</c>

49:24.506 --> 49:24.516 align:start position:0%
behaved as expected for one of its kind.
 

49:24.516 --> 49:28.907 align:start position:0%
behaved as expected for one of its kind.
Since<00:50:28.480><c> it</c><00:50:28.800><c> did</c><00:50:29.040><c> not,</c><00:50:29.920><c> it</c><00:50:30.079><c> took</c><00:50:30.400><c> until</c><00:50:31.040><c> 1997</c><00:50:32.160><c> for</c>

49:28.907 --> 49:28.917 align:start position:0%
Since it did not, it took until 1997 for
 

49:28.917 --> 49:30.347 align:start position:0%
Since it did not, it took until 1997 for
scientists<00:50:32.880><c> to</c><00:50:33.119><c> realize</c><00:50:33.440><c> what</c><00:50:33.760><c> was</c>

49:30.347 --> 49:30.357 align:start position:0%
scientists to realize what was
 

49:30.357 --> 49:32.587 align:start position:0%
scientists to realize what was
happening.<00:50:35.040><c> Three</c><00:50:35.520><c> independent</c>

49:32.587 --> 49:32.597 align:start position:0%
happening. Three independent
 

49:32.597 --> 49:35.067 align:start position:0%
happening. Three independent
observations<00:50:36.880><c> from</c><00:50:37.119><c> the</c><00:50:37.520><c> Pusheena</c><00:50:38.240><c> Radio</c>

49:35.067 --> 49:35.077 align:start position:0%
observations from the Pusheena Radio
 

49:35.077 --> 49:37.227 align:start position:0%
observations from the Pusheena Radio
Astronomy<00:50:39.200><c> Observatory</c><00:50:40.000><c> were</c><00:50:40.240><c> able</c><00:50:40.480><c> to</c>

49:37.227 --> 49:37.237 align:start position:0%
Astronomy Observatory were able to
 

49:37.237 --> 49:39.786 align:start position:0%
Astronomy Observatory were able to
identify<00:50:41.359><c> extremely</c><00:50:42.240><c> weak</c><00:50:42.640><c> pulses</c><00:50:43.119><c> from</c>

49:39.786 --> 49:39.796 align:start position:0%
identify extremely weak pulses from
 

49:39.796 --> 49:42.427 align:start position:0%
identify extremely weak pulses from
Gaminga<00:50:44.160><c> using</c><00:50:44.559><c> a</c><00:50:44.800><c> sensitive</c><00:50:45.520><c> transit</c>

49:42.427 --> 49:42.437 align:start position:0%
Gaminga using a sensitive transit
 

49:42.437 --> 49:45.627 align:start position:0%
Gaminga using a sensitive transit
antenna.<00:50:47.200><c> The</c><00:50:47.359><c> faint</c><00:50:47.760><c> radio</c><00:50:48.160><c> pulses</c><00:50:48.640><c> came</c><00:50:48.880><c> in</c>

49:45.627 --> 49:45.637 align:start position:0%
antenna. The faint radio pulses came in
 

49:45.637 --> 49:48.427 align:start position:0%
antenna. The faint radio pulses came in
around<00:50:49.760><c> 100</c><00:50:50.160><c> MHz,</c><00:50:51.040><c> which</c><00:50:51.280><c> explains</c><00:50:51.680><c> why</c>

49:48.427 --> 49:48.437 align:start position:0%
around 100 MHz, which explains why
 

49:48.437 --> 49:50.746 align:start position:0%
around 100 MHz, which explains why
previous<00:50:52.400><c> radio</c><00:50:52.720><c> searches</c><00:50:53.119><c> for</c><00:50:53.280><c> Gaminga</c><00:50:54.000><c> had</c>

49:50.746 --> 49:50.756 align:start position:0%
previous radio searches for Gaminga had
 

49:50.756 --> 49:54.266 align:start position:0%
previous radio searches for Gaminga had
come<00:50:54.480><c> up</c><00:50:54.720><c> silent.</c><00:50:55.839><c> Turns</c><00:50:56.160><c> out</c><00:50:56.800><c> Gaminga</c><00:50:57.440><c> wasn't</c>

49:54.266 --> 49:54.276 align:start position:0%
come up silent. Turns out Gaminga wasn't
 

49:54.276 --> 49:57.067 align:start position:0%
come up silent. Turns out Gaminga wasn't
truly<00:50:58.319><c> hiding</c><00:50:59.119><c> and</c><00:50:59.440><c> had</c><00:50:59.920><c> been</c><00:51:00.160><c> sending</c><00:51:00.480><c> us</c>

49:57.067 --> 49:57.077 align:start position:0%
truly hiding and had been sending us
 

49:57.077 --> 49:59.307 align:start position:0%
truly hiding and had been sending us
signals.<00:51:01.520><c> We</c><00:51:01.760><c> just</c><00:51:02.079><c> weren't</c><00:51:02.400><c> listening</c>

49:59.307 --> 49:59.317 align:start position:0%
signals. We just weren't listening
 

49:59.317 --> 50:01.307 align:start position:0%
signals. We just weren't listening
correctly.

50:01.307 --> 50:01.317 align:start position:0%
correctly.
 

50:01.317 --> 50:03.627 align:start position:0%
correctly.
That<00:51:05.200><c> same</c><00:51:05.440><c> year,</c><00:51:05.760><c> a</c><00:51:06.000><c> team</c><00:51:06.240><c> led</c><00:51:06.640><c> by</c><00:51:06.800><c> the</c><00:51:06.960><c> late</c>

50:03.627 --> 50:03.637 align:start position:0%
That same year, a team led by the late
 

50:03.637 --> 50:06.266 align:start position:0%
That same year, a team led by the late
astronomer<00:51:07.760><c> Yanuj</c><00:51:08.400><c> Gil</c><00:51:08.960><c> theorized</c><00:51:09.599><c> that</c>

50:06.266 --> 50:06.276 align:start position:0%
astronomer Yanuj Gil theorized that
 

50:06.276 --> 50:08.107 align:start position:0%
astronomer Yanuj Gil theorized that
another<00:51:10.240><c> reason</c><00:51:10.480><c> Gaminga</c><00:51:11.119><c> had</c><00:51:11.280><c> appeared</c><00:51:11.599><c> to</c>

50:08.107 --> 50:08.117 align:start position:0%
another reason Gaminga had appeared to
 

50:08.117 --> 50:10.347 align:start position:0%
another reason Gaminga had appeared to
be<00:51:11.839><c> radio</c><00:51:12.160><c> silent</c><00:51:12.800><c> may</c><00:51:13.040><c> be</c><00:51:13.200><c> its</c><00:51:13.440><c> magnetic</c>

50:10.347 --> 50:10.357 align:start position:0%
be radio silent may be its magnetic
 

50:10.357 --> 50:12.986 align:start position:0%
be radio silent may be its magnetic
field.<00:51:14.960><c> Models</c><00:51:15.359><c> showed</c><00:51:15.599><c> that</c><00:51:15.920><c> radio</c><00:51:16.240><c> waves</c>

50:12.986 --> 50:12.996 align:start position:0%
field. Models showed that radio waves
 

50:12.996 --> 50:15.387 align:start position:0%
field. Models showed that radio waves
may<00:51:16.800><c> be</c><00:51:16.960><c> absorbed</c><00:51:17.520><c> or</c><00:51:17.760><c> refracted</c><00:51:18.400><c> within</c><00:51:18.720><c> the</c>

50:15.387 --> 50:15.397 align:start position:0%
may be absorbed or refracted within the
 

50:15.397 --> 50:17.947 align:start position:0%
may be absorbed or refracted within the
pulsar's<00:51:19.520><c> magnetosphere,</c><00:51:20.720><c> leaving</c><00:51:21.119><c> only</c>

50:17.947 --> 50:17.957 align:start position:0%
pulsar's magnetosphere, leaving only
 

50:17.957 --> 50:20.587 align:start position:0%
pulsar's magnetosphere, leaving only
weak<00:51:21.839><c> pulses</c><00:51:22.400><c> around</c><00:51:22.880><c> 100</c><00:51:23.280><c> megahertz</c><00:51:23.920><c> to</c><00:51:24.079><c> be</c>

50:20.587 --> 50:20.597 align:start position:0%
weak pulses around 100 megahertz to be
 

50:20.597 --> 50:23.387 align:start position:0%
weak pulses around 100 megahertz to be
detectable.<00:51:25.440><c> This</c><00:51:25.680><c> would</c><00:51:26.000><c> effectively</c><00:51:26.720><c> leave</c>

50:23.387 --> 50:23.397 align:start position:0%
detectable. This would effectively leave
 

50:23.397 --> 50:26.026 align:start position:0%
detectable. This would effectively leave
it<00:51:27.200><c> quiet</c><00:51:27.680><c> at</c><00:51:27.839><c> the</c><00:51:28.000><c> higher</c><00:51:28.319><c> radio</c><00:51:28.720><c> bands</c><00:51:29.280><c> than</c>

50:26.026 --> 50:26.036 align:start position:0%
it quiet at the higher radio bands than
 

50:26.036 --> 50:28.746 align:start position:0%
it quiet at the higher radio bands than
most<00:51:29.920><c> telescopes</c><00:51:30.559><c> used.</c>

50:28.746 --> 50:28.756 align:start position:0%
most telescopes used.
 

50:28.756 --> 50:31.227 align:start position:0%
most telescopes used.
Confirming<00:51:32.960><c> Gaminga</c><00:51:33.599><c> was</c><00:51:33.680><c> a</c><00:51:33.839><c> pulsar</c><00:51:34.559><c> and</c>

50:31.227 --> 50:31.237 align:start position:0%
Confirming Gaminga was a pulsar and
 

50:31.237 --> 50:34.266 align:start position:0%
Confirming Gaminga was a pulsar and
specifically<00:51:35.359><c> a</c><00:51:35.599><c> gammaray</c><00:51:36.240><c> pulsar</c><00:51:37.040><c> was</c><00:51:37.280><c> a</c><00:51:37.520><c> big</c>

50:34.266 --> 50:34.276 align:start position:0%
specifically a gammaray pulsar was a big
 

50:34.276 --> 50:39.147 align:start position:0%
specifically a gammaray pulsar was a big
deal.<00:51:38.960><c> In</c><00:51:39.200><c> fact,</c><00:51:40.000><c> 99%</c><00:51:41.119><c> of</c><00:51:41.359><c> its</c><00:51:41.680><c> output</c><00:51:42.160><c> is</c><00:51:42.480><c> in</c>

50:39.147 --> 50:39.157 align:start position:0%
deal. In fact, 99% of its output is in
 

50:39.157 --> 50:41.947 align:start position:0%
deal. In fact, 99% of its output is in
the<00:51:42.880><c> gamma</c><00:51:43.280><c> range,</c><00:51:44.319><c> making</c><00:51:44.640><c> it</c><00:51:44.880><c> one</c><00:51:45.119><c> of</c><00:51:45.200><c> the</c>

50:41.947 --> 50:41.957 align:start position:0%
the gamma range, making it one of the
 

50:41.957 --> 50:44.587 align:start position:0%
the gamma range, making it one of the
brightest<00:51:46.160><c> gamma</c><00:51:46.559><c> ray</c><00:51:46.800><c> sources</c><00:51:47.520><c> in</c><00:51:47.839><c> our</c>

50:44.587 --> 50:44.597 align:start position:0%
brightest gamma ray sources in our
 

50:44.597 --> 50:46.827 align:start position:0%
brightest gamma ray sources in our
entire<00:51:48.800><c> galaxy.</c>

50:46.827 --> 50:46.837 align:start position:0%
entire galaxy.
 

50:46.837 --> 50:49.947 align:start position:0%
entire galaxy.
It<00:51:50.640><c> is,</c><00:51:51.119><c> as</c><00:51:51.280><c> it</c><00:51:51.520><c> turns</c><00:51:51.760><c> out,</c><00:51:52.559><c> all</c><00:51:52.800><c> that's</c><00:51:53.119><c> left</c>

50:49.947 --> 50:49.957 align:start position:0%
It is, as it turns out, all that's left
 

50:49.957 --> 50:52.827 align:start position:0%
It is, as it turns out, all that's left
after<00:51:53.920><c> a</c><00:51:54.160><c> star</c><00:51:54.960><c> several</c><00:51:55.440><c> times</c><00:51:55.839><c> more</c><00:51:56.079><c> massive</c>

50:52.827 --> 50:52.837 align:start position:0%
after a star several times more massive
 

50:52.837 --> 50:57.147 align:start position:0%
after a star several times more massive
than<00:51:56.640><c> our</c><00:51:56.880><c> sun</c><00:51:57.760><c> exploded</c><00:51:58.640><c> about</c><00:51:59.280><c> 350,000</c>

50:57.147 --> 50:57.157 align:start position:0%
than our sun exploded about 350,000
 

50:57.157 --> 50:58.667 align:start position:0%
than our sun exploded about 350,000
years<00:52:00.960><c> ago.</c>

50:58.667 --> 50:58.677 align:start position:0%
years ago.
 

50:58.677 --> 51:01.546 align:start position:0%
years ago.
But<00:52:02.800><c> its</c><00:52:03.200><c> relative</c><00:52:03.680><c> radio</c><00:52:04.079><c> silence</c><00:52:04.640><c> and</c><00:52:04.880><c> its</c>

51:01.546 --> 51:01.556 align:start position:0%
But its relative radio silence and its
 

51:01.556 --> 51:04.026 align:start position:0%
But its relative radio silence and its
apparent<00:52:05.599><c> lack</c><00:52:05.920><c> of</c><00:52:06.160><c> a</c><00:52:06.319><c> nebula</c><00:52:06.960><c> weren't</c><00:52:07.359><c> the</c>

51:04.026 --> 51:04.036 align:start position:0%
apparent lack of a nebula weren't the
 

51:04.036 --> 51:09.227 align:start position:0%
apparent lack of a nebula weren't the
only<00:52:07.920><c> unusual</c><00:52:08.559><c> things</c><00:52:08.960><c> about</c><00:52:09.280><c> this</c><00:52:09.599><c> pulsar.</c>

51:09.227 --> 51:09.237 align:start position:0%
 
 

51:09.237 --> 51:11.707 align:start position:0%
 
When<00:52:13.200><c> Italian</c><00:52:13.680><c> astrophysicists,</c><00:52:14.960><c> including</c>

51:11.707 --> 51:11.717 align:start position:0%
When Italian astrophysicists, including
 

51:11.717 --> 51:15.067 align:start position:0%
When Italian astrophysicists, including
Bingami,<00:52:16.319><c> Gaminga's</c><00:52:16.880><c> name</c><00:52:17.200><c> giver,</c><00:52:18.000><c> compared</c>

51:15.067 --> 51:15.077 align:start position:0%
Bingami, Gaminga's name giver, compared
 

51:15.077 --> 51:17.387 align:start position:0%
Bingami, Gaminga's name giver, compared
a<00:52:18.960><c> series</c><00:52:19.280><c> of</c><00:52:19.440><c> observations</c><00:52:20.400><c> from</c><00:52:20.720><c> the</c>

51:17.387 --> 51:17.397 align:start position:0%
a series of observations from the
 

51:17.397 --> 51:19.867 align:start position:0%
a series of observations from the
European<00:52:21.440><c> Southern</c><00:52:21.760><c> Observatory's</c><00:52:22.480><c> 3.6</c><00:52:23.200><c> m</c>

51:19.867 --> 51:19.877 align:start position:0%
European Southern Observatory's 3.6 m
 

51:19.877 --> 51:22.907 align:start position:0%
European Southern Observatory's 3.6 m
telescope<00:52:24.240><c> and</c><00:52:24.640><c> new</c><00:52:24.880><c> technology</c><00:52:25.520><c> telescope</c>

51:22.907 --> 51:22.917 align:start position:0%
telescope and new technology telescope
 

51:22.917 --> 51:25.867 align:start position:0%
telescope and new technology telescope
with<00:52:27.040><c> observations</c><00:52:27.839><c> from</c><00:52:28.160><c> the</c><00:52:28.480><c> Canada</c><00:52:28.960><c> France</c>

51:25.867 --> 51:25.877 align:start position:0%
with observations from the Canada France
 

51:25.877 --> 51:28.506 align:start position:0%
with observations from the Canada France
Hawaii<00:52:29.920><c> telescope.</c><00:52:31.040><c> They</c><00:52:31.359><c> found</c><00:52:31.760><c> that</c>

51:28.506 --> 51:28.516 align:start position:0%
Hawaii telescope. They found that
 

51:28.516 --> 51:32.746 align:start position:0%
Hawaii telescope. They found that
Gaminga<00:52:32.960><c> was</c><00:52:33.359><c> moving.</c><00:52:34.800><c> Not</c><00:52:35.119><c> only</c><00:52:35.280><c> that,</c><00:52:36.000><c> it</c>

51:32.746 --> 51:32.756 align:start position:0%
Gaminga was moving. Not only that, it
 

51:32.756 --> 51:35.786 align:start position:0%
Gaminga was moving. Not only that, it
was<00:52:36.559><c> traveling</c><00:52:37.040><c> at</c><00:52:37.440><c> an</c><00:52:37.760><c> unusually</c><00:52:38.559><c> high</c><00:52:38.880><c> speed</c>

51:35.786 --> 51:35.796 align:start position:0%
was traveling at an unusually high speed
 

51:35.796 --> 51:40.746 align:start position:0%
was traveling at an unusually high speed
of<00:52:39.599><c> around</c><00:52:40.160><c> 0.2</c><00:52:41.359><c> arcsec</c><00:52:42.319><c> per</c><00:52:42.640><c> year.</c><00:52:43.839><c> As</c><00:52:44.079><c> a</c>

51:40.746 --> 51:40.756 align:start position:0%
of around 0.2 arcsec per year. As a
 

51:40.756 --> 51:43.947 align:start position:0%
of around 0.2 arcsec per year. As a
reminder,<00:52:45.040><c> an</c><00:52:45.200><c> arcsec</c><00:52:46.000><c> is</c><00:52:46.240><c> a</c><00:52:46.480><c> very</c><00:52:46.800><c> small</c><00:52:47.200><c> unit</c>

51:43.947 --> 51:43.957 align:start position:0%
reminder, an arcsec is a very small unit
 

51:43.957 --> 51:46.427 align:start position:0%
reminder, an arcsec is a very small unit
of<00:52:47.760><c> angular</c><00:52:48.240><c> measurement</c><00:52:49.040><c> used</c><00:52:49.359><c> when</c><00:52:49.520><c> we</c><00:52:49.760><c> need</c>

51:46.427 --> 51:46.437 align:start position:0%
of angular measurement used when we need
 

51:46.437 --> 51:48.506 align:start position:0%
of angular measurement used when we need
more<00:52:50.319><c> precise</c><00:52:50.800><c> measurements</c><00:52:51.280><c> than</c><00:52:51.520><c> a</c><00:52:51.680><c> degree</c>

51:48.506 --> 51:48.516 align:start position:0%
more precise measurements than a degree
 

51:48.516 --> 51:51.467 align:start position:0%
more precise measurements than a degree
would<00:52:52.319><c> allow.</c><00:52:53.280><c> Within</c><00:52:53.760><c> each</c><00:52:54.079><c> arc</c><00:52:54.480><c> degree,</c>

51:51.467 --> 51:51.477 align:start position:0%
would allow. Within each arc degree,
 

51:51.477 --> 51:54.107 align:start position:0%
would allow. Within each arc degree,
there<00:52:55.280><c> are</c><00:52:55.599><c> 60</c><00:52:55.920><c> ark</c><00:52:56.240><c> minutes</c><00:52:56.960><c> and</c><00:52:57.200><c> within</c><00:52:57.520><c> each</c>

51:54.107 --> 51:54.117 align:start position:0%
there are 60 ark minutes and within each
 

51:54.117 --> 51:57.467 align:start position:0%
there are 60 ark minutes and within each
ark<00:52:58.000><c> minute</c><00:52:58.400><c> are</c><00:52:58.640><c> 60</c><00:52:58.960><c> ark</c><00:52:59.359><c> seconds.</c><00:53:00.400><c> These</c><00:53:00.640><c> arc</c>

51:57.467 --> 51:57.477 align:start position:0%
ark minute are 60 ark seconds. These arc
 

51:57.477 --> 51:59.707 align:start position:0%
ark minute are 60 ark seconds. These arc
seconds<00:53:01.520><c> are</c><00:53:01.760><c> a</c><00:53:02.079><c> common</c><00:53:02.400><c> unit</c><00:53:02.880><c> used</c><00:53:03.119><c> in</c>

51:59.707 --> 51:59.717 align:start position:0%
seconds are a common unit used in
 

51:59.717 --> 52:01.707 align:start position:0%
seconds are a common unit used in
astronomy<00:53:03.839><c> to</c><00:53:04.079><c> talk</c><00:53:04.240><c> about</c><00:53:04.480><c> the</c><00:53:04.720><c> movement</c><00:53:05.040><c> of</c>

52:01.707 --> 52:01.717 align:start position:0%
astronomy to talk about the movement of
 

52:01.717 --> 52:03.867 align:start position:0%
astronomy to talk about the movement of
objects<00:53:05.760><c> across</c><00:53:06.079><c> the</c><00:53:06.319><c> sky</c><00:53:06.880><c> from</c><00:53:07.119><c> our</c>

52:03.867 --> 52:03.877 align:start position:0%
objects across the sky from our
 

52:03.877 --> 52:06.667 align:start position:0%
objects across the sky from our
perspective<00:53:07.920><c> on</c><00:53:08.240><c> Earth.</c><00:53:09.599><c> If</c><00:53:09.760><c> you</c><00:53:09.920><c> were</c><00:53:10.079><c> to</c>

52:06.667 --> 52:06.677 align:start position:0%
perspective on Earth. If you were to
 

52:06.677 --> 52:08.827 align:start position:0%
perspective on Earth. If you were to
draw<00:53:10.480><c> a</c><00:53:10.800><c> circle</c><00:53:11.280><c> around</c><00:53:11.599><c> the</c><00:53:11.760><c> orbit</c><00:53:12.079><c> of</c><00:53:12.240><c> the</c>

52:08.827 --> 52:08.837 align:start position:0%
draw a circle around the orbit of the
 

52:08.837 --> 52:11.307 align:start position:0%
draw a circle around the orbit of the
moon<00:53:12.720><c> around</c><00:53:12.960><c> the</c><00:53:13.119><c> Earth,</c><00:53:13.839><c> there</c><00:53:14.079><c> would</c><00:53:14.319><c> be</c>

52:11.307 --> 52:11.317 align:start position:0%
moon around the Earth, there would be
 

52:11.317 --> 52:13.067 align:start position:0%
moon around the Earth, there would be
360°

52:13.067 --> 52:13.077 align:start position:0%
360°
 

52:13.077 --> 52:16.107 align:start position:0%
360°
around<00:53:17.040><c> that</c><00:53:17.359><c> circular</c><00:53:17.920><c> path.</c><00:53:18.960><c> So,</c><00:53:19.200><c> at</c><00:53:19.440><c> any</c>

52:16.107 --> 52:16.117 align:start position:0%
around that circular path. So, at any
 

52:16.117 --> 52:19.147 align:start position:0%
around that circular path. So, at any
given<00:53:20.079><c> time</c><00:53:20.400><c> of</c><00:53:20.720><c> day</c><00:53:21.200><c> or</c><00:53:21.520><c> night,</c><00:53:22.240><c> assuming</c>

52:19.147 --> 52:19.157 align:start position:0%
given time of day or night, assuming
 

52:19.157 --> 52:20.907 align:start position:0%
given time of day or night, assuming
nothing<00:53:23.040><c> is</c><00:53:23.280><c> blocking</c><00:53:23.680><c> your</c><00:53:23.920><c> view</c><00:53:24.079><c> of</c><00:53:24.240><c> the</c>

52:20.907 --> 52:20.917 align:start position:0%
nothing is blocking your view of the
 

52:20.917 --> 52:24.827 align:start position:0%
nothing is blocking your view of the
horizon,<00:53:25.359><c> you</c><00:53:25.599><c> can</c><00:53:25.760><c> see</c><00:53:26.160><c> about</c><00:53:27.280><c> 180°</c><00:53:28.000><c> of</c><00:53:28.160><c> the</c>

52:24.827 --> 52:24.837 align:start position:0%
horizon, you can see about 180° of the
 

52:24.837 --> 52:28.026 align:start position:0%
horizon, you can see about 180° of the
sky.<00:53:29.280><c> And</c><00:53:29.599><c> from</c><00:53:29.839><c> the</c><00:53:30.079><c> horizon</c><00:53:30.559><c> to</c><00:53:30.720><c> the</c><00:53:30.880><c> zenith,</c>

52:28.026 --> 52:28.036 align:start position:0%
sky. And from the horizon to the zenith,
 

52:28.036 --> 52:31.227 align:start position:0%
sky. And from the horizon to the zenith,
the<00:53:31.920><c> top</c><00:53:32.079><c> of</c><00:53:32.160><c> the</c><00:53:32.319><c> sky</c><00:53:32.800><c> is</c><00:53:33.200><c> 90°.</c>

52:31.227 --> 52:31.237 align:start position:0%
the top of the sky is 90°.
 

52:31.237 --> 52:32.986 align:start position:0%
the top of the sky is 90°.
If<00:53:35.040><c> you</c><00:53:35.200><c> hold</c><00:53:35.359><c> out</c><00:53:35.599><c> your</c><00:53:35.760><c> little</c><00:53:36.000><c> finger</c><00:53:36.319><c> at</c>

52:32.986 --> 52:32.996 align:start position:0%
If you hold out your little finger at
 

52:32.996 --> 52:35.467 align:start position:0%
If you hold out your little finger at
arms<00:53:36.960><c> length</c><00:53:37.200><c> and</c><00:53:37.440><c> close</c><00:53:37.680><c> one</c><00:53:38.000><c> eye,</c><00:53:38.559><c> the</c><00:53:38.800><c> tip</c>

52:35.467 --> 52:35.477 align:start position:0%
arms length and close one eye, the tip
 

52:35.477 --> 52:37.627 align:start position:0%
arms length and close one eye, the tip
of<00:53:39.119><c> your</c><00:53:39.280><c> little</c><00:53:39.520><c> finger</c><00:53:39.920><c> covers</c><00:53:40.319><c> about</c><00:53:40.880><c> one</c>

52:37.627 --> 52:37.637 align:start position:0%
of your little finger covers about one
 

52:37.637 --> 52:40.187 align:start position:0%
of your little finger covers about one
degree<00:53:41.520><c> of</c><00:53:41.680><c> the</c><00:53:41.839><c> sky</c><00:53:42.160><c> roughly.</c><00:53:43.280><c> Next</c><00:53:43.520><c> time</c>

52:40.187 --> 52:40.197 align:start position:0%
degree of the sky roughly. Next time
 

52:40.197 --> 52:42.266 align:start position:0%
degree of the sky roughly. Next time
you're<00:53:44.079><c> outside</c><00:53:44.559><c> on</c><00:53:44.720><c> a</c><00:53:44.960><c> clear</c><00:53:45.200><c> night,</c><00:53:45.599><c> try</c>

52:42.266 --> 52:42.276 align:start position:0%
you're outside on a clear night, try
 

52:42.276 --> 52:44.506 align:start position:0%
you're outside on a clear night, try
this<00:53:46.480><c> and</c><00:53:46.800><c> see</c><00:53:46.960><c> if</c><00:53:47.119><c> your</c><00:53:47.280><c> little</c><00:53:47.520><c> finger</c><00:53:47.839><c> can</c>

52:44.506 --> 52:44.516 align:start position:0%
this and see if your little finger can
 

52:44.516 --> 52:47.387 align:start position:0%
this and see if your little finger can
cover<00:53:48.319><c> the</c><00:53:48.559><c> moon.</c><00:53:49.440><c> It</c><00:53:49.760><c> should</c><00:53:50.400><c> because</c><00:53:50.720><c> the</c>

52:47.387 --> 52:47.397 align:start position:0%
cover the moon. It should because the
 

52:47.397 --> 52:49.546 align:start position:0%
cover the moon. It should because the
moon<00:53:51.200><c> takes</c><00:53:51.440><c> up</c><00:53:51.680><c> only</c><00:53:52.000><c> about</c><00:53:52.400><c> half</c><00:53:52.720><c> of</c><00:53:52.880><c> a</c>

52:49.546 --> 52:49.556 align:start position:0%
moon takes up only about half of a
 

52:49.556 --> 52:52.587 align:start position:0%
moon takes up only about half of a
degree<00:53:53.760><c> or</c><00:53:54.079><c> about</c><00:53:54.559><c> 31</c><00:53:55.119><c> ar</c><00:53:55.520><c> minutes</c><00:53:55.839><c> in</c><00:53:56.000><c> the</c>

52:52.587 --> 52:52.597 align:start position:0%
degree or about 31 ar minutes in the
 

52:52.597 --> 52:54.506 align:start position:0%
degree or about 31 ar minutes in the
night<00:53:56.400><c> sky.</c>

52:54.506 --> 52:54.516 align:start position:0%
night sky.
 

52:54.516 --> 52:58.026 align:start position:0%
night sky.
Gaminga<00:53:58.800><c> traveling</c><00:53:59.599><c> 0.2</c><00:54:00.319><c> Two</c><00:54:00.640><c> arc</c><00:54:01.119><c> seconds</c>

52:58.026 --> 52:58.036 align:start position:0%
Gaminga traveling 0.2 Two arc seconds
 

52:58.036 --> 53:01.467 align:start position:0%
Gaminga traveling 0.2 Two arc seconds
across<00:54:02.079><c> our</c><00:54:02.400><c> sky</c><00:54:02.880><c> each</c><00:54:03.359><c> year</c><00:54:04.240><c> may</c><00:54:04.480><c> not</c><00:54:04.720><c> sound</c>

53:01.467 --> 53:01.477 align:start position:0%
across our sky each year may not sound
 

53:01.477 --> 53:04.266 align:start position:0%
across our sky each year may not sound
like<00:54:05.200><c> a</c><00:54:05.440><c> lot,</c><00:54:06.079><c> but</c><00:54:06.319><c> from</c><00:54:06.720><c> our</c><00:54:06.960><c> perspective</c><00:54:07.520><c> on</c>

53:04.266 --> 53:04.276 align:start position:0%
like a lot, but from our perspective on
 

53:04.276 --> 53:07.227 align:start position:0%
like a lot, but from our perspective on
Earth,<00:54:08.480><c> the</c><00:54:08.720><c> typical</c><00:54:09.119><c> star</c><00:54:09.520><c> only</c><00:54:09.760><c> moves</c><00:54:10.240><c> a</c><00:54:10.480><c> few</c>

53:07.227 --> 53:07.237 align:start position:0%
Earth, the typical star only moves a few
 

53:07.237 --> 53:11.067 align:start position:0%
Earth, the typical star only moves a few
thousandth<00:54:11.440><c> of</c><00:54:11.599><c> an</c><00:54:11.839><c> arcsec</c><00:54:12.559><c> per</c><00:54:12.880><c> year.</c><00:54:13.839><c> Yet,</c>

53:11.067 --> 53:11.077 align:start position:0%
thousandth of an arcsec per year. Yet,
 

53:11.077 --> 53:14.266 align:start position:0%
thousandth of an arcsec per year. Yet,
despite<00:54:15.359><c> being</c><00:54:15.839><c> 800</c><00:54:16.319><c> lighty</c><00:54:16.559><c> years</c><00:54:16.800><c> from</c><00:54:17.040><c> us,</c>

53:14.266 --> 53:14.276 align:start position:0%
despite being 800 lighty years from us,
 

53:14.276 --> 53:18.187 align:start position:0%
despite being 800 lighty years from us,
Gaminga<00:54:18.480><c> will</c><00:54:18.720><c> travel</c><00:54:19.359><c> 30</c><00:54:19.920><c> ark</c><00:54:20.480><c> minutes,</c><00:54:21.520><c> the</c>

53:18.187 --> 53:18.197 align:start position:0%
Gaminga will travel 30 ark minutes, the
 

53:18.197 --> 53:20.347 align:start position:0%
Gaminga will travel 30 ark minutes, the
equivalent<00:54:22.319><c> to</c><00:54:22.480><c> the</c><00:54:22.720><c> apparent</c><00:54:23.200><c> diameter</c><00:54:23.680><c> of</c>

53:20.347 --> 53:20.357 align:start position:0%
equivalent to the apparent diameter of
 

53:20.357 --> 53:24.187 align:start position:0%
equivalent to the apparent diameter of
the<00:54:24.160><c> moon</c><00:54:25.119><c> across</c><00:54:25.680><c> our</c><00:54:26.000><c> sky</c><00:54:26.640><c> in</c><00:54:27.040><c> just</c><00:54:27.359><c> over</c>

53:24.187 --> 53:24.197 align:start position:0%
the moon across our sky in just over
 

53:24.197 --> 53:27.467 align:start position:0%
the moon across our sky in just over
10,000<00:54:28.480><c> years.</c><00:54:29.760><c> In</c><00:54:30.000><c> other</c><00:54:30.240><c> words,</c><00:54:30.720><c> this</c>

53:27.467 --> 53:27.477 align:start position:0%
10,000 years. In other words, this
 

53:27.477 --> 53:30.107 align:start position:0%
10,000 years. In other words, this
stellar<00:54:31.440><c> corpse</c><00:54:31.839><c> is</c><00:54:32.400><c> racing</c><00:54:33.200><c> through</c><00:54:33.440><c> the</c>

53:30.107 --> 53:30.117 align:start position:0%
stellar corpse is racing through the
 

53:30.117 --> 53:36.986 align:start position:0%
stellar corpse is racing through the
galaxy<00:54:34.480><c> at</c><00:54:34.720><c> nearly</c><00:54:35.520><c> 210</c><00:54:36.559><c> km</c><00:54:37.440><c> per</c><00:54:37.839><c> second.</c>

53:36.986 --> 53:36.996 align:start position:0%
galaxy at nearly 210 km per second.
 

53:36.996 --> 53:38.587 align:start position:0%
galaxy at nearly 210 km per second.
Heading<00:54:40.800><c> towards</c><00:54:41.200><c> the</c><00:54:41.359><c> border</c><00:54:41.680><c> between</c><00:54:41.920><c> the</c>

53:38.587 --> 53:38.597 align:start position:0%
Heading towards the border between the
 

53:38.597 --> 53:41.467 align:start position:0%
Heading towards the border between the
constellations<00:54:42.880><c> Gemini</c><00:54:43.440><c> and</c><00:54:43.680><c> Lynx.</c><00:54:44.640><c> And</c><00:54:44.800><c> at</c>

53:41.467 --> 53:41.477 align:start position:0%
constellations Gemini and Lynx. And at
 

53:41.477 --> 53:44.347 align:start position:0%
constellations Gemini and Lynx. And at
its<00:54:45.359><c> current</c><00:54:45.760><c> rate</c><00:54:46.079><c> of</c><00:54:46.240><c> motion,</c><00:54:47.119><c> Gaminga</c><00:54:47.760><c> will</c>

53:44.347 --> 53:44.357 align:start position:0%
its current rate of motion, Gaminga will
 

53:44.357 --> 53:46.266 align:start position:0%
its current rate of motion, Gaminga will
remain<00:54:48.240><c> in</c><00:54:48.480><c> Gemini</c><00:54:48.960><c> for</c><00:54:49.119><c> another</c><00:54:49.440><c> half</c>

53:46.266 --> 53:46.276 align:start position:0%
remain in Gemini for another half
 

53:46.276 --> 53:48.746 align:start position:0%
remain in Gemini for another half
million<00:54:50.160><c> years.</c><00:54:50.960><c> But</c><00:54:51.119><c> it</c><00:54:51.359><c> may</c><00:54:51.599><c> need</c><00:54:51.839><c> a</c><00:54:52.079><c> new</c>

53:48.746 --> 53:48.756 align:start position:0%
million years. But it may need a new
 

53:48.756 --> 53:51.307 align:start position:0%
million years. But it may need a new
name<00:54:52.720><c> after</c><00:54:53.040><c> that.</c><00:54:54.240><c> However,</c><00:54:54.640><c> this</c>

53:51.307 --> 53:51.317 align:start position:0%
name after that. However, this
 

53:51.317 --> 53:54.506 align:start position:0%
name after that. However, this
mysterious<00:54:55.440><c> pulsar</c><00:54:56.000><c> gets</c><00:54:56.480><c> stranger</c><00:54:57.040><c> still.</c>

53:54.506 --> 53:54.516 align:start position:0%
mysterious pulsar gets stranger still.
 

53:54.516 --> 53:57.467 align:start position:0%
mysterious pulsar gets stranger still.
It<00:54:58.319><c> is</c><00:54:58.480><c> its</c><00:54:58.880><c> vast</c><00:54:59.520><c> speed</c><00:54:59.920><c> that</c><00:55:00.160><c> helps</c><00:55:00.559><c> produce</c>

53:57.467 --> 53:57.477 align:start position:0%
It is its vast speed that helps produce
 

53:57.477 --> 53:59.627 align:start position:0%
It is its vast speed that helps produce
another<00:55:01.440><c> feature</c><00:55:02.079><c> that</c><00:55:02.400><c> scientists</c><00:55:02.960><c> were</c>

53:59.627 --> 53:59.637 align:start position:0%
another feature that scientists were
 

53:59.637 --> 54:02.506 align:start position:0%
another feature that scientists were
about<00:55:03.520><c> to</c><00:55:03.680><c> discover.</c><00:55:04.960><c> As</c><00:55:05.200><c> it</c><00:55:05.359><c> hurles</c><00:55:05.839><c> through</c>

54:02.506 --> 54:02.516 align:start position:0%
about to discover. As it hurles through
 

54:02.516 --> 54:06.347 align:start position:0%
about to discover. As it hurles through
space,<00:55:06.800><c> Gaminga</c><00:55:07.440><c> leaves</c><00:55:07.760><c> behind</c><00:55:08.559><c> two</c><00:55:09.119><c> ghostly</c>

54:06.347 --> 54:06.357 align:start position:0%
space, Gaminga leaves behind two ghostly
 

54:06.357 --> 54:10.986 align:start position:0%
space, Gaminga leaves behind two ghostly
X-ray<00:55:10.559><c> tails</c><00:55:11.280><c> that</c><00:55:11.599><c> streak</c><00:55:12.240><c> 3</c><00:55:13.040><c> trillion</c><00:55:13.680><c> km</c>

54:10.986 --> 54:10.996 align:start position:0%
X-ray tails that streak 3 trillion km
 

54:10.996 --> 54:14.746 align:start position:0%
X-ray tails that streak 3 trillion km
across<00:55:15.040><c> the</c><00:55:15.359><c> sky.</c><00:55:16.640><c> As</c><00:55:16.960><c> I</c><00:55:17.119><c> discussed</c><00:55:17.520><c> earlier,</c>

54:14.746 --> 54:14.756 align:start position:0%
across the sky. As I discussed earlier,
 

54:14.756 --> 54:16.667 align:start position:0%
across the sky. As I discussed earlier,
despite<00:55:18.720><c> the</c><00:55:18.880><c> fact</c><00:55:19.040><c> that</c><00:55:19.200><c> this</c><00:55:19.599><c> fastmoving</c>

54:16.667 --> 54:16.677 align:start position:0%
despite the fact that this fastmoving
 

54:16.677 --> 54:19.627 align:start position:0%
despite the fact that this fastmoving
pulsar<00:55:20.800><c> is</c><00:55:21.040><c> nearly</c><00:55:21.359><c> radio</c><00:55:21.839><c> silent,</c><00:55:22.720><c> it</c>

54:19.627 --> 54:19.637 align:start position:0%
pulsar is nearly radio silent, it
 

54:19.637 --> 54:22.347 align:start position:0%
pulsar is nearly radio silent, it
certainly<00:55:23.920><c> isn't</c><00:55:24.400><c> quiet</c><00:55:24.800><c> in</c><00:55:25.040><c> the</c><00:55:25.119><c> gammaray</c>

54:22.347 --> 54:22.357 align:start position:0%
certainly isn't quiet in the gammaray
 

54:22.357 --> 54:24.827 align:start position:0%
certainly isn't quiet in the gammaray
and<00:55:26.319><c> x-ray</c><00:55:26.800><c> wavelengths.</c>

54:24.827 --> 54:24.837 align:start position:0%
and x-ray wavelengths.
 

54:24.837 --> 54:28.266 align:start position:0%
and x-ray wavelengths.
In<00:55:28.720><c> 1999,</c><00:55:29.839><c> ISA's</c><00:55:30.480><c> X-ray</c><00:55:31.040><c> multi</c><00:55:31.520><c> mirror</c>

54:28.266 --> 54:28.276 align:start position:0%
In 1999, ISA's X-ray multi mirror
 

54:28.276 --> 54:31.707 align:start position:0%
In 1999, ISA's X-ray multi mirror
mission<00:55:32.480><c> or</c><00:55:32.800><c> XMM</c><00:55:33.599><c> Newton</c><00:55:34.480><c> was</c><00:55:34.720><c> launched</c><00:55:35.119><c> to</c>

54:31.707 --> 54:31.717 align:start position:0%
mission or XMM Newton was launched to
 

54:31.717 --> 54:34.427 align:start position:0%
mission or XMM Newton was launched to
peer<00:55:35.599><c> deeper</c><00:55:36.000><c> into</c><00:55:36.240><c> this</c><00:55:36.480><c> X-ray</c><00:55:37.040><c> universe.</c>

54:34.427 --> 54:34.437 align:start position:0%
peer deeper into this X-ray universe.
 

54:34.437 --> 54:37.227 align:start position:0%
peer deeper into this X-ray universe.
And<00:55:38.319><c> four</c><00:55:38.559><c> years</c><00:55:38.800><c> later,</c><00:55:39.440><c> a</c><00:55:39.680><c> team</c><00:55:40.000><c> led</c><00:55:40.319><c> by</c>

54:37.227 --> 54:37.237 align:start position:0%
And four years later, a team led by
 

54:37.237 --> 54:40.107 align:start position:0%
And four years later, a team led by
Patrica<00:55:41.760><c> Caraveo</c><00:55:42.800><c> uncovered</c><00:55:43.359><c> these</c>

54:40.107 --> 54:40.117 align:start position:0%
Patrica Caraveo uncovered these
 

54:40.117 --> 54:42.667 align:start position:0%
Patrica Caraveo uncovered these
cometlike<00:55:44.559><c> X-ray</c><00:55:45.040><c> trails.</c>

54:42.667 --> 54:42.677 align:start position:0%
cometlike X-ray trails.
 

54:42.677 --> 54:45.067 align:start position:0%
cometlike X-ray trails.
Their<00:55:46.640><c> shape</c><00:55:46.960><c> and</c><00:55:47.280><c> brightness</c><00:55:47.920><c> are</c><00:55:48.160><c> partly</c>

54:45.067 --> 54:45.077 align:start position:0%
Their shape and brightness are partly
 

54:45.077 --> 54:47.067 align:start position:0%
Their shape and brightness are partly
explained<00:55:49.040><c> by</c><00:55:49.200><c> the</c><00:55:49.359><c> shock</c><00:55:49.680><c> wave</c><00:55:50.079><c> created</c><00:55:50.400><c> by</c>

54:47.067 --> 54:47.077 align:start position:0%
explained by the shock wave created by
 

54:47.077 --> 54:50.427 align:start position:0%
explained by the shock wave created by
Gaminga's<00:55:51.440><c> motion</c><00:55:52.000><c> through</c><00:55:52.400><c> space</c><00:55:53.280><c> and</c><00:55:53.680><c> its</c>

54:50.427 --> 54:50.437 align:start position:0%
Gaminga's motion through space and its
 

54:50.437 --> 54:53.307 align:start position:0%
Gaminga's motion through space and its
rotation<00:55:54.559><c> as</c><00:55:54.799><c> a</c><00:55:54.960><c> pulsar.</c><00:55:55.920><c> But</c><00:55:56.160><c> they</c><00:55:56.319><c> are</c><00:55:56.559><c> also</c>

54:53.307 --> 54:53.317 align:start position:0%
rotation as a pulsar. But they are also
 

54:53.317 --> 54:56.667 align:start position:0%
rotation as a pulsar. But they are also
revealing<00:55:57.440><c> of</c><00:55:57.760><c> another</c><00:55:58.079><c> attribute.</c><00:55:59.200><c> Gaming's</c>

54:56.667 --> 54:56.677 align:start position:0%
revealing of another attribute. Gaming's
 

54:56.677 --> 54:59.067 align:start position:0%
revealing of another attribute. Gaming's
colossal<00:56:00.880><c> mass.</c>

54:59.067 --> 54:59.077 align:start position:0%
colossal mass.
 

54:59.077 --> 55:02.347 align:start position:0%
colossal mass.
Measuring<00:56:03.200><c> only</c><00:56:03.440><c> about</c><00:56:03.920><c> 20</c><00:56:04.240><c> to</c><00:56:04.480><c> 30</c><00:56:04.720><c> km</c><00:56:05.200><c> across.</c>

55:02.347 --> 55:02.357 align:start position:0%
Measuring only about 20 to 30 km across.
 

55:02.357 --> 55:05.546 align:start position:0%
Measuring only about 20 to 30 km across.
Gaminga<00:56:06.559><c> is</c><00:56:06.960><c> extremely</c><00:56:07.760><c> dense</c><00:56:08.559><c> containing</c>

55:05.546 --> 55:05.556 align:start position:0%
Gaminga is extremely dense containing
 

55:05.556 --> 55:08.587 align:start position:0%
Gaminga is extremely dense containing
about<00:56:09.440><c> as</c><00:56:09.760><c> much</c><00:56:10.079><c> mass</c><00:56:10.480><c> as</c><00:56:11.040><c> 1</c><00:56:11.359><c> and</c><00:56:11.440><c> a</c><00:56:11.599><c> half</c><00:56:11.920><c> of</c>

55:08.587 --> 55:08.597 align:start position:0%
about as much mass as 1 and a half of
 

55:08.597 --> 55:12.107 align:start position:0%
about as much mass as 1 and a half of
our<00:56:12.480><c> suns.</c><00:56:13.599><c> To</c><00:56:13.839><c> put</c><00:56:14.000><c> that</c><00:56:14.240><c> in</c><00:56:14.480><c> perspective,</c><00:56:15.520><c> if</c>

55:12.107 --> 55:12.117 align:start position:0%
our suns. To put that in perspective, if
 

55:12.117 --> 55:14.107 align:start position:0%
our suns. To put that in perspective, if
you<00:56:15.839><c> had</c><00:56:15.920><c> a</c><00:56:16.160><c> teaspoon</c><00:56:16.640><c> of</c><00:56:16.880><c> neutron</c><00:56:17.359><c> star</c>

55:14.107 --> 55:14.117 align:start position:0%
you had a teaspoon of neutron star
 

55:14.117 --> 55:17.786 align:start position:0%
you had a teaspoon of neutron star
material,<00:56:18.640><c> it</c><00:56:18.880><c> would</c><00:56:19.040><c> weigh</c><00:56:19.440><c> about</c><00:56:20.160><c> 4</c><00:56:20.799><c> billion</c>

55:17.786 --> 55:17.796 align:start position:0%
material, it would weigh about 4 billion
 

55:17.796 --> 55:21.947 align:start position:0%
material, it would weigh about 4 billion
tons,<00:56:22.480><c> as</c><00:56:22.720><c> much</c><00:56:22.960><c> as</c><00:56:23.520><c> 10,000</c><00:56:24.720><c> Empire</c><00:56:25.200><c> State</c>

55:21.947 --> 55:21.957 align:start position:0%
tons, as much as 10,000 Empire State
 

55:21.957 --> 55:23.627 align:start position:0%
tons, as much as 10,000 Empire State
buildings.

55:23.627 --> 55:23.637 align:start position:0%
buildings.
 

55:23.637 --> 55:26.986 align:start position:0%
buildings.
As<00:56:27.520><c> this</c><00:56:27.839><c> dense,</c><00:56:28.720><c> high</c><00:56:29.119><c> mass</c><00:56:29.520><c> object</c><00:56:30.079><c> races</c>

55:26.986 --> 55:26.996 align:start position:0%
As this dense, high mass object races
 

55:26.996 --> 55:28.506 align:start position:0%
As this dense, high mass object races
forward<00:56:30.960><c> through</c><00:56:31.119><c> the</c><00:56:31.280><c> low</c><00:56:31.599><c> density</c>

55:28.506 --> 55:28.516 align:start position:0%
forward through the low density
 

55:28.516 --> 55:33.546 align:start position:0%
forward through the low density
interstellar<00:56:32.640><c> medium,</c><00:56:33.520><c> just</c><00:56:34.079><c> 0.06</c><00:56:35.440><c> to</c><00:56:35.760><c> 0.15</c>

55:33.546 --> 55:33.556 align:start position:0%
interstellar medium, just 0.06 to 0.15
 

55:33.556 --> 55:36.907 align:start position:0%
interstellar medium, just 0.06 to 0.15
atoms<00:56:37.599><c> per</c><00:56:38.319><c> cm.</c><00:56:39.520><c> It</c><00:56:39.760><c> compresses</c><00:56:40.319><c> the</c>

55:36.907 --> 55:36.917 align:start position:0%
atoms per cm. It compresses the
 

55:36.917 --> 55:39.467 align:start position:0%
atoms per cm. It compresses the
interstellar<00:56:41.040><c> medium</c><00:56:41.599><c> and</c><00:56:41.920><c> its</c><00:56:42.160><c> own</c><00:56:42.480><c> embedded</c>

55:39.467 --> 55:39.477 align:start position:0%
interstellar medium and its own embedded
 

55:39.477 --> 55:42.587 align:start position:0%
interstellar medium and its own embedded
magnetic<00:56:43.520><c> field</c><00:56:43.839><c> by</c><00:56:44.079><c> a</c><00:56:44.319><c> factor</c><00:56:44.640><c> of</c><00:56:45.040><c> four.</c>

55:42.587 --> 55:42.597 align:start position:0%
magnetic field by a factor of four.
 

55:42.597 --> 55:45.067 align:start position:0%
magnetic field by a factor of four.
Meanwhile,<00:56:47.040><c> the</c><00:56:47.280><c> incessant</c><00:56:48.000><c> spinning</c><00:56:48.319><c> of</c><00:56:48.480><c> the</c>

55:45.067 --> 55:45.077 align:start position:0%
Meanwhile, the incessant spinning of the
 

55:45.077 --> 55:46.667 align:start position:0%
Meanwhile, the incessant spinning of the
neutron<00:56:49.040><c> star</c><00:56:49.359><c> creates</c><00:56:49.599><c> an</c><00:56:49.839><c> environment</c>

55:46.667 --> 55:46.677 align:start position:0%
neutron star creates an environment
 

55:46.677 --> 55:49.387 align:start position:0%
neutron star creates an environment
where<00:56:50.720><c> electrons</c><00:56:51.359><c> and</c><00:56:51.680><c> their</c><00:56:52.000><c> anti-atter</c>

55:49.387 --> 55:49.397 align:start position:0%
where electrons and their anti-atter
 

55:49.397 --> 55:52.266 align:start position:0%
where electrons and their anti-atter
counterparts<00:56:53.920><c> called</c><00:56:54.240><c> posetrons</c><00:56:55.280><c> can</c><00:56:55.520><c> be</c>

55:52.266 --> 55:52.276 align:start position:0%
counterparts called posetrons can be
 

55:52.276 --> 55:55.707 align:start position:0%
counterparts called posetrons can be
accelerated<00:56:56.640><c> to</c><00:56:57.119><c> extreme</c><00:56:57.760><c> energies</c><00:56:58.799><c> powerful</c>

55:55.707 --> 55:55.717 align:start position:0%
accelerated to extreme energies powerful
 

55:55.717 --> 55:59.387 align:start position:0%
accelerated to extreme energies powerful
enough<00:56:59.520><c> to</c><00:56:59.760><c> emit</c><00:57:00.319><c> high</c><00:57:00.720><c> energy</c><00:57:01.200><c> gamma</c><00:57:01.520><c> rays.</c>

55:59.387 --> 55:59.397 align:start position:0%
enough to emit high energy gamma rays.
 

55:59.397 --> 56:01.147 align:start position:0%
enough to emit high energy gamma rays.
While<00:57:03.280><c> most</c><00:57:03.520><c> of</c><00:57:03.599><c> these</c><00:57:03.839><c> electrons</c><00:57:04.319><c> are</c><00:57:04.480><c> seen</c>

56:01.147 --> 56:01.157 align:start position:0%
While most of these electrons are seen
 

56:01.157 --> 56:02.986 align:start position:0%
While most of these electrons are seen
in<00:57:04.880><c> the</c><00:57:04.960><c> gamma</c><00:57:05.359><c> radiation</c><00:57:05.760><c> that</c><00:57:06.000><c> escapes</c><00:57:06.400><c> from</c>

56:02.986 --> 56:02.996 align:start position:0%
in the gamma radiation that escapes from
 

56:02.996 --> 56:06.187 align:start position:0%
in the gamma radiation that escapes from
the<00:57:06.720><c> pulsar,</c><00:57:07.760><c> some</c><00:57:08.079><c> get</c><00:57:08.400><c> trapped</c><00:57:08.880><c> and</c><00:57:09.280><c> spiral</c>

56:06.187 --> 56:06.197 align:start position:0%
the pulsar, some get trapped and spiral
 

56:06.197 --> 56:08.986 align:start position:0%
the pulsar, some get trapped and spiral
within<00:57:10.079><c> this</c><00:57:10.319><c> enhanced</c><00:57:10.799><c> magnetic</c><00:57:11.280><c> field.</c><00:57:12.319><c> In</c>

56:08.986 --> 56:08.996 align:start position:0%
within this enhanced magnetic field. In
 

56:08.996 --> 56:11.627 align:start position:0%
within this enhanced magnetic field. In
these<00:57:12.960><c> images</c><00:57:13.359><c> from</c><00:57:13.599><c> a</c><00:57:13.839><c> computer</c><00:57:14.240><c> model,</c><00:57:14.960><c> the</c>

56:11.627 --> 56:11.637 align:start position:0%
these images from a computer model, the
 

56:11.637 --> 56:13.947 align:start position:0%
these images from a computer model, the
tails<00:57:15.599><c> can</c><00:57:15.760><c> be</c><00:57:15.920><c> seen</c><00:57:16.400><c> streaking</c><00:57:16.960><c> along</c><00:57:17.280><c> the</c>

56:13.947 --> 56:13.957 align:start position:0%
tails can be seen streaking along the
 

56:13.957 --> 56:15.947 align:start position:0%
tails can be seen streaking along the
edges<00:57:17.760><c> of</c><00:57:18.000><c> Gaminga's</c><00:57:18.720><c> three-dimensional</c>

56:15.947 --> 56:15.957 align:start position:0%
edges of Gaminga's three-dimensional
 

56:15.957 --> 56:18.347 align:start position:0%
edges of Gaminga's three-dimensional
shock<00:57:19.839><c> wave.</c><00:57:20.319><c> Like</c><00:57:20.559><c> the</c><00:57:20.720><c> wake</c><00:57:21.119><c> created</c><00:57:21.520><c> by</c><00:57:21.680><c> a</c>

56:18.347 --> 56:18.357 align:start position:0%
shock wave. Like the wake created by a
 

56:18.357 --> 56:21.467 align:start position:0%
shock wave. Like the wake created by a
boat<00:57:22.240><c> going</c><00:57:22.559><c> through</c><00:57:22.880><c> water.</c><00:57:23.839><c> Only</c><00:57:24.240><c> this</c><00:57:24.559><c> boat</c>

56:21.467 --> 56:21.477 align:start position:0%
boat going through water. Only this boat
 

56:21.477 --> 56:24.107 align:start position:0%
boat going through water. Only this boat
is<00:57:25.280><c> more</c><00:57:25.520><c> massive</c><00:57:25.920><c> than</c><00:57:26.160><c> our</c><00:57:26.480><c> sun.</c><00:57:27.359><c> And</c><00:57:27.520><c> the</c>

56:24.107 --> 56:24.117 align:start position:0%
is more massive than our sun. And the
 

56:24.117 --> 56:27.467 align:start position:0%
is more massive than our sun. And the
wake<00:57:28.160><c> is</c><00:57:28.480><c> made</c><00:57:28.720><c> up</c><00:57:28.880><c> of</c><00:57:29.280><c> extremely</c><00:57:30.160><c> high</c><00:57:30.559><c> energy</c>

56:27.467 --> 56:27.477 align:start position:0%
wake is made up of extremely high energy
 

56:27.477 --> 56:30.427 align:start position:0%
wake is made up of extremely high energy
X-rays.

56:30.427 --> 56:30.437 align:start position:0%
X-rays.
 

56:30.437 --> 56:32.587 align:start position:0%
X-rays.
But<00:57:34.240><c> the</c><00:57:34.480><c> final</c><00:57:34.720><c> piece</c><00:57:34.960><c> of</c><00:57:35.040><c> the</c><00:57:35.200><c> Gaming</c><00:57:35.760><c> puzzle</c>

56:32.587 --> 56:32.597 align:start position:0%
But the final piece of the Gaming puzzle
 

56:32.597 --> 56:36.266 align:start position:0%
But the final piece of the Gaming puzzle
wasn't<00:57:36.640><c> discovered</c><00:57:37.200><c> until</c><00:57:38.160><c> 2005.</c>

56:36.266 --> 56:36.276 align:start position:0%
wasn't discovered until 2005.
 

56:36.276 --> 56:38.266 align:start position:0%
wasn't discovered until 2005.
Its<00:57:40.240><c> nebula.</c>

56:38.266 --> 56:38.276 align:start position:0%
Its nebula.
 

56:38.276 --> 56:40.907 align:start position:0%
Its nebula.
Taking<00:57:42.160><c> the</c><00:57:42.319><c> form</c><00:57:42.640><c> of</c><00:57:42.799><c> a</c><00:57:43.040><c> shell</c><00:57:43.440><c> of</c><00:57:43.839><c> neutral</c>

56:40.907 --> 56:40.917 align:start position:0%
Taking the form of a shell of neutral
 

56:40.917 --> 56:44.746 align:start position:0%
Taking the form of a shell of neutral
hydrogen<00:57:45.040><c> gas</c><00:57:45.599><c> with</c><00:57:45.760><c> a</c><00:57:46.000><c> radius</c><00:57:46.400><c> of</c><00:57:46.799><c> 0.4</c><00:57:47.760><c> parex</c>

56:44.746 --> 56:44.756 align:start position:0%
hydrogen gas with a radius of 0.4 parex
 

56:44.756 --> 56:48.187 align:start position:0%
hydrogen gas with a radius of 0.4 parex
wide.<00:57:49.119><c> It</c><00:57:49.359><c> turned</c><00:57:49.599><c> out</c><00:57:49.839><c> to</c><00:57:50.000><c> be</c><00:57:50.400><c> what</c><00:57:50.640><c> we</c><00:57:50.880><c> call</c><00:57:51.520><c> a</c>

56:48.187 --> 56:48.197 align:start position:0%
wide. It turned out to be what we call a
 

56:48.197 --> 56:51.147 align:start position:0%
wide. It turned out to be what we call a
pulsar<00:57:52.559><c> wind</c><00:57:53.040><c> nebula.</c>

56:51.147 --> 56:51.157 align:start position:0%
pulsar wind nebula.
 

56:51.157 --> 56:53.307 align:start position:0%
pulsar wind nebula.
This<00:57:55.040><c> type</c><00:57:55.200><c> of</c><00:57:55.359><c> nebula</c><00:57:55.920><c> is</c><00:57:56.160><c> created</c><00:57:56.480><c> from</c><00:57:56.640><c> the</c>

56:53.307 --> 56:53.317 align:start position:0%
This type of nebula is created from the
 

56:53.317 --> 56:55.307 align:start position:0%
This type of nebula is created from the
wind<00:57:57.200><c> plasma</c><00:57:57.599><c> that</c><00:57:57.839><c> emanates</c><00:57:58.319><c> from</c><00:57:58.720><c> a</c>

56:55.307 --> 56:55.317 align:start position:0%
wind plasma that emanates from a
 

56:55.317 --> 56:58.587 align:start position:0%
wind plasma that emanates from a
pulsar's<00:57:59.599><c> magnetic</c><00:58:00.160><c> poles.</c><00:58:01.200><c> The</c><00:58:01.440><c> plasma</c><00:58:01.920><c> made</c>

56:58.587 --> 56:58.597 align:start position:0%
pulsar's magnetic poles. The plasma made
 

56:58.597 --> 57:00.187 align:start position:0%
pulsar's magnetic poles. The plasma made
of<00:58:02.400><c> charged</c><00:58:02.799><c> particles</c><00:58:03.200><c> that</c><00:58:03.440><c> can</c><00:58:03.599><c> be</c>

57:00.187 --> 57:00.197 align:start position:0%
of charged particles that can be
 

57:00.197 --> 57:02.187 align:start position:0%
of charged particles that can be
accelerated<00:58:04.319><c> to</c><00:58:04.559><c> near</c><00:58:04.880><c> light</c><00:58:05.200><c> speed</c>

57:02.187 --> 57:02.197 align:start position:0%
accelerated to near light speed
 

57:02.197 --> 57:04.907 align:start position:0%
accelerated to near light speed
surrounds<00:58:06.160><c> the</c><00:58:06.400><c> pulsar,</c><00:58:07.280><c> creating</c><00:58:07.680><c> a</c><00:58:08.000><c> nebula</c>

57:04.907 --> 57:04.917 align:start position:0%
surrounds the pulsar, creating a nebula
 

57:04.917 --> 57:07.387 align:start position:0%
surrounds the pulsar, creating a nebula
of<00:58:08.720><c> high</c><00:58:08.960><c> energy</c><00:58:09.359><c> particles</c><00:58:09.920><c> that</c><00:58:10.240><c> give</c><00:58:10.480><c> off</c>

57:07.387 --> 57:07.397 align:start position:0%
of high energy particles that give off
 

57:07.397 --> 57:10.187 align:start position:0%
of high energy particles that give off
strong<00:58:11.520><c> X-ray</c><00:58:12.000><c> emissions.</c><00:58:13.359><c> With</c><00:58:13.599><c> the</c>

57:10.187 --> 57:10.197 align:start position:0%
strong X-ray emissions. With the
 

57:10.197 --> 57:12.187 align:start position:0%
strong X-ray emissions. With the
confirmation<00:58:14.160><c> that</c><00:58:14.480><c> Gaminga</c><00:58:15.119><c> did</c><00:58:15.359><c> have</c><00:58:15.599><c> a</c>

57:12.187 --> 57:12.197 align:start position:0%
confirmation that Gaminga did have a
 

57:12.197 --> 57:15.307 align:start position:0%
confirmation that Gaminga did have a
nebula,<00:58:16.640><c> its</c><00:58:17.040><c> identity</c><00:58:17.359><c> as</c><00:58:17.520><c> a</c><00:58:17.680><c> pulsar</c><00:58:18.480><c> could</c>

57:15.307 --> 57:15.317 align:start position:0%
nebula, its identity as a pulsar could
 

57:15.317 --> 57:18.827 align:start position:0%
nebula, its identity as a pulsar could
finally<00:58:19.440><c> be</c><00:58:19.839><c> confirmed.</c><00:58:21.040><c> But</c><00:58:21.200><c> Shandra</c><00:58:22.079><c> went</c>

57:18.827 --> 57:18.837 align:start position:0%
finally be confirmed. But Shandra went
 

57:18.837 --> 57:21.627 align:start position:0%
finally be confirmed. But Shandra went
even<00:58:22.799><c> further.</c>

57:21.627 --> 57:21.637 align:start position:0%
even further.
 

57:21.637 --> 57:24.587 align:start position:0%
even further.
In<00:58:25.440><c> addition</c><00:58:25.760><c> to</c><00:58:26.079><c> imaging</c><00:58:26.559><c> Kaminga,</c><00:58:27.520><c> Shandra</c>

57:24.587 --> 57:24.597 align:start position:0%
In addition to imaging Kaminga, Shandra
 

57:24.597 --> 57:27.947 align:start position:0%
In addition to imaging Kaminga, Shandra
also<00:58:28.559><c> looked</c><00:58:28.880><c> at</c><00:58:29.119><c> a</c><00:58:29.440><c> second</c><00:58:29.680><c> pulsar</c><00:58:30.640><c> called</c>

57:27.947 --> 57:27.957 align:start position:0%
also looked at a second pulsar called
 

57:27.957 --> 57:29.707 align:start position:0%
also looked at a second pulsar called
B0355

57:29.707 --> 57:29.717 align:start position:0%
B0355
 

57:29.717 --> 57:32.746 align:start position:0%
B0355
+<00:58:33.599><c> 54.</c><00:58:34.720><c> And</c><00:58:34.960><c> by</c><00:58:35.200><c> comparing</c><00:58:35.599><c> the</c><00:58:35.839><c> two,</c>

57:32.746 --> 57:32.756 align:start position:0%
+ 54. And by comparing the two,
 

57:32.756 --> 57:35.226 align:start position:0%
+ 54. And by comparing the two,
astronomers<00:58:37.040><c> uncovered</c><00:58:37.839><c> another</c><00:58:38.240><c> possible</c>

57:35.226 --> 57:35.236 align:start position:0%
astronomers uncovered another possible
 

57:35.236 --> 57:37.387 align:start position:0%
astronomers uncovered another possible
explanation<00:58:39.520><c> for</c><00:58:39.760><c> the</c><00:58:40.000><c> absence</c><00:58:40.400><c> of</c><00:58:40.640><c> radio</c>

57:37.387 --> 57:37.397 align:start position:0%
explanation for the absence of radio
 

57:37.397 --> 57:40.506 align:start position:0%
explanation for the absence of radio
pulses<00:58:41.359><c> from</c><00:58:41.599><c> Gaminga.</c><00:58:43.040><c> On</c><00:58:43.280><c> the</c><00:58:43.440><c> surface,</c>

57:40.506 --> 57:40.516 align:start position:0%
pulses from Gaminga. On the surface,
 

57:40.516 --> 57:43.067 align:start position:0%
pulses from Gaminga. On the surface,
these<00:58:44.480><c> pulsars</c><00:58:45.040><c> seem</c><00:58:45.280><c> quite</c><00:58:45.520><c> similar.</c><00:58:46.400><c> They</c>

57:43.067 --> 57:43.077 align:start position:0%
these pulsars seem quite similar. They
 

57:43.077 --> 57:45.147 align:start position:0%
these pulsars seem quite similar. They
are<00:58:46.799><c> both</c><00:58:47.040><c> about</c><00:58:47.359><c> half</c><00:58:47.520><c> a</c><00:58:47.760><c> million</c><00:58:48.000><c> years</c><00:58:48.240><c> old,</c>

57:45.147 --> 57:45.157 align:start position:0%
are both about half a million years old,
 

57:45.157 --> 57:47.226 align:start position:0%
are both about half a million years old,
and<00:58:48.960><c> they</c><00:58:49.200><c> spin</c><00:58:49.520><c> about</c><00:58:49.839><c> four</c><00:58:50.079><c> to</c><00:58:50.240><c> five</c><00:58:50.480><c> times</c>

57:47.226 --> 57:47.236 align:start position:0%
and they spin about four to five times
 

57:47.236 --> 57:50.587 align:start position:0%
and they spin about four to five times
per<00:58:51.119><c> second.</c><00:58:52.400><c> However,</c><00:58:53.200><c> as</c><00:58:53.440><c> you</c><00:58:53.599><c> know,</c>

57:50.587 --> 57:50.597 align:start position:0%
per second. However, as you know,
 

57:50.597 --> 57:53.307 align:start position:0%
per second. However, as you know,
Gaminga<00:58:54.799><c> is</c><00:58:55.040><c> seen</c><00:58:55.359><c> primarily</c><00:58:55.920><c> in</c><00:58:56.240><c> gammaray</c>

57:53.307 --> 57:53.317 align:start position:0%
Gaminga is seen primarily in gammaray
 

57:53.317 --> 57:56.986 align:start position:0%
Gaminga is seen primarily in gammaray
pulses<00:58:57.920><c> with</c><00:58:58.240><c> no</c><00:58:58.640><c> bright</c><00:58:59.040><c> radio</c><00:58:59.359><c> emissions.</c>

57:56.986 --> 57:56.996 align:start position:0%
pulses with no bright radio emissions.
 

57:56.996 --> 57:59.707 align:start position:0%
pulses with no bright radio emissions.
By<00:59:00.880><c> contrast,</c><00:59:01.680><c> the</c><00:59:01.920><c> other</c><00:59:02.160><c> pulsar,</c><00:59:03.040><c> which</c>

57:59.707 --> 57:59.717 align:start position:0%
By contrast, the other pulsar, which
 

57:59.717 --> 58:03.307 align:start position:0%
By contrast, the other pulsar, which
I'll<00:59:03.599><c> refer</c><00:59:03.839><c> to</c><00:59:04.000><c> as</c><00:59:04.240><c> pulsar</c><00:59:04.799><c> B,</c><00:59:05.760><c> is</c><00:59:06.079><c> not</c><00:59:06.480><c> seen</c>

58:03.307 --> 58:03.317 align:start position:0%
I'll refer to as pulsar B, is not seen
 

58:03.317 --> 58:06.827 align:start position:0%
I'll refer to as pulsar B, is not seen
in<00:59:07.119><c> gamma</c><00:59:07.520><c> rays</c><00:59:08.640><c> and</c><00:59:08.960><c> instead</c><00:59:09.599><c> is</c><00:59:09.839><c> one</c><00:59:10.079><c> of</c><00:59:10.160><c> the</c>

58:06.827 --> 58:06.837 align:start position:0%
in gamma rays and instead is one of the
 

58:06.837 --> 58:10.026 align:start position:0%
in gamma rays and instead is one of the
brightest<00:59:10.880><c> known</c><00:59:11.520><c> radio</c><00:59:12.079><c> pulsars.</c>

58:10.026 --> 58:10.036 align:start position:0%
brightest known radio pulsars.
 

58:10.036 --> 58:12.026 align:start position:0%
brightest known radio pulsars.
How<00:59:13.760><c> could</c><00:59:13.920><c> these</c><00:59:14.240><c> two</c><00:59:14.400><c> pulsars</c><00:59:15.040><c> be</c><00:59:15.280><c> so</c>

58:12.026 --> 58:12.036 align:start position:0%
How could these two pulsars be so
 

58:12.036 --> 58:15.226 align:start position:0%
How could these two pulsars be so
similar<00:59:16.400><c> yet</c><00:59:16.799><c> so</c><00:59:17.280><c> vastly</c><00:59:17.920><c> different</c><00:59:18.240><c> in</c><00:59:18.559><c> how</c>

58:15.226 --> 58:15.236 align:start position:0%
similar yet so vastly different in how
 

58:15.236 --> 58:16.907 align:start position:0%
similar yet so vastly different in how
we<00:59:18.960><c> see</c><00:59:19.200><c> them?</c>

58:16.907 --> 58:16.917 align:start position:0%
we see them?
 

58:16.917 --> 58:19.546 align:start position:0%
we see them?
The<00:59:20.799><c> answer</c><00:59:21.200><c> may</c><00:59:21.440><c> be</c><00:59:21.599><c> as</c><00:59:21.839><c> simple</c><00:59:22.240><c> as</c><00:59:22.559><c> how</c><00:59:22.799><c> each</c>

58:19.546 --> 58:19.556 align:start position:0%
The answer may be as simple as how each
 

58:19.556 --> 58:22.427 align:start position:0%
The answer may be as simple as how each
of<00:59:23.200><c> these</c><00:59:23.520><c> pulsars</c><00:59:24.160><c> are</c><00:59:24.480><c> oriented</c><00:59:25.520><c> relative</c>

58:22.427 --> 58:22.437 align:start position:0%
of these pulsars are oriented relative
 

58:22.437 --> 58:25.467 align:start position:0%
of these pulsars are oriented relative
to<00:59:26.240><c> our</c><00:59:26.559><c> observation</c><00:59:27.200><c> from</c><00:59:27.520><c> Earth.</c>

58:25.467 --> 58:25.477 align:start position:0%
to our observation from Earth.
 

58:25.477 --> 58:27.307 align:start position:0%
to our observation from Earth.
Astronomers<00:59:29.760><c> believe</c><00:59:30.000><c> that</c><00:59:30.160><c> these</c><00:59:30.400><c> images</c><00:59:30.720><c> of</c>

58:27.307 --> 58:27.317 align:start position:0%
Astronomers believe that these images of
 

58:27.317 --> 58:30.587 align:start position:0%
Astronomers believe that these images of
Gaminga<00:59:31.599><c> and</c><00:59:31.839><c> Pulsar</c><00:59:32.480><c> B</c><00:59:33.040><c> have</c><00:59:33.359><c> revealed</c><00:59:33.839><c> their</c>

58:30.587 --> 58:30.597 align:start position:0%
Gaminga and Pulsar B have revealed their
 

58:30.597 --> 58:34.506 align:start position:0%
Gaminga and Pulsar B have revealed their
spin<00:59:34.559><c> axes</c><00:59:35.680><c> and</c><00:59:36.079><c> uncovered</c><00:59:36.720><c> a</c><00:59:37.040><c> reason</c><00:59:37.359><c> for</c><00:59:37.599><c> why</c>

58:34.506 --> 58:34.516 align:start position:0%
spin axes and uncovered a reason for why
 

58:34.516 --> 58:37.546 align:start position:0%
spin axes and uncovered a reason for why
radio<00:59:38.480><c> and</c><00:59:38.799><c> gammaray</c><00:59:39.359><c> pulses</c><00:59:40.000><c> may</c><00:59:40.240><c> be</c><00:59:40.400><c> present</c>

58:37.546 --> 58:37.556 align:start position:0%
radio and gammaray pulses may be present
 

58:37.556 --> 58:41.226 align:start position:0%
radio and gammaray pulses may be present
or<00:59:41.520><c> absent</c><00:59:42.400><c> on</c><00:59:42.720><c> different</c><00:59:43.040><c> pulsars.</c>

58:41.226 --> 58:41.236 align:start position:0%
or absent on different pulsars.
 

58:41.236 --> 58:43.067 align:start position:0%
or absent on different pulsars.
Like<00:59:45.040><c> our</c><00:59:45.280><c> own</c><00:59:45.599><c> magnetic</c><00:59:46.000><c> field</c><00:59:46.240><c> around</c>

58:43.067 --> 58:43.077 align:start position:0%
Like our own magnetic field around
 

58:43.077 --> 58:45.147 align:start position:0%
Like our own magnetic field around
Earth,<00:59:47.280><c> both</c><00:59:47.520><c> of</c><00:59:47.599><c> these</c><00:59:47.839><c> pulsars</c><00:59:48.480><c> have</c>

58:45.147 --> 58:45.157 align:start position:0%
Earth, both of these pulsars have
 

58:45.157 --> 58:46.986 align:start position:0%
Earth, both of these pulsars have
magnetic<00:59:49.200><c> poles</c><00:59:49.680><c> close</c><00:59:49.920><c> to</c><00:59:50.079><c> their</c><00:59:50.319><c> spin</c>

58:46.986 --> 58:46.996 align:start position:0%
magnetic poles close to their spin
 

58:46.996 --> 58:49.707 align:start position:0%
magnetic poles close to their spin
poles.<00:59:51.520><c> These</c><00:59:51.839><c> poles</c><00:59:52.240><c> are</c><00:59:52.400><c> where</c><00:59:52.640><c> the</c><00:59:52.960><c> beams</c>

58:49.707 --> 58:49.717 align:start position:0%
poles. These poles are where the beams
 

58:49.717 --> 58:52.587 align:start position:0%
poles. These poles are where the beams
of<00:59:53.520><c> pulsing</c><00:59:54.160><c> radio</c><00:59:54.480><c> emissions</c><00:59:55.040><c> come</c><00:59:55.200><c> from.</c>

58:52.587 --> 58:52.597 align:start position:0%
of pulsing radio emissions come from.
 

58:52.597 --> 58:54.506 align:start position:0%
of pulsing radio emissions come from.
You<00:59:56.319><c> could</c><00:59:56.559><c> try</c><00:59:56.720><c> to</c><00:59:56.960><c> model</c><00:59:57.280><c> this</c><00:59:57.599><c> if</c><00:59:57.920><c> you</c>

58:54.506 --> 58:54.516 align:start position:0%
You could try to model this if you
 

58:54.516 --> 58:56.827 align:start position:0%
You could try to model this if you
skewer<00:59:58.559><c> a</c><00:59:58.799><c> little</c><00:59:58.960><c> foam</c><00:59:59.280><c> ball</c><00:59:59.680><c> right</c><01:00:00.000><c> down</c><01:00:00.240><c> the</c>

58:56.827 --> 58:56.837 align:start position:0%
skewer a little foam ball right down the
 

58:56.837 --> 58:59.546 align:start position:0%
skewer a little foam ball right down the
middle.<01:00:01.200><c> The</c><01:00:01.359><c> foam</c><01:00:01.680><c> ball</c><01:00:01.920><c> is</c><01:00:02.160><c> a</c><01:00:02.319><c> pulsar,</c><01:00:02.960><c> and</c>

58:59.546 --> 58:59.556 align:start position:0%
middle. The foam ball is a pulsar, and
 

58:59.556 --> 59:01.387 align:start position:0%
middle. The foam ball is a pulsar, and
the<01:00:03.359><c> radio</c><01:00:03.680><c> beams</c><01:00:04.000><c> coming</c><01:00:04.160><c> from</c><01:00:04.319><c> the</c><01:00:04.480><c> poles</c>

59:01.387 --> 59:01.397 align:start position:0%
the radio beams coming from the poles
 

59:01.397 --> 59:03.147 align:start position:0%
the radio beams coming from the poles
are<01:00:05.200><c> represented</c><01:00:05.599><c> by</c><01:00:05.760><c> the</c><01:00:06.000><c> wooden</c><01:00:06.240><c> skewer</c>

59:03.147 --> 59:03.157 align:start position:0%
are represented by the wooden skewer
 

59:03.157 --> 59:05.387 align:start position:0%
are represented by the wooden skewer
coming<01:00:06.960><c> out</c><01:00:07.200><c> both</c><01:00:07.440><c> ends.</c><01:00:08.240><c> If</c><01:00:08.400><c> you</c><01:00:08.559><c> spin</c><01:00:08.720><c> the</c>

59:05.387 --> 59:05.397 align:start position:0%
coming out both ends. If you spin the
 

59:05.397 --> 59:08.187 align:start position:0%
coming out both ends. If you spin the
ball<01:00:09.200><c> around</c><01:00:09.520><c> the</c><01:00:09.760><c> skewer</c><01:00:10.160><c> like</c><01:00:10.400><c> a</c><01:00:10.559><c> spin</c><01:00:10.880><c> axis,</c>

59:08.187 --> 59:08.197 align:start position:0%
ball around the skewer like a spin axis,
 

59:08.197 --> 59:10.827 align:start position:0%
ball around the skewer like a spin axis,
you<01:00:12.000><c> create</c><01:00:12.240><c> an</c><01:00:12.480><c> equator</c><01:00:12.960><c> around</c><01:00:13.200><c> the</c><01:00:13.440><c> middle.</c>

59:10.827 --> 59:10.837 align:start position:0%
you create an equator around the middle.
 

59:10.837 --> 59:12.827 align:start position:0%
you create an equator around the middle.
To<01:00:14.720><c> illustrate</c><01:00:14.960><c> the</c><01:00:15.119><c> gammaray</c><01:00:15.680><c> source</c><01:00:16.079><c> along</c>

59:12.827 --> 59:12.837 align:start position:0%
To illustrate the gammaray source along
 

59:12.837 --> 59:15.546 align:start position:0%
To illustrate the gammaray source along
the<01:00:16.559><c> spin</c><01:00:16.880><c> equator</c><01:00:17.520><c> called</c><01:00:17.760><c> the</c><01:00:17.920><c> Taurus,</c><01:00:18.880><c> you</c>

59:15.546 --> 59:15.556 align:start position:0%
the spin equator called the Taurus, you
 

59:15.556 --> 59:17.947 align:start position:0%
the spin equator called the Taurus, you
could<01:00:19.359><c> cut</c><01:00:19.599><c> a</c><01:00:19.760><c> hole</c><01:00:20.000><c> in</c><01:00:20.160><c> a</c><01:00:20.319><c> paper</c><01:00:20.640><c> plate</c><01:00:21.119><c> and</c>

59:17.947 --> 59:17.957 align:start position:0%
could cut a hole in a paper plate and
 

59:17.957 --> 59:20.427 align:start position:0%
could cut a hole in a paper plate and
squeeze<01:00:21.839><c> it</c><01:00:22.079><c> over</c><01:00:22.240><c> the</c><01:00:22.480><c> foam</c><01:00:22.799><c> ball.</c><01:00:23.839><c> Now</c>

59:20.427 --> 59:20.437 align:start position:0%
squeeze it over the foam ball. Now
 

59:20.437 --> 59:22.827 align:start position:0%
squeeze it over the foam ball. Now
you've<01:00:24.319><c> got</c><01:00:24.480><c> yourself</c><01:00:24.880><c> a</c><01:00:25.119><c> disc</c><01:00:25.359><c> of</c><01:00:25.520><c> gamma</c><01:00:25.920><c> rays</c>

59:22.827 --> 59:22.837 align:start position:0%
you've got yourself a disc of gamma rays
 

59:22.837 --> 59:25.387 align:start position:0%
you've got yourself a disc of gamma rays
beaming<01:00:27.040><c> out</c><01:00:27.280><c> from</c><01:00:27.520><c> the</c><01:00:27.680><c> equator</c><01:00:28.240><c> in</c><01:00:28.559><c> every</c>

59:25.387 --> 59:25.397 align:start position:0%
beaming out from the equator in every
 

59:25.397 --> 59:28.667 align:start position:0%
beaming out from the equator in every
direction.<01:00:30.240><c> With</c><01:00:30.559><c> gaming,</c><01:00:31.359><c> the</c><01:00:31.680><c> edge</c><01:00:31.920><c> of</c><01:00:32.079><c> the</c>

59:28.667 --> 59:28.677 align:start position:0%
direction. With gaming, the edge of the
 

59:28.677 --> 59:31.387 align:start position:0%
direction. With gaming, the edge of the
paper<01:00:32.559><c> plate</c><01:00:32.960><c> is</c><01:00:33.280><c> pointing</c><01:00:33.680><c> towards</c><01:00:34.160><c> us,</c>

59:31.387 --> 59:31.397 align:start position:0%
paper plate is pointing towards us,
 

59:31.397 --> 59:33.387 align:start position:0%
paper plate is pointing towards us,
meaning<01:00:35.200><c> the</c><01:00:35.359><c> gamma</c><01:00:35.680><c> rays</c><01:00:36.160><c> are</c><01:00:36.400><c> heading</c><01:00:36.720><c> to</c>

59:33.387 --> 59:33.397 align:start position:0%
meaning the gamma rays are heading to
 

59:33.397 --> 59:36.827 align:start position:0%
meaning the gamma rays are heading to
Earth.<01:00:37.920><c> But</c><01:00:38.160><c> for</c><01:00:38.319><c> pulsar</c><01:00:38.880><c> B,</c><01:00:39.680><c> its</c><01:00:40.000><c> relative</c>

59:36.827 --> 59:36.837 align:start position:0%
Earth. But for pulsar B, its relative
 

59:36.837 --> 59:39.467 align:start position:0%
Earth. But for pulsar B, its relative
position<01:00:40.720><c> to</c><01:00:40.960><c> us</c><01:00:41.280><c> is</c><01:00:41.520><c> at</c><01:00:41.760><c> a</c><01:00:42.000><c> different</c><01:00:42.319><c> angle</c>

59:39.467 --> 59:39.477 align:start position:0%
position to us is at a different angle
 

59:39.477 --> 59:41.867 align:start position:0%
position to us is at a different angle
as<01:00:43.280><c> if</c><01:00:43.520><c> looking</c><01:00:43.839><c> at</c><01:00:44.079><c> the</c><01:00:44.319><c> flat</c><01:00:44.720><c> surface</c><01:00:45.040><c> of</c><01:00:45.200><c> the</c>

59:41.867 --> 59:41.877 align:start position:0%
as if looking at the flat surface of the
 

59:41.877 --> 59:44.187 align:start position:0%
as if looking at the flat surface of the
plate.<01:00:46.319><c> The</c><01:00:46.480><c> gamma</c><01:00:46.880><c> rays</c><01:00:47.200><c> are</c><01:00:47.359><c> moving</c>

59:44.187 --> 59:44.197 align:start position:0%
plate. The gamma rays are moving
 

59:44.197 --> 59:46.427 align:start position:0%
plate. The gamma rays are moving
perpendicular<01:00:48.480><c> to</c><01:00:48.640><c> our</c><01:00:48.880><c> line</c><01:00:49.119><c> of</c><01:00:49.280><c> sight,</c>

59:46.427 --> 59:46.437 align:start position:0%
perpendicular to our line of sight,
 

59:46.437 --> 59:49.387 align:start position:0%
perpendicular to our line of sight,
therefore<01:00:50.799><c> missing</c><01:00:51.200><c> Earth.</c>

59:49.387 --> 59:49.397 align:start position:0%
therefore missing Earth.
 

59:49.397 --> 59:51.147 align:start position:0%
therefore missing Earth.
Let's<01:00:53.280><c> look</c><01:00:53.440><c> again</c><01:00:53.680><c> at</c><01:00:53.839><c> the</c><01:00:54.000><c> two</c><01:00:54.240><c> Chandra</c>

59:51.147 --> 59:51.157 align:start position:0%
Let's look again at the two Chandra
 

59:51.157 --> 59:54.026 align:start position:0%
Let's look again at the two Chandra
images<01:00:55.040><c> of</c><01:00:55.280><c> Ginga</c><01:00:55.839><c> on</c><01:00:56.000><c> the</c><01:00:56.160><c> left</c><01:00:56.480><c> and</c><01:00:56.799><c> Pulsar</c><01:00:57.359><c> B</c>

59:54.026 --> 59:54.036 align:start position:0%
images of Ginga on the left and Pulsar B
 

59:54.036 --> 59:56.107 align:start position:0%
images of Ginga on the left and Pulsar B
on<01:00:57.760><c> the</c><01:00:57.920><c> right</c><01:00:58.559><c> along</c><01:00:58.880><c> with</c><01:00:59.119><c> artist</c>

59:56.107 --> 59:56.117 align:start position:0%
on the right along with artist
 

59:56.117 --> 59:57.546 align:start position:0%
on the right along with artist
illustrations<01:01:00.079><c> of</c><01:01:00.240><c> what</c><01:01:00.480><c> astronomers</c>

59:57.546 --> 59:57.556 align:start position:0%
illustrations of what astronomers
 

59:57.556 --> 59:59.467 align:start position:0%
illustrations of what astronomers
believe<01:01:01.359><c> the</c><01:01:01.520><c> Pulsar</c><01:01:02.079><c> wind</c><01:01:02.240><c> nebulas</c><01:01:02.799><c> look</c>

59:59.467 --> 59:59.477 align:start position:0%
believe the Pulsar wind nebulas look
 

59:59.477 --> 01:00:02.026 align:start position:0%
believe the Pulsar wind nebulas look
like<01:01:03.200><c> for</c><01:01:03.440><c> each</c><01:01:03.599><c> of</c><01:01:03.760><c> these.</c><01:01:04.880><c> In</c><01:01:05.040><c> the</c><01:01:05.280><c> image</c><01:01:05.440><c> of</c>

01:00:02.026 --> 01:00:02.036 align:start position:0%
like for each of these. In the image of
 

01:00:02.036 --> 01:00:05.147 align:start position:0%
like for each of these. In the image of
Pulsar<01:01:06.240><c> B,</c><01:01:06.880><c> the</c><01:01:07.119><c> long</c><01:01:07.520><c> trailing</c><01:01:08.000><c> blue</c><01:01:08.240><c> tails</c>

01:00:05.147 --> 01:00:05.157 align:start position:0%
Pulsar B, the long trailing blue tails
 

01:00:05.157 --> 01:00:07.467 align:start position:0%
Pulsar B, the long trailing blue tails
represent<01:01:09.280><c> the</c><01:01:09.599><c> radio</c><01:01:10.000><c> jets</c><01:01:10.319><c> emanating</c><01:01:10.799><c> from</c>

01:00:07.467 --> 01:00:07.477 align:start position:0%
represent the radio jets emanating from
 

01:00:07.477 --> 01:00:10.026 align:start position:0%
represent the radio jets emanating from
his<01:01:11.280><c> poles</c><01:01:12.000><c> and</c><01:01:12.160><c> the</c><01:01:12.400><c> skewers</c><01:01:12.960><c> coming</c><01:01:13.200><c> out</c><01:01:13.359><c> of</c>

01:00:10.026 --> 01:00:10.036 align:start position:0%
his poles and the skewers coming out of
 

01:00:10.036 --> 01:00:12.266 align:start position:0%
his poles and the skewers coming out of
both<01:01:13.760><c> ends.</c><01:01:14.799><c> Only</c><01:01:15.119><c> instead</c><01:01:15.440><c> of</c><01:01:15.599><c> being</c>

01:00:12.266 --> 01:00:12.276 align:start position:0%
both ends. Only instead of being
 

01:00:12.276 --> 01:00:14.506 align:start position:0%
both ends. Only instead of being
straight<01:01:16.160><c> like</c><01:01:16.319><c> a</c><01:01:16.480><c> wooden</c><01:01:16.720><c> skewer,</c><01:01:17.359><c> Pulsar</c><01:01:17.920><c> B</c>

01:00:14.506 --> 01:00:14.516 align:start position:0%
straight like a wooden skewer, Pulsar B
 

01:00:14.516 --> 01:00:16.427 align:start position:0%
straight like a wooden skewer, Pulsar B
is<01:01:18.319><c> moving</c><01:01:18.559><c> so</c><01:01:18.880><c> fast</c><01:01:19.119><c> through</c><01:01:19.520><c> space</c><01:01:19.760><c> that</c>

01:00:16.427 --> 01:00:16.437 align:start position:0%
is moving so fast through space that
 

01:00:16.437 --> 01:00:18.986 align:start position:0%
is moving so fast through space that
these<01:01:20.319><c> jets</c><01:01:20.720><c> appear</c><01:01:21.119><c> bent</c><01:01:21.599><c> backwards,</c>

01:00:18.986 --> 01:00:18.996 align:start position:0%
these jets appear bent backwards,
 

01:00:18.996 --> 01:00:20.907 align:start position:0%
these jets appear bent backwards,
trailing<01:01:22.960><c> behind</c><01:01:23.359><c> as</c><01:01:23.520><c> the</c><01:01:23.680><c> pulsar</c><01:01:24.160><c> moves</c>

01:00:20.907 --> 01:00:20.917 align:start position:0%
trailing behind as the pulsar moves
 

01:00:20.917 --> 01:00:23.627 align:start position:0%
trailing behind as the pulsar moves
through<01:01:24.720><c> space.</c><01:01:25.920><c> Now</c><01:01:26.240><c> look</c><01:01:26.400><c> at</c><01:01:26.559><c> the</c><01:01:26.720><c> image</c><01:01:26.960><c> of</c>

01:00:23.627 --> 01:00:23.637 align:start position:0%
through space. Now look at the image of
 

01:00:23.637 --> 01:00:26.986 align:start position:0%
through space. Now look at the image of
Gaminga.<01:01:28.319><c> Here</c><01:01:28.880><c> the</c><01:01:29.200><c> long</c><01:01:29.599><c> twin</c><01:01:30.000><c> tails</c><01:01:30.319><c> on</c>

01:00:26.986 --> 01:00:26.996 align:start position:0%
Gaminga. Here the long twin tails on
 

01:00:26.996 --> 01:00:28.986 align:start position:0%
Gaminga. Here the long twin tails on
either<01:01:30.880><c> side</c><01:01:31.040><c> of</c><01:01:31.200><c> the</c><01:01:31.359><c> image</c><01:01:31.680><c> are</c><01:01:31.920><c> the</c><01:01:32.160><c> radio</c>

01:00:28.986 --> 01:00:28.996 align:start position:0%
either side of the image are the radio
 

01:00:28.996 --> 01:00:32.587 align:start position:0%
either side of the image are the radio
jets<01:01:33.440><c> trailing</c><01:01:33.920><c> behind</c><01:01:34.400><c> as</c><01:01:34.720><c> it</c><01:01:35.200><c> too</c><01:01:35.680><c> rushes</c>

01:00:32.587 --> 01:00:32.597 align:start position:0%
jets trailing behind as it too rushes
 

01:00:32.597 --> 01:00:35.307 align:start position:0%
jets trailing behind as it too rushes
through<01:01:36.480><c> space.</c><01:01:37.520><c> But</c><01:01:37.680><c> this</c><01:01:37.920><c> time</c><01:01:38.400><c> instead</c><01:01:38.720><c> of</c>

01:00:35.307 --> 01:00:35.317 align:start position:0%
through space. But this time instead of
 

01:00:35.317 --> 01:00:37.627 align:start position:0%
through space. But this time instead of
pointing<01:01:39.280><c> almost</c><01:01:39.680><c> directly</c><01:01:40.240><c> toward</c><01:01:40.720><c> and</c><01:01:40.960><c> away</c>

01:00:37.627 --> 01:00:37.637 align:start position:0%
pointing almost directly toward and away
 

01:00:37.637 --> 01:00:39.867 align:start position:0%
pointing almost directly toward and away
from<01:01:41.359><c> our</c><01:01:41.599><c> vantage</c><01:01:42.000><c> point</c><01:01:42.160><c> on</c><01:01:42.400><c> Earth,</c><01:01:43.119><c> these</c>

01:00:39.867 --> 01:00:39.877 align:start position:0%
from our vantage point on Earth, these
 

01:00:39.877 --> 01:00:41.786 align:start position:0%
from our vantage point on Earth, these
jets<01:01:43.839><c> appear</c><01:01:44.079><c> to</c><01:01:44.240><c> be</c><01:01:44.400><c> coming</c><01:01:44.720><c> off</c><01:01:44.960><c> to</c><01:01:45.119><c> the</c>

01:00:41.786 --> 01:00:41.796 align:start position:0%
jets appear to be coming off to the
 

01:00:41.796 --> 01:00:45.147 align:start position:0%
jets appear to be coming off to the
sides,<01:01:46.240><c> not</c><01:01:46.640><c> aimed</c><01:01:46.960><c> at</c><01:01:47.119><c> Earth.</c><01:01:48.319><c> So</c><01:01:48.480><c> when</c>

01:00:45.147 --> 01:00:45.157 align:start position:0%
sides, not aimed at Earth. So when
 

01:00:45.157 --> 01:00:47.867 align:start position:0%
sides, not aimed at Earth. So when
astronomers<01:01:49.440><c> look</c><01:01:49.680><c> at</c><01:01:50.000><c> Gaminga,</c><01:01:50.799><c> they</c><01:01:51.040><c> see</c>

01:00:47.867 --> 01:00:47.877 align:start position:0%
astronomers look at Gaminga, they see
 

01:00:47.877 --> 01:00:49.786 align:start position:0%
astronomers look at Gaminga, they see
powerful<01:01:52.000><c> gammaray</c><01:01:52.640><c> emissions</c><01:01:53.040><c> from</c><01:01:53.200><c> the</c>

01:00:49.786 --> 01:00:49.796 align:start position:0%
powerful gammaray emissions from the
 

01:00:49.796 --> 01:00:52.187 align:start position:0%
powerful gammaray emissions from the
spin<01:01:53.760><c> equator,</c><01:01:54.400><c> but</c><01:01:54.640><c> the</c><01:01:54.880><c> radio</c><01:01:55.200><c> jets</c><01:01:55.520><c> point</c>

01:00:52.187 --> 01:00:52.197 align:start position:0%
spin equator, but the radio jets point
 

01:00:52.197 --> 01:00:55.226 align:start position:0%
spin equator, but the radio jets point
to<01:01:55.920><c> the</c><01:01:56.160><c> sides</c><01:01:56.480><c> and</c><01:01:56.799><c> remain</c><01:01:57.119><c> unseen.</c><01:01:58.400><c> And</c><01:01:58.559><c> when</c>

01:00:55.226 --> 01:00:55.236 align:start position:0%
to the sides and remain unseen. And when
 

01:00:55.236 --> 01:00:57.707 align:start position:0%
to the sides and remain unseen. And when
they<01:01:59.040><c> look</c><01:01:59.280><c> at</c><01:01:59.520><c> pulsar</c><01:02:00.160><c> B,</c><01:02:00.640><c> the</c><01:02:00.880><c> opposite</c>

01:00:57.707 --> 01:00:57.717 align:start position:0%
they look at pulsar B, the opposite
 

01:00:57.717 --> 01:00:59.867 align:start position:0%
they look at pulsar B, the opposite
happens.<01:02:02.079><c> The</c><01:02:02.319><c> radio</c><01:02:02.640><c> jets</c><01:02:02.960><c> are</c><01:02:03.040><c> pointed</c>

01:00:59.867 --> 01:00:59.877 align:start position:0%
happens. The radio jets are pointed
 

01:00:59.877 --> 01:01:02.107 align:start position:0%
happens. The radio jets are pointed
almost<01:02:03.839><c> straight</c><01:02:04.160><c> toward</c><01:02:04.559><c> our</c><01:02:04.880><c> planet</c><01:02:05.440><c> while</c>

01:01:02.107 --> 01:01:02.117 align:start position:0%
almost straight toward our planet while
 

01:01:02.117 --> 01:01:04.506 align:start position:0%
almost straight toward our planet while
the<01:02:05.839><c> gammaray</c><01:02:06.400><c> source</c><01:02:06.720><c> at</c><01:02:06.960><c> the</c><01:02:07.119><c> equator</c><01:02:07.839><c> is</c>

01:01:04.506 --> 01:01:04.516 align:start position:0%
the gammaray source at the equator is
 

01:01:04.516 --> 01:01:08.187 align:start position:0%
the gammaray source at the equator is
missing<01:02:08.559><c> Earth.</c><01:02:09.839><c> Sometimes</c><01:02:10.720><c> the</c><01:02:11.040><c> most</c><01:02:11.280><c> simple</c>

01:01:08.187 --> 01:01:08.197 align:start position:0%
missing Earth. Sometimes the most simple
 

01:01:08.197 --> 01:01:11.226 align:start position:0%
missing Earth. Sometimes the most simple
explanation<01:02:12.720><c> is</c><01:02:13.040><c> the</c><01:02:13.280><c> correct</c><01:02:13.520><c> one.</c><01:02:14.240><c> And</c><01:02:14.480><c> that</c>

01:01:11.226 --> 01:01:11.236 align:start position:0%
explanation is the correct one. And that
 

01:01:11.236 --> 01:01:13.307 align:start position:0%
explanation is the correct one. And that
finally<01:02:15.200><c> brings</c><01:02:15.520><c> us</c><01:02:15.680><c> back</c><01:02:15.839><c> to</c><01:02:16.079><c> the</c><01:02:16.319><c> decadesl</c>

01:01:13.307 --> 01:01:13.317 align:start position:0%
finally brings us back to the decadesl
 

01:01:13.317 --> 01:01:15.786 align:start position:0%
finally brings us back to the decadesl
long<01:02:17.119><c> mystery</c><01:02:17.520><c> of</c><01:02:17.760><c> an</c><01:02:18.000><c> unusual</c><01:02:18.640><c> abundance</c><01:02:19.119><c> of</c>

01:01:15.786 --> 01:01:15.796 align:start position:0%
long mystery of an unusual abundance of
 

01:01:15.796 --> 01:01:20.266 align:start position:0%
long mystery of an unusual abundance of
antimatter<01:02:20.160><c> bombarding</c><01:02:20.880><c> our</c><01:02:21.200><c> planet.</c>

01:01:20.266 --> 01:01:20.276 align:start position:0%
antimatter bombarding our planet.
 

01:01:20.276 --> 01:01:22.266 align:start position:0%
antimatter bombarding our planet.
For<01:02:24.079><c> more</c><01:02:24.240><c> than</c><01:02:24.400><c> a</c><01:02:24.559><c> decade,</c><01:02:25.119><c> a</c><01:02:25.359><c> particle</c>

01:01:22.266 --> 01:01:22.276 align:start position:0%
For more than a decade, a particle
 

01:01:22.276 --> 01:01:24.347 align:start position:0%
For more than a decade, a particle
detector<01:02:26.400><c> called</c><01:02:26.640><c> the</c><01:02:26.880><c> Alpha</c><01:02:27.440><c> Magnetic</c>

01:01:24.347 --> 01:01:24.357 align:start position:0%
detector called the Alpha Magnetic
 

01:01:24.357 --> 01:01:28.026 align:start position:0%
detector called the Alpha Magnetic
Spectrometer<01:02:28.960><c> or</c><01:02:29.280><c> AMS2</c><01:02:30.720><c> has</c><01:02:31.040><c> been</c><01:02:31.200><c> attached</c>

01:01:28.026 --> 01:01:28.036 align:start position:0%
Spectrometer or AMS2 has been attached
 

01:01:28.036 --> 01:01:30.026 align:start position:0%
Spectrometer or AMS2 has been attached
to<01:02:31.760><c> the</c><01:02:32.000><c> International</c><01:02:32.559><c> Space</c><01:02:32.880><c> Station,</c>

01:01:30.026 --> 01:01:30.036 align:start position:0%
to the International Space Station,
 

01:01:30.036 --> 01:01:32.587 align:start position:0%
to the International Space Station,
collecting<01:02:34.160><c> information</c><01:02:34.799><c> on</c><01:02:35.119><c> antimatter,</c>

01:01:32.587 --> 01:01:32.597 align:start position:0%
collecting information on antimatter,
 

01:01:32.597 --> 01:01:35.786 align:start position:0%
collecting information on antimatter,
dark<01:02:36.480><c> matter,</c><01:02:37.040><c> and</c><01:02:37.280><c> cosmic</c><01:02:37.680><c> ray</c><01:02:38.000><c> sources.</c><01:02:39.040><c> As</c>

01:01:35.786 --> 01:01:35.796 align:start position:0%
dark matter, and cosmic ray sources. As
 

01:01:35.796 --> 01:01:38.107 align:start position:0%
dark matter, and cosmic ray sources. As
a<01:02:39.520><c> reminder,</c><01:02:40.000><c> cosmic</c><01:02:40.400><c> rays</c><01:02:40.720><c> are</c><01:02:40.960><c> energetic</c>

01:01:38.107 --> 01:01:38.117 align:start position:0%
a reminder, cosmic rays are energetic
 

01:01:38.117 --> 01:01:40.506 align:start position:0%
a reminder, cosmic rays are energetic
particles,<01:02:42.480><c> fragments</c><01:02:42.960><c> of</c><01:02:43.200><c> atoms</c><01:02:43.680><c> that</c>

01:01:40.506 --> 01:01:40.516 align:start position:0%
particles, fragments of atoms that
 

01:01:40.516 --> 01:01:42.347 align:start position:0%
particles, fragments of atoms that
travel<01:02:44.400><c> through</c><01:02:44.720><c> space</c><01:02:45.040><c> at</c><01:02:45.280><c> nearly</c><01:02:45.599><c> the</c><01:02:45.760><c> speed</c>

01:01:42.347 --> 01:01:42.357 align:start position:0%
travel through space at nearly the speed
 

01:01:42.357 --> 01:01:45.226 align:start position:0%
travel through space at nearly the speed
of<01:02:46.160><c> light.</c><01:02:47.040><c> These</c><01:02:47.359><c> can</c><01:02:47.520><c> be</c><01:02:47.680><c> made</c><01:02:47.839><c> by</c><01:02:48.079><c> the</c><01:02:48.240><c> sun,</c>

01:01:45.226 --> 01:01:45.236 align:start position:0%
of light. These can be made by the sun,
 

01:01:45.236 --> 01:01:48.187 align:start position:0%
of light. These can be made by the sun,
by<01:02:49.119><c> supernova</c><01:02:49.760><c> explosions,</c><01:02:50.480><c> or</c><01:02:50.960><c> other</c><01:02:51.280><c> cosmic</c>

01:01:48.187 --> 01:01:48.197 align:start position:0%
by supernova explosions, or other cosmic
 

01:01:48.197 --> 01:01:52.427 align:start position:0%
by supernova explosions, or other cosmic
means.<01:02:52.799><c> And</c><01:02:52.960><c> in</c><01:02:53.599><c> 2013,</c><01:02:54.880><c> the</c><01:02:55.119><c> first</c><01:02:55.440><c> results</c><01:02:55.839><c> of</c>

01:01:52.427 --> 01:01:52.437 align:start position:0%
means. And in 2013, the first results of
 

01:01:52.437 --> 01:01:55.387 align:start position:0%
means. And in 2013, the first results of
the<01:02:56.160><c> AMS2</c><01:02:56.960><c> experiment</c><01:02:57.520><c> were</c><01:02:57.760><c> announced.</c><01:02:58.720><c> The</c>

01:01:55.387 --> 01:01:55.397 align:start position:0%
the AMS2 experiment were announced. The
 

01:01:55.397 --> 01:01:58.827 align:start position:0%
the AMS2 experiment were announced. The
detector<01:02:59.520><c> had</c><01:02:59.760><c> recorded</c><01:03:00.400><c> more</c><01:03:00.720><c> than</c><01:03:01.359><c> 400,000</c>

01:01:58.827 --> 01:01:58.837 align:start position:0%
detector had recorded more than 400,000
 

01:01:58.837 --> 01:02:01.786 align:start position:0%
detector had recorded more than 400,000
posetrons,<01:03:03.599><c> the</c><01:03:03.839><c> largest</c><01:03:04.319><c> sample</c><01:03:04.720><c> of</c><01:03:04.960><c> cosmic</c>

01:02:01.786 --> 01:02:01.796 align:start position:0%
posetrons, the largest sample of cosmic
 

01:02:01.796 --> 01:02:05.067 align:start position:0%
posetrons, the largest sample of cosmic
ray<01:03:05.680><c> posetron</c><01:03:06.240><c> data</c><01:03:06.799><c> ever</c><01:03:07.200><c> collected.</c><01:03:08.319><c> and</c>

01:02:05.067 --> 01:02:05.077 align:start position:0%
ray posetron data ever collected. and
 

01:02:05.077 --> 01:02:07.467 align:start position:0%
ray posetron data ever collected. and
increasing<01:03:09.200><c> the</c><01:03:09.440><c> world's</c><01:03:09.839><c> total</c><01:03:10.319><c> cosmic</c><01:03:10.720><c> ray</c>

01:02:07.467 --> 01:02:07.477 align:start position:0%
increasing the world's total cosmic ray
 

01:02:07.477 --> 01:02:10.827 align:start position:0%
increasing the world's total cosmic ray
posetron<01:03:11.680><c> data</c><01:03:12.240><c> by</c><01:03:12.720><c> 100fold.</c>

01:02:10.827 --> 01:02:10.837 align:start position:0%
posetron data by 100fold.
 

01:02:10.837 --> 01:02:12.827 align:start position:0%
posetron data by 100fold.
For<01:03:14.720><c> years,</c><01:03:15.359><c> many</c><01:03:15.680><c> astronomers</c><01:03:16.240><c> and</c>

01:02:12.827 --> 01:02:12.837 align:start position:0%
For years, many astronomers and
 

01:02:12.837 --> 01:02:14.427 align:start position:0%
For years, many astronomers and
physicists<01:03:16.880><c> hoped</c><01:03:17.119><c> that</c><01:03:17.359><c> this</c><01:03:17.599><c> excess</c>

01:02:14.427 --> 01:02:14.437 align:start position:0%
physicists hoped that this excess
 

01:02:14.437 --> 01:02:17.067 align:start position:0%
physicists hoped that this excess
antimatter<01:03:18.960><c> may</c><01:03:19.200><c> be</c><01:03:19.359><c> the</c><01:03:19.599><c> byproduct</c><01:03:20.240><c> of</c><01:03:20.400><c> a</c>

01:02:17.067 --> 01:02:17.077 align:start position:0%
antimatter may be the byproduct of a
 

01:02:17.077 --> 01:02:19.466 align:start position:0%
antimatter may be the byproduct of a
dark<01:03:21.039><c> matter</c><01:03:21.359><c> annihilation,</c><01:03:22.640><c> offering</c>

01:02:19.466 --> 01:02:19.476 align:start position:0%
dark matter annihilation, offering
 

01:02:19.476 --> 01:02:21.546 align:start position:0%
dark matter annihilation, offering
possible<01:03:23.440><c> clues</c><01:03:23.839><c> about</c><01:03:24.160><c> this</c><01:03:24.480><c> mysterious</c>

01:02:21.546 --> 01:02:21.556 align:start position:0%
possible clues about this mysterious
 

01:02:21.556 --> 01:02:24.506 align:start position:0%
possible clues about this mysterious
substance.<01:03:26.240><c> After</c><01:03:26.480><c> all,</c><01:03:27.119><c> dark</c><01:03:27.440><c> matter</c><01:03:27.839><c> could</c>

01:02:24.506 --> 01:02:24.516 align:start position:0%
substance. After all, dark matter could
 

01:02:24.516 --> 01:02:28.026 align:start position:0%
substance. After all, dark matter could
make<01:03:28.319><c> up</c><01:03:28.640><c> around</c><01:03:29.119><c> 27%</c><01:03:30.079><c> of</c><01:03:30.240><c> the</c><01:03:30.400><c> cosmos.</c><01:03:31.359><c> And</c>

01:02:28.026 --> 01:02:28.036 align:start position:0%
make up around 27% of the cosmos. And
 

01:02:28.036 --> 01:02:30.827 align:start position:0%
make up around 27% of the cosmos. And
yet,<01:03:32.079><c> we</c><01:03:32.400><c> still</c><01:03:32.640><c> don't</c><01:03:32.799><c> know</c><01:03:32.960><c> what</c><01:03:33.200><c> it</c><01:03:33.359><c> is.</c>

01:02:30.827 --> 01:02:30.837 align:start position:0%
yet, we still don't know what it is.
 

01:02:30.837 --> 01:02:33.307 align:start position:0%
yet, we still don't know what it is.
Like<01:03:34.720><c> regular</c><01:03:35.200><c> matter,</c><01:03:35.839><c> dark</c><01:03:36.160><c> matter</c><01:03:36.480><c> holds</c>

01:02:33.307 --> 01:02:33.317 align:start position:0%
Like regular matter, dark matter holds
 

01:02:33.317 --> 01:02:35.707 align:start position:0%
Like regular matter, dark matter holds
mass<01:03:37.280><c> and</c><01:03:37.520><c> takes</c><01:03:37.760><c> up</c><01:03:38.000><c> space.</c><01:03:38.799><c> But</c><01:03:38.960><c> it</c><01:03:39.119><c> doesn't</c>

01:02:35.707 --> 01:02:35.717 align:start position:0%
mass and takes up space. But it doesn't
 

01:02:35.717 --> 01:02:38.107 align:start position:0%
mass and takes up space. But it doesn't
seem<01:03:39.520><c> to</c><01:03:39.680><c> absorb,</c><01:03:40.400><c> reflect,</c><01:03:40.880><c> or</c><01:03:41.200><c> interact</c>

01:02:38.107 --> 01:02:38.117 align:start position:0%
seem to absorb, reflect, or interact
 

01:02:38.117 --> 01:02:40.827 align:start position:0%
seem to absorb, reflect, or interact
with<01:03:41.920><c> light,</c><01:03:42.720><c> at</c><01:03:42.799><c> least</c><01:03:43.200><c> not</c><01:03:43.440><c> in</c><01:03:43.599><c> a</c><01:03:43.760><c> way</c><01:03:44.000><c> we</c><01:03:44.240><c> can</c>

01:02:40.827 --> 01:02:40.837 align:start position:0%
with light, at least not in a way we can
 

01:02:40.837 --> 01:02:43.707 align:start position:0%
with light, at least not in a way we can
detect.<01:03:45.680><c> Some</c><01:03:46.000><c> theorize</c><01:03:46.480><c> that</c><01:03:46.640><c> dark</c><01:03:46.880><c> matter</c>

01:02:43.707 --> 01:02:43.717 align:start position:0%
detect. Some theorize that dark matter
 

01:02:43.717 --> 01:02:46.107 align:start position:0%
detect. Some theorize that dark matter
may<01:03:47.440><c> be</c><01:03:47.599><c> made</c><01:03:47.839><c> of</c><01:03:48.079><c> yet</c><01:03:48.400><c> unidentified</c><01:03:49.280><c> types</c><01:03:49.520><c> of</c>

01:02:46.107 --> 01:02:46.117 align:start position:0%
may be made of yet unidentified types of
 

01:02:46.117 --> 01:02:49.147 align:start position:0%
may be made of yet unidentified types of
particles.<01:03:50.880><c> Whatever</c><01:03:51.280><c> it</c><01:03:51.520><c> is,</c><01:03:52.079><c> scientists</c>

01:02:49.147 --> 01:02:49.157 align:start position:0%
particles. Whatever it is, scientists
 

01:02:49.157 --> 01:02:51.627 align:start position:0%
particles. Whatever it is, scientists
had<01:03:53.119><c> high</c><01:03:53.440><c> hopes</c><01:03:53.920><c> that</c><01:03:54.160><c> the</c><01:03:54.400><c> overabundance</c><01:03:55.039><c> of</c>

01:02:51.627 --> 01:02:51.637 align:start position:0%
had high hopes that the overabundance of
 

01:02:51.637 --> 01:02:54.266 align:start position:0%
had high hopes that the overabundance of
antimatter<01:03:55.839><c> being</c><01:03:56.079><c> detected</c><01:03:56.480><c> aboard</c><01:03:56.880><c> the</c><01:03:57.039><c> ISS</c>

01:02:54.266 --> 01:02:54.276 align:start position:0%
antimatter being detected aboard the ISS
 

01:02:54.276 --> 01:02:56.907 align:start position:0%
antimatter being detected aboard the ISS
may<01:03:58.160><c> hold</c><01:03:58.480><c> clues</c><01:03:58.960><c> about</c><01:03:59.280><c> dark</c><01:03:59.680><c> matter's</c><01:04:00.160><c> true</c>

01:02:56.907 --> 01:02:56.917 align:start position:0%
may hold clues about dark matter's true
 

01:02:56.917 --> 01:03:00.587 align:start position:0%
may hold clues about dark matter's true
nature.<01:04:01.920><c> Unfortunately,</c><01:04:03.119><c> they've</c><01:04:03.599><c> been</c><01:04:03.760><c> left</c>

01:03:00.587 --> 01:03:00.597 align:start position:0%
nature. Unfortunately, they've been left
 

01:03:00.597 --> 01:03:03.067 align:start position:0%
nature. Unfortunately, they've been left
disappointed.<01:04:05.440><c> The</c><01:04:05.599><c> more</c><01:04:05.839><c> scientists</c><01:04:06.319><c> dig</c>

01:03:03.067 --> 01:03:03.077 align:start position:0%
disappointed. The more scientists dig
 

01:03:03.077 --> 01:03:05.147 align:start position:0%
disappointed. The more scientists dig
into<01:04:06.880><c> the</c><01:04:07.119><c> data,</c><01:04:07.680><c> the</c><01:04:07.920><c> clearer</c><01:04:08.319><c> it's</c>

01:03:05.147 --> 01:03:05.157 align:start position:0%
into the data, the clearer it's
 

01:03:05.157 --> 01:03:07.546 align:start position:0%
into the data, the clearer it's
becoming.<01:04:09.680><c> The</c><01:04:10.000><c> most</c><01:04:10.240><c> likely</c><01:04:10.640><c> source</c><01:04:10.960><c> of</c>

01:03:07.546 --> 01:03:07.556 align:start position:0%
becoming. The most likely source of
 

01:03:07.556 --> 01:03:11.466 align:start position:0%
becoming. The most likely source of
these<01:04:11.359><c> posetrons</c><01:04:12.319><c> may</c><01:04:12.720><c> actually</c><01:04:13.280><c> be</c><01:04:13.599><c> pulsars.</c>

01:03:11.466 --> 01:03:11.476 align:start position:0%
these posetrons may actually be pulsars.
 

01:03:11.476 --> 01:03:14.107 align:start position:0%
these posetrons may actually be pulsars.
Astrophysicists<01:04:16.000><c> had</c><01:04:16.240><c> long</c><01:04:16.559><c> suspected</c><01:04:17.039><c> this,</c>

01:03:14.107 --> 01:03:14.117 align:start position:0%
Astrophysicists had long suspected this,
 

01:03:14.117 --> 01:03:17.307 align:start position:0%
Astrophysicists had long suspected this,
but<01:04:17.920><c> until</c><01:04:18.559><c> 2017,</c><01:04:19.760><c> there</c><01:04:20.079><c> simply</c><01:04:20.480><c> wasn't</c>

01:03:17.307 --> 01:03:17.317 align:start position:0%
but until 2017, there simply wasn't
 

01:03:17.317 --> 01:03:20.746 align:start position:0%
but until 2017, there simply wasn't
proof.<01:04:22.079><c> It</c><01:04:22.400><c> was</c><01:04:22.559><c> the</c><01:04:22.799><c> high</c><01:04:23.039><c> alitude</c><01:04:23.760><c> water</c>

01:03:20.746 --> 01:03:20.756 align:start position:0%
proof. It was the high alitude water
 

01:03:20.756 --> 01:03:22.907 align:start position:0%
proof. It was the high alitude water
chancery

01:03:22.907 --> 01:03:22.917 align:start position:0%
chancery
 

01:03:22.917 --> 01:03:25.067 align:start position:0%
chancery
that<01:04:26.880><c> finally</c><01:04:27.440><c> added</c><01:04:27.839><c> evidence</c><01:04:28.240><c> to</c><01:04:28.480><c> this</c>

01:03:25.067 --> 01:03:25.077 align:start position:0%
that finally added evidence to this
 

01:03:25.077 --> 01:03:27.867 align:start position:0%
that finally added evidence to this
hypothesis.<01:04:29.839><c> A</c><01:04:30.160><c> small</c><01:04:30.480><c> halo</c><01:04:30.880><c> of</c><01:04:31.119><c> gamma</c>

01:03:27.867 --> 01:03:27.877 align:start position:0%
hypothesis. A small halo of gamma
 

01:03:27.877 --> 01:03:29.546 align:start position:0%
hypothesis. A small halo of gamma
radiation<01:04:31.920><c> was</c><01:04:32.240><c> identified</c><01:04:32.640><c> surrounding</c>

01:03:29.546 --> 01:03:29.556 align:start position:0%
radiation was identified surrounding
 

01:03:29.556 --> 01:03:31.707 align:start position:0%
radiation was identified surrounding
Gaminga<01:04:33.760><c> with</c><01:04:34.079><c> trillions</c><01:04:34.559><c> of</c><01:04:34.720><c> times</c><01:04:35.039><c> more</c>

01:03:31.707 --> 01:03:31.717 align:start position:0%
Gaminga with trillions of times more
 

01:03:31.717 --> 01:03:34.587 align:start position:0%
Gaminga with trillions of times more
energy<01:04:35.680><c> than</c><01:04:35.920><c> is</c><01:04:36.160><c> visible</c><01:04:36.559><c> to</c><01:04:36.720><c> our</c><01:04:36.960><c> eyes</c><01:04:37.680><c> from</c>

01:03:34.587 --> 01:03:34.597 align:start position:0%
energy than is visible to our eyes from
 

01:03:34.597 --> 01:03:38.187 align:start position:0%
energy than is visible to our eyes from
five<01:04:38.640><c> to</c><01:04:39.119><c> 40</c><01:04:39.520><c> trillion</c><01:04:40.079><c> electron</c><01:04:40.559><c> volts.</c><01:04:41.520><c> The</c>

01:03:38.187 --> 01:03:38.197 align:start position:0%
five to 40 trillion electron volts. The
 

01:03:38.197 --> 01:03:40.427 align:start position:0%
five to 40 trillion electron volts. The
sort<01:04:41.920><c> of</c><01:04:42.079><c> radiation</c><01:04:42.720><c> usually</c><01:04:43.119><c> produced</c><01:04:43.599><c> by</c>

01:03:40.427 --> 01:03:40.437 align:start position:0%
sort of radiation usually produced by
 

01:03:40.437 --> 01:03:43.226 align:start position:0%
sort of radiation usually produced by
posetrons.<01:04:45.440><c> This</c><01:04:45.680><c> was</c><01:04:45.839><c> the</c><01:04:46.079><c> first</c><01:04:46.400><c> real</c>

01:03:43.226 --> 01:03:43.236 align:start position:0%
posetrons. This was the first real
 

01:03:43.236 --> 01:03:45.226 align:start position:0%
posetrons. This was the first real
observational<01:04:47.520><c> evidence</c><01:04:48.079><c> pointing</c><01:04:48.480><c> to</c><01:04:48.640><c> a</c>

01:03:45.226 --> 01:03:45.236 align:start position:0%
observational evidence pointing to a
 

01:03:45.236 --> 01:03:49.067 align:start position:0%
observational evidence pointing to a
pulsar<01:04:49.359><c> as</c><01:04:49.599><c> a</c><01:04:49.760><c> potential</c><01:04:50.240><c> source.</c>

01:03:49.067 --> 01:03:49.077 align:start position:0%
pulsar as a potential source.
 

01:03:49.077 --> 01:03:51.147 align:start position:0%
pulsar as a potential source.
Pulsars<01:04:53.599><c> naturally</c><01:04:54.079><c> surround</c><01:04:54.400><c> themselves</c>

01:03:51.147 --> 01:03:51.157 align:start position:0%
Pulsars naturally surround themselves
 

01:03:51.157 --> 01:03:53.226 align:start position:0%
Pulsars naturally surround themselves
with<01:04:54.880><c> a</c><01:04:55.039><c> haze</c><01:04:55.359><c> of</c><01:04:55.520><c> both</c><01:04:55.839><c> electrons</c><01:04:56.400><c> and</c><01:04:56.559><c> their</c>

01:03:53.226 --> 01:03:53.236 align:start position:0%
with a haze of both electrons and their
 

01:03:53.236 --> 01:03:55.786 align:start position:0%
with a haze of both electrons and their
posetron<01:04:57.440><c> counterparts</c><01:04:58.400><c> as</c><01:04:58.640><c> a</c><01:04:58.880><c> result</c><01:04:59.039><c> of</c><01:04:59.200><c> the</c>

01:03:55.786 --> 01:03:55.796 align:start position:0%
posetron counterparts as a result of the
 

01:03:55.796 --> 01:03:58.506 align:start position:0%
posetron counterparts as a result of the
stars<01:04:59.839><c> intense</c><01:05:00.240><c> magnetic</c><01:05:00.720><c> field.</c><01:05:01.760><c> This</c>

01:03:58.506 --> 01:03:58.516 align:start position:0%
stars intense magnetic field. This
 

01:03:58.516 --> 01:04:00.667 align:start position:0%
stars intense magnetic field. This
intense<01:05:02.559><c> magnetic</c><01:05:02.960><c> field</c><01:05:03.280><c> pulls</c><01:05:03.760><c> particles</c>

01:04:00.667 --> 01:04:00.677 align:start position:0%
intense magnetic field pulls particles
 

01:04:00.677 --> 01:04:02.986 align:start position:0%
intense magnetic field pulls particles
from<01:05:04.400><c> the</c><01:05:04.559><c> pulsar</c><01:05:05.119><c> surface</c><01:05:05.680><c> and</c><01:05:06.000><c> accelerates</c>

01:04:02.986 --> 01:04:02.996 align:start position:0%
from the pulsar surface and accelerates
 

01:04:02.996 --> 01:04:05.627 align:start position:0%
from the pulsar surface and accelerates
them<01:05:06.799><c> to</c><01:05:07.039><c> near</c><01:05:07.359><c> the</c><01:05:07.599><c> speed</c><01:05:07.920><c> of</c><01:05:08.160><c> light.</c>

01:04:05.627 --> 01:04:05.637 align:start position:0%
them to near the speed of light.
 

01:04:05.637 --> 01:04:07.226 align:start position:0%
them to near the speed of light.
Scientists<01:05:09.680><c> think</c><01:05:09.760><c> that</c><01:05:10.000><c> these</c><01:05:10.240><c> accelerated</c>

01:04:07.226 --> 01:04:07.236 align:start position:0%
Scientists think that these accelerated
 

01:04:07.236 --> 01:04:09.307 align:start position:0%
Scientists think that these accelerated
posetrons<01:05:11.440><c> and</c><01:05:11.680><c> electrons</c><01:05:12.319><c> are</c><01:05:12.559><c> then</c>

01:04:09.307 --> 01:04:09.317 align:start position:0%
posetrons and electrons are then
 

01:04:09.317 --> 01:04:11.947 align:start position:0%
posetrons and electrons are then
colliding<01:05:13.440><c> with</c><01:05:13.760><c> starlight</c><01:05:14.799><c> boosting</c><01:05:15.280><c> the</c>

01:04:11.947 --> 01:04:11.957 align:start position:0%
colliding with starlight boosting the
 

01:04:11.957 --> 01:04:14.266 align:start position:0%
colliding with starlight boosting the
light<01:05:15.680><c> to</c><01:05:15.920><c> higher</c><01:05:16.319><c> energies</c><01:05:17.119><c> which</c><01:05:17.359><c> then</c>

01:04:14.266 --> 01:04:14.276 align:start position:0%
light to higher energies which then
 

01:04:14.276 --> 01:04:17.786 align:start position:0%
light to higher energies which then
radiates<01:05:18.559><c> as</c><01:05:18.799><c> the</c><01:05:18.960><c> gammaray</c><01:05:19.520><c> halo</c><01:05:19.920><c> observed.</c>

01:04:17.786 --> 01:04:17.796 align:start position:0%
radiates as the gammaray halo observed.
 

01:04:17.796 --> 01:04:19.707 align:start position:0%
radiates as the gammaray halo observed.
But<01:05:21.680><c> based</c><01:05:21.920><c> on</c><01:05:22.079><c> the</c><01:05:22.240><c> size</c><01:05:22.400><c> of</c><01:05:22.559><c> the</c><01:05:22.720><c> halo</c><01:05:23.119><c> the</c>

01:04:19.707 --> 01:04:19.717 align:start position:0%
But based on the size of the halo the
 

01:04:19.717 --> 01:04:23.147 align:start position:0%
But based on the size of the halo the
hawk<01:05:23.680><c> team</c><01:05:24.000><c> saw,</c><01:05:24.960><c> gaming's</c><01:05:25.599><c> posetrons</c><01:05:26.400><c> would</c>

01:04:23.147 --> 01:04:23.157 align:start position:0%
hawk team saw, gaming's posetrons would
 

01:04:23.157 --> 01:04:25.226 align:start position:0%
hawk team saw, gaming's posetrons would
rarely<01:05:27.119><c> have</c><01:05:27.359><c> the</c><01:05:27.599><c> energy</c><01:05:27.920><c> required</c><01:05:28.319><c> to</c><01:05:28.559><c> reach</c>

01:04:25.226 --> 01:04:25.236 align:start position:0%
rarely have the energy required to reach
 

01:04:25.236 --> 01:04:27.387 align:start position:0%
rarely have the energy required to reach
our<01:05:29.119><c> planet.</c><01:05:29.920><c> And</c><01:05:30.079><c> so</c><01:05:30.240><c> they</c><01:05:30.480><c> believed</c><01:05:30.799><c> the</c>

01:04:27.387 --> 01:04:27.397 align:start position:0%
our planet. And so they believed the
 

01:04:27.397 --> 01:04:29.947 align:start position:0%
our planet. And so they believed the
excess<01:05:31.280><c> posetrons</c><01:05:32.000><c> must</c><01:05:32.240><c> have</c><01:05:32.480><c> a</c><01:05:32.720><c> more</c><01:05:32.960><c> exotic</c>

01:04:29.947 --> 01:04:29.957 align:start position:0%
excess posetrons must have a more exotic
 

01:04:29.957 --> 01:04:33.226 align:start position:0%
excess posetrons must have a more exotic
source.<01:05:34.799><c> That</c><01:05:35.039><c> was</c><01:05:35.359><c> until</c><01:05:36.079><c> stunning</c><01:05:36.559><c> new</c>

01:04:33.226 --> 01:04:33.236 align:start position:0%
source. That was until stunning new
 

01:04:33.236 --> 01:04:34.986 align:start position:0%
source. That was until stunning new
information<01:05:37.280><c> was</c><01:05:37.520><c> uncovered</c><01:05:37.920><c> a</c><01:05:38.160><c> few</c><01:05:38.319><c> years</c>

01:04:34.986 --> 01:04:34.996 align:start position:0%
information was uncovered a few years
 

01:04:34.996 --> 01:04:36.986 align:start position:0%
information was uncovered a few years
later<01:05:39.119><c> thanks</c><01:05:39.440><c> to</c><01:05:39.520><c> a</c><01:05:39.760><c> team</c><01:05:40.000><c> led</c><01:05:40.319><c> by</c>

01:04:36.986 --> 01:04:36.996 align:start position:0%
later thanks to a team led by
 

01:04:36.996 --> 01:04:40.266 align:start position:0%
later thanks to a team led by
astrophysicist<01:05:41.520><c> Matea</c><01:05:42.160><c> Dearo.</c>

01:04:40.266 --> 01:04:40.276 align:start position:0%
astrophysicist Matea Dearo.
 

01:04:40.276 --> 01:04:42.746 align:start position:0%
astrophysicist Matea Dearo.
Using<01:05:44.319><c> a</c><01:05:44.640><c> decade</c><01:05:45.039><c> of</c><01:05:45.200><c> gammaray</c><01:05:45.839><c> data</c><01:05:46.079><c> from</c>

01:04:42.746 --> 01:04:42.756 align:start position:0%
Using a decade of gammaray data from
 

01:04:42.756 --> 01:04:45.786 align:start position:0%
Using a decade of gammaray data from
Gaminga<01:05:47.119><c> acquired</c><01:05:47.599><c> from</c><01:05:47.839><c> Ferm's</c><01:05:48.559><c> large</c><01:05:48.960><c> area</c>

01:04:45.786 --> 01:04:45.796 align:start position:0%
Gaminga acquired from Ferm's large area
 

01:04:45.796 --> 01:04:48.746 align:start position:0%
Gaminga acquired from Ferm's large area
telescope<01:05:50.319><c> which</c><01:05:50.559><c> is</c><01:05:50.720><c> able</c><01:05:51.039><c> to</c><01:05:51.280><c> observe</c><01:05:51.920><c> lower</c>

01:04:48.746 --> 01:04:48.756 align:start position:0%
telescope which is able to observe lower
 

01:04:48.756 --> 01:04:50.506 align:start position:0%
telescope which is able to observe lower
energy<01:05:52.640><c> light</c><01:05:52.960><c> than</c><01:05:53.119><c> the</c><01:05:53.200><c> Hawk</c><01:05:53.599><c> gammaray</c>

01:04:50.506 --> 01:04:50.516 align:start position:0%
energy light than the Hawk gammaray
 

01:04:50.516 --> 01:04:53.387 align:start position:0%
energy light than the Hawk gammaray
Observatory.<01:05:55.200><c> The</c><01:05:55.359><c> Maro's</c><01:05:55.920><c> team</c><01:05:56.240><c> was</c><01:05:56.559><c> able</c><01:05:56.799><c> to</c>

01:04:53.387 --> 01:04:53.397 align:start position:0%
Observatory. The Maro's team was able to
 

01:04:53.397 --> 01:04:56.107 align:start position:0%
Observatory. The Maro's team was able to
subtract<01:05:57.520><c> out</c><01:05:57.839><c> all</c><01:05:58.160><c> other</c><01:05:58.400><c> gammaray</c><01:05:58.960><c> sources</c>

01:04:56.107 --> 01:04:56.117 align:start position:0%
subtract out all other gammaray sources
 

01:04:56.117 --> 01:04:59.226 align:start position:0%
subtract out all other gammaray sources
to<01:06:00.000><c> reveal</c><01:06:00.400><c> a</c><01:06:00.799><c> spectacular</c><01:06:01.760><c> glow</c><01:06:02.240><c> coming</c><01:06:02.559><c> from</c>

01:04:59.226 --> 01:04:59.236 align:start position:0%
to reveal a spectacular glow coming from
 

01:04:59.236 --> 01:05:02.427 align:start position:0%
to reveal a spectacular glow coming from
Gaminga<01:06:04.079><c> much</c><01:06:04.720><c> much</c><01:06:05.119><c> bigger</c><01:06:05.520><c> than</c><01:06:05.680><c> what</c><01:06:05.839><c> the</c>

01:05:02.427 --> 01:05:02.437 align:start position:0%
Gaminga much much bigger than what the
 

01:05:02.437 --> 01:05:05.627 align:start position:0%
Gaminga much much bigger than what the
scientists<01:06:06.559><c> had</c><01:06:06.880><c> ever</c><01:06:07.200><c> seen</c><01:06:07.520><c> before.</c>

01:05:05.627 --> 01:05:05.637 align:start position:0%
scientists had ever seen before.
 

01:05:05.637 --> 01:05:08.266 align:start position:0%
scientists had ever seen before.
The<01:06:09.359><c> vast</c><01:06:09.920><c> oblong</c><01:06:10.480><c> halo</c><01:06:10.880><c> of</c><01:06:11.119><c> glowing</c><01:06:11.520><c> gamma</c>

01:05:08.266 --> 01:05:08.276 align:start position:0%
The vast oblong halo of glowing gamma
 

01:05:08.276 --> 01:05:11.546 align:start position:0%
The vast oblong halo of glowing gamma
rays<01:06:12.480><c> at</c><01:06:12.720><c> an</c><01:06:12.880><c> energy</c><01:06:13.359><c> of</c><01:06:13.760><c> 10</c><01:06:14.160><c> billion</c><01:06:14.640><c> electron</c>

01:05:11.546 --> 01:05:11.556 align:start position:0%
rays at an energy of 10 billion electron
 

01:05:11.556 --> 01:05:16.347 align:start position:0%
rays at an energy of 10 billion electron
volts<01:06:16.000><c> spanned</c><01:06:16.799><c> 20°</c><01:06:18.000><c> of</c><01:06:18.240><c> the</c><01:06:18.480><c> sky,</c><01:06:19.440><c> similar</c><01:06:19.760><c> to</c>

01:05:16.347 --> 01:05:16.357 align:start position:0%
volts spanned 20° of the sky, similar to
 

01:05:16.357 --> 01:05:18.986 align:start position:0%
volts spanned 20° of the sky, similar to
the<01:06:20.079><c> area</c><01:06:20.559><c> the</c><01:06:20.960><c> big</c><01:06:21.280><c> dipper</c><01:06:21.760><c> constellation</c>

01:05:18.986 --> 01:05:18.996 align:start position:0%
the area the big dipper constellation
 

01:05:18.996 --> 01:05:22.266 align:start position:0%
the area the big dipper constellation
occupies.<01:06:23.920><c> And</c><01:06:24.240><c> that's</c><01:06:24.480><c> not</c><01:06:24.720><c> all.</c><01:06:25.359><c> The</c><01:06:25.599><c> glow</c>

01:05:22.266 --> 01:05:22.276 align:start position:0%
occupies. And that's not all. The glow
 

01:05:22.276 --> 01:05:25.226 align:start position:0%
occupies. And that's not all. The glow
of<01:06:25.920><c> gamma</c><01:06:26.319><c> radiation</c><01:06:27.039><c> is</c><01:06:27.440><c> even</c><01:06:28.000><c> bigger</c><01:06:28.480><c> at</c>

01:05:25.226 --> 01:05:25.236 align:start position:0%
of gamma radiation is even bigger at
 

01:05:25.236 --> 01:05:27.947 align:start position:0%
of gamma radiation is even bigger at
lower<01:06:29.119><c> energies.</c><01:06:30.240><c> If</c><01:06:30.480><c> we</c><01:06:30.640><c> could</c><01:06:30.880><c> see</c><01:06:31.039><c> it</c><01:06:31.280><c> all</c>

01:05:27.947 --> 01:05:27.957 align:start position:0%
lower energies. If we could see it all
 

01:05:27.957 --> 01:05:30.506 align:start position:0%
lower energies. If we could see it all
with<01:06:31.680><c> the</c><01:06:31.839><c> naked</c><01:06:32.240><c> eye,</c><01:06:32.880><c> Gaminga's</c><01:06:33.520><c> gammaray</c>

01:05:30.506 --> 01:05:30.516 align:start position:0%
with the naked eye, Gaminga's gammaray
 

01:05:30.516 --> 01:05:34.026 align:start position:0%
with the naked eye, Gaminga's gammaray
glow<01:06:34.480><c> would</c><01:06:35.039><c> dominate</c><01:06:35.599><c> our</c><01:06:36.000><c> sky,</c><01:06:36.960><c> covering</c><01:06:37.359><c> an</c>

01:05:34.026 --> 01:05:34.036 align:start position:0%
glow would dominate our sky, covering an
 

01:05:34.036 --> 01:05:38.026 align:start position:0%
glow would dominate our sky, covering an
area<01:06:38.319><c> 40</c><01:06:38.799><c> times</c><01:06:39.440><c> bigger</c><01:06:39.839><c> than</c><01:06:40.000><c> the</c><01:06:40.240><c> full</c><01:06:40.480><c> moon.</c>

01:05:38.026 --> 01:05:38.036 align:start position:0%
area 40 times bigger than the full moon.
 

01:05:38.036 --> 01:05:39.707 align:start position:0%
area 40 times bigger than the full moon.
With<01:06:41.920><c> this</c><01:06:42.240><c> new</c><01:06:42.480><c> information,</c>

01:05:39.707 --> 01:05:39.717 align:start position:0%
With this new information,
 

01:05:39.717 --> 01:05:41.466 align:start position:0%
With this new information,
astrophysicists<01:06:44.240><c> found</c><01:06:44.400><c> that</c><01:06:44.559><c> the</c><01:06:44.720><c> size</c><01:06:44.880><c> of</c>

01:05:41.466 --> 01:05:41.476 align:start position:0%
astrophysicists found that the size of
 

01:05:41.476 --> 01:05:44.587 align:start position:0%
astrophysicists found that the size of
Gaming's<01:06:45.599><c> halo</c><01:06:46.160><c> meant</c><01:06:46.559><c> that</c><01:06:46.880><c> this</c><01:06:47.280><c> one</c><01:06:47.599><c> pulsar</c>

01:05:44.587 --> 01:05:44.597 align:start position:0%
Gaming's halo meant that this one pulsar
 

01:05:44.597 --> 01:05:46.986 align:start position:0%
Gaming's halo meant that this one pulsar
alone<01:06:48.799><c> could</c><01:06:49.039><c> be</c><01:06:49.280><c> responsible</c><01:06:49.839><c> for</c><01:06:50.079><c> as</c><01:06:50.319><c> much</c>

01:05:46.986 --> 01:05:46.996 align:start position:0%
alone could be responsible for as much
 

01:05:46.996 --> 01:05:50.506 align:start position:0%
alone could be responsible for as much
as<01:06:51.039><c> 20%</c><01:06:52.000><c> of</c><01:06:52.160><c> the</c><01:06:52.480><c> excess</c><01:06:52.880><c> posetrons</c><01:06:53.599><c> detected</c>

01:05:50.506 --> 01:05:50.516 align:start position:0%
as 20% of the excess posetrons detected
 

01:05:50.516 --> 01:05:53.546 align:start position:0%
as 20% of the excess posetrons detected
near<01:06:54.480><c> Earth.</c><01:06:55.359><c> From</c><01:06:55.599><c> there,</c><01:06:56.160><c> it's</c><01:06:56.480><c> no</c><01:06:56.720><c> stretch</c>

01:05:53.546 --> 01:05:53.556 align:start position:0%
near Earth. From there, it's no stretch
 

01:05:53.556 --> 01:05:55.947 align:start position:0%
near Earth. From there, it's no stretch
to<01:06:57.359><c> imagine</c><01:06:57.680><c> that</c><01:06:58.000><c> other</c><01:06:58.240><c> pulsars</c><01:06:59.119><c> are</c><01:06:59.359><c> the</c>

01:05:55.947 --> 01:05:55.957 align:start position:0%
to imagine that other pulsars are the
 

01:05:55.957 --> 01:05:57.867 align:start position:0%
to imagine that other pulsars are the
most<01:06:59.760><c> likely</c><01:07:00.079><c> culprit</c><01:07:00.480><c> for</c><01:07:00.720><c> the</c><01:07:00.880><c> remaining</c>

01:05:57.867 --> 01:05:57.877 align:start position:0%
most likely culprit for the remaining
 

01:05:57.877 --> 01:06:00.667 align:start position:0%
most likely culprit for the remaining
antimatter<01:07:02.160><c> abundance</c><01:07:02.720><c> we</c><01:07:02.960><c> found.</c><01:07:03.920><c> This</c>

01:06:00.667 --> 01:06:00.677 align:start position:0%
antimatter abundance we found. This
 

01:06:00.677 --> 01:06:02.427 align:start position:0%
antimatter abundance we found. This
explanation<01:07:04.880><c> may</c><01:07:05.119><c> not</c><01:07:05.359><c> have</c><01:07:05.520><c> solved</c><01:07:05.839><c> the</c>

01:06:02.427 --> 01:06:02.437 align:start position:0%
explanation may not have solved the
 

01:06:02.437 --> 01:06:04.587 align:start position:0%
explanation may not have solved the
mystery<01:07:06.240><c> of</c><01:07:06.400><c> dark</c><01:07:06.720><c> matter,</c><01:07:07.440><c> but</c><01:07:07.680><c> it</c><01:07:07.920><c> is</c>

01:06:04.587 --> 01:06:04.597 align:start position:0%
mystery of dark matter, but it is
 

01:06:04.597 --> 01:06:08.107 align:start position:0%
mystery of dark matter, but it is
certainly<01:07:08.720><c> a</c><01:07:09.119><c> magnificent</c><01:07:09.839><c> revelation.</c>

01:06:08.107 --> 01:06:08.117 align:start position:0%
certainly a magnificent revelation.
 

01:06:08.117 --> 01:06:11.226 align:start position:0%
certainly a magnificent revelation.
It<01:07:12.000><c> was</c><01:07:12.319><c> Jocelyn</c><01:07:12.960><c> Bell</c><01:07:13.920><c> who</c><01:07:14.160><c> discovered</c><01:07:14.559><c> the</c>

01:06:11.226 --> 01:06:11.236 align:start position:0%
It was Jocelyn Bell who discovered the
 

01:06:11.236 --> 01:06:14.506 align:start position:0%
It was Jocelyn Bell who discovered the
first<01:07:15.039><c> pulsar</c><01:07:15.599><c> in</c><01:07:15.839><c> 1967,</c><01:07:17.280><c> back</c><01:07:17.520><c> when</c><01:07:17.760><c> people</c>

01:06:14.506 --> 01:06:14.516 align:start position:0%
first pulsar in 1967, back when people
 

01:06:14.516 --> 01:06:16.827 align:start position:0%
first pulsar in 1967, back when people
thought<01:07:18.319><c> that</c><01:07:18.640><c> those</c><01:07:19.119><c> regular</c><01:07:19.599><c> signals</c><01:07:20.160><c> could</c>

01:06:16.827 --> 01:06:16.837 align:start position:0%
thought that those regular signals could
 

01:06:16.837 --> 01:06:19.786 align:start position:0%
thought that those regular signals could
be<01:07:20.480><c> the</c><01:07:20.640><c> work</c><01:07:20.880><c> of</c><01:07:21.200><c> extraterrestrial</c><01:07:22.160><c> life.</c><01:07:23.119><c> In</c>

01:06:19.786 --> 01:06:19.796 align:start position:0%
be the work of extraterrestrial life. In
 

01:06:19.796 --> 01:06:21.867 align:start position:0%
be the work of extraterrestrial life. In
the<01:07:23.599><c> nearly</c><01:07:24.079><c> 60</c><01:07:24.480><c> years</c><01:07:24.720><c> that</c><01:07:24.960><c> have</c><01:07:25.119><c> passed</c>

01:06:21.867 --> 01:06:21.877 align:start position:0%
the nearly 60 years that have passed
 

01:06:21.877 --> 01:06:24.107 align:start position:0%
the nearly 60 years that have passed
since,<01:07:26.079><c> we</c><01:07:26.319><c> have</c><01:07:26.480><c> found</c><01:07:26.960><c> thousands</c><01:07:27.440><c> of</c>

01:06:24.107 --> 01:06:24.117 align:start position:0%
since, we have found thousands of
 

01:06:24.117 --> 01:06:26.587 align:start position:0%
since, we have found thousands of
pulsars,<01:07:28.640><c> and</c><01:07:28.880><c> our</c><01:07:29.280><c> understanding</c><01:07:29.760><c> of</c><01:07:29.920><c> these</c>

01:06:26.587 --> 01:06:26.597 align:start position:0%
pulsars, and our understanding of these
 

01:06:26.597 --> 01:06:30.187 align:start position:0%
pulsars, and our understanding of these
neutron<01:07:30.640><c> stars</c><01:07:31.039><c> has</c><01:07:31.359><c> grown</c><01:07:31.920><c> with</c><01:07:32.240><c> everyone.</c>

01:06:30.187 --> 01:06:30.197 align:start position:0%
neutron stars has grown with everyone.
 

01:06:30.197 --> 01:06:32.827 align:start position:0%
neutron stars has grown with everyone.
And<01:07:34.000><c> since</c><01:07:34.400><c> Gaminga</c><01:07:34.960><c> was</c><01:07:35.200><c> identified</c><01:07:35.760><c> as</c><01:07:36.079><c> only</c>

01:06:32.827 --> 01:06:32.837 align:start position:0%
And since Gaminga was identified as only
 

01:06:32.837 --> 01:06:36.187 align:start position:0%
And since Gaminga was identified as only
the<01:07:36.640><c> third</c><01:07:37.039><c> known</c><01:07:37.359><c> gammaray</c><01:07:37.920><c> pulsar</c><01:07:38.400><c> in</c><01:07:38.640><c> 1991,</c>

01:06:36.187 --> 01:06:36.197 align:start position:0%
the third known gammaray pulsar in 1991,
 

01:06:36.197 --> 01:06:39.147 align:start position:0%
the third known gammaray pulsar in 1991,
we've<01:07:40.000><c> now</c><01:07:40.240><c> spotted</c><01:07:40.799><c> over</c><01:07:41.280><c> 300</c><01:07:42.240><c> thanks</c><01:07:42.559><c> to</c>

01:06:39.147 --> 01:06:39.157 align:start position:0%
we've now spotted over 300 thanks to
 

01:06:39.157 --> 01:06:42.107 align:start position:0%
we've now spotted over 300 thanks to
NASA's<01:07:43.359><c> Fermy</c><01:07:43.839><c> mission.</c><01:07:44.960><c> But</c><01:07:45.280><c> given</c>

01:06:42.107 --> 01:06:42.117 align:start position:0%
NASA's Fermy mission. But given
 

01:06:42.117 --> 01:06:44.107 align:start position:0%
NASA's Fermy mission. But given
Gaminga's<01:07:46.240><c> track</c><01:07:46.480><c> record</c><01:07:46.880><c> of</c><01:07:47.200><c> defying</c>

01:06:44.107 --> 01:06:44.117 align:start position:0%
Gaminga's track record of defying
 

01:06:44.117 --> 01:06:47.067 align:start position:0%
Gaminga's track record of defying
expectations<01:07:48.559><c> and</c><01:07:48.880><c> furthering</c><01:07:49.440><c> science,</c><01:07:50.400><c> I</c>

01:06:47.067 --> 01:06:47.077 align:start position:0%
expectations and furthering science, I
 

01:06:47.077 --> 01:06:48.667 align:start position:0%
expectations and furthering science, I
like<01:07:50.799><c> to</c><01:07:50.960><c> think</c><01:07:51.119><c> that</c><01:07:51.440><c> this</c><01:07:51.760><c> particular</c>

01:06:48.667 --> 01:06:48.677 align:start position:0%
like to think that this particular
 

01:06:48.677 --> 01:06:53.947 align:start position:0%
like to think that this particular
pulsar<01:07:53.119><c> has</c><01:07:53.440><c> more</c><01:07:53.680><c> secrets</c><01:07:54.160><c> still</c><01:07:54.400><c> to</c><01:07:54.640><c> reveal.</c>

01:06:53.947 --> 01:06:53.957 align:start position:0%
pulsar has more secrets still to reveal.
 

01:06:53.957 --> 01:06:56.347 align:start position:0%
pulsar has more secrets still to reveal.
We've<01:07:57.839><c> all</c><01:07:58.000><c> seen</c><01:07:58.319><c> pictures</c><01:07:58.640><c> of</c><01:07:58.880><c> galaxies,</c>

01:06:56.347 --> 01:06:56.357 align:start position:0%
We've all seen pictures of galaxies,
 

01:06:56.357 --> 01:06:59.226 align:start position:0%
We've all seen pictures of galaxies,
often<01:08:00.480><c> glorious</c><01:08:01.119><c> objects</c><01:08:01.599><c> with</c><01:08:02.000><c> spectacular</c>

01:06:59.226 --> 01:06:59.236 align:start position:0%
often glorious objects with spectacular
 

01:06:59.236 --> 01:07:02.587 align:start position:0%
often glorious objects with spectacular
colors<01:08:03.200><c> and</c><01:08:03.440><c> shapes.</c><01:08:04.880><c> However,</c><01:08:05.520><c> because</c><01:08:05.839><c> they</c>

01:07:02.587 --> 01:07:02.597 align:start position:0%
colors and shapes. However, because they
 

01:07:02.597 --> 01:07:05.067 align:start position:0%
colors and shapes. However, because they
are<01:08:06.400><c> static</c><01:08:06.880><c> images,</c><01:08:07.760><c> it</c><01:08:08.000><c> may</c><01:08:08.240><c> make</c><01:08:08.400><c> you</c>

01:07:05.067 --> 01:07:05.077 align:start position:0%
are static images, it may make you
 

01:07:05.077 --> 01:07:07.947 align:start position:0%
are static images, it may make you
wonder<01:08:09.039><c> how</c><01:08:09.280><c> they</c><01:08:09.599><c> rotate.</c>

01:07:07.947 --> 01:07:07.957 align:start position:0%
wonder how they rotate.
 

01:07:07.957 --> 01:07:10.107 align:start position:0%
wonder how they rotate.
The<01:08:11.760><c> first</c><01:08:12.079><c> obvious</c><01:08:12.559><c> thought</c><01:08:12.960><c> is</c><01:08:13.200><c> that</c><01:08:13.440><c> they</c>

01:07:10.107 --> 01:07:10.117 align:start position:0%
The first obvious thought is that they
 

01:07:10.117 --> 01:07:12.666 align:start position:0%
The first obvious thought is that they
spin<01:08:14.000><c> around</c><01:08:14.319><c> an</c><01:08:14.559><c> axis</c><01:08:15.440><c> perhaps</c><01:08:15.920><c> looking</c>

01:07:12.666 --> 01:07:12.676 align:start position:0%
spin around an axis perhaps looking
 

01:07:12.676 --> 01:07:16.186 align:start position:0%
spin around an axis perhaps looking
something<01:08:16.719><c> like</c><01:08:16.960><c> this</c><01:08:17.279><c> as</c><01:08:17.520><c> they</c><01:08:17.679><c> do</c><01:08:17.839><c> so.</c>

01:07:16.186 --> 01:07:16.196 align:start position:0%
something like this as they do so.
 

01:07:16.196 --> 01:07:18.586 align:start position:0%
something like this as they do so.
Would<01:08:20.000><c> it</c><01:08:20.239><c> surprise</c><01:08:20.560><c> you</c><01:08:20.799><c> to</c><01:08:20.960><c> hear</c><01:08:21.440><c> that</c><01:08:21.679><c> this</c>

01:07:18.586 --> 01:07:18.596 align:start position:0%
Would it surprise you to hear that this
 

01:07:18.596 --> 01:07:21.146 align:start position:0%
Would it surprise you to hear that this
is<01:08:22.560><c> totally</c><01:08:23.120><c> wrong?</c>

01:07:21.146 --> 01:07:21.156 align:start position:0%
is totally wrong?
 

01:07:21.156 --> 01:07:23.706 align:start position:0%
is totally wrong?
For<01:08:24.880><c> a</c><01:08:25.120><c> start,</c><01:08:25.600><c> galaxies</c><01:08:26.239><c> are</c><01:08:26.480><c> not</c><01:08:26.799><c> solid</c>

01:07:23.706 --> 01:07:23.716 align:start position:0%
For a start, galaxies are not solid
 

01:07:23.716 --> 01:07:26.507 align:start position:0%
For a start, galaxies are not solid
objects,<01:08:28.080><c> but</c><01:08:28.319><c> rather</c><01:08:28.719><c> made</c><01:08:28.960><c> up</c><01:08:29.120><c> of</c><01:08:29.440><c> millions</c>

01:07:26.507 --> 01:07:26.517 align:start position:0%
objects, but rather made up of millions
 

01:07:26.517 --> 01:07:29.786 align:start position:0%
objects, but rather made up of millions
to<01:08:30.480><c> trillions</c><01:08:31.040><c> of</c><01:08:31.279><c> stars.</c><01:08:32.319><c> Each</c><01:08:32.640><c> star</c><01:08:32.960><c> follows</c>

01:07:29.786 --> 01:07:29.796 align:start position:0%
to trillions of stars. Each star follows
 

01:07:29.796 --> 01:07:32.186 align:start position:0%
to trillions of stars. Each star follows
their<01:08:33.600><c> own</c><01:08:33.839><c> orbit,</c><01:08:34.480><c> although</c><01:08:34.799><c> they</c><01:08:35.120><c> are</c><01:08:35.279><c> often</c>

01:07:32.186 --> 01:07:32.196 align:start position:0%
their own orbit, although they are often
 

01:07:32.196 --> 01:07:34.666 align:start position:0%
their own orbit, although they are often
going<01:08:36.000><c> in</c><01:08:36.159><c> the</c><01:08:36.400><c> same</c><01:08:36.640><c> direction</c><01:08:37.120><c> at</c><01:08:37.199><c> least.</c>

01:07:34.666 --> 01:07:34.676 align:start position:0%
going in the same direction at least.
 

01:07:34.676 --> 01:07:37.146 align:start position:0%
going in the same direction at least.
But<01:08:38.719><c> actually,</c><01:08:39.440><c> one</c><01:08:39.679><c> of</c><01:08:39.759><c> the</c><01:08:39.920><c> main</c><01:08:40.159><c> reasons</c><01:08:40.400><c> a</c>

01:07:37.146 --> 01:07:37.156 align:start position:0%
But actually, one of the main reasons a
 

01:07:37.156 --> 01:07:39.387 align:start position:0%
But actually, one of the main reasons a
spiral<01:08:41.120><c> galaxy</c><01:08:41.679><c> does</c><01:08:41.920><c> not</c><01:08:42.080><c> orbit</c><01:08:42.560><c> like</c><01:08:42.719><c> the</c>

01:07:39.387 --> 01:07:39.397 align:start position:0%
spiral galaxy does not orbit like the
 

01:07:39.397 --> 01:07:42.186 align:start position:0%
spiral galaxy does not orbit like the
first<01:08:43.199><c> example</c><01:08:44.000><c> is</c><01:08:44.319><c> that</c><01:08:44.640><c> angular</c><01:08:45.199><c> momentum</c>

01:07:42.186 --> 01:07:42.196 align:start position:0%
first example is that angular momentum
 

01:07:42.196 --> 01:07:44.507 align:start position:0%
first example is that angular momentum
would<01:08:46.080><c> wind</c><01:08:46.400><c> the</c><01:08:46.640><c> arms</c><01:08:46.960><c> up</c><01:08:47.120><c> into</c><01:08:47.440><c> tighter</c><01:08:47.920><c> and</c>

01:07:44.507 --> 01:07:44.517 align:start position:0%
would wind the arms up into tighter and
 

01:07:44.517 --> 01:07:46.746 align:start position:0%
would wind the arms up into tighter and
tighter<01:08:48.480><c> spirals.</c>

01:07:46.746 --> 01:07:46.756 align:start position:0%
tighter spirals.
 

01:07:46.756 --> 01:07:49.146 align:start position:0%
tighter spirals.
We<01:08:50.560><c> don't</c><01:08:50.799><c> see</c><01:08:50.960><c> this.</c><01:08:51.679><c> So,</c><01:08:51.920><c> something</c><01:08:52.319><c> else</c><01:08:52.560><c> is</c>

01:07:49.146 --> 01:07:49.156 align:start position:0%
We don't see this. So, something else is
 

01:07:49.156 --> 01:07:51.626 align:start position:0%
We don't see this. So, something else is
at<01:08:52.960><c> play.</c>

01:07:51.626 --> 01:07:51.636 align:start position:0%
at play.
 

01:07:51.636 --> 01:07:53.467 align:start position:0%
at play.
The<01:08:55.359><c> leading</c><01:08:55.759><c> theory</c><01:08:56.080><c> is</c><01:08:56.319><c> that</c><01:08:56.480><c> these</c><01:08:56.719><c> arms</c>

01:07:53.467 --> 01:07:53.477 align:start position:0%
The leading theory is that these arms
 

01:07:53.477 --> 01:07:56.106 align:start position:0%
The leading theory is that these arms
are<01:08:57.199><c> caused</c><01:08:57.520><c> by</c><01:08:57.839><c> density</c><01:08:58.319><c> waves,</c><01:08:59.199><c> meaning</c><01:08:59.440><c> a</c>

01:07:56.106 --> 01:07:56.116 align:start position:0%
are caused by density waves, meaning a
 

01:07:56.116 --> 01:07:58.427 align:start position:0%
are caused by density waves, meaning a
galaxy's<01:09:00.239><c> rotation</c><01:09:00.880><c> would</c><01:09:01.199><c> in</c><01:09:01.440><c> fact</c><01:09:01.759><c> look</c>

01:07:58.427 --> 01:07:58.437 align:start position:0%
galaxy's rotation would in fact look
 

01:07:58.437 --> 01:08:01.947 align:start position:0%
galaxy's rotation would in fact look
like<01:09:02.319><c> this.</c><01:09:03.520><c> Here</c><01:09:03.920><c> the</c><01:09:04.159><c> arms</c><01:09:04.560><c> stay</c><01:09:04.719><c> in</c><01:09:04.960><c> place</c>

01:08:01.947 --> 01:08:01.957 align:start position:0%
like this. Here the arms stay in place
 

01:08:01.957 --> 01:08:04.827 align:start position:0%
like this. Here the arms stay in place
or<01:09:05.759><c> at</c><01:09:05.839><c> least</c><01:09:06.239><c> move</c><01:09:06.560><c> extremely</c><01:09:07.359><c> slowly</c><01:09:08.000><c> as</c>

01:08:04.827 --> 01:08:04.837 align:start position:0%
or at least move extremely slowly as
 

01:08:04.837 --> 01:08:08.427 align:start position:0%
or at least move extremely slowly as
stars<01:09:08.880><c> and</c><01:09:09.199><c> gas</c><01:09:09.600><c> pass</c><01:09:09.920><c> through</c><01:09:10.159><c> them.</c>

01:08:08.427 --> 01:08:08.437 align:start position:0%
stars and gas pass through them.
 

01:08:08.437 --> 01:08:10.666 align:start position:0%
stars and gas pass through them.
Another<01:09:12.400><c> theory</c><01:09:12.880><c> is</c><01:09:13.120><c> that</c><01:09:13.520><c> shock</c><01:09:13.839><c> waves</c>

01:08:10.666 --> 01:08:10.676 align:start position:0%
Another theory is that shock waves
 

01:08:10.676 --> 01:08:13.146 align:start position:0%
Another theory is that shock waves
produced<01:09:14.560><c> by</c><01:09:14.799><c> supernova</c><01:09:15.520><c> and</c><01:09:15.839><c> stellar</c><01:09:16.239><c> winds</c>

01:08:13.146 --> 01:08:13.156 align:start position:0%
produced by supernova and stellar winds
 

01:08:13.156 --> 01:08:15.146 align:start position:0%
produced by supernova and stellar winds
are<01:09:16.880><c> the</c><01:09:17.040><c> cause</c><01:09:17.279><c> of</c><01:09:17.440><c> the</c><01:09:17.600><c> arms.</c><01:09:18.480><c> These</c>

01:08:15.146 --> 01:08:15.156 align:start position:0%
are the cause of the arms. These
 

01:08:15.156 --> 01:08:17.626 align:start position:0%
are the cause of the arms. These
theories<01:09:19.199><c> might</c><01:09:19.440><c> not</c><01:09:19.600><c> be</c><01:09:19.759><c> mutually</c><01:09:20.239><c> exclusive</c>

01:08:17.626 --> 01:08:17.636 align:start position:0%
theories might not be mutually exclusive
 

01:08:17.636 --> 01:08:21.226 align:start position:0%
theories might not be mutually exclusive
and<01:09:21.520><c> both</c><01:09:21.839><c> processes</c><01:09:22.480><c> may</c><01:09:22.640><c> be</c><01:09:22.799><c> at</c><01:09:23.040><c> work</c><01:09:23.279><c> here.</c>

01:08:21.226 --> 01:08:21.236 align:start position:0%
and both processes may be at work here.
 

01:08:21.236 --> 01:08:23.626 align:start position:0%
and both processes may be at work here.
Density<01:09:25.359><c> waves</c><01:09:25.759><c> are</c><01:09:26.000><c> potentially</c><01:09:26.640><c> caused</c><01:09:27.040><c> by</c>

01:08:23.626 --> 01:08:23.636 align:start position:0%
Density waves are potentially caused by
 

01:08:23.636 --> 01:08:26.266 align:start position:0%
Density waves are potentially caused by
the<01:09:27.440><c> self-gravity</c><01:09:28.159><c> of</c><01:09:28.400><c> stars</c><01:09:28.719><c> as</c><01:09:28.960><c> they</c><01:09:29.120><c> orbit</c>

01:08:26.266 --> 01:08:26.276 align:start position:0%
the self-gravity of stars as they orbit
 

01:08:26.276 --> 01:08:28.027 align:start position:0%
the self-gravity of stars as they orbit
after<01:09:30.159><c> they</c><01:09:30.400><c> have</c><01:09:30.560><c> been</c><01:09:30.719><c> perturbed</c><01:09:31.359><c> by</c>

01:08:28.027 --> 01:08:28.037 align:start position:0%
after they have been perturbed by
 

01:08:28.037 --> 01:08:30.266 align:start position:0%
after they have been perturbed by
another<01:09:31.920><c> force.</c>

01:08:30.266 --> 01:08:30.276 align:start position:0%
another force.
 

01:08:30.276 --> 01:08:32.666 align:start position:0%
another force.
As<01:09:34.159><c> stars</c><01:09:34.560><c> have</c><01:09:34.719><c> a</c><01:09:35.040><c> gravitational</c><01:09:35.759><c> influence</c>

01:08:32.666 --> 01:08:32.676 align:start position:0%
As stars have a gravitational influence
 

01:08:32.676 --> 01:08:34.987 align:start position:0%
As stars have a gravitational influence
on<01:09:36.400><c> each</c><01:09:36.640><c> other,</c><01:09:37.279><c> eventually</c><01:09:38.000><c> a</c><01:09:38.239><c> pattern</c>

01:08:34.987 --> 01:08:34.997 align:start position:0%
on each other, eventually a pattern
 

01:08:34.997 --> 01:08:37.307 align:start position:0%
on each other, eventually a pattern
forms<01:09:39.120><c> where</c><01:09:39.440><c> their</c><01:09:39.679><c> orbits</c><01:09:40.239><c> meet</c><01:09:40.560><c> around</c>

01:08:37.307 --> 01:08:37.317 align:start position:0%
forms where their orbits meet around
 

01:08:37.317 --> 01:08:40.666 align:start position:0%
forms where their orbits meet around
certain<01:09:41.279><c> areas</c><01:09:41.679><c> in</c><01:09:41.839><c> the</c><01:09:42.000><c> galaxy.</c>

01:08:40.666 --> 01:08:40.676 align:start position:0%
certain areas in the galaxy.
 

01:08:40.676 --> 01:08:43.947 align:start position:0%
certain areas in the galaxy.
Very,<01:09:44.799><c> very</c><01:09:45.359><c> interestingly,</c><01:09:46.480><c> density</c><01:09:47.040><c> waves</c>

01:08:43.947 --> 01:08:43.957 align:start position:0%
Very, very interestingly, density waves
 

01:08:43.957 --> 01:08:46.106 align:start position:0%
Very, very interestingly, density waves
are<01:09:47.759><c> even</c><01:09:48.159><c> seen</c><01:09:48.480><c> in</c><01:09:48.799><c> certain</c><01:09:49.120><c> parts</c><01:09:49.440><c> of</c>

01:08:46.106 --> 01:08:46.116 align:start position:0%
are even seen in certain parts of
 

01:08:46.116 --> 01:08:48.987 align:start position:0%
are even seen in certain parts of
Saturn's<01:09:50.239><c> rings.</c><01:09:51.440><c> Here</c><01:09:51.759><c> you</c><01:09:52.000><c> have</c><01:09:52.080><c> a</c><01:09:52.319><c> section</c>

01:08:48.987 --> 01:08:48.997 align:start position:0%
Saturn's rings. Here you have a section
 

01:08:48.997 --> 01:08:50.747 align:start position:0%
Saturn's rings. Here you have a section
of<01:09:52.719><c> ring</c><01:09:52.960><c> that</c><01:09:53.120><c> appears</c><01:09:53.520><c> like</c><01:09:53.679><c> the</c><01:09:53.839><c> inside</c><01:09:54.159><c> of</c>

01:08:50.747 --> 01:08:50.757 align:start position:0%
of ring that appears like the inside of
 

01:08:50.757 --> 01:08:53.867 align:start position:0%
of ring that appears like the inside of
a<01:09:54.480><c> tree</c><01:09:54.719><c> trunk.</c><01:09:55.679><c> But</c><01:09:55.840><c> this</c><01:09:56.159><c> is</c><01:09:56.320><c> not</c><01:09:56.480><c> the</c><01:09:56.719><c> case.</c>

01:08:53.867 --> 01:08:53.877 align:start position:0%
a tree trunk. But this is not the case.
 

01:08:53.877 --> 01:08:55.867 align:start position:0%
a tree trunk. But this is not the case.
In<01:09:57.760><c> this</c><01:09:57.920><c> region,</c><01:09:58.320><c> the</c><01:09:58.480><c> ring</c><01:09:58.800><c> is</c><01:09:58.960><c> influenced</c>

01:08:55.867 --> 01:08:55.877 align:start position:0%
In this region, the ring is influenced
 

01:08:55.877 --> 01:08:58.106 align:start position:0%
In this region, the ring is influenced
by<01:09:59.679><c> the</c><01:09:59.840><c> gravity</c><01:10:00.239><c> of</c><01:10:00.480><c> small</c><01:10:00.880><c> shepherd</c><01:10:01.280><c> moons</c>

01:08:58.106 --> 01:08:58.116 align:start position:0%
by the gravity of small shepherd moons
 

01:08:58.116 --> 01:09:00.586 align:start position:0%
by the gravity of small shepherd moons
tucked<01:10:02.080><c> inside</c><01:10:02.320><c> the</c><01:10:02.560><c> rings.</c><01:10:03.520><c> What</c><01:10:03.760><c> you</c><01:10:03.920><c> are</c>

01:09:00.586 --> 01:09:00.596 align:start position:0%
tucked inside the rings. What you are
 

01:09:00.596 --> 01:09:03.707 align:start position:0%
tucked inside the rings. What you are
actually<01:10:04.560><c> looking</c><01:10:04.800><c> at</c><01:10:05.440><c> is</c><01:10:05.840><c> one</c><01:10:06.400><c> very</c><01:10:06.719><c> tightly</c>

01:09:03.707 --> 01:09:03.717 align:start position:0%
actually looking at is one very tightly
 

01:09:03.717 --> 01:09:07.547 align:start position:0%
actually looking at is one very tightly
wound<01:10:07.600><c> ring,</c><01:10:08.320><c> a</c><01:10:08.560><c> bit</c><01:10:08.719><c> like</c><01:10:08.960><c> an</c><01:10:09.199><c> LP</c><01:10:09.600><c> record.</c><01:10:10.880><c> And</c>

01:09:07.547 --> 01:09:07.557 align:start position:0%
wound ring, a bit like an LP record. And
 

01:09:07.557 --> 01:09:10.027 align:start position:0%
wound ring, a bit like an LP record. And
just<01:10:11.280><c> like</c><01:10:11.440><c> with</c><01:10:11.679><c> a</c><01:10:11.920><c> galaxy,</c><01:10:12.719><c> this</c><01:10:12.960><c> arm</c><01:10:13.360><c> stays</c>

01:09:10.027 --> 01:09:10.037 align:start position:0%
just like with a galaxy, this arm stays
 

01:09:10.037 --> 01:09:12.427 align:start position:0%
just like with a galaxy, this arm stays
the<01:10:13.840><c> same</c><01:10:14.000><c> shape,</c><01:10:14.640><c> never</c><01:10:14.960><c> getting</c><01:10:15.280><c> tighter</c><01:10:15.760><c> or</c>

01:09:12.427 --> 01:09:12.437 align:start position:0%
the same shape, never getting tighter or
 

01:09:12.437 --> 01:09:13.947 align:start position:0%
the same shape, never getting tighter or
looser.

01:09:13.947 --> 01:09:13.957 align:start position:0%
looser.
 

01:09:13.957 --> 01:09:15.947 align:start position:0%
looser.
Within<01:10:17.920><c> these</c><01:10:18.159><c> arms</c><01:10:18.560><c> is</c><01:10:18.800><c> where</c><01:10:18.960><c> the</c><01:10:19.199><c> majority</c>

01:09:15.947 --> 01:09:15.957 align:start position:0%
Within these arms is where the majority
 

01:09:15.957 --> 01:09:17.947 align:start position:0%
Within these arms is where the majority
of<01:10:19.760><c> star</c><01:10:20.159><c> formation</c><01:10:20.640><c> takes</c><01:10:20.960><c> place</c><01:10:21.199><c> in</c><01:10:21.360><c> a</c>

01:09:17.947 --> 01:09:17.957 align:start position:0%
of star formation takes place in a
 

01:09:17.957 --> 01:09:20.987 align:start position:0%
of star formation takes place in a
spiral<01:10:22.000><c> galaxy.</c><01:10:22.960><c> The</c><01:10:23.199><c> gas</c><01:10:23.440><c> and</c><01:10:23.679><c> dust</c><01:10:24.000><c> within</c><01:10:24.320><c> a</c>

01:09:20.987 --> 01:09:20.997 align:start position:0%
spiral galaxy. The gas and dust within a
 

01:09:20.997 --> 01:09:23.547 align:start position:0%
spiral galaxy. The gas and dust within a
galaxy<01:10:25.040><c> clump</c><01:10:25.360><c> up</c><01:10:25.520><c> in</c><01:10:25.679><c> these</c><01:10:25.920><c> arms</c><01:10:26.320><c> too,</c><01:10:26.880><c> which</c>

01:09:23.547 --> 01:09:23.557 align:start position:0%
galaxy clump up in these arms too, which
 

01:09:23.557 --> 01:09:26.027 align:start position:0%
galaxy clump up in these arms too, which
is<01:10:27.280><c> why</c><01:10:27.440><c> you</c><01:10:27.679><c> often</c><01:10:28.000><c> see</c><01:10:28.239><c> star</c><01:10:28.640><c> forming</c><01:10:29.040><c> nebula</c>

01:09:26.027 --> 01:09:26.037 align:start position:0%
is why you often see star forming nebula
 

01:09:26.037 --> 01:09:28.507 align:start position:0%
is why you often see star forming nebula
dotting<01:10:30.000><c> the</c><01:10:30.159><c> arms.</c><01:10:31.120><c> The</c><01:10:31.360><c> arms</c><01:10:31.679><c> are</c><01:10:31.840><c> also</c>

01:09:28.507 --> 01:09:28.517 align:start position:0%
dotting the arms. The arms are also
 

01:09:28.517 --> 01:09:30.507 align:start position:0%
dotting the arms. The arms are also
brighter,<01:10:32.719><c> not</c><01:10:33.040><c> just</c><01:10:33.280><c> because</c><01:10:33.600><c> there</c><01:10:33.840><c> are</c>

01:09:30.507 --> 01:09:30.517 align:start position:0%
brighter, not just because there are
 

01:09:30.517 --> 01:09:32.987 align:start position:0%
brighter, not just because there are
more<01:10:34.320><c> stars</c><01:10:34.640><c> here,</c><01:10:35.280><c> but</c><01:10:35.520><c> also</c><01:10:36.000><c> because</c><01:10:36.320><c> all</c>

01:09:32.987 --> 01:09:32.997 align:start position:0%
more stars here, but also because all
 

01:09:32.997 --> 01:09:35.387 align:start position:0%
more stars here, but also because all
the<01:10:36.719><c> hot,</c><01:10:37.199><c> young,</c><01:10:37.760><c> bright</c><01:10:38.080><c> stars</c><01:10:38.480><c> are</c><01:10:38.719><c> found</c>

01:09:35.387 --> 01:09:35.397 align:start position:0%
the hot, young, bright stars are found
 

01:09:35.397 --> 01:09:38.027 align:start position:0%
the hot, young, bright stars are found
in<01:10:39.199><c> these</c><01:10:39.520><c> regions.</c>

01:09:38.027 --> 01:09:38.037 align:start position:0%
in these regions.
 

01:09:38.037 --> 01:09:40.027 align:start position:0%
in these regions.
Because<01:10:41.840><c> the</c><01:10:42.080><c> hottest</c><01:10:42.480><c> types</c><01:10:42.800><c> of</c><01:10:43.040><c> stars</c><01:10:43.440><c> are</c>

01:09:40.027 --> 01:09:40.037 align:start position:0%
Because the hottest types of stars are
 

01:09:40.037 --> 01:09:42.427 align:start position:0%
Because the hottest types of stars are
so<01:10:43.920><c> short-lived,</c><01:10:44.960><c> by</c><01:10:45.199><c> the</c><01:10:45.360><c> time</c><01:10:45.520><c> they</c><01:10:45.760><c> move</c>

01:09:42.427 --> 01:09:42.437 align:start position:0%
so short-lived, by the time they move
 

01:09:42.437 --> 01:09:44.586 align:start position:0%
so short-lived, by the time they move
away<01:10:46.239><c> from</c><01:10:46.400><c> the</c><01:10:46.640><c> arms,</c><01:10:47.199><c> a</c><01:10:47.440><c> lot</c><01:10:47.520><c> of</c><01:10:47.679><c> them</c><01:10:47.920><c> will</c>

01:09:44.586 --> 01:09:44.596 align:start position:0%
away from the arms, a lot of them will
 

01:09:44.596 --> 01:09:47.467 align:start position:0%
away from the arms, a lot of them will
have<01:10:48.480><c> already</c><01:10:48.960><c> burned</c><01:10:49.280><c> out.</c>

01:09:47.467 --> 01:09:47.477 align:start position:0%
have already burned out.
 

01:09:47.477 --> 01:09:49.387 align:start position:0%
have already burned out.
Another<01:10:51.520><c> interesting</c><01:10:52.000><c> phenomenon</c><01:10:52.560><c> to</c><01:10:52.800><c> do</c>

01:09:49.387 --> 01:09:49.397 align:start position:0%
Another interesting phenomenon to do
 

01:09:49.397 --> 01:09:51.867 align:start position:0%
Another interesting phenomenon to do
with<01:10:53.280><c> spiral</c><01:10:53.760><c> galaxies</c><01:10:54.320><c> is</c><01:10:54.640><c> something</c><01:10:54.960><c> caused</c>

01:09:51.867 --> 01:09:51.877 align:start position:0%
with spiral galaxies is something caused
 

01:09:51.877 --> 01:09:55.387 align:start position:0%
with spiral galaxies is something caused
by<01:10:55.760><c> dark</c><01:10:56.159><c> matter.</c><01:10:57.360><c> In</c><01:10:57.600><c> the</c><01:10:57.840><c> early</c><01:10:58.159><c> universe,</c>

01:09:55.387 --> 01:09:55.397 align:start position:0%
by dark matter. In the early universe,
 

01:09:55.397 --> 01:09:58.187 align:start position:0%
by dark matter. In the early universe,
when<01:10:59.360><c> dark</c><01:10:59.679><c> matter</c><01:11:00.080><c> was</c><01:11:00.320><c> more</c><01:11:00.560><c> disperse,</c>

01:09:58.187 --> 01:09:58.197 align:start position:0%
when dark matter was more disperse,
 

01:09:58.197 --> 01:10:00.507 align:start position:0%
when dark matter was more disperse,
stars<01:11:02.320><c> within</c><01:11:02.719><c> galaxies</c><01:11:03.199><c> that</c><01:11:03.440><c> are</c><01:11:03.600><c> dominated</c>

01:10:00.507 --> 01:10:00.517 align:start position:0%
stars within galaxies that are dominated
 

01:10:00.517 --> 01:10:02.987 align:start position:0%
stars within galaxies that are dominated
by<01:11:04.400><c> normal</c><01:11:04.719><c> matter</c><01:11:05.520><c> would</c><01:11:05.760><c> orbit</c><01:11:06.159><c> a</c><01:11:06.400><c> lot</c>

01:10:02.987 --> 01:10:02.997 align:start position:0%
by normal matter would orbit a lot
 

01:10:02.997 --> 01:10:05.227 align:start position:0%
by normal matter would orbit a lot
slower<01:11:07.040><c> around</c><01:11:07.360><c> the</c><01:11:07.600><c> outside</c><01:11:07.920><c> of</c><01:11:08.080><c> the</c><01:11:08.239><c> galaxy</c>

01:10:05.227 --> 01:10:05.237 align:start position:0%
slower around the outside of the galaxy
 

01:10:05.237 --> 01:10:07.787 align:start position:0%
slower around the outside of the galaxy
than<01:11:09.040><c> towards</c><01:11:09.520><c> the</c><01:11:09.679><c> center.</c>

01:10:07.787 --> 01:10:07.797 align:start position:0%
than towards the center.
 

01:10:07.797 --> 01:10:10.586 align:start position:0%
than towards the center.
However,<01:11:12.080><c> today</c><01:11:12.719><c> stars</c><01:11:13.120><c> are</c><01:11:13.360><c> moving</c><01:11:13.679><c> a</c><01:11:13.920><c> lot</c>

01:10:10.586 --> 01:10:10.596 align:start position:0%
However, today stars are moving a lot
 

01:10:10.596 --> 01:10:12.586 align:start position:0%
However, today stars are moving a lot
faster<01:11:14.560><c> near</c><01:11:14.800><c> the</c><01:11:15.040><c> edge</c><01:11:15.199><c> of</c><01:11:15.360><c> the</c><01:11:15.520><c> galaxy</c>

01:10:12.586 --> 01:10:12.596 align:start position:0%
faster near the edge of the galaxy
 

01:10:12.596 --> 01:10:15.307 align:start position:0%
faster near the edge of the galaxy
thanks<01:11:16.400><c> to</c><01:11:16.560><c> the</c><01:11:16.719><c> influence</c><01:11:17.199><c> of</c><01:11:17.360><c> dark</c><01:11:17.679><c> matter.</c>

01:10:15.307 --> 01:10:15.317 align:start position:0%
thanks to the influence of dark matter.
 

01:10:15.317 --> 01:10:17.947 align:start position:0%
thanks to the influence of dark matter.
Dark<01:11:19.199><c> matter</c><01:11:19.600><c> is</c><01:11:20.000><c> mysterious</c><01:11:20.800><c> in</c><01:11:21.120><c> that</c><01:11:21.280><c> it</c>

01:10:17.947 --> 01:10:17.957 align:start position:0%
Dark matter is mysterious in that it
 

01:10:17.957 --> 01:10:20.427 align:start position:0%
Dark matter is mysterious in that it
cannot<01:11:21.840><c> be</c><01:11:22.000><c> seen</c><01:11:22.320><c> or</c><01:11:22.560><c> observed</c><01:11:23.120><c> in</c><01:11:23.360><c> any</c><01:11:23.600><c> way</c>

01:10:20.427 --> 01:10:20.437 align:start position:0%
cannot be seen or observed in any way
 

01:10:20.437 --> 01:10:22.106 align:start position:0%
cannot be seen or observed in any way
other<01:11:24.320><c> than</c><01:11:24.480><c> by</c><01:11:24.719><c> its</c><01:11:24.960><c> gravitational</c>

01:10:22.106 --> 01:10:22.116 align:start position:0%
other than by its gravitational
 

01:10:22.116 --> 01:10:24.747 align:start position:0%
other than by its gravitational
influence.<01:11:27.120><c> Dark</c><01:11:27.440><c> matter</c><01:11:27.760><c> seems</c><01:11:28.000><c> to</c><01:11:28.159><c> have</c>

01:10:24.747 --> 01:10:24.757 align:start position:0%
influence. Dark matter seems to have
 

01:10:24.757 --> 01:10:26.747 align:start position:0%
influence. Dark matter seems to have
clumped<01:11:28.800><c> towards</c><01:11:29.199><c> the</c><01:11:29.360><c> center</c><01:11:29.600><c> of</c><01:11:29.840><c> galaxies</c>

01:10:26.747 --> 01:10:26.757 align:start position:0%
clumped towards the center of galaxies
 

01:10:26.757 --> 01:10:29.227 align:start position:0%
clumped towards the center of galaxies
over<01:11:30.640><c> time,</c><01:11:31.280><c> making</c><01:11:31.679><c> stars</c><01:11:32.000><c> orbit</c><01:11:32.480><c> faster</c>

01:10:29.227 --> 01:10:29.237 align:start position:0%
over time, making stars orbit faster
 

01:10:29.237 --> 01:10:31.067 align:start position:0%
over time, making stars orbit faster
than<01:11:33.040><c> they</c><01:11:33.199><c> should</c><01:11:33.679><c> around</c><01:11:33.920><c> the</c><01:11:34.159><c> edge</c><01:11:34.320><c> of</c><01:11:34.400><c> a</c>

01:10:31.067 --> 01:10:31.077 align:start position:0%
than they should around the edge of a
 

01:10:31.077 --> 01:10:33.227 align:start position:0%
than they should around the edge of a
galaxy<01:11:35.120><c> if</c><01:11:35.440><c> only</c><01:11:35.760><c> gravity</c><01:11:36.159><c> from</c><01:11:36.480><c> normal</c>

01:10:33.227 --> 01:10:33.237 align:start position:0%
galaxy if only gravity from normal
 

01:10:33.237 --> 01:10:36.427 align:start position:0%
galaxy if only gravity from normal
matter<01:11:37.199><c> was</c><01:11:37.360><c> accounted</c><01:11:37.760><c> for.</c><01:11:39.120><c> Other</c><01:11:39.440><c> theories</c>

01:10:36.427 --> 01:10:36.437 align:start position:0%
matter was accounted for. Other theories
 

01:10:36.437 --> 01:10:38.666 align:start position:0%
matter was accounted for. Other theories
also<01:11:40.400><c> exist</c><01:11:40.800><c> about</c><01:11:41.120><c> why</c><01:11:41.440><c> this</c><01:11:41.760><c> may</c><01:11:42.000><c> take</c>

01:10:38.666 --> 01:10:38.676 align:start position:0%
also exist about why this may take
 

01:10:38.676 --> 01:10:40.747 align:start position:0%
also exist about why this may take
place,<01:11:43.040><c> but</c><01:11:43.199><c> these</c><01:11:43.520><c> would</c><01:11:43.760><c> have</c><01:11:43.920><c> to</c><01:11:44.080><c> change</c>

01:10:40.747 --> 01:10:40.757 align:start position:0%
place, but these would have to change
 

01:10:40.757 --> 01:10:44.427 align:start position:0%
place, but these would have to change
the<01:11:44.560><c> way</c><01:11:44.719><c> we</c><01:11:44.960><c> currently</c><01:11:45.520><c> understand</c><01:11:46.000><c> physics.</c>

01:10:44.427 --> 01:10:44.437 align:start position:0%
the way we currently understand physics.
 

01:10:44.437 --> 01:10:46.907 align:start position:0%
the way we currently understand physics.
Anyway,<01:11:48.719><c> how</c><01:11:48.960><c> do</c><01:11:49.120><c> we</c><01:11:49.280><c> know</c><01:11:49.600><c> about</c><01:11:49.840><c> this</c><01:11:50.159><c> change</c>

01:10:46.907 --> 01:10:46.917 align:start position:0%
Anyway, how do we know about this change
 

01:10:46.917 --> 01:10:49.867 align:start position:0%
Anyway, how do we know about this change
in<01:11:50.640><c> the</c><01:11:50.880><c> way</c><01:11:51.120><c> stars</c><01:11:51.520><c> orbit</c><01:11:51.920><c> galaxies?</c><01:11:53.199><c> Well,</c>

01:10:49.867 --> 01:10:49.877 align:start position:0%
in the way stars orbit galaxies? Well,
 

01:10:49.877 --> 01:10:52.747 align:start position:0%
in the way stars orbit galaxies? Well,
of<01:11:53.600><c> course,</c><01:11:54.239><c> we</c><01:11:54.560><c> can</c><01:11:54.800><c> see</c><01:11:55.120><c> back</c><01:11:55.280><c> in</c><01:11:55.520><c> time</c><01:11:56.000><c> when</c>

01:10:52.747 --> 01:10:52.757 align:start position:0%
of course, we can see back in time when
 

01:10:52.757 --> 01:10:55.947 align:start position:0%
of course, we can see back in time when
we<01:11:56.480><c> look</c><01:11:56.719><c> at</c><01:11:56.960><c> extremely</c><01:11:57.679><c> distant</c><01:11:58.159><c> objects.</c>

01:10:55.947 --> 01:10:55.957 align:start position:0%
we look at extremely distant objects.
 

01:10:55.957 --> 01:10:58.187 align:start position:0%
we look at extremely distant objects.
Stars<01:11:59.920><c> within</c><01:12:00.320><c> galaxies</c><01:12:00.960><c> billions</c><01:12:01.360><c> of</c><01:12:01.520><c> light</c>

01:10:58.187 --> 01:10:58.197 align:start position:0%
Stars within galaxies billions of light
 

01:10:58.197 --> 01:11:00.907 align:start position:0%
Stars within galaxies billions of light
years<01:12:02.000><c> away</c><01:12:02.560><c> seem</c><01:12:02.880><c> to</c><01:12:03.040><c> orbit</c><01:12:03.520><c> slower</c><01:12:04.159><c> than</c>

01:11:00.907 --> 01:11:00.917 align:start position:0%
years away seem to orbit slower than
 

01:11:00.917 --> 01:11:03.626 align:start position:0%
years away seem to orbit slower than
stars<01:12:04.800><c> much</c><01:12:05.120><c> closer</c><01:12:05.360><c> to</c><01:12:05.520><c> us.</c><01:12:06.320><c> And</c><01:12:06.480><c> this</c><01:12:06.719><c> effect</c>

01:11:03.626 --> 01:11:03.636 align:start position:0%
stars much closer to us. And this effect
 

01:11:03.636 --> 01:11:05.626 align:start position:0%
stars much closer to us. And this effect
scales<01:12:07.679><c> depending</c><01:12:08.159><c> on</c><01:12:08.320><c> the</c><01:12:08.560><c> distance</c><01:12:08.800><c> to</c><01:12:09.040><c> the</c>

01:11:05.626 --> 01:11:05.636 align:start position:0%
scales depending on the distance to the
 

01:11:05.636 --> 01:11:08.507 align:start position:0%
scales depending on the distance to the
galaxy.

01:11:08.507 --> 01:11:08.517 align:start position:0%
galaxy.
 

01:11:08.517 --> 01:11:10.666 align:start position:0%
galaxy.
Of<01:12:12.320><c> course,</c><01:12:12.560><c> though,</c><01:12:13.120><c> there</c><01:12:13.440><c> are</c><01:12:13.600><c> some</c><01:12:13.920><c> rule</c>

01:11:10.666 --> 01:11:10.676 align:start position:0%
Of course, though, there are some rule
 

01:11:10.676 --> 01:11:13.387 align:start position:0%
Of course, though, there are some rule
breakers<01:12:14.719><c> out</c><01:12:14.960><c> there.</c><01:12:15.840><c> While</c><01:12:16.159><c> most</c><01:12:16.480><c> galaxies</c>

01:11:13.387 --> 01:11:13.397 align:start position:0%
breakers out there. While most galaxies
 

01:11:13.397 --> 01:11:16.507 align:start position:0%
breakers out there. While most galaxies
have<01:12:17.280><c> stars</c><01:12:17.600><c> that</c><01:12:17.920><c> orbit</c><01:12:18.320><c> like</c><01:12:18.560><c> this,</c><01:12:19.600><c> a</c><01:12:19.840><c> few</c>

01:11:16.507 --> 01:11:16.517 align:start position:0%
have stars that orbit like this, a few
 

01:11:16.517 --> 01:11:18.907 align:start position:0%
have stars that orbit like this, a few
have<01:12:20.320><c> been</c><01:12:20.480><c> spotted</c><01:12:21.199><c> that</c><01:12:21.440><c> have</c><01:12:21.920><c> leading</c>

01:11:18.907 --> 01:11:18.917 align:start position:0%
have been spotted that have leading
 

01:11:18.917 --> 01:11:23.867 align:start position:0%
have been spotted that have leading
outer<01:12:22.880><c> arms.</c><01:12:24.080><c> One</c><01:12:24.320><c> example</c><01:12:24.719><c> is</c><01:12:25.040><c> NGC</c><01:12:25.920><c> 4622,</c>

01:11:23.867 --> 01:11:23.877 align:start position:0%
outer arms. One example is NGC 4622,
 

01:11:23.877 --> 01:11:26.586 align:start position:0%
outer arms. One example is NGC 4622,
a<01:12:27.679><c> bizarre</c><01:12:28.159><c> galaxy</c><01:12:28.800><c> that</c><01:12:29.120><c> rotates</c><01:12:29.679><c> in</c><01:12:29.920><c> the</c>

01:11:26.586 --> 01:11:26.596 align:start position:0%
a bizarre galaxy that rotates in the
 

01:11:26.596 --> 01:11:29.227 align:start position:0%
a bizarre galaxy that rotates in the
direction<01:12:30.480><c> the</c><01:12:30.719><c> arms</c><01:12:31.040><c> are</c><01:12:31.199><c> pointing.</c><01:12:32.560><c> This</c>

01:11:29.227 --> 01:11:29.237 align:start position:0%
direction the arms are pointing. This
 

01:11:29.237 --> 01:11:31.547 align:start position:0%
direction the arms are pointing. This
was<01:12:32.960><c> hard</c><01:12:33.199><c> to</c><01:12:33.360><c> accept</c><01:12:33.760><c> at</c><01:12:34.000><c> first</c><01:12:34.560><c> until</c>

01:11:31.547 --> 01:11:31.557 align:start position:0%
was hard to accept at first until
 

01:11:31.557 --> 01:11:35.307 align:start position:0%
was hard to accept at first until
smaller<01:12:35.679><c> inner</c><01:12:36.000><c> arms</c><01:12:36.400><c> were</c><01:12:36.640><c> also</c><01:12:36.960><c> found.</c>

01:11:35.307 --> 01:11:35.317 align:start position:0%
smaller inner arms were also found.
 

01:11:35.317 --> 01:11:37.547 align:start position:0%
smaller inner arms were also found.
This<01:12:39.120><c> unusual</c><01:12:39.679><c> galaxy</c><01:12:40.320><c> has</c><01:12:40.640><c> probably</c>

01:11:37.547 --> 01:11:37.557 align:start position:0%
This unusual galaxy has probably
 

01:11:37.557 --> 01:11:39.387 align:start position:0%
This unusual galaxy has probably
experienced<01:12:41.760><c> a</c><01:12:42.000><c> merger</c><01:12:42.400><c> in</c><01:12:42.560><c> its</c><01:12:42.719><c> not</c>

01:11:39.387 --> 01:11:39.397 align:start position:0%
experienced a merger in its not
 

01:11:39.397 --> 01:11:41.787 align:start position:0%
experienced a merger in its not
tooistant<01:12:43.600><c> past,</c><01:12:44.159><c> which</c><01:12:44.480><c> likely</c><01:12:44.880><c> caused</c><01:12:45.199><c> this</c>

01:11:41.787 --> 01:11:41.797 align:start position:0%
tooistant past, which likely caused this
 

01:11:41.797 --> 01:11:44.187 align:start position:0%
tooistant past, which likely caused this
phenomenon.

01:11:44.187 --> 01:11:44.197 align:start position:0%
phenomenon.
 

01:11:44.197 --> 01:11:46.586 align:start position:0%
phenomenon.
Another<01:12:48.080><c> rule</c><01:12:48.480><c> breaker</c><01:12:48.960><c> is</c><01:12:49.280><c> the</c><01:12:49.520><c> black</c><01:12:49.840><c> eye</c>

01:11:46.586 --> 01:11:46.596 align:start position:0%
Another rule breaker is the black eye
 

01:11:46.596 --> 01:11:49.307 align:start position:0%
Another rule breaker is the black eye
galaxy,<01:12:50.960><c> which</c><01:12:51.280><c> has</c><01:12:51.520><c> two</c><01:12:51.840><c> counterrotating</c>

01:11:49.307 --> 01:11:49.317 align:start position:0%
galaxy, which has two counterrotating
 

01:11:49.317 --> 01:11:52.666 align:start position:0%
galaxy, which has two counterrotating
discs<01:12:53.280><c> of</c><01:12:53.520><c> gas</c><01:12:53.840><c> and</c><01:12:54.000><c> dust.</c><01:12:55.040><c> The</c><01:12:55.280><c> inner</c><01:12:55.600><c> disc,</c>

01:11:52.666 --> 01:11:52.676 align:start position:0%
discs of gas and dust. The inner disc,
 

01:11:52.676 --> 01:11:54.666 align:start position:0%
discs of gas and dust. The inner disc,
where<01:12:56.480><c> you</c><01:12:56.719><c> can</c><01:12:56.800><c> see</c><01:12:57.040><c> all</c><01:12:57.199><c> the</c><01:12:57.360><c> dust</c><01:12:57.679><c> lanes,</c>

01:11:54.666 --> 01:11:54.676 align:start position:0%
where you can see all the dust lanes,
 

01:11:54.676 --> 01:11:57.387 align:start position:0%
where you can see all the dust lanes,
rotates<01:12:58.719><c> normally,</c><01:12:59.679><c> whereas</c><01:13:00.080><c> gas</c><01:13:00.480><c> in</c><01:13:00.719><c> this</c>

01:11:57.387 --> 01:11:57.397 align:start position:0%
rotates normally, whereas gas in this
 

01:11:57.397 --> 01:11:59.707 align:start position:0%
rotates normally, whereas gas in this
outer<01:13:01.360><c> disc</c><01:13:02.000><c> rotates</c><01:13:02.480><c> the</c><01:13:02.800><c> opposite</c>

01:11:59.707 --> 01:11:59.717 align:start position:0%
outer disc rotates the opposite
 

01:11:59.717 --> 01:12:03.067 align:start position:0%
outer disc rotates the opposite
direction.<01:13:04.719><c> Interestingly,</c><01:13:05.920><c> stars</c><01:13:06.239><c> in</c><01:13:06.480><c> this</c>

01:12:03.067 --> 01:12:03.077 align:start position:0%
direction. Interestingly, stars in this
 

01:12:03.077 --> 01:12:05.146 align:start position:0%
direction. Interestingly, stars in this
outer<01:13:06.960><c> region</c><01:13:07.280><c> do</c><01:13:07.520><c> not</c><01:13:07.760><c> seem</c><01:13:07.920><c> to</c><01:13:08.080><c> be</c><01:13:08.239><c> orbiting</c>

01:12:05.146 --> 01:12:05.156 align:start position:0%
outer region do not seem to be orbiting
 

01:12:05.156 --> 01:12:07.707 align:start position:0%
outer region do not seem to be orbiting
retrograde,<01:13:09.840><c> meaning</c><01:13:10.159><c> it</c><01:13:10.400><c> is</c><01:13:10.560><c> just</c><01:13:10.800><c> the</c><01:13:11.040><c> gas</c>

01:12:07.707 --> 01:12:07.717 align:start position:0%
retrograde, meaning it is just the gas
 

01:12:07.717 --> 01:12:10.987 align:start position:0%
retrograde, meaning it is just the gas
that<01:13:11.520><c> does</c><01:13:11.760><c> so.</c><01:13:13.120><c> It</c><01:13:13.360><c> is</c><01:13:13.520><c> believed</c><01:13:13.840><c> that</c><01:13:14.159><c> gas</c>

01:12:10.987 --> 01:12:10.997 align:start position:0%
that does so. It is believed that gas
 

01:12:10.997 --> 01:12:12.907 align:start position:0%
that does so. It is believed that gas
must<01:13:14.880><c> be</c><01:13:15.120><c> still</c><01:13:15.440><c> getting</c><01:13:15.760><c> fed</c><01:13:16.080><c> into</c><01:13:16.320><c> the</c>

01:12:12.907 --> 01:12:12.917 align:start position:0%
must be still getting fed into the
 

01:12:12.917 --> 01:12:15.707 align:start position:0%
must be still getting fed into the
galaxy<01:13:16.880><c> from</c><01:13:17.120><c> the</c><01:13:17.280><c> intergalactic</c><01:13:18.000><c> medium</c><01:13:18.960><c> or</c>

01:12:15.707 --> 01:12:15.717 align:start position:0%
galaxy from the intergalactic medium or
 

01:12:15.717 --> 01:12:18.027 align:start position:0%
galaxy from the intergalactic medium or
that<01:13:19.520><c> this</c><01:13:19.760><c> galaxy</c><01:13:20.560><c> also</c><01:13:20.960><c> emerged</c><01:13:21.360><c> with</c>

01:12:18.027 --> 01:12:18.037 align:start position:0%
that this galaxy also emerged with
 

01:12:18.037 --> 01:12:22.507 align:start position:0%
that this galaxy also emerged with
another<01:13:22.000><c> extremely</c><01:13:22.640><c> gas-rich</c><01:13:23.199><c> galaxy.</c>

01:12:22.507 --> 01:12:22.517 align:start position:0%
another extremely gas-rich galaxy.
 

01:12:22.517 --> 01:12:24.027 align:start position:0%
another extremely gas-rich galaxy.
The<01:13:26.320><c> last</c><01:13:26.480><c> thing</c><01:13:26.640><c> I</c><01:13:26.880><c> wanted</c><01:13:27.040><c> to</c><01:13:27.199><c> show</c><01:13:27.360><c> you</c>

01:12:24.027 --> 01:12:24.037 align:start position:0%
The last thing I wanted to show you
 

01:12:24.037 --> 01:12:26.507 align:start position:0%
The last thing I wanted to show you
today<01:13:28.000><c> is</c><01:13:28.320><c> the</c><01:13:28.560><c> other</c><01:13:28.960><c> major</c><01:13:29.440><c> category</c><01:13:29.840><c> of</c>

01:12:26.507 --> 01:12:26.517 align:start position:0%
today is the other major category of
 

01:12:26.517 --> 01:12:30.187 align:start position:0%
today is the other major category of
galaxy,<01:13:31.120><c> elliptical</c><01:13:31.679><c> galaxies.</c><01:13:33.120><c> Elliptical</c>

01:12:30.187 --> 01:12:30.197 align:start position:0%
galaxy, elliptical galaxies. Elliptical
 

01:12:30.197 --> 01:12:32.027 align:start position:0%
galaxy, elliptical galaxies. Elliptical
galaxies<01:13:34.320><c> contain</c><01:13:34.719><c> stars</c><01:13:35.120><c> that</c><01:13:35.360><c> are</c>

01:12:32.027 --> 01:12:32.037 align:start position:0%
galaxies contain stars that are
 

01:12:32.037 --> 01:12:34.347 align:start position:0%
galaxies contain stars that are
generally<01:13:36.159><c> much</c><01:13:36.480><c> older</c><01:13:36.880><c> than</c><01:13:37.120><c> those</c><01:13:37.440><c> found</c><01:13:37.679><c> in</c>

01:12:34.347 --> 01:12:34.357 align:start position:0%
generally much older than those found in
 

01:12:34.357 --> 01:12:36.747 align:start position:0%
generally much older than those found in
spiral<01:13:38.400><c> galaxies</c><01:13:39.280><c> because</c><01:13:39.520><c> the</c><01:13:39.760><c> dust</c><01:13:40.080><c> lanes</c>

01:12:36.747 --> 01:12:36.757 align:start position:0%
spiral galaxies because the dust lanes
 

01:12:36.757 --> 01:12:39.227 align:start position:0%
spiral galaxies because the dust lanes
in<01:13:40.480><c> these</c><01:13:40.640><c> galaxies</c><01:13:41.120><c> have</c><01:13:41.440><c> been</c><01:13:41.600><c> exhausted,</c>

01:12:39.227 --> 01:12:39.237 align:start position:0%
in these galaxies have been exhausted,
 

01:12:39.237 --> 01:12:41.307 align:start position:0%
in these galaxies have been exhausted,
meaning<01:13:43.120><c> stellar</c><01:13:43.520><c> production</c><01:13:44.080><c> has</c><01:13:44.400><c> all</c><01:13:44.560><c> but</c>

01:12:41.307 --> 01:12:41.317 align:start position:0%
meaning stellar production has all but
 

01:12:41.317 --> 01:12:42.987 align:start position:0%
meaning stellar production has all but
stopped.

01:12:42.987 --> 01:12:42.997 align:start position:0%
stopped.
 

01:12:42.997 --> 01:12:45.387 align:start position:0%
stopped.
In<01:13:46.800><c> these</c><01:13:47.120><c> kind</c><01:13:47.280><c> of</c><01:13:47.440><c> galaxies,</c><01:13:48.320><c> stars</c><01:13:48.719><c> are</c>

01:12:45.387 --> 01:12:45.397 align:start position:0%
In these kind of galaxies, stars are
 

01:12:45.397 --> 01:12:47.467 align:start position:0%
In these kind of galaxies, stars are
very<01:13:49.280><c> much</c><01:13:49.600><c> independent</c><01:13:50.080><c> from</c><01:13:50.320><c> each</c><01:13:50.560><c> other,</c>

01:12:47.467 --> 01:12:47.477 align:start position:0%
very much independent from each other,
 

01:12:47.477 --> 01:12:49.626 align:start position:0%
very much independent from each other,
following<01:13:51.520><c> their</c><01:13:51.760><c> own</c><01:13:52.159><c> rather</c><01:13:52.640><c> elliptical</c>

01:12:49.626 --> 01:12:49.636 align:start position:0%
following their own rather elliptical
 

01:12:49.636 --> 01:12:52.586 align:start position:0%
following their own rather elliptical
orbits.<01:13:54.400><c> Sometimes</c><01:13:54.960><c> galaxies</c><01:13:55.520><c> can</c><01:13:55.679><c> exhibit</c>

01:12:52.586 --> 01:12:52.596 align:start position:0%
orbits. Sometimes galaxies can exhibit
 

01:12:52.596 --> 01:12:54.347 align:start position:0%
orbits. Sometimes galaxies can exhibit
characteristics<01:13:56.880><c> of</c><01:13:57.120><c> both</c><01:13:57.440><c> types</c><01:13:57.679><c> of</c>

01:12:54.347 --> 01:12:54.357 align:start position:0%
characteristics of both types of
 

01:12:54.357 --> 01:12:57.307 align:start position:0%
characteristics of both types of
galaxies.<01:13:58.880><c> These</c><01:13:59.280><c> are</c><01:13:59.440><c> known</c><01:13:59.679><c> as</c><01:14:00.080><c> lenticular</c>

01:12:57.307 --> 01:12:57.317 align:start position:0%
galaxies. These are known as lenticular
 

01:12:57.317 --> 01:12:59.067 align:start position:0%
galaxies. These are known as lenticular
galaxies.

01:12:59.067 --> 01:12:59.077 align:start position:0%
galaxies.
 

01:12:59.077 --> 01:13:01.067 align:start position:0%
galaxies.
These<01:14:02.960><c> galaxies</c><01:14:03.440><c> have</c><01:14:03.679><c> dust</c><01:14:04.000><c> rings</c><01:14:04.320><c> which</c>

01:13:01.067 --> 01:13:01.077 align:start position:0%
These galaxies have dust rings which
 

01:13:01.077 --> 01:13:03.146 align:start position:0%
These galaxies have dust rings which
haven't<01:14:04.880><c> fully</c><01:14:05.280><c> been</c><01:14:05.440><c> exhausted</c><01:14:06.000><c> yet</c><01:14:06.560><c> and</c>

01:13:03.146 --> 01:13:03.156 align:start position:0%
haven't fully been exhausted yet and
 

01:13:03.156 --> 01:13:05.947 align:start position:0%
haven't fully been exhausted yet and
they<01:14:06.960><c> have</c><01:14:07.120><c> quite</c><01:14:07.360><c> a</c><01:14:07.520><c> ghostly</c><01:14:08.080><c> appearance.</c>

01:13:05.947 --> 01:13:05.957 align:start position:0%
they have quite a ghostly appearance.
 

01:13:05.957 --> 01:13:07.947 align:start position:0%
they have quite a ghostly appearance.
Star<01:14:09.840><c> formation</c><01:14:10.320><c> does</c><01:14:10.640><c> appear</c><01:14:10.960><c> to</c><01:14:11.199><c> be</c><01:14:11.280><c> a</c>

01:13:07.947 --> 01:13:07.957 align:start position:0%
Star formation does appear to be a
 

01:13:07.957 --> 01:13:10.666 align:start position:0%
Star formation does appear to be a
factor<01:14:11.840><c> in</c><01:14:12.080><c> keeping</c><01:14:12.480><c> spiral</c><01:14:12.960><c> arms</c><01:14:13.280><c> defined</c><01:14:14.000><c> as</c>

01:13:10.666 --> 01:13:10.676 align:start position:0%
factor in keeping spiral arms defined as
 

01:13:10.676 --> 01:13:13.146 align:start position:0%
factor in keeping spiral arms defined as
once<01:14:14.560><c> the</c><01:14:14.719><c> stellar</c><01:14:15.120><c> building</c><01:14:15.440><c> blocks</c><01:14:15.840><c> dry</c><01:14:16.159><c> up,</c>

01:13:13.146 --> 01:13:13.156 align:start position:0%
once the stellar building blocks dry up,
 

01:13:13.156 --> 01:13:15.146 align:start position:0%
once the stellar building blocks dry up,
we've<01:14:16.960><c> seen</c><01:14:17.199><c> examples</c><01:14:17.520><c> of</c><01:14:17.760><c> spiral</c><01:14:18.159><c> galaxies</c>

01:13:15.146 --> 01:13:15.156 align:start position:0%
we've seen examples of spiral galaxies
 

01:13:15.156 --> 01:13:17.707 align:start position:0%
we've seen examples of spiral galaxies
losing<01:14:19.120><c> their</c><01:14:19.360><c> definition.</c><01:14:20.800><c> Perhaps</c>

01:13:17.707 --> 01:13:17.717 align:start position:0%
losing their definition. Perhaps
 

01:13:17.717 --> 01:13:20.027 align:start position:0%
losing their definition. Perhaps
lenticular<01:14:22.000><c> galaxies</c><01:14:22.480><c> are</c><01:14:22.640><c> the</c><01:14:22.800><c> midway</c><01:14:23.280><c> point</c>

01:13:20.027 --> 01:13:20.037 align:start position:0%
lenticular galaxies are the midway point
 

01:13:20.037 --> 01:13:22.187 align:start position:0%
lenticular galaxies are the midway point
between<01:14:24.000><c> spiral</c><01:14:24.480><c> galaxies</c><01:14:24.880><c> and</c><01:14:25.199><c> elliptical</c>

01:13:22.187 --> 01:13:22.197 align:start position:0%
between spiral galaxies and elliptical
 

01:13:22.197 --> 01:13:24.427 align:start position:0%
between spiral galaxies and elliptical
galaxies.

01:13:24.427 --> 01:13:24.437 align:start position:0%
galaxies.
 

01:13:24.437 --> 01:13:26.747 align:start position:0%
galaxies.
So,<01:14:28.320><c> there</c><01:14:28.560><c> we</c><01:14:28.800><c> have</c><01:14:28.880><c> it.</c><01:14:29.440><c> A</c><01:14:29.679><c> look</c><01:14:29.840><c> at</c><01:14:30.080><c> how</c>

01:13:26.747 --> 01:13:26.757 align:start position:0%
So, there we have it. A look at how
 

01:13:26.757 --> 01:13:28.987 align:start position:0%
So, there we have it. A look at how
galaxies<01:14:30.960><c> rotate.</c>

01:13:28.987 --> 01:13:28.997 align:start position:0%
galaxies rotate.
 

01:13:28.997 --> 01:13:31.387 align:start position:0%
galaxies rotate.
When<01:14:32.880><c> you</c><01:14:33.040><c> think</c><01:14:33.199><c> about</c><01:14:33.360><c> the</c><01:14:33.600><c> North</c><01:14:33.840><c> Pole,</c><01:14:34.560><c> you</c>

01:13:31.387 --> 01:13:31.397 align:start position:0%
When you think about the North Pole, you
 

01:13:31.397 --> 01:13:34.267 align:start position:0%
When you think about the North Pole, you
don't<01:14:35.360><c> expect</c><01:14:35.679><c> it</c><01:14:35.920><c> to</c><01:14:36.080><c> go</c><01:14:36.239><c> anywhere.</c><01:14:37.360><c> And</c><01:14:37.520><c> you</c>

01:13:34.267 --> 01:13:34.277 align:start position:0%
don't expect it to go anywhere. And you
 

01:13:34.277 --> 01:13:36.106 align:start position:0%
don't expect it to go anywhere. And you
certainly<01:14:38.400><c> don't</c><01:14:38.640><c> expect</c><01:14:38.960><c> it</c><01:14:39.120><c> to</c><01:14:39.360><c> change</c>

01:13:36.106 --> 01:13:36.116 align:start position:0%
certainly don't expect it to change
 

01:13:36.116 --> 01:13:38.267 align:start position:0%
certainly don't expect it to change
places<01:14:40.000><c> with</c><01:14:40.159><c> the</c><01:14:40.400><c> South</c><01:14:40.640><c> Pole.</c><01:14:41.360><c> That</c><01:14:41.679><c> would</c>

01:13:38.267 --> 01:13:38.277 align:start position:0%
places with the South Pole. That would
 

01:13:38.277 --> 01:13:40.907 align:start position:0%
places with the South Pole. That would
just<01:14:42.159><c> be</c><01:14:42.320><c> wrong.</c><01:14:43.120><c> Our</c><01:14:43.440><c> magnetic</c><01:14:43.920><c> compasses</c>

01:13:40.907 --> 01:13:40.917 align:start position:0%
just be wrong. Our magnetic compasses
 

01:13:40.917 --> 01:13:42.987 align:start position:0%
just be wrong. Our magnetic compasses
would<01:14:44.719><c> all</c><01:14:44.960><c> point</c><01:14:45.120><c> the</c><01:14:45.360><c> wrong</c><01:14:45.520><c> way.</c><01:14:46.080><c> We'd</c><01:14:46.400><c> need</c>

01:13:42.987 --> 01:13:42.997 align:start position:0%
would all point the wrong way. We'd need
 

01:13:42.997 --> 01:13:45.707 align:start position:0%
would all point the wrong way. We'd need
to<01:14:46.719><c> update</c><01:14:47.040><c> our</c><01:14:47.360><c> maps.</c><01:14:48.080><c> Birds</c><01:14:48.560><c> would</c><01:14:48.880><c> probably</c>

01:13:45.707 --> 01:13:45.717 align:start position:0%
to update our maps. Birds would probably
 

01:13:45.717 --> 01:13:48.666 align:start position:0%
to update our maps. Birds would probably
be<01:14:49.520><c> horribly</c><01:14:50.000><c> confused.</c><01:14:51.199><c> And</c><01:14:51.440><c> yet,</c><01:14:51.920><c> although</c>

01:13:48.666 --> 01:13:48.676 align:start position:0%
be horribly confused. And yet, although
 

01:13:48.676 --> 01:13:50.586 align:start position:0%
be horribly confused. And yet, although
they<01:14:52.480><c> sound</c><01:14:52.719><c> like</c><01:14:52.960><c> something</c><01:14:53.280><c> out</c><01:14:53.600><c> of</c><01:14:53.840><c> science</c>

01:13:50.586 --> 01:13:50.596 align:start position:0%
they sound like something out of science
 

01:13:50.596 --> 01:13:53.626 align:start position:0%
they sound like something out of science
fiction,<01:14:55.040><c> geomagnetic</c><01:14:55.920><c> reversals</c><01:14:56.560><c> like</c><01:14:56.800><c> this</c>

01:13:53.626 --> 01:13:53.636 align:start position:0%
fiction, geomagnetic reversals like this
 

01:13:53.636 --> 01:13:56.907 align:start position:0%
fiction, geomagnetic reversals like this
are<01:14:57.520><c> real,</c><01:14:58.400><c> they've</c><01:14:58.880><c> happened</c><01:14:59.280><c> before,</c><01:15:00.159><c> and</c>

01:13:56.907 --> 01:13:56.917 align:start position:0%
are real, they've happened before, and
 

01:13:56.917 --> 01:13:59.067 align:start position:0%
are real, they've happened before, and
the<01:15:00.719><c> process</c><01:15:01.120><c> behind</c><01:15:01.440><c> it</c><01:15:01.760><c> might</c><01:15:02.000><c> be</c><01:15:02.159><c> a</c><01:15:02.480><c> lot</c>

01:13:59.067 --> 01:13:59.077 align:start position:0%
the process behind it might be a lot
 

01:13:59.077 --> 01:14:01.547 align:start position:0%
the process behind it might be a lot
more<01:15:02.880><c> dangerous</c><01:15:03.199><c> than</c><01:15:03.440><c> you'd</c><01:15:03.679><c> think.</c><01:15:04.719><c> To</c><01:15:04.960><c> be</c>

01:14:01.547 --> 01:14:01.557 align:start position:0%
more dangerous than you'd think. To be
 

01:14:01.557 --> 01:14:03.787 align:start position:0%
more dangerous than you'd think. To be
clear,<01:15:05.600><c> it's</c><01:15:05.920><c> not</c><01:15:06.000><c> the</c><01:15:06.239><c> reversals</c><01:15:06.800><c> themselves</c>

01:14:03.787 --> 01:14:03.797 align:start position:0%
clear, it's not the reversals themselves
 

01:14:03.797 --> 01:14:06.027 align:start position:0%
clear, it's not the reversals themselves
that<01:15:07.600><c> are</c><01:15:07.760><c> potentially</c><01:15:08.239><c> dangerous.</c><01:15:09.199><c> It's</c><01:15:09.360><c> the</c>

01:14:06.027 --> 01:14:06.037 align:start position:0%
that are potentially dangerous. It's the
 

01:14:06.037 --> 01:14:08.747 align:start position:0%
that are potentially dangerous. It's the
buildup.<01:15:10.560><c> During</c><01:15:10.880><c> those</c><01:15:11.199><c> times,</c><01:15:11.760><c> the</c><01:15:11.920><c> Earth's</c>

01:14:08.747 --> 01:14:08.757 align:start position:0%
buildup. During those times, the Earth's
 

01:14:08.757 --> 01:14:11.307 align:start position:0%
buildup. During those times, the Earth's
magnetic<01:15:12.800><c> field,</c><01:15:13.520><c> the</c><01:15:13.760><c> shield</c><01:15:14.239><c> around</c><01:15:14.560><c> our</c>

01:14:11.307 --> 01:14:11.317 align:start position:0%
magnetic field, the shield around our
 

01:14:11.317 --> 01:14:13.067 align:start position:0%
magnetic field, the shield around our
planet<01:15:15.120><c> that</c><01:15:15.360><c> keeps</c><01:15:15.520><c> us</c><01:15:15.760><c> safe</c><01:15:16.000><c> from</c><01:15:16.239><c> deadly</c>

01:14:13.067 --> 01:14:13.077 align:start position:0%
planet that keeps us safe from deadly
 

01:14:13.077 --> 01:14:15.947 align:start position:0%
planet that keeps us safe from deadly
solar<01:15:17.040><c> radiation,</c><01:15:17.920><c> will</c><01:15:18.159><c> drop</c><01:15:18.480><c> to</c><01:15:18.719><c> as</c><01:15:18.960><c> low</c><01:15:19.199><c> as</c>

01:14:15.947 --> 01:14:15.957 align:start position:0%
solar radiation, will drop to as low as
 

01:14:15.957 --> 01:14:18.907 align:start position:0%
solar radiation, will drop to as low as
10%<01:15:20.320><c> of</c><01:15:20.560><c> its</c><01:15:20.800><c> current</c><01:15:21.040><c> strength,</c><01:15:21.840><c> leading</c><01:15:22.239><c> one</c>

01:14:18.907 --> 01:14:18.917 align:start position:0%
10% of its current strength, leading one
 

01:14:18.917 --> 01:14:21.626 align:start position:0%
10% of its current strength, leading one
group<01:15:22.640><c> of</c><01:15:22.800><c> scientists</c><01:15:23.280><c> in</c><01:15:23.600><c> 2021</c><01:15:24.480><c> to</c><01:15:24.800><c> predict</c>

01:14:21.626 --> 01:14:21.636 align:start position:0%
group of scientists in 2021 to predict
 

01:14:21.636 --> 01:14:24.427 align:start position:0%
group of scientists in 2021 to predict
climate<01:15:25.600><c> shifts</c><01:15:26.000><c> and</c><01:15:26.320><c> mass</c><01:15:26.719><c> extinctions.</c><01:15:27.840><c> And</c>

01:14:24.427 --> 01:14:24.437 align:start position:0%
climate shifts and mass extinctions. And
 

01:14:24.437 --> 01:14:26.347 align:start position:0%
climate shifts and mass extinctions. And
others<01:15:28.400><c> to</c><01:15:28.560><c> describe</c><01:15:29.040><c> satellites</c><01:15:29.600><c> being</c>

01:14:26.347 --> 01:14:26.357 align:start position:0%
others to describe satellites being
 

01:14:26.357 --> 01:14:28.586 align:start position:0%
others to describe satellites being
destroyed,<01:15:30.880><c> electrical</c><01:15:31.440><c> grids</c><01:15:31.840><c> going</c>

01:14:28.586 --> 01:14:28.596 align:start position:0%
destroyed, electrical grids going
 

01:14:28.596 --> 01:14:31.227 align:start position:0%
destroyed, electrical grids going
offline,<01:15:33.040><c> and</c><01:15:33.280><c> deadly</c><01:15:33.760><c> radiation</c><01:15:34.320><c> raining</c>

01:14:31.227 --> 01:14:31.237 align:start position:0%
offline, and deadly radiation raining
 

01:14:31.237 --> 01:14:33.307 align:start position:0%
offline, and deadly radiation raining
down<01:15:34.960><c> on</c><01:15:35.199><c> us</c><01:15:35.440><c> for</c><01:15:35.679><c> hundreds</c><01:15:36.239><c> or</c><01:15:36.560><c> even</c>

01:14:33.307 --> 01:14:33.317 align:start position:0%
down on us for hundreds or even
 

01:14:33.317 --> 01:14:35.387 align:start position:0%
down on us for hundreds or even
thousands<01:15:37.360><c> of</c><01:15:37.600><c> years.</c>

01:14:35.387 --> 01:14:35.397 align:start position:0%
thousands of years.
 

01:14:35.397 --> 01:14:37.787 align:start position:0%
thousands of years.
This<01:15:39.280><c> is</c><01:15:39.600><c> troubling</c><01:15:40.400><c> when</c><01:15:40.640><c> you</c><01:15:40.800><c> consider</c><01:15:41.120><c> that</c>

01:14:37.787 --> 01:14:37.797 align:start position:0%
This is troubling when you consider that
 

01:14:37.797 --> 01:14:39.867 align:start position:0%
This is troubling when you consider that
we<01:15:41.600><c> are</c><01:15:41.840><c> a</c><01:15:42.080><c> couple</c><01:15:42.239><c> of</c><01:15:42.400><c> hundred,000</c><01:15:43.120><c> years</c>

01:14:39.867 --> 01:14:39.877 align:start position:0%
we are a couple of hundred,000 years
 

01:14:39.877 --> 01:14:42.347 align:start position:0%
we are a couple of hundred,000 years
overdue<01:15:44.080><c> for</c><01:15:44.400><c> our</c><01:15:44.719><c> next</c><01:15:45.120><c> geomagnetic</c>

01:14:42.347 --> 01:14:42.357 align:start position:0%
overdue for our next geomagnetic
 

01:14:42.357 --> 01:14:45.227 align:start position:0%
overdue for our next geomagnetic
reversal.<01:15:46.960><c> And</c><01:15:47.199><c> based</c><01:15:47.520><c> on</c><01:15:47.760><c> fluctuations</c><01:15:48.560><c> in</c>

01:14:45.227 --> 01:14:45.237 align:start position:0%
reversal. And based on fluctuations in
 

01:14:45.237 --> 01:14:46.907 align:start position:0%
reversal. And based on fluctuations in
the<01:15:48.960><c> Earth's</c><01:15:49.360><c> magnetic</c><01:15:49.760><c> field</c><01:15:50.159><c> that</c>

01:14:46.907 --> 01:14:46.917 align:start position:0%
the Earth's magnetic field that
 

01:14:46.917 --> 01:14:49.387 align:start position:0%
the Earth's magnetic field that
scientists<01:15:50.960><c> are</c><01:15:51.120><c> detecting</c><01:15:51.679><c> right</c><01:15:52.000><c> now,</c><01:15:52.640><c> the</c>

01:14:49.387 --> 01:14:49.397 align:start position:0%
scientists are detecting right now, the
 

01:14:49.397 --> 01:14:51.947 align:start position:0%
scientists are detecting right now, the
buildup<01:15:53.360><c> to</c><01:15:53.520><c> a</c><01:15:53.679><c> geomagnetic</c><01:15:54.400><c> reversal</c><01:15:55.199><c> may</c>

01:14:51.947 --> 01:14:51.957 align:start position:0%
buildup to a geomagnetic reversal may
 

01:14:51.957 --> 01:14:54.907 align:start position:0%
buildup to a geomagnetic reversal may
even<01:15:55.920><c> have</c><01:15:56.159><c> begun</c><01:15:56.719><c> already,</c>

01:14:54.907 --> 01:14:54.917 align:start position:0%
even have begun already,
 

01:14:54.917 --> 01:14:57.867 align:start position:0%
even have begun already,
which<01:15:58.880><c> begs</c><01:15:59.199><c> the</c><01:15:59.520><c> question,</c><01:16:00.400><c> should</c><01:16:00.719><c> we</c><01:16:01.199><c> be</c>

01:14:57.867 --> 01:14:57.877 align:start position:0%
which begs the question, should we be
 

01:14:57.877 --> 01:14:59.707 align:start position:0%
which begs the question, should we be
worried?

01:14:59.707 --> 01:14:59.717 align:start position:0%
worried?
 

01:14:59.717 --> 01:15:01.707 align:start position:0%
worried?
I'm<01:16:03.600><c> Alex</c><01:16:03.920><c> Mcolen</c><01:16:04.560><c> and</c><01:16:04.800><c> you're</c><01:16:05.040><c> watching</c>

01:15:01.707 --> 01:15:01.717 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mcolen and you're watching
 

01:15:01.717 --> 01:15:04.106 align:start position:0%
I'm Alex Mcolen and you're watching
Astramm.<01:16:06.239><c> Join</c><01:16:06.480><c> with</c><01:16:06.719><c> me</c><01:16:06.880><c> today</c><01:16:07.120><c> as</c><01:16:07.440><c> we</c>

01:15:04.106 --> 01:15:04.116 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join with me today as we
 

01:15:04.116 --> 01:15:06.507 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join with me today as we
explore<01:16:08.080><c> the</c><01:16:08.400><c> science</c><01:16:08.800><c> behind</c><01:16:09.280><c> geomagnetic</c>

01:15:06.507 --> 01:15:06.517 align:start position:0%
explore the science behind geomagnetic
 

01:15:06.517 --> 01:15:08.987 align:start position:0%
explore the science behind geomagnetic
reversals<01:16:10.960><c> and</c><01:16:11.280><c> find</c><01:16:11.440><c> out</c><01:16:11.679><c> whether</c><01:16:12.080><c> the</c><01:16:12.320><c> next</c>

01:15:08.987 --> 01:15:08.997 align:start position:0%
reversals and find out whether the next
 

01:15:08.997 --> 01:15:12.106 align:start position:0%
reversals and find out whether the next
one<01:16:12.960><c> will</c><01:16:13.199><c> be</c><01:16:13.280><c> an</c><01:16:13.520><c> apocalyptic</c><01:16:14.320><c> scenario</c><01:16:15.199><c> or</c>

01:15:12.106 --> 01:15:12.116 align:start position:0%
one will be an apocalyptic scenario or
 

01:15:12.116 --> 01:15:14.106 align:start position:0%
one will be an apocalyptic scenario or
whether<01:16:16.000><c> it'll</c><01:16:16.400><c> lead</c><01:16:16.560><c> to</c><01:16:16.800><c> nothing</c><01:16:17.120><c> more</c><01:16:17.440><c> than</c>

01:15:14.106 --> 01:15:14.116 align:start position:0%
whether it'll lead to nothing more than
 

01:15:14.116 --> 01:15:17.067 align:start position:0%
whether it'll lead to nothing more than
a<01:16:17.840><c> few</c><01:16:18.080><c> lost</c><01:16:18.320><c> birds.</c><01:16:19.440><c> What</c><01:16:19.679><c> truly</c><01:16:20.159><c> happens</c>

01:15:17.067 --> 01:15:17.077 align:start position:0%
a few lost birds. What truly happens
 

01:15:17.077 --> 01:15:21.307 align:start position:0%
a few lost birds. What truly happens
when<01:16:21.040><c> things</c><01:16:21.520><c> go</c><01:16:21.840><c> south?</c>

01:15:21.307 --> 01:15:21.317 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:15:21.317 --> 01:15:23.227 align:start position:0%
 
Let's<01:16:25.199><c> start</c><01:16:25.440><c> by</c><01:16:25.760><c> trying</c><01:16:26.080><c> to</c><01:16:26.320><c> understand</c>

01:15:23.227 --> 01:15:23.237 align:start position:0%
Let's start by trying to understand
 

01:15:23.237 --> 01:15:25.067 align:start position:0%
Let's start by trying to understand
where<01:16:27.040><c> the</c><01:16:27.280><c> Earth's</c><01:16:27.600><c> magnetic</c><01:16:28.000><c> field</c><01:16:28.320><c> comes</c>

01:15:25.067 --> 01:15:25.077 align:start position:0%
where the Earth's magnetic field comes
 

01:15:25.077 --> 01:15:27.707 align:start position:0%
where the Earth's magnetic field comes
from<01:16:28.800><c> in</c><01:16:29.040><c> the</c><01:16:29.199><c> first</c><01:16:29.440><c> place.</c>

01:15:27.707 --> 01:15:27.717 align:start position:0%
from in the first place.
 

01:15:27.717 --> 01:15:29.787 align:start position:0%
from in the first place.
It's<01:16:31.600><c> not</c><01:16:31.760><c> a</c><01:16:32.000><c> given</c><01:16:32.239><c> that</c><01:16:32.480><c> our</c><01:16:32.800><c> planet</c><01:16:33.120><c> would</c>

01:15:29.787 --> 01:15:29.797 align:start position:0%
It's not a given that our planet would
 

01:15:29.797 --> 01:15:32.187 align:start position:0%
It's not a given that our planet would
have<01:16:33.520><c> a</c><01:16:33.679><c> magnetic</c><01:16:34.159><c> field.</c><01:16:34.880><c> The</c><01:16:35.120><c> two</c><01:16:35.360><c> planets</c>

01:15:32.187 --> 01:15:32.197 align:start position:0%
have a magnetic field. The two planets
 

01:15:32.197 --> 01:15:35.146 align:start position:0%
have a magnetic field. The two planets
flanking<01:16:36.239><c> us,</c><01:16:36.640><c> Mars</c><01:16:37.040><c> and</c><01:16:37.199><c> Venus,</c><01:16:38.000><c> do</c><01:16:38.239><c> not</c><01:16:38.480><c> have</c>

01:15:35.146 --> 01:15:35.156 align:start position:0%
flanking us, Mars and Venus, do not have
 

01:15:35.156 --> 01:15:38.106 align:start position:0%
flanking us, Mars and Venus, do not have
one.<01:16:39.360><c> And</c><01:16:39.520><c> yet,</c><01:16:39.840><c> the</c><01:16:40.080><c> Earth</c><01:16:40.400><c> does,</c><01:16:41.120><c> which</c><01:16:41.360><c> is</c><01:16:41.440><c> a</c>

01:15:38.106 --> 01:15:38.116 align:start position:0%
one. And yet, the Earth does, which is a
 

01:15:38.116 --> 01:15:40.507 align:start position:0%
one. And yet, the Earth does, which is a
good<01:16:41.840><c> thing,</c><01:16:42.400><c> as</c><01:16:42.640><c> without</c><01:16:43.040><c> one,</c><01:16:43.520><c> there</c><01:16:43.679><c> is</c><01:16:43.840><c> a</c>

01:15:40.507 --> 01:15:40.517 align:start position:0%
good thing, as without one, there is a
 

01:15:40.517 --> 01:15:42.747 align:start position:0%
good thing, as without one, there is a
very<01:16:44.400><c> real</c><01:16:44.800><c> chance</c><01:16:45.360><c> life</c><01:16:45.679><c> would</c><01:16:45.920><c> not</c><01:16:46.159><c> have</c>

01:15:42.747 --> 01:15:42.757 align:start position:0%
very real chance life would not have
 

01:15:42.757 --> 01:15:44.507 align:start position:0%
very real chance life would not have
been<01:16:46.480><c> able</c><01:16:46.719><c> to</c><01:16:46.880><c> arise</c><01:16:47.280><c> here</c><01:16:47.520><c> in</c><01:16:47.679><c> the</c><01:16:47.840><c> first</c>

01:15:44.507 --> 01:15:44.517 align:start position:0%
been able to arise here in the first
 

01:15:44.517 --> 01:15:46.187 align:start position:0%
been able to arise here in the first
place.

01:15:46.187 --> 01:15:46.197 align:start position:0%
place.
 

01:15:46.197 --> 01:15:48.267 align:start position:0%
place.
Thanks<01:16:50.080><c> to</c><01:16:50.239><c> the</c><01:16:50.480><c> protective</c><01:16:51.040><c> cocoon</c><01:16:51.440><c> of</c><01:16:51.679><c> this</c>

01:15:48.267 --> 01:15:48.277 align:start position:0%
Thanks to the protective cocoon of this
 

01:15:48.277 --> 01:15:50.507 align:start position:0%
Thanks to the protective cocoon of this
field,<01:16:52.480><c> deadly</c><01:16:52.880><c> solar</c><01:16:53.199><c> radiation</c><01:16:53.760><c> is</c>

01:15:50.507 --> 01:15:50.517 align:start position:0%
field, deadly solar radiation is
 

01:15:50.517 --> 01:15:52.106 align:start position:0%
field, deadly solar radiation is
deflected<01:16:54.719><c> away</c><01:16:54.960><c> from</c><01:16:55.120><c> the</c><01:16:55.280><c> planet's</c>

01:15:52.106 --> 01:15:52.116 align:start position:0%
deflected away from the planet's
 

01:15:52.116 --> 01:15:54.267 align:start position:0%
deflected away from the planet's
surface,<01:16:56.400><c> allowing</c><01:16:56.800><c> things</c><01:16:57.040><c> to</c><01:16:57.280><c> flourish</c>

01:15:54.267 --> 01:15:54.277 align:start position:0%
surface, allowing things to flourish
 

01:15:54.277 --> 01:15:56.427 align:start position:0%
surface, allowing things to flourish
without<01:16:58.239><c> all</c><01:16:58.480><c> that</c><01:16:58.719><c> radiation</c><01:16:59.360><c> breaking</c><01:16:59.760><c> down</c>

01:15:56.427 --> 01:15:56.437 align:start position:0%
without all that radiation breaking down
 

01:15:56.437 --> 01:16:00.586 align:start position:0%
without all that radiation breaking down
our<01:17:00.320><c> DNA,</c><01:17:01.120><c> causing</c><01:17:01.520><c> mutations</c><01:17:02.159><c> and</c><01:17:02.480><c> cancers.</c>

01:16:00.586 --> 01:16:00.596 align:start position:0%
our DNA, causing mutations and cancers.
 

01:16:00.596 --> 01:16:02.586 align:start position:0%
our DNA, causing mutations and cancers.
Scientists<01:17:04.800><c> are</c><01:17:05.120><c> still</c><01:17:05.520><c> trying</c><01:17:05.760><c> to</c><01:17:05.920><c> figure</c>

01:16:02.586 --> 01:16:02.596 align:start position:0%
Scientists are still trying to figure
 

01:16:02.596 --> 01:16:04.827 align:start position:0%
Scientists are still trying to figure
out<01:17:06.400><c> all</c><01:17:06.640><c> the</c><01:17:06.880><c> particulars</c><01:17:07.440><c> of</c><01:17:07.679><c> why</c><01:17:08.000><c> certain</c>

01:16:04.827 --> 01:16:04.837 align:start position:0%
out all the particulars of why certain
 

01:16:04.837 --> 01:16:07.067 align:start position:0%
out all the particulars of why certain
planets<01:17:08.800><c> have</c><01:17:09.040><c> fields</c><01:17:09.520><c> and</c><01:17:09.840><c> certain</c><01:17:10.239><c> others</c>

01:16:07.067 --> 01:16:07.077 align:start position:0%
planets have fields and certain others
 

01:16:07.077 --> 01:16:09.307 align:start position:0%
planets have fields and certain others
don't.<01:17:11.360><c> But</c><01:17:11.520><c> the</c><01:17:11.679><c> current</c><01:17:11.920><c> leading</c><01:17:12.239><c> theory</c><01:17:12.640><c> is</c>

01:16:09.307 --> 01:16:09.317 align:start position:0%
don't. But the current leading theory is
 

01:16:09.317 --> 01:16:11.626 align:start position:0%
don't. But the current leading theory is
that<01:17:13.040><c> the</c><01:17:13.199><c> Earth's</c><01:17:13.600><c> core</c><01:17:14.000><c> acts</c><01:17:14.320><c> as</c><01:17:14.480><c> a</c><01:17:14.719><c> giant</c>

01:16:11.626 --> 01:16:11.636 align:start position:0%
that the Earth's core acts as a giant
 

01:16:11.636 --> 01:16:13.467 align:start position:0%
that the Earth's core acts as a giant
dynamo.

01:16:13.467 --> 01:16:13.477 align:start position:0%
dynamo.
 

01:16:13.477 --> 01:16:15.547 align:start position:0%
dynamo.
It's<01:17:17.280><c> a</c><01:17:17.440><c> principle</c><01:17:17.760><c> of</c><01:17:18.000><c> physics</c><01:17:18.480><c> that</c><01:17:18.719><c> you</c><01:17:18.960><c> can</c>

01:16:15.547 --> 01:16:15.557 align:start position:0%
It's a principle of physics that you can
 

01:16:15.557 --> 01:16:18.427 align:start position:0%
It's a principle of physics that you can
use<01:17:19.600><c> electrical</c><01:17:20.159><c> fields</c><01:17:20.640><c> to</c><01:17:20.960><c> create</c><01:17:21.440><c> magnetic</c>

01:16:18.427 --> 01:16:18.437 align:start position:0%
use electrical fields to create magnetic
 

01:16:18.437 --> 01:16:21.787 align:start position:0%
use electrical fields to create magnetic
ones<01:17:22.719><c> and</c><01:17:23.120><c> vice</c><01:17:23.440><c> versa.</c><01:17:24.640><c> This</c><01:17:24.960><c> is</c><01:17:25.040><c> the</c>

01:16:21.787 --> 01:16:21.797 align:start position:0%
ones and vice versa. This is the
 

01:16:21.797 --> 01:16:24.347 align:start position:0%
ones and vice versa. This is the
principle<01:17:25.760><c> that</c><01:17:26.080><c> power</c><01:17:26.400><c> plants</c><01:17:26.800><c> work</c><01:17:27.040><c> under.</c>

01:16:24.347 --> 01:16:24.357 align:start position:0%
principle that power plants work under.
 

01:16:24.357 --> 01:16:26.987 align:start position:0%
principle that power plants work under.
Moving<01:17:28.320><c> a</c><01:17:28.560><c> magnet</c><01:17:28.960><c> through</c><01:17:29.199><c> a</c><01:17:29.360><c> coil</c><01:17:29.760><c> of</c><01:17:29.920><c> wires</c>

01:16:26.987 --> 01:16:26.997 align:start position:0%
Moving a magnet through a coil of wires
 

01:16:26.997 --> 01:16:28.907 align:start position:0%
Moving a magnet through a coil of wires
causes<01:17:31.120><c> electrical</c><01:17:31.600><c> current</c><01:17:31.920><c> to</c><01:17:32.159><c> start</c><01:17:32.320><c> to</c>

01:16:28.907 --> 01:16:28.917 align:start position:0%
causes electrical current to start to
 

01:16:28.917 --> 01:16:31.947 align:start position:0%
causes electrical current to start to
flow<01:17:33.440><c> as</c><01:17:33.760><c> that</c><01:17:34.080><c> changing</c><01:17:34.560><c> magnetic</c><01:17:35.040><c> field</c>

01:16:31.947 --> 01:16:31.957 align:start position:0%
flow as that changing magnetic field
 

01:16:31.957 --> 01:16:34.267 align:start position:0%
flow as that changing magnetic field
exerts<01:17:36.000><c> a</c><01:17:36.239><c> force</c><01:17:36.560><c> on</c><01:17:36.800><c> the</c><01:17:36.960><c> electrons</c><01:17:37.520><c> present</c>

01:16:34.267 --> 01:16:34.277 align:start position:0%
exerts a force on the electrons present
 

01:16:34.277 --> 01:16:37.387 align:start position:0%
exerts a force on the electrons present
there.<01:17:38.880><c> But</c><01:17:39.199><c> similarly,</c><01:17:40.159><c> the</c><01:17:40.480><c> motion</c><01:17:40.719><c> of</c>

01:16:37.387 --> 01:16:37.397 align:start position:0%
there. But similarly, the motion of
 

01:16:37.397 --> 01:16:39.467 align:start position:0%
there. But similarly, the motion of
electrons<01:17:41.520><c> creates</c><01:17:41.840><c> a</c><01:17:42.080><c> magnetic</c><01:17:42.560><c> field</c><01:17:42.800><c> to</c>

01:16:39.467 --> 01:16:39.477 align:start position:0%
electrons creates a magnetic field to
 

01:16:39.477 --> 01:16:41.947 align:start position:0%
electrons creates a magnetic field to
form<01:17:43.520><c> in</c><01:17:43.679><c> perpendicular</c><01:17:44.480><c> circles</c><01:17:44.960><c> around</c><01:17:45.280><c> the</c>

01:16:41.947 --> 01:16:41.957 align:start position:0%
form in perpendicular circles around the
 

01:16:41.957 --> 01:16:44.027 align:start position:0%
form in perpendicular circles around the
direction<01:17:45.840><c> of</c><01:17:46.080><c> motion</c><01:17:46.640><c> in</c><01:17:46.960><c> accordance</c><01:17:47.360><c> with</c>

01:16:44.027 --> 01:16:44.037 align:start position:0%
direction of motion in accordance with
 

01:16:44.037 --> 01:16:46.827 align:start position:0%
direction of motion in accordance with
Faraday's<01:17:48.239><c> law</c><01:17:48.560><c> of</c><01:17:48.800><c> induction.</c>

01:16:46.827 --> 01:16:46.837 align:start position:0%
Faraday's law of induction.
 

01:16:46.837 --> 01:16:48.747 align:start position:0%
Faraday's law of induction.
But<01:17:50.640><c> the</c><01:17:50.880><c> way</c><01:17:51.040><c> this</c><01:17:51.360><c> applies</c><01:17:51.679><c> to</c><01:17:51.840><c> the</c><01:17:52.000><c> earth's</c>

01:16:48.747 --> 01:16:48.757 align:start position:0%
But the way this applies to the earth's
 

01:16:48.757 --> 01:16:52.267 align:start position:0%
But the way this applies to the earth's
core<01:17:52.640><c> is</c><01:17:52.880><c> a</c><01:17:53.120><c> delicate</c><01:17:53.920><c> complicated</c><01:17:54.640><c> process.</c>

01:16:52.267 --> 01:16:52.277 align:start position:0%
core is a delicate complicated process.
 

01:16:52.277 --> 01:16:54.747 align:start position:0%
core is a delicate complicated process.
To<01:17:56.159><c> start</c><01:17:56.320><c> with,</c><01:17:56.800><c> our</c><01:17:57.120><c> core</c><01:17:57.520><c> needs</c><01:17:57.840><c> to</c><01:17:58.000><c> be</c><01:17:58.239><c> at</c>

01:16:54.747 --> 01:16:54.757 align:start position:0%
To start with, our core needs to be at
 

01:16:54.757 --> 01:16:57.067 align:start position:0%
To start with, our core needs to be at
least<01:17:58.800><c> partially</c><01:17:59.360><c> liquid,</c><01:18:00.239><c> which</c>

01:16:57.067 --> 01:16:57.077 align:start position:0%
least partially liquid, which
 

01:16:57.077 --> 01:16:59.867 align:start position:0%
least partially liquid, which
fortunately<01:18:01.440><c> is</c><01:18:01.760><c> true.</c>

01:16:59.867 --> 01:16:59.877 align:start position:0%
fortunately is true.
 

01:16:59.877 --> 01:17:02.187 align:start position:0%
fortunately is true.
Above<01:18:03.760><c> the</c><01:18:04.000><c> solid</c><01:18:04.400><c> inner</c><01:18:04.719><c> core</c><01:18:05.040><c> that</c><01:18:05.360><c> lies</c><01:18:05.600><c> at</c>

01:17:02.187 --> 01:17:02.197 align:start position:0%
Above the solid inner core that lies at
 

01:17:02.197 --> 01:17:04.507 align:start position:0%
Above the solid inner core that lies at
the<01:18:06.000><c> heart</c><01:18:06.159><c> of</c><01:18:06.320><c> our</c><01:18:06.640><c> planet</c><01:18:07.199><c> is</c><01:18:07.440><c> a</c><01:18:07.679><c> liquid</c>

01:17:04.507 --> 01:17:04.517 align:start position:0%
the heart of our planet is a liquid
 

01:17:04.517 --> 01:17:06.586 align:start position:0%
the heart of our planet is a liquid
outer<01:18:08.480><c> core,</c><01:18:08.960><c> where</c><01:18:09.199><c> the</c><01:18:09.440><c> pressure</c><01:18:09.760><c> isn't</c>

01:17:06.586 --> 01:17:06.596 align:start position:0%
outer core, where the pressure isn't
 

01:17:06.596 --> 01:17:08.347 align:start position:0%
outer core, where the pressure isn't
quite<01:18:10.400><c> high</c><01:18:10.640><c> enough</c><01:18:10.880><c> to</c><01:18:11.040><c> keep</c><01:18:11.360><c> things</c><01:18:11.600><c> in</c><01:18:11.760><c> a</c>

01:17:08.347 --> 01:17:08.357 align:start position:0%
quite high enough to keep things in a
 

01:17:08.357 --> 01:17:11.067 align:start position:0%
quite high enough to keep things in a
solid<01:18:12.239><c> state.</c><01:18:13.120><c> It's</c><01:18:13.520><c> very</c><01:18:13.840><c> hot</c><01:18:14.080><c> in</c><01:18:14.239><c> the</c><01:18:14.400><c> outer</c>

01:17:11.067 --> 01:17:11.077 align:start position:0%
solid state. It's very hot in the outer
 

01:17:11.077 --> 01:17:14.427 align:start position:0%
solid state. It's very hot in the outer
core,<01:18:14.960><c> though,</c><01:18:15.600><c> 6,000°</c><01:18:16.800><c> C</c><01:18:17.199><c> at</c><01:18:17.440><c> its</c><01:18:17.600><c> warmest</c>

01:17:14.427 --> 01:17:14.437 align:start position:0%
core, though, 6,000° C at its warmest
 

01:17:14.437 --> 01:17:17.547 align:start position:0%
core, though, 6,000° C at its warmest
point.<01:18:18.800><c> So</c><01:18:19.040><c> hot</c><01:18:19.360><c> that</c><01:18:19.679><c> it</c><01:18:19.920><c> rivals</c><01:18:20.400><c> the</c><01:18:20.640><c> surface</c>

01:17:17.547 --> 01:17:17.557 align:start position:0%
point. So hot that it rivals the surface
 

01:17:17.557 --> 01:17:20.267 align:start position:0%
point. So hot that it rivals the surface
temperature<01:18:21.600><c> of</c><01:18:21.840><c> the</c><01:18:22.080><c> sun,</c><01:18:22.960><c> which</c><01:18:23.520><c> when</c>

01:17:20.267 --> 01:17:20.277 align:start position:0%
temperature of the sun, which when
 

01:17:20.277 --> 01:17:21.787 align:start position:0%
temperature of the sun, which when
combined<01:18:24.239><c> with</c><01:18:24.400><c> the</c><01:18:24.560><c> lower</c><01:18:24.880><c> pressure</c>

01:17:21.787 --> 01:17:21.797 align:start position:0%
combined with the lower pressure
 

01:17:21.797 --> 01:17:24.027 align:start position:0%
combined with the lower pressure
compared<01:18:25.679><c> to</c><01:18:25.840><c> the</c><01:18:26.000><c> inner</c><01:18:26.320><c> core,</c><01:18:26.880><c> is</c><01:18:27.199><c> more</c><01:18:27.440><c> than</c>

01:17:24.027 --> 01:17:24.037 align:start position:0%
compared to the inner core, is more than
 

01:17:24.037 --> 01:17:26.106 align:start position:0%
compared to the inner core, is more than
enough<01:18:27.840><c> to</c><01:18:28.080><c> keep</c><01:18:28.239><c> the</c><01:18:28.480><c> iron</c><01:18:28.800><c> and</c><01:18:29.120><c> nickel</c><01:18:29.440><c> that</c>

01:17:26.106 --> 01:17:26.116 align:start position:0%
enough to keep the iron and nickel that
 

01:17:26.116 --> 01:17:29.307 align:start position:0%
enough to keep the iron and nickel that
makes<01:18:29.840><c> it</c><01:18:30.000><c> up</c><01:18:30.400><c> flowing</c><01:18:30.800><c> down</c><01:18:31.040><c> there.</c>

01:17:29.307 --> 01:17:29.317 align:start position:0%
makes it up flowing down there.
 

01:17:29.317 --> 01:17:31.867 align:start position:0%
makes it up flowing down there.
The<01:18:33.199><c> temperature</c><01:18:33.760><c> drops</c><01:18:34.320><c> as</c><01:18:34.640><c> you</c><01:18:34.880><c> move</c><01:18:35.120><c> away</c>

01:17:31.867 --> 01:17:31.877 align:start position:0%
The temperature drops as you move away
 

01:17:31.877 --> 01:17:34.747 align:start position:0%
The temperature drops as you move away
from<01:18:35.679><c> the</c><01:18:35.840><c> center</c><01:18:36.080><c> of</c><01:18:36.239><c> the</c><01:18:36.400><c> Earth.</c><01:18:37.600><c> This</c><01:18:37.840><c> gets</c>

01:17:34.747 --> 01:17:34.757 align:start position:0%
from the center of the Earth. This gets
 

01:17:34.757 --> 01:17:37.626 align:start position:0%
from the center of the Earth. This gets
circulation<01:18:39.040><c> going.</c><01:18:40.159><c> Hot</c><01:18:40.560><c> conductive</c>

01:17:37.626 --> 01:17:37.636 align:start position:0%
circulation going. Hot conductive
 

01:17:37.636 --> 01:17:39.787 align:start position:0%
circulation going. Hot conductive
material<01:18:41.600><c> from</c><01:18:41.840><c> the</c><01:18:42.080><c> warmer</c><01:18:42.560><c> deeper</c><01:18:42.960><c> regions</c>

01:17:39.787 --> 01:17:39.797 align:start position:0%
material from the warmer deeper regions
 

01:17:39.797 --> 01:17:42.827 align:start position:0%
material from the warmer deeper regions
of<01:18:43.520><c> the</c><01:18:43.679><c> outer</c><01:18:44.000><c> core</c><01:18:44.320><c> rises,</c><01:18:45.199><c> then</c><01:18:45.600><c> cools,</c>

01:17:42.827 --> 01:17:42.837 align:start position:0%
of the outer core rises, then cools,
 

01:17:42.837 --> 01:17:45.387 align:start position:0%
of the outer core rises, then cools,
then<01:18:46.719><c> falls</c><01:18:47.040><c> again,</c><01:18:47.679><c> creating</c><01:18:48.159><c> loops</c><01:18:48.640><c> and</c>

01:17:45.387 --> 01:17:45.397 align:start position:0%
then falls again, creating loops and
 

01:17:45.397 --> 01:17:48.027 align:start position:0%
then falls again, creating loops and
currents<01:18:49.360><c> of</c><01:18:49.600><c> flowing</c><01:18:50.000><c> material.</c><01:18:51.199><c> Our</c>

01:17:48.027 --> 01:17:48.037 align:start position:0%
currents of flowing material. Our
 

01:17:48.037 --> 01:17:51.947 align:start position:0%
currents of flowing material. Our
electrical<01:18:52.239><c> field</c><01:18:53.040><c> starts</c><01:18:53.440><c> to</c><01:18:53.679><c> be</c><01:18:53.840><c> generated.</c>

01:17:51.947 --> 01:17:51.957 align:start position:0%
electrical field starts to be generated.
 

01:17:51.957 --> 01:17:54.267 align:start position:0%
electrical field starts to be generated.
But<01:18:55.840><c> if</c><01:18:56.159><c> there</c><01:18:56.400><c> are</c><01:18:56.719><c> many</c><01:18:57.040><c> of</c><01:18:57.199><c> these</c><01:18:57.440><c> flowing</c>

01:17:54.267 --> 01:17:54.277 align:start position:0%
But if there are many of these flowing
 

01:17:54.277 --> 01:17:56.987 align:start position:0%
But if there are many of these flowing
loops,<01:18:58.560><c> which</c><01:18:58.800><c> in</c><01:18:58.960><c> theory</c><01:18:59.360><c> there</c><01:18:59.600><c> would</c><01:18:59.840><c> be,</c>

01:17:56.987 --> 01:17:56.997 align:start position:0%
loops, which in theory there would be,
 

01:17:56.997 --> 01:17:59.787 align:start position:0%
loops, which in theory there would be,
why<01:19:00.800><c> does</c><01:19:01.120><c> Earth</c><01:19:01.440><c> only</c><01:19:01.760><c> have</c><01:19:02.159><c> one</c><01:19:02.480><c> north</c><01:19:02.800><c> pole</c>

01:17:59.787 --> 01:17:59.797 align:start position:0%
why does Earth only have one north pole
 

01:17:59.797 --> 01:18:02.907 align:start position:0%
why does Earth only have one north pole
and<01:19:03.760><c> one</c><01:19:04.080><c> south</c><01:19:04.400><c> pole?</c><01:19:05.440><c> Surely</c><01:19:05.840><c> the</c><01:19:06.080><c> created</c>

01:18:02.907 --> 01:18:02.917 align:start position:0%
and one south pole? Surely the created
 

01:18:02.917 --> 01:18:05.067 align:start position:0%
and one south pole? Surely the created
magnetic<01:19:07.040><c> fields</c><01:19:07.520><c> would</c><01:19:07.760><c> be</c><01:19:08.000><c> all</c><01:19:08.239><c> over</c><01:19:08.400><c> the</c>

01:18:05.067 --> 01:18:05.077 align:start position:0%
magnetic fields would be all over the
 

01:18:05.077 --> 01:18:06.267 align:start position:0%
magnetic fields would be all over the
place.

01:18:06.267 --> 01:18:06.277 align:start position:0%
place.
 

01:18:06.277 --> 01:18:08.747 align:start position:0%
place.
Well,<01:19:10.400><c> there</c><01:19:10.640><c> is</c><01:19:10.880><c> thought</c><01:19:11.120><c> to</c><01:19:11.360><c> be</c><01:19:11.520><c> an</c><01:19:11.920><c> extra</c>

01:18:08.747 --> 01:18:08.757 align:start position:0%
Well, there is thought to be an extra
 

01:18:08.757 --> 01:18:10.987 align:start position:0%
Well, there is thought to be an extra
force<01:19:12.640><c> at</c><01:19:12.800><c> play</c><01:19:13.360><c> that</c><01:19:13.679><c> takes</c><01:19:14.000><c> all</c><01:19:14.239><c> these</c>

01:18:10.987 --> 01:18:10.997 align:start position:0%
force at play that takes all these
 

01:18:10.997 --> 01:18:13.467 align:start position:0%
force at play that takes all these
fields<01:19:14.960><c> and</c><01:19:15.280><c> unifies</c><01:19:15.840><c> them,</c><01:19:16.400><c> pointing</c><01:19:16.800><c> them</c>

01:18:13.467 --> 01:18:13.477 align:start position:0%
fields and unifies them, pointing them
 

01:18:13.477 --> 01:18:16.507 align:start position:0%
fields and unifies them, pointing them
in<01:19:17.280><c> the</c><01:19:17.440><c> same</c><01:19:17.679><c> direction.</c><01:19:18.880><c> This</c><01:19:19.120><c> force</c><01:19:19.760><c> is</c>

01:18:16.507 --> 01:18:16.517 align:start position:0%
in the same direction. This force is
 

01:18:16.517 --> 01:18:19.146 align:start position:0%
in the same direction. This force is
thought<01:19:20.320><c> to</c><01:19:20.400><c> be</c><01:19:20.560><c> the</c><01:19:20.800><c> corololis</c><01:19:21.520><c> effect.</c>

01:18:19.146 --> 01:18:19.156 align:start position:0%
thought to be the corololis effect.
 

01:18:19.156 --> 01:18:21.227 align:start position:0%
thought to be the corololis effect.
Dynamo<01:19:23.280><c> theory</c><01:19:23.600><c> states</c><01:19:23.840><c> that</c><01:19:24.000><c> the</c><01:19:24.159><c> corololis</c>

01:18:21.227 --> 01:18:21.237 align:start position:0%
Dynamo theory states that the corololis
 

01:18:21.237 --> 01:18:23.867 align:start position:0%
Dynamo theory states that the corololis
effect<01:19:25.120><c> causes</c><01:19:25.520><c> these</c><01:19:25.840><c> flows</c><01:19:26.239><c> of</c><01:19:26.400><c> iron</c><01:19:26.880><c> to</c><01:19:27.199><c> not</c>

01:18:23.867 --> 01:18:23.877 align:start position:0%
effect causes these flows of iron to not
 

01:18:23.877 --> 01:18:26.427 align:start position:0%
effect causes these flows of iron to not
rise<01:19:27.840><c> and</c><01:19:28.080><c> fall</c><01:19:28.320><c> as</c><01:19:28.560><c> straight</c><01:19:28.880><c> lines,</c><01:19:29.440><c> but</c><01:19:29.679><c> as</c>

01:18:26.427 --> 01:18:26.437 align:start position:0%
rise and fall as straight lines, but as
 

01:18:26.437 --> 01:18:28.187 align:start position:0%
rise and fall as straight lines, but as
spirals.

01:18:28.187 --> 01:18:28.197 align:start position:0%
spirals.
 

01:18:28.197 --> 01:18:30.507 align:start position:0%
spirals.
The<01:19:32.000><c> spinning</c><01:19:32.400><c> of</c><01:19:32.560><c> the</c><01:19:32.800><c> earth</c><01:19:33.120><c> causes</c><01:19:33.600><c> them</c><01:19:33.840><c> to</c>

01:18:30.507 --> 01:18:30.517 align:start position:0%
The spinning of the earth causes them to
 

01:18:30.517 --> 01:18:33.947 align:start position:0%
The spinning of the earth causes them to
gently<01:19:34.560><c> be</c><01:19:34.880><c> spun</c><01:19:35.280><c> in</c><01:19:35.600><c> turn,</c><01:19:36.320><c> creating</c><01:19:36.880><c> giant</c>

01:18:33.947 --> 01:18:33.957 align:start position:0%
gently be spun in turn, creating giant
 

01:18:33.957 --> 01:18:35.707 align:start position:0%
gently be spun in turn, creating giant
springs.

01:18:35.707 --> 01:18:35.717 align:start position:0%
springs.
 

01:18:35.717 --> 01:18:37.707 align:start position:0%
springs.
As<01:19:39.520><c> each</c><01:19:39.840><c> segment</c><01:19:40.239><c> of</c><01:19:40.400><c> each</c><01:19:40.640><c> spring</c><01:19:41.040><c> is</c>

01:18:37.707 --> 01:18:37.717 align:start position:0%
As each segment of each spring is
 

01:18:37.717 --> 01:18:39.626 align:start position:0%
As each segment of each spring is
creating<01:19:41.600><c> a</c><01:19:41.840><c> magnetic</c><01:19:42.239><c> field</c><01:19:42.480><c> in</c><01:19:42.719><c> a</c><01:19:42.880><c> circle</c>

01:18:39.626 --> 01:18:39.636 align:start position:0%
creating a magnetic field in a circle
 

01:18:39.636 --> 01:18:42.347 align:start position:0%
creating a magnetic field in a circle
around<01:19:43.520><c> it,</c><01:19:44.080><c> the</c><01:19:44.320><c> net</c><01:19:44.719><c> result</c><01:19:45.199><c> is</c><01:19:45.440><c> that</c><01:19:45.679><c> the</c>

01:18:42.347 --> 01:18:42.357 align:start position:0%
around it, the net result is that the
 

01:18:42.357 --> 01:18:45.067 align:start position:0%
around it, the net result is that the
inside<01:19:46.239><c> of</c><01:19:46.480><c> these</c><01:19:46.719><c> springs</c><01:19:47.280><c> creates</c><01:19:47.679><c> a</c><01:19:47.920><c> solid</c>

01:18:45.067 --> 01:18:45.077 align:start position:0%
inside of these springs creates a solid
 

01:18:45.077 --> 01:18:47.787 align:start position:0%
inside of these springs creates a solid
unified<01:19:49.280><c> field</c><01:19:49.840><c> that</c><01:19:50.159><c> all</c><01:19:50.400><c> moves</c><01:19:50.719><c> in</c><01:19:50.960><c> the</c><01:19:51.120><c> same</c>

01:18:47.787 --> 01:18:47.797 align:start position:0%
unified field that all moves in the same
 

01:18:47.797 --> 01:18:50.187 align:start position:0%
unified field that all moves in the same
direction<01:19:51.840><c> upwards,</c><01:19:52.719><c> while</c><01:19:52.960><c> the</c><01:19:53.199><c> outside</c>

01:18:50.187 --> 01:18:50.197 align:start position:0%
direction upwards, while the outside
 

01:18:50.197 --> 01:18:52.187 align:start position:0%
direction upwards, while the outside
brings<01:19:54.000><c> that</c><01:19:54.239><c> magnetic</c><01:19:54.719><c> field</c><01:19:55.120><c> looping</c><01:19:55.520><c> back</c>

01:18:52.187 --> 01:18:52.197 align:start position:0%
brings that magnetic field looping back
 

01:18:52.197 --> 01:18:54.586 align:start position:0%
brings that magnetic field looping back
down<01:19:56.000><c> again</c><01:19:56.560><c> and</c><01:19:56.880><c> back</c><01:19:57.120><c> in</c><01:19:57.360><c> to</c><01:19:57.600><c> the</c><01:19:57.760><c> bottom</c><01:19:58.000><c> of</c>

01:18:54.586 --> 01:18:54.596 align:start position:0%
down again and back in to the bottom of
 

01:18:54.596 --> 01:18:57.387 align:start position:0%
down again and back in to the bottom of
the<01:19:58.320><c> coil.</c><01:19:59.360><c> In</c><01:19:59.600><c> short,</c><01:20:00.159><c> it</c><01:20:00.400><c> creates</c><01:20:00.719><c> the</c>

01:18:57.387 --> 01:18:57.397 align:start position:0%
the coil. In short, it creates the
 

01:18:57.397 --> 01:18:59.867 align:start position:0%
the coil. In short, it creates the
well-known<01:20:01.679><c> magnetic</c><01:20:02.239><c> dipole</c><01:20:02.800><c> north</c><01:20:03.120><c> and</c>

01:18:59.867 --> 01:18:59.877 align:start position:0%
well-known magnetic dipole north and
 

01:18:59.877 --> 01:19:03.146 align:start position:0%
well-known magnetic dipole north and
south<01:20:03.760><c> that</c><01:20:04.000><c> we</c><01:20:04.159><c> see</c><01:20:04.400><c> today.</c>

01:19:03.146 --> 01:19:03.156 align:start position:0%
south that we see today.
 

01:19:03.156 --> 01:19:05.227 align:start position:0%
south that we see today.
However,<01:20:07.360><c> if</c><01:20:07.600><c> there's</c><01:20:07.920><c> anything</c><01:20:08.320><c> that</c><01:20:08.560><c> you</c>

01:19:05.227 --> 01:19:05.237 align:start position:0%
However, if there's anything that you
 

01:19:05.237 --> 01:19:07.146 align:start position:0%
However, if there's anything that you
should<01:20:08.960><c> take</c><01:20:09.120><c> away</c><01:20:09.360><c> from</c><01:20:09.600><c> this,</c><01:20:10.159><c> it's</c><01:20:10.480><c> that</c>

01:19:07.146 --> 01:19:07.156 align:start position:0%
should take away from this, it's that
 

01:19:07.156 --> 01:19:10.267 align:start position:0%
should take away from this, it's that
this<01:20:11.040><c> process</c><01:20:11.600><c> is</c><01:20:12.000><c> precarious</c><01:20:13.199><c> as</c><01:20:13.440><c> it</c><01:20:13.679><c> is</c>

01:19:10.267 --> 01:19:10.277 align:start position:0%
this process is precarious as it is
 

01:19:10.277 --> 01:19:12.586 align:start position:0%
this process is precarious as it is
based<01:20:14.159><c> on</c><01:20:14.400><c> a</c><01:20:14.640><c> lot</c><01:20:14.880><c> of</c><01:20:15.120><c> liquid</c><01:20:15.520><c> iron</c>

01:19:12.586 --> 01:19:12.596 align:start position:0%
based on a lot of liquid iron
 

01:19:12.596 --> 01:19:14.907 align:start position:0%
based on a lot of liquid iron
essentially<01:20:16.719><c> just</c><01:20:16.960><c> slloshing</c><01:20:17.600><c> around</c><01:20:18.239><c> which</c>

01:19:14.907 --> 01:19:14.917 align:start position:0%
essentially just slloshing around which
 

01:19:14.917 --> 01:19:17.867 align:start position:0%
essentially just slloshing around which
is<01:20:18.800><c> not</c><01:20:19.120><c> very</c><01:20:19.440><c> consistent.</c><01:20:20.640><c> Our</c><01:20:20.960><c> magnetic</c>

01:19:17.867 --> 01:19:17.877 align:start position:0%
is not very consistent. Our magnetic
 

01:19:17.877 --> 01:19:21.227 align:start position:0%
is not very consistent. Our magnetic
field<01:20:21.920><c> thus</c><01:20:22.560><c> has</c><01:20:23.280><c> little</c><01:20:23.600><c> fluctuations</c><01:20:24.480><c> and</c>

01:19:21.227 --> 01:19:21.237 align:start position:0%
field thus has little fluctuations and
 

01:19:21.237 --> 01:19:24.507 align:start position:0%
field thus has little fluctuations and
wobbles<01:20:25.600><c> all</c><01:20:25.840><c> the</c><01:20:26.159><c> time.</c><01:20:27.280><c> We</c><01:20:27.520><c> see</c><01:20:27.679><c> this</c><01:20:27.840><c> in</c>

01:19:24.507 --> 01:19:24.517 align:start position:0%
wobbles all the time. We see this in
 

01:19:24.517 --> 01:19:27.146 align:start position:0%
wobbles all the time. We see this in
different<01:20:28.320><c> ways,</c><01:20:28.960><c> but</c><01:20:29.280><c> a</c><01:20:29.520><c> big</c><01:20:29.760><c> one</c><01:20:30.159><c> is</c><01:20:30.400><c> that</c>

01:19:27.146 --> 01:19:27.156 align:start position:0%
different ways, but a big one is that
 

01:19:27.156 --> 01:19:30.267 align:start position:0%
different ways, but a big one is that
our<01:20:31.040><c> north</c><01:20:31.280><c> pole</c><01:20:31.760><c> is</c><01:20:32.080><c> constantly</c><01:20:32.640><c> moving.</c>

01:19:30.267 --> 01:19:30.277 align:start position:0%
our north pole is constantly moving.
 

01:19:30.277 --> 01:19:32.187 align:start position:0%
our north pole is constantly moving.
Since<01:20:34.159><c> scientists</c><01:20:34.640><c> began</c><01:20:35.040><c> keeping</c><01:20:35.360><c> track</c><01:20:35.600><c> of</c>

01:19:32.187 --> 01:19:32.197 align:start position:0%
Since scientists began keeping track of
 

01:19:32.197 --> 01:19:36.027 align:start position:0%
Since scientists began keeping track of
it<01:20:35.920><c> in</c><01:20:36.239><c> 1831,</c><01:20:37.600><c> the</c><01:20:37.840><c> North</c><01:20:38.080><c> Pole</c><01:20:38.560><c> has</c><01:20:38.960><c> gradually</c>

01:19:36.027 --> 01:19:36.037 align:start position:0%
it in 1831, the North Pole has gradually
 

01:19:36.037 --> 01:19:38.507 align:start position:0%
it in 1831, the North Pole has gradually
shifted<01:20:40.080><c> about</c><01:20:40.560><c> 1,100</c>

01:19:38.507 --> 01:19:38.517 align:start position:0%
shifted about 1,100
 

01:19:38.517 --> 01:19:41.307 align:start position:0%
shifted about 1,100
km,<01:20:43.120><c> leaving</c><01:20:43.520><c> its</c><01:20:43.840><c> original</c><01:20:44.239><c> location</c><01:20:44.640><c> in</c>

01:19:41.307 --> 01:19:41.317 align:start position:0%
km, leaving its original location in
 

01:19:41.317 --> 01:19:44.827 align:start position:0%
km, leaving its original location in
Canada<01:20:45.600><c> and</c><01:20:45.920><c> moving</c><01:20:46.320><c> up</c><01:20:46.640><c> towards</c><01:20:47.120><c> Siberia.</c>

01:19:44.827 --> 01:19:44.837 align:start position:0%
Canada and moving up towards Siberia.
 

01:19:44.837 --> 01:19:47.467 align:start position:0%
Canada and moving up towards Siberia.
Its<01:20:48.719><c> rate</c><01:20:48.960><c> of</c><01:20:49.120><c> motion</c><01:20:49.520><c> is</c><01:20:49.840><c> also</c><01:20:50.159><c> increasing,</c>

01:19:47.467 --> 01:19:47.477 align:start position:0%
Its rate of motion is also increasing,
 

01:19:47.477 --> 01:19:52.027 align:start position:0%
Its rate of motion is also increasing,
going<01:20:51.360><c> from</c><01:20:51.920><c> 16</c><01:20:52.320><c> km</c><01:20:52.960><c> a</c><01:20:53.120><c> year</c><01:20:53.520><c> to</c><01:20:53.840><c> roughly</c><01:20:54.400><c> 55</c><01:20:55.040><c> km</c>

01:19:52.027 --> 01:19:52.037 align:start position:0%
going from 16 km a year to roughly 55 km
 

01:19:52.037 --> 01:19:55.067 align:start position:0%
going from 16 km a year to roughly 55 km
a<01:20:55.760><c> year.</c><01:20:56.480><c> A</c><01:20:56.719><c> big</c><01:20:57.040><c> jump.</c>

01:19:55.067 --> 01:19:55.077 align:start position:0%
a year. A big jump.
 

01:19:55.077 --> 01:19:57.146 align:start position:0%
a year. A big jump.
This<01:20:58.960><c> might</c><01:20:59.199><c> still</c><01:20:59.520><c> be</c><01:20:59.679><c> akin</c><01:21:00.080><c> to</c><01:21:00.239><c> just</c><01:21:00.480><c> the</c>

01:19:57.146 --> 01:19:57.156 align:start position:0%
This might still be akin to just the
 

01:19:57.156 --> 01:19:59.307 align:start position:0%
This might still be akin to just the
momentary<01:21:01.360><c> wobbles</c><01:21:01.840><c> of</c><01:21:02.000><c> a</c><01:21:02.159><c> spinning</c><01:21:02.560><c> top,</c>

01:19:59.307 --> 01:19:59.317 align:start position:0%
momentary wobbles of a spinning top,
 

01:19:59.317 --> 01:20:02.267 align:start position:0%
momentary wobbles of a spinning top,
though.<01:21:03.679><c> Yes,</c><01:21:04.000><c> it</c><01:21:04.239><c> deviates</c><01:21:04.800><c> somewhat,</c><01:21:05.600><c> but</c>

01:20:02.267 --> 01:20:02.277 align:start position:0%
though. Yes, it deviates somewhat, but
 

01:20:02.277 --> 01:20:04.987 align:start position:0%
though. Yes, it deviates somewhat, but
it<01:21:06.159><c> always</c><01:21:06.480><c> remains</c><01:21:06.880><c> roughly</c><01:21:07.199><c> upright.</c>

01:20:04.987 --> 01:20:04.997 align:start position:0%
it always remains roughly upright.
 

01:20:04.997 --> 01:20:06.987 align:start position:0%
it always remains roughly upright.
That's<01:21:08.800><c> a</c><01:21:09.040><c> far</c><01:21:09.360><c> cry</c><01:21:09.679><c> from</c><01:21:09.920><c> a</c><01:21:10.159><c> complete</c>

01:20:06.987 --> 01:20:06.997 align:start position:0%
That's a far cry from a complete
 

01:20:06.997 --> 01:20:08.586 align:start position:0%
That's a far cry from a complete
reversal.

01:20:08.586 --> 01:20:08.596 align:start position:0%
reversal.
 

01:20:08.596 --> 01:20:10.907 align:start position:0%
reversal.
However,<01:21:12.560><c> scientists</c><01:21:13.199><c> are</c><01:21:13.520><c> certain</c><01:21:14.159><c> that</c>

01:20:10.907 --> 01:20:10.917 align:start position:0%
However, scientists are certain that
 

01:20:10.917 --> 01:20:13.867 align:start position:0%
However, scientists are certain that
such<01:21:14.719><c> reversals</c><01:21:15.440><c> have</c><01:21:15.760><c> happened</c><01:21:16.080><c> before.</c>

01:20:13.867 --> 01:20:13.877 align:start position:0%
such reversals have happened before.
 

01:20:13.877 --> 01:20:17.227 align:start position:0%
such reversals have happened before.
They<01:21:17.760><c> even</c><01:21:18.159><c> have</c><01:21:18.400><c> a</c><01:21:18.640><c> specific</c><01:21:19.120><c> number,</c>

01:20:17.227 --> 01:20:17.237 align:start position:0%
They even have a specific number,
 

01:20:17.237 --> 01:20:20.907 align:start position:0%
They even have a specific number,
183<01:21:21.440><c> times</c><01:21:21.760><c> in</c><01:21:22.000><c> the</c><01:21:22.159><c> last</c><01:21:22.480><c> 83</c><01:21:23.120><c> million</c><01:21:23.520><c> years.</c>

01:20:20.907 --> 01:20:20.917 align:start position:0%
183 times in the last 83 million years.
 

01:20:20.917 --> 01:20:23.547 align:start position:0%
183 times in the last 83 million years.
How<01:21:24.719><c> do</c><01:21:24.880><c> they</c><01:21:25.040><c> know?</c><01:21:25.760><c> The</c><01:21:26.000><c> answer</c><01:21:26.320><c> lies</c><01:21:26.640><c> locked</c>

01:20:23.547 --> 01:20:23.557 align:start position:0%
How do they know? The answer lies locked
 

01:20:23.557 --> 01:20:27.467 align:start position:0%
How do they know? The answer lies locked
in<01:21:27.440><c> our</c><01:21:27.760><c> Earth's</c><01:21:28.400><c> surface</c><01:21:28.960><c> iron.</c>

01:20:27.467 --> 01:20:27.477 align:start position:0%
in our Earth's surface iron.
 

01:20:27.477 --> 01:20:29.307 align:start position:0%
in our Earth's surface iron.
When<01:21:31.360><c> magma</c><01:21:32.000><c> erupts</c><01:21:32.239><c> from</c><01:21:32.400><c> the</c><01:21:32.560><c> Earth's</c>

01:20:29.307 --> 01:20:29.317 align:start position:0%
When magma erupts from the Earth's
 

01:20:29.317 --> 01:20:31.547 align:start position:0%
When magma erupts from the Earth's
mantle,<01:21:33.440><c> it</c><01:21:33.679><c> can</c><01:21:33.840><c> contain</c><01:21:34.320><c> small</c><01:21:34.640><c> amounts</c><01:21:34.960><c> of</c>

01:20:31.547 --> 01:20:31.557 align:start position:0%
mantle, it can contain small amounts of
 

01:20:31.557 --> 01:20:34.347 align:start position:0%
mantle, it can contain small amounts of
iron.<01:21:36.080><c> As</c><01:21:36.400><c> these</c><01:21:36.719><c> can</c><01:21:36.880><c> move</c><01:21:37.120><c> freely</c><01:21:37.600><c> in</c><01:21:37.760><c> the</c>

01:20:34.347 --> 01:20:34.357 align:start position:0%
iron. As these can move freely in the
 

01:20:34.357 --> 01:20:36.427 align:start position:0%
iron. As these can move freely in the
molten<01:21:38.320><c> magma,</c><01:21:38.960><c> they</c><01:21:39.280><c> tend</c><01:21:39.520><c> to</c><01:21:39.679><c> orient</c>

01:20:36.427 --> 01:20:36.437 align:start position:0%
molten magma, they tend to orient
 

01:20:36.437 --> 01:20:37.947 align:start position:0%
molten magma, they tend to orient
themselves<01:21:40.400><c> in</c><01:21:40.640><c> the</c><01:21:40.800><c> direction</c><01:21:41.199><c> of</c><01:21:41.360><c> the</c>

01:20:37.947 --> 01:20:37.957 align:start position:0%
themselves in the direction of the
 

01:20:37.957 --> 01:20:40.187 align:start position:0%
themselves in the direction of the
Earth's<01:21:41.840><c> magnetic</c><01:21:42.320><c> field.</c><01:21:43.360><c> However,</c>

01:20:40.187 --> 01:20:40.197 align:start position:0%
Earth's magnetic field. However,
 

01:20:40.197 --> 01:20:42.106 align:start position:0%
Earth's magnetic field. However,
scientists<01:21:44.400><c> noticed</c><01:21:44.880><c> that</c><01:21:45.199><c> there</c><01:21:45.360><c> were</c>

01:20:42.106 --> 01:20:42.116 align:start position:0%
scientists noticed that there were
 

01:20:42.116 --> 01:20:44.187 align:start position:0%
scientists noticed that there were
layers<01:21:45.920><c> of</c><01:21:46.080><c> geological</c><01:21:46.800><c> history</c><01:21:47.280><c> where</c><01:21:47.520><c> the</c>

01:20:44.187 --> 01:20:44.197 align:start position:0%
layers of geological history where the
 

01:20:44.197 --> 01:20:46.507 align:start position:0%
layers of geological history where the
iron<01:21:48.080><c> was</c><01:21:48.320><c> pointing</c><01:21:48.640><c> one</c><01:21:48.880><c> way</c><01:21:49.360><c> and</c><01:21:49.840><c> layers</c>

01:20:46.507 --> 01:20:46.517 align:start position:0%
iron was pointing one way and layers
 

01:20:46.517 --> 01:20:48.347 align:start position:0%
iron was pointing one way and layers
where<01:21:50.400><c> it</c><01:21:50.640><c> was</c><01:21:50.719><c> pointing</c><01:21:51.120><c> in</c><01:21:51.280><c> the</c><01:21:51.520><c> reverse</c>

01:20:48.347 --> 01:20:48.357 align:start position:0%
where it was pointing in the reverse
 

01:20:48.357 --> 01:20:51.626 align:start position:0%
where it was pointing in the reverse
direction.<01:21:52.719><c> Their</c><01:21:53.440><c> explanation,</c><01:21:54.480><c> the</c><01:21:54.800><c> entire</c>

01:20:51.626 --> 01:20:51.636 align:start position:0%
direction. Their explanation, the entire
 

01:20:51.636 --> 01:20:54.666 align:start position:0%
direction. Their explanation, the entire
pole<01:21:55.520><c> of</c><01:21:55.679><c> the</c><01:21:55.920><c> planet</c><01:21:56.239><c> had</c><01:21:56.560><c> flipped.</c><01:21:58.000><c> On</c>

01:20:54.666 --> 01:20:54.676 align:start position:0%
pole of the planet had flipped. On
 

01:20:54.676 --> 01:20:56.507 align:start position:0%
pole of the planet had flipped. On
average,<01:21:58.719><c> these</c><01:21:58.960><c> flips</c><01:21:59.360><c> seem</c><01:21:59.600><c> to</c><01:21:59.760><c> happen</c>

01:20:56.507 --> 01:20:56.517 align:start position:0%
average, these flips seem to happen
 

01:20:56.517 --> 01:20:58.586 align:start position:0%
average, these flips seem to happen
every<01:22:00.639><c> 450,000</c>

01:20:58.586 --> 01:20:58.596 align:start position:0%
every 450,000
 

01:20:58.596 --> 01:21:01.227 align:start position:0%
every 450,000
years,<01:22:02.960><c> although</c><01:22:03.280><c> the</c><01:22:03.520><c> last</c><01:22:03.760><c> few</c><01:22:04.239><c> have</c><01:22:04.480><c> only</c>

01:21:01.227 --> 01:21:01.237 align:start position:0%
years, although the last few have only
 

01:21:01.237 --> 01:21:04.267 align:start position:0%
years, although the last few have only
got<01:22:05.199><c> 300,000year</c><01:22:06.400><c> gaps</c><01:22:06.719><c> between</c><01:22:07.040><c> them.</c>

01:21:04.267 --> 01:21:04.277 align:start position:0%
got 300,000year gaps between them.
 

01:21:04.277 --> 01:21:08.267 align:start position:0%
got 300,000year gaps between them.
Comparatively,<01:22:09.120><c> it's</c><01:22:09.520><c> been</c><01:22:10.000><c> 750,000</c>

01:21:08.267 --> 01:21:08.277 align:start position:0%
Comparatively, it's been 750,000
 

01:21:08.277 --> 01:21:11.307 align:start position:0%
Comparatively, it's been 750,000
years<01:22:12.320><c> since</c><01:22:12.560><c> the</c><01:22:12.800><c> last</c><01:22:13.120><c> reversal.</c><01:22:14.480><c> You</c><01:22:14.719><c> might</c>

01:21:11.307 --> 01:21:11.317 align:start position:0%
years since the last reversal. You might
 

01:21:11.317 --> 01:21:13.467 align:start position:0%
years since the last reversal. You might
think<01:22:15.120><c> that</c><01:22:15.280><c> we're</c><01:22:15.600><c> overdue</c><01:22:16.080><c> for</c><01:22:16.239><c> one,</c><01:22:16.719><c> and</c>

01:21:13.467 --> 01:21:13.477 align:start position:0%
think that we're overdue for one, and
 

01:21:13.477 --> 01:21:16.027 align:start position:0%
think that we're overdue for one, and
some<01:22:17.360><c> have</c><01:22:17.679><c> made</c><01:22:17.920><c> that</c><01:22:18.159><c> claim.</c><01:22:19.120><c> However,</c>

01:21:16.027 --> 01:21:16.037 align:start position:0%
some have made that claim. However,
 

01:21:16.037 --> 01:21:17.626 align:start position:0%
some have made that claim. However,
scientists<01:22:20.080><c> have</c><01:22:20.320><c> found</c><01:22:20.560><c> that</c><01:22:20.800><c> there's</c>

01:21:17.626 --> 01:21:17.636 align:start position:0%
scientists have found that there's
 

01:21:17.636 --> 01:21:19.787 align:start position:0%
scientists have found that there's
little<01:22:21.520><c> rhyme</c><01:22:21.920><c> or</c><01:22:22.239><c> reason</c><01:22:22.560><c> to</c><01:22:22.719><c> the</c><01:22:22.880><c> timing</c><01:22:23.199><c> of</c>

01:21:19.787 --> 01:21:19.797 align:start position:0%
little rhyme or reason to the timing of
 

01:21:19.797 --> 01:21:22.427 align:start position:0%
little rhyme or reason to the timing of
these<01:22:23.600><c> flips.</c><01:22:24.560><c> One</c><01:22:24.800><c> of</c><01:22:24.880><c> the</c><01:22:25.120><c> longest</c><01:22:25.600><c> gaps</c>

01:21:22.427 --> 01:21:22.437 align:start position:0%
these flips. One of the longest gaps
 

01:21:22.437 --> 01:21:24.187 align:start position:0%
these flips. One of the longest gaps
between<01:22:26.400><c> flips</c><01:22:26.960><c> took</c><01:22:27.280><c> place</c><01:22:27.440><c> in</c><01:22:27.600><c> the</c>

01:21:24.187 --> 01:21:24.197 align:start position:0%
between flips took place in the
 

01:21:24.197 --> 01:21:27.146 align:start position:0%
between flips took place in the
Cretaceous<01:22:28.400><c> period</c><01:22:29.040><c> and</c><01:22:29.199><c> it</c><01:22:29.440><c> lasted</c><01:22:30.159><c> 40</c>

01:21:27.146 --> 01:21:27.156 align:start position:0%
Cretaceous period and it lasted 40
 

01:21:27.156 --> 01:21:30.747 align:start position:0%
Cretaceous period and it lasted 40
million<01:22:31.120><c> years.</c><01:22:32.400><c> The</c><01:22:32.800><c> record</c><01:22:33.280><c> holder,</c><01:22:34.080><c> the</c>

01:21:30.747 --> 01:21:30.757 align:start position:0%
million years. The record holder, the
 

01:21:30.757 --> 01:21:36.027 align:start position:0%
million years. The record holder, the
Kiean<01:22:34.880><c> reverse</c><01:22:35.360><c> supercron,</c><01:22:36.320><c> was</c><01:22:36.800><c> 312</c><01:22:37.760><c> to</c><01:22:38.320><c> 262</c>

01:21:36.027 --> 01:21:36.037 align:start position:0%
Kiean reverse supercron, was 312 to 262
 

01:21:36.037 --> 01:21:39.307 align:start position:0%
Kiean reverse supercron, was 312 to 262
million<01:22:39.920><c> years</c><01:22:40.159><c> ago,</c><01:22:41.199><c> 50</c><01:22:41.679><c> million</c><01:22:42.080><c> years</c><01:22:42.639><c> with</c>

01:21:39.307 --> 01:21:39.317 align:start position:0%
million years ago, 50 million years with
 

01:21:39.317 --> 01:21:41.626 align:start position:0%
million years ago, 50 million years with
no<01:22:43.199><c> reversal.</c>

01:21:41.626 --> 01:21:41.636 align:start position:0%
no reversal.
 

01:21:41.636 --> 01:21:43.307 align:start position:0%
no reversal.
Scientists<01:22:45.760><c> are</c><01:22:46.000><c> still</c><01:22:46.400><c> trying</c><01:22:46.639><c> to</c>

01:21:43.307 --> 01:21:43.317 align:start position:0%
Scientists are still trying to
 

01:21:43.317 --> 01:21:45.707 align:start position:0%
Scientists are still trying to
understand<01:22:47.280><c> what</c><01:22:47.600><c> causes</c><01:22:48.000><c> these</c><01:22:48.320><c> flips.</c>

01:21:45.707 --> 01:21:45.717 align:start position:0%
understand what causes these flips.
 

01:21:45.717 --> 01:21:47.626 align:start position:0%
understand what causes these flips.
However,<01:22:49.679><c> the</c><01:22:49.920><c> current</c><01:22:50.159><c> theory</c><01:22:50.639><c> is</c><01:22:50.880><c> that</c>

01:21:47.626 --> 01:21:47.636 align:start position:0%
However, the current theory is that
 

01:21:47.636 --> 01:21:49.787 align:start position:0%
However, the current theory is that
something,<01:22:52.000><c> perhaps</c><01:22:52.480><c> some</c><01:22:52.800><c> interplay</c>

01:21:49.787 --> 01:21:49.797 align:start position:0%
something, perhaps some interplay
 

01:21:49.797 --> 01:21:52.027 align:start position:0%
something, perhaps some interplay
between<01:22:53.600><c> the</c><01:22:53.840><c> mantle</c><01:22:54.239><c> and</c><01:22:54.400><c> the</c><01:22:54.560><c> outer</c><01:22:54.880><c> core</c>

01:21:52.027 --> 01:21:52.037 align:start position:0%
between the mantle and the outer core
 

01:21:52.037 --> 01:21:54.027 align:start position:0%
between the mantle and the outer core
causes<01:22:56.000><c> a</c><01:22:56.239><c> fluctuation</c><01:22:56.800><c> in</c><01:22:57.040><c> the</c><01:22:57.199><c> core</c>

01:21:54.027 --> 01:21:54.037 align:start position:0%
causes a fluctuation in the core
 

01:21:54.037 --> 01:21:56.827 align:start position:0%
causes a fluctuation in the core
spinning.<01:22:58.719><c> This</c><01:22:59.040><c> disrupts</c><01:22:59.600><c> the</c><01:22:59.840><c> spiraling</c>

01:21:56.827 --> 01:21:56.837 align:start position:0%
spinning. This disrupts the spiraling
 

01:21:56.837 --> 01:21:59.066 align:start position:0%
spinning. This disrupts the spiraling
shapes<01:23:00.719><c> of</c><01:23:00.800><c> the</c><01:23:00.960><c> core's</c><01:23:01.440><c> flow,</c><01:23:02.080><c> breaking</c><01:23:02.400><c> them</c>

01:21:59.066 --> 01:21:59.076 align:start position:0%
shapes of the core's flow, breaking them
 

01:21:59.076 --> 01:22:01.626 align:start position:0%
shapes of the core's flow, breaking them
down.<01:23:03.600><c> The</c><01:23:03.840><c> magnetic</c><01:23:04.239><c> field</c><01:23:04.480><c> of</c><01:23:04.639><c> the</c><01:23:04.800><c> Earth</c>

01:22:01.626 --> 01:22:01.636 align:start position:0%
down. The magnetic field of the Earth
 

01:22:01.636 --> 01:22:04.027 align:start position:0%
down. The magnetic field of the Earth
stops<01:23:05.520><c> being</c><01:23:05.840><c> unified</c><01:23:06.639><c> and</c><01:23:07.040><c> generally</c>

01:22:04.027 --> 01:22:04.037 align:start position:0%
stops being unified and generally
 

01:22:04.037 --> 01:22:06.586 align:start position:0%
stops being unified and generally
becomes<01:23:08.080><c> a</c><01:23:08.320><c> sprawling</c><01:23:08.960><c> mess,</c><01:23:09.679><c> fighting</c>

01:22:06.586 --> 01:22:06.596 align:start position:0%
becomes a sprawling mess, fighting
 

01:22:06.596 --> 01:22:09.707 align:start position:0%
becomes a sprawling mess, fighting
against<01:23:10.560><c> itself.</c><01:23:11.760><c> Several</c><01:23:12.400><c> poles</c><01:23:12.880><c> might</c>

01:22:09.707 --> 01:22:09.717 align:start position:0%
against itself. Several poles might
 

01:22:09.717 --> 01:22:12.187 align:start position:0%
against itself. Several poles might
temporarily<01:23:14.000><c> arise</c><01:23:14.560><c> during</c><01:23:14.880><c> this</c><01:23:15.120><c> period</c><01:23:15.520><c> of</c>

01:22:12.187 --> 01:22:12.197 align:start position:0%
temporarily arise during this period of
 

01:22:12.197 --> 01:22:15.146 align:start position:0%
temporarily arise during this period of
shifting<01:23:16.320><c> magnetic</c><01:23:16.800><c> confusion.</c><01:23:18.159><c> While</c><01:23:18.480><c> in</c>

01:22:15.146 --> 01:22:15.156 align:start position:0%
shifting magnetic confusion. While in
 

01:22:15.156 --> 01:22:17.146 align:start position:0%
shifting magnetic confusion. While in
time<01:23:18.960><c> things</c><01:23:19.280><c> settle</c><01:23:19.600><c> down</c><01:23:19.840><c> and</c><01:23:20.080><c> the</c><01:23:20.239><c> spirals</c>

01:22:17.146 --> 01:22:17.156 align:start position:0%
time things settle down and the spirals
 

01:22:17.156 --> 01:22:20.027 align:start position:0%
time things settle down and the spirals
reassert<01:23:21.199><c> themselves,</c><01:23:22.080><c> it</c><01:23:22.320><c> seems</c><01:23:22.639><c> random</c><01:23:23.280><c> as</c>

01:22:20.027 --> 01:22:20.037 align:start position:0%
reassert themselves, it seems random as
 

01:22:20.037 --> 01:22:22.347 align:start position:0%
reassert themselves, it seems random as
to<01:23:23.840><c> which</c><01:23:24.080><c> way</c><01:23:24.239><c> they</c><01:23:24.480><c> will</c><01:23:24.719><c> do</c><01:23:24.880><c> this.</c><01:23:25.600><c> Meaning</c>

01:22:22.347 --> 01:22:22.357 align:start position:0%
to which way they will do this. Meaning
 

01:22:22.357 --> 01:22:24.666 align:start position:0%
to which way they will do this. Meaning
about<01:23:26.320><c> half</c><01:23:26.560><c> the</c><01:23:26.800><c> time</c><01:23:27.040><c> our</c><01:23:27.360><c> magnetic</c><01:23:27.920><c> north</c>

01:22:24.666 --> 01:22:24.676 align:start position:0%
about half the time our magnetic north
 

01:22:24.676 --> 01:22:27.227 align:start position:0%
about half the time our magnetic north
pole<01:23:28.719><c> reappears</c><01:23:29.360><c> over</c><01:23:29.600><c> the</c><01:23:29.840><c> geographical</c>

01:22:27.227 --> 01:22:27.237 align:start position:0%
pole reappears over the geographical
 

01:22:27.237 --> 01:22:30.827 align:start position:0%
pole reappears over the geographical
south.<01:23:31.920><c> This</c><01:23:32.239><c> reasserting</c><01:23:33.040><c> can</c><01:23:33.280><c> take</c><01:23:33.600><c> 1,000</c>

01:22:30.827 --> 01:22:30.837 align:start position:0%
south. This reasserting can take 1,000
 

01:22:30.837 --> 01:22:33.787 align:start position:0%
south. This reasserting can take 1,000
to<01:23:34.800><c> 10,000</c><01:23:35.520><c> years.</c>

01:22:33.787 --> 01:22:33.797 align:start position:0%
to 10,000 years.
 

01:22:33.797 --> 01:22:36.507 align:start position:0%
to 10,000 years.
All<01:23:37.440><c> right,</c><01:23:38.159><c> but</c><01:23:38.560><c> would</c><01:23:38.880><c> that</c><01:23:39.199><c> really</c><01:23:39.679><c> be</c><01:23:39.840><c> the</c>

01:22:36.507 --> 01:22:36.517 align:start position:0%
All right, but would that really be the
 

01:22:36.517 --> 01:22:39.787 align:start position:0%
All right, but would that really be the
end<01:23:40.239><c> of</c><01:23:40.320><c> the</c><01:23:40.480><c> world?</c><01:23:41.360><c> Why</c><01:23:41.600><c> does</c><01:23:41.840><c> this</c><01:23:42.080><c> matter?</c>

01:22:39.787 --> 01:22:39.797 align:start position:0%
end of the world? Why does this matter?
 

01:22:39.797 --> 01:22:41.626 align:start position:0%
end of the world? Why does this matter?
Well,<01:23:43.840><c> during</c><01:23:44.159><c> that</c><01:23:44.480><c> period</c><01:23:44.800><c> before</c><01:23:45.040><c> the</c>

01:22:41.626 --> 01:22:41.636 align:start position:0%
Well, during that period before the
 

01:22:41.636 --> 01:22:44.027 align:start position:0%
Well, during that period before the
poles<01:23:45.600><c> reassert</c><01:23:46.080><c> themselves,</c><01:23:46.880><c> our</c><01:23:47.199><c> Earth's</c>

01:22:44.027 --> 01:22:44.037 align:start position:0%
poles reassert themselves, our Earth's
 

01:22:44.037 --> 01:22:47.066 align:start position:0%
poles reassert themselves, our Earth's
magnetic<01:23:48.000><c> field</c><01:23:48.400><c> drops</c><01:23:48.800><c> to</c><01:23:49.040><c> as</c><01:23:49.280><c> low</c><01:23:49.440><c> as</c><01:23:49.760><c> 10%</c><01:23:50.400><c> of</c>

01:22:47.066 --> 01:22:47.076 align:start position:0%
magnetic field drops to as low as 10% of
 

01:22:47.076 --> 01:22:49.787 align:start position:0%
magnetic field drops to as low as 10% of
its<01:23:50.880><c> current</c><01:23:51.120><c> strength.</c><01:23:52.239><c> In</c><01:23:52.480><c> theory,</c><01:23:53.120><c> this</c>

01:22:49.787 --> 01:22:49.797 align:start position:0%
its current strength. In theory, this
 

01:22:49.797 --> 01:22:51.867 align:start position:0%
its current strength. In theory, this
could<01:23:53.600><c> leave</c><01:23:53.840><c> us</c><01:23:54.159><c> much</c><01:23:54.480><c> more</c><01:23:54.719><c> vulnerable</c><01:23:55.199><c> to</c>

01:22:51.867 --> 01:22:51.877 align:start position:0%
could leave us much more vulnerable to
 

01:22:51.877 --> 01:22:54.267 align:start position:0%
could leave us much more vulnerable to
all<01:23:55.679><c> the</c><01:23:55.920><c> solar</c><01:23:56.320><c> radiation</c><01:23:56.880><c> space</c><01:23:57.280><c> throws</c><01:23:57.600><c> at</c>

01:22:54.267 --> 01:22:54.277 align:start position:0%
all the solar radiation space throws at
 

01:22:54.277 --> 01:22:57.146 align:start position:0%
all the solar radiation space throws at
us.<01:23:58.560><c> We</c><01:23:58.800><c> could</c><01:23:58.960><c> see</c><01:23:59.199><c> auroras</c><01:23:59.920><c> reaching</c><01:24:00.400><c> much</c>

01:22:57.146 --> 01:22:57.156 align:start position:0%
us. We could see auroras reaching much
 

01:22:57.156 --> 01:22:59.947 align:start position:0%
us. We could see auroras reaching much
further<01:24:01.120><c> south</c><01:24:01.520><c> during</c><01:24:01.760><c> that</c><01:24:02.000><c> time.</c><01:24:03.120><c> Skin</c>

01:22:59.947 --> 01:22:59.957 align:start position:0%
further south during that time. Skin
 

01:22:59.957 --> 01:23:02.187 align:start position:0%
further south during that time. Skin
cancer<01:24:03.920><c> rates</c><01:24:04.159><c> would</c><01:24:04.480><c> increase.</c><01:24:05.360><c> Our</c>

01:23:02.187 --> 01:23:02.197 align:start position:0%
cancer rates would increase. Our
 

01:23:02.197 --> 01:23:03.867 align:start position:0%
cancer rates would increase. Our
satellites<01:24:06.320><c> would</c><01:24:06.560><c> find</c><01:24:06.719><c> themselves</c><01:24:07.199><c> with</c>

01:23:03.867 --> 01:23:03.877 align:start position:0%
satellites would find themselves with
 

01:23:03.877 --> 01:23:06.427 align:start position:0%
satellites would find themselves with
not<01:24:07.600><c> enough</c><01:24:07.920><c> shielding.</c><01:24:09.120><c> Radiation</c><01:24:09.760><c> would</c>

01:23:06.427 --> 01:23:06.437 align:start position:0%
not enough shielding. Radiation would
 

01:23:06.437 --> 01:23:08.507 align:start position:0%
not enough shielding. Radiation would
fry<01:24:10.400><c> their</c><01:24:10.639><c> circuits,</c><01:24:11.360><c> causing</c><01:24:11.679><c> them</c><01:24:11.840><c> to</c>

01:23:08.507 --> 01:23:08.517 align:start position:0%
fry their circuits, causing them to
 

01:23:08.517 --> 01:23:11.387 align:start position:0%
fry their circuits, causing them to
malfunction,<01:24:12.960><c> shut</c><01:24:13.280><c> down,</c><01:24:13.760><c> and</c><01:24:14.080><c> potentially</c>

01:23:11.387 --> 01:23:11.397 align:start position:0%
malfunction, shut down, and potentially
 

01:23:11.397 --> 01:23:14.106 align:start position:0%
malfunction, shut down, and potentially
even<01:24:15.280><c> slowly</c><01:24:15.679><c> fall</c><01:24:15.920><c> from</c><01:24:16.159><c> orbit.</c>

01:23:14.106 --> 01:23:14.116 align:start position:0%
even slowly fall from orbit.
 

01:23:14.116 --> 01:23:16.507 align:start position:0%
even slowly fall from orbit.
Our<01:24:18.159><c> electrical</c><01:24:18.719><c> grid</c><01:24:19.040><c> would</c><01:24:19.280><c> be</c><01:24:19.520><c> much</c><01:24:19.840><c> more</c>

01:23:16.507 --> 01:23:16.517 align:start position:0%
Our electrical grid would be much more
 

01:23:16.517 --> 01:23:19.146 align:start position:0%
Our electrical grid would be much more
vulnerable<01:24:20.480><c> to</c><01:24:20.719><c> solar</c><01:24:21.120><c> storms,</c><01:24:22.080><c> which</c><01:24:22.400><c> could</c>

01:23:19.146 --> 01:23:19.156 align:start position:0%
vulnerable to solar storms, which could
 

01:23:19.156 --> 01:23:21.227 align:start position:0%
vulnerable to solar storms, which could
lead<01:24:23.040><c> to</c><01:24:23.360><c> large</c><01:24:23.679><c> segments</c><01:24:24.080><c> of</c><01:24:24.239><c> the</c><01:24:24.400><c> Earth's</c>

01:23:21.227 --> 01:23:21.237 align:start position:0%
lead to large segments of the Earth's
 

01:23:21.237 --> 01:23:23.947 align:start position:0%
lead to large segments of the Earth's
population<01:24:25.440><c> without</c><01:24:25.840><c> power.</c><01:24:27.040><c> With</c><01:24:27.280><c> no</c>

01:23:23.947 --> 01:23:23.957 align:start position:0%
population without power. With no
 

01:23:23.957 --> 01:23:26.586 align:start position:0%
population without power. With no
electricity<01:24:28.239><c> or</c><01:24:28.560><c> satellite</c><01:24:29.040><c> communication,</c>

01:23:26.586 --> 01:23:26.596 align:start position:0%
electricity or satellite communication,
 

01:23:26.596 --> 01:23:29.066 align:start position:0%
electricity or satellite communication,
it<01:24:30.400><c> would</c><01:24:30.560><c> be</c><01:24:30.800><c> a</c><01:24:31.040><c> devastating</c><01:24:31.760><c> blow</c><01:24:32.080><c> to</c><01:24:32.320><c> our</c>

01:23:29.066 --> 01:23:29.076 align:start position:0%
it would be a devastating blow to our
 

01:23:29.076 --> 01:23:31.867 align:start position:0%
it would be a devastating blow to our
global<01:24:33.040><c> civilization.</c>

01:23:31.867 --> 01:23:31.877 align:start position:0%
global civilization.
 

01:23:31.877 --> 01:23:34.827 align:start position:0%
global civilization.
It<01:24:35.760><c> could</c><01:24:36.080><c> be</c><01:24:36.320><c> worse</c><01:24:36.560><c> than</c><01:24:36.800><c> that.</c><01:24:37.760><c> A</c><01:24:38.000><c> research</c>

01:23:34.827 --> 01:23:34.837 align:start position:0%
It could be worse than that. A research
 

01:23:34.837 --> 01:23:36.666 align:start position:0%
It could be worse than that. A research
team<01:24:38.639><c> from</c><01:24:38.880><c> the</c><01:24:39.040><c> University</c><01:24:39.520><c> of</c><01:24:39.760><c> New</c><01:24:40.000><c> South</c>

01:23:36.666 --> 01:23:36.676 align:start position:0%
team from the University of New South
 

01:23:36.676 --> 01:23:39.066 align:start position:0%
team from the University of New South
Wales<01:24:40.560><c> in</c><01:24:40.800><c> Sydney</c><01:24:41.440><c> even</c><01:24:41.760><c> linked</c><01:24:42.159><c> one</c><01:24:42.320><c> of</c><01:24:42.480><c> the</c>

01:23:39.066 --> 01:23:39.076 align:start position:0%
Wales in Sydney even linked one of the
 

01:23:39.076 --> 01:23:41.066 align:start position:0%
Wales in Sydney even linked one of the
most<01:24:42.960><c> recent</c><01:24:43.360><c> weakenings</c><01:24:43.840><c> of</c><01:24:44.000><c> the</c><01:24:44.159><c> magnetic</c>

01:23:41.066 --> 01:23:41.076 align:start position:0%
most recent weakenings of the magnetic
 

01:23:41.076 --> 01:23:44.187 align:start position:0%
most recent weakenings of the magnetic
field,<01:24:45.280><c> the</c><01:24:45.440><c> Lashamps</c><01:24:46.080><c> event,</c><01:24:46.800><c> a</c><01:24:47.120><c> temporary</c>

01:23:44.187 --> 01:23:44.197 align:start position:0%
field, the Lashamps event, a temporary
 

01:23:44.197 --> 01:23:46.827 align:start position:0%
field, the Lashamps event, a temporary
800year<01:24:48.560><c> wobble</c><01:24:48.960><c> rather</c><01:24:49.199><c> than</c><01:24:49.360><c> a</c><01:24:49.520><c> full</c><01:24:49.760><c> flip</c>

01:23:46.827 --> 01:23:46.837 align:start position:0%
800year wobble rather than a full flip
 

01:23:46.837 --> 01:23:49.227 align:start position:0%
800year wobble rather than a full flip
to<01:24:50.639><c> megapornal</c><01:24:51.520><c> mass</c><01:24:51.920><c> extinctions</c><01:24:52.480><c> in</c>

01:23:49.227 --> 01:23:49.237 align:start position:0%
to megapornal mass extinctions in
 

01:23:49.237 --> 01:23:51.467 align:start position:0%
to megapornal mass extinctions in
Australia,<01:24:53.840><c> including</c><01:24:54.239><c> the</c><01:24:54.480><c> deaths</c><01:24:54.800><c> of</c>

01:23:51.467 --> 01:23:51.477 align:start position:0%
Australia, including the deaths of
 

01:23:51.477 --> 01:23:53.066 align:start position:0%
Australia, including the deaths of
Droaton,

01:23:53.066 --> 01:23:53.076 align:start position:0%
Droaton,
 

01:23:53.076 --> 01:23:56.507 align:start position:0%
Droaton,
giant<01:24:57.120><c> Australian</c><01:24:57.679><c> wombats,</c><01:24:58.719><c> and</c><01:24:59.040><c> Procopadon</c>

01:23:56.507 --> 01:23:56.517 align:start position:0%
giant Australian wombats, and Procopadon
 

01:23:56.517 --> 01:23:59.787 align:start position:0%
giant Australian wombats, and Procopadon
Gallayia,<01:25:01.120><c> giant</c><01:25:01.600><c> kangaroos.</c>

01:23:59.787 --> 01:23:59.797 align:start position:0%
Gallayia, giant kangaroos.
 

01:23:59.797 --> 01:24:02.106 align:start position:0%
Gallayia, giant kangaroos.
Temporary<01:25:03.760><c> wobbles</c><01:25:04.239><c> like</c><01:25:04.480><c> this</c><01:25:04.800><c> are</c><01:25:05.120><c> known</c><01:25:05.360><c> as</c>

01:24:02.106 --> 01:24:02.116 align:start position:0%
Temporary wobbles like this are known as
 

01:24:02.116 --> 01:24:04.907 align:start position:0%
Temporary wobbles like this are known as
geomagnetic<01:25:06.639><c> excursions</c><01:25:07.600><c> rather</c><01:25:07.920><c> than</c><01:25:08.159><c> full</c>

01:24:04.907 --> 01:24:04.917 align:start position:0%
geomagnetic excursions rather than full
 

01:24:04.917 --> 01:24:07.066 align:start position:0%
geomagnetic excursions rather than full
reversals<01:25:09.280><c> and</c><01:25:09.520><c> they</c><01:25:09.679><c> happen</c><01:25:10.000><c> over</c><01:25:10.320><c> much</c>

01:24:07.066 --> 01:24:07.076 align:start position:0%
reversals and they happen over much
 

01:24:07.076 --> 01:24:09.626 align:start position:0%
reversals and they happen over much
shorter<01:25:11.120><c> time</c><01:25:11.360><c> frames.</c><01:25:12.400><c> Their</c><01:25:12.719><c> transition</c>

01:24:09.626 --> 01:24:09.636 align:start position:0%
shorter time frames. Their transition
 

01:24:09.636 --> 01:24:12.267 align:start position:0%
shorter time frames. Their transition
periods<01:25:13.600><c> can</c><01:25:13.840><c> last</c><01:25:14.080><c> as</c><01:25:14.400><c> little</c><01:25:14.639><c> as</c><01:25:14.960><c> 200</c><01:25:15.440><c> years</c>

01:24:12.267 --> 01:24:12.277 align:start position:0%
periods can last as little as 200 years
 

01:24:12.277 --> 01:24:14.987 align:start position:0%
periods can last as little as 200 years
rather<01:25:16.159><c> than</c><01:25:16.400><c> 10,000</c><01:25:17.600><c> which</c><01:25:17.840><c> can</c><01:25:18.080><c> be</c><01:25:18.239><c> much</c>

01:24:14.987 --> 01:24:14.997 align:start position:0%
rather than 10,000 which can be much
 

01:24:14.997 --> 01:24:17.867 align:start position:0%
rather than 10,000 which can be much
more<01:25:18.800><c> difficult</c><01:25:19.120><c> for</c><01:25:19.360><c> species</c><01:25:19.840><c> to</c><01:25:20.000><c> adapt</c><01:25:20.320><c> to.</c>

01:24:17.867 --> 01:24:17.877 align:start position:0%
more difficult for species to adapt to.
 

01:24:17.877 --> 01:24:20.907 align:start position:0%
more difficult for species to adapt to.
In<01:25:21.679><c> their</c><01:25:22.000><c> 2021</c><01:25:22.880><c> study,</c><01:25:23.520><c> they</c><01:25:23.760><c> argued</c><01:25:24.239><c> that</c>

01:24:20.907 --> 01:24:20.917 align:start position:0%
In their 2021 study, they argued that
 

01:24:20.917 --> 01:24:22.666 align:start position:0%
In their 2021 study, they argued that
there<01:25:24.639><c> was</c><01:25:24.800><c> a</c><01:25:25.040><c> spike</c><01:25:25.280><c> in</c><01:25:25.520><c> atmospheric</c>

01:24:22.666 --> 01:24:22.676 align:start position:0%
there was a spike in atmospheric
 

01:24:22.676 --> 01:24:25.146 align:start position:0%
there was a spike in atmospheric
radiocarbon<01:25:27.040><c> levels</c><01:25:28.000><c> caused</c><01:25:28.320><c> by</c><01:25:28.560><c> the</c>

01:24:25.146 --> 01:24:25.156 align:start position:0%
radiocarbon levels caused by the
 

01:24:25.156 --> 01:24:27.227 align:start position:0%
radiocarbon levels caused by the
collapse<01:25:29.040><c> of</c><01:25:29.199><c> the</c><01:25:29.360><c> Earth's</c><01:25:29.679><c> magnetic</c><01:25:30.080><c> field,</c>

01:24:27.227 --> 01:24:27.237 align:start position:0%
collapse of the Earth's magnetic field,
 

01:24:27.237 --> 01:24:28.987 align:start position:0%
collapse of the Earth's magnetic field,
indicating<01:25:31.440><c> climate</c><01:25:31.840><c> shifts</c><01:25:32.159><c> that</c><01:25:32.400><c> could</c>

01:24:28.987 --> 01:24:28.997 align:start position:0%
indicating climate shifts that could
 

01:24:28.997 --> 01:24:31.146 align:start position:0%
indicating climate shifts that could
have<01:25:32.719><c> led</c><01:25:32.960><c> to</c><01:25:33.040><c> these</c><01:25:33.280><c> extinctions.</c><01:25:34.400><c> The</c>

01:24:31.146 --> 01:24:31.156 align:start position:0%
have led to these extinctions. The
 

01:24:31.156 --> 01:24:34.827 align:start position:0%
have led to these extinctions. The
timing<01:25:35.199><c> lines</c><01:25:35.600><c> up</c><01:25:35.920><c> uncomfortably.</c>

01:24:34.827 --> 01:24:34.837 align:start position:0%
timing lines up uncomfortably.
 

01:24:34.837 --> 01:24:38.666 align:start position:0%
timing lines up uncomfortably.
But<01:25:38.960><c> how</c><01:25:39.280><c> real</c><01:25:39.679><c> are</c><01:25:39.920><c> these</c><01:25:40.239><c> risks?</c><01:25:41.440><c> Honestly,</c>

01:24:38.666 --> 01:24:38.676 align:start position:0%
But how real are these risks? Honestly,
 

01:24:38.676 --> 01:24:41.947 align:start position:0%
But how real are these risks? Honestly,
it's<01:25:42.480><c> a</c><01:25:42.639><c> mixed</c><01:25:42.960><c> bag.</c><01:25:43.920><c> A</c><01:25:44.239><c> point</c><01:25:44.400><c> in</c><01:25:44.639><c> our</c><01:25:44.960><c> favor</c>

01:24:41.947 --> 01:24:41.957 align:start position:0%
it's a mixed bag. A point in our favor
 

01:24:41.957 --> 01:24:44.187 align:start position:0%
it's a mixed bag. A point in our favor
is<01:25:45.760><c> that</c><01:25:46.080><c> other</c><01:25:46.320><c> than</c><01:25:46.480><c> this</c><01:25:46.800><c> recent</c><01:25:47.120><c> study,</c>

01:24:44.187 --> 01:24:44.197 align:start position:0%
is that other than this recent study,
 

01:24:44.197 --> 01:24:45.947 align:start position:0%
is that other than this recent study,
there<01:25:48.000><c> is</c><01:25:48.159><c> no</c><01:25:48.400><c> indication</c><01:25:48.880><c> that</c><01:25:49.120><c> magnetic</c>

01:24:45.947 --> 01:24:45.957 align:start position:0%
there is no indication that magnetic
 

01:24:45.957 --> 01:24:48.347 align:start position:0%
there is no indication that magnetic
field<01:25:49.840><c> reversals</c><01:25:50.400><c> have</c><01:25:50.639><c> ever</c><01:25:50.960><c> coincided</c><01:25:51.600><c> with</c>

01:24:48.347 --> 01:24:48.357 align:start position:0%
field reversals have ever coincided with
 

01:24:48.357 --> 01:24:50.747 align:start position:0%
field reversals have ever coincided with
mass<01:25:52.239><c> extinction</c><01:25:52.719><c> events.</c><01:25:53.679><c> It</c><01:25:53.920><c> seems</c><01:25:54.159><c> like</c>

01:24:50.747 --> 01:24:50.757 align:start position:0%
mass extinction events. It seems like
 

01:24:50.757 --> 01:24:52.586 align:start position:0%
mass extinction events. It seems like
many<01:25:54.639><c> reversals</c><01:25:55.199><c> have</c><01:25:55.440><c> come</c><01:25:55.600><c> and</c><01:25:55.920><c> gone</c>

01:24:52.586 --> 01:24:52.596 align:start position:0%
many reversals have come and gone
 

01:24:52.596 --> 01:24:54.747 align:start position:0%
many reversals have come and gone
without<01:25:56.560><c> affecting</c><01:25:57.120><c> animal</c><01:25:57.520><c> or</c><01:25:57.760><c> plant</c><01:25:58.080><c> life</c>

01:24:54.747 --> 01:24:54.757 align:start position:0%
without affecting animal or plant life
 

01:24:54.757 --> 01:24:57.867 align:start position:0%
without affecting animal or plant life
at<01:25:58.560><c> all.</c><01:25:59.440><c> And</c><01:25:59.679><c> even</c><01:26:00.000><c> in</c><01:26:00.320><c> this</c><01:26:00.480><c> study,</c><01:26:01.120><c> such</c>

01:24:57.867 --> 01:24:57.877 align:start position:0%
at all. And even in this study, such
 

01:24:57.877 --> 01:24:59.626 align:start position:0%
at all. And even in this study, such
mass<01:26:01.840><c> extinctions</c><01:26:02.480><c> seem</c><01:26:02.719><c> to</c><01:26:02.880><c> have</c><01:26:03.040><c> been</c>

01:24:59.626 --> 01:24:59.636 align:start position:0%
mass extinctions seem to have been
 

01:24:59.636 --> 01:25:02.027 align:start position:0%
mass extinctions seem to have been
limited<01:26:03.520><c> in</c><01:26:03.760><c> scope.</c><01:26:04.480><c> There</c><01:26:04.719><c> is</c><01:26:04.880><c> no</c><01:26:05.120><c> claim</c><01:26:05.360><c> from</c>

01:25:02.027 --> 01:25:02.037 align:start position:0%
limited in scope. There is no claim from
 

01:25:02.037 --> 01:25:03.867 align:start position:0%
limited in scope. There is no claim from
the<01:26:05.760><c> researchers</c><01:26:06.239><c> that</c><01:26:06.480><c> this</c><01:26:06.639><c> was</c><01:26:06.800><c> a</c><01:26:07.040><c> global</c>

01:25:03.867 --> 01:25:03.877 align:start position:0%
the researchers that this was a global
 

01:25:03.877 --> 01:25:06.106 align:start position:0%
the researchers that this was a global
phenomenon.<01:26:08.560><c> Other</c><01:26:08.880><c> parts</c><01:26:09.120><c> of</c><01:26:09.280><c> the</c><01:26:09.440><c> world</c>

01:25:06.106 --> 01:25:06.116 align:start position:0%
phenomenon. Other parts of the world
 

01:25:06.116 --> 01:25:08.187 align:start position:0%
phenomenon. Other parts of the world
remained<01:26:10.080><c> unaffected</c><01:26:11.040><c> even</c><01:26:11.360><c> during</c><01:26:11.600><c> the</c>

01:25:08.187 --> 01:25:08.197 align:start position:0%
remained unaffected even during the
 

01:25:08.197 --> 01:25:10.347 align:start position:0%
remained unaffected even during the
Lashamps<01:26:12.400><c> event.</c>

01:25:10.347 --> 01:25:10.357 align:start position:0%
Lashamps event.
 

01:25:10.357 --> 01:25:12.827 align:start position:0%
Lashamps event.
It<01:26:14.159><c> seems</c><01:26:14.480><c> that</c><01:26:14.800><c> a</c><01:26:15.120><c> perfect</c><01:26:15.520><c> storm</c><01:26:15.920><c> might</c><01:26:16.239><c> have</c>

01:25:12.827 --> 01:25:12.837 align:start position:0%
It seems that a perfect storm might have
 

01:25:12.837 --> 01:25:14.987 align:start position:0%
It seems that a perfect storm might have
been<01:26:16.560><c> in</c><01:26:16.800><c> play</c><01:26:17.280><c> where</c><01:26:17.600><c> specific</c><01:26:18.159><c> conditions</c>

01:25:14.987 --> 01:25:14.997 align:start position:0%
been in play where specific conditions
 

01:25:14.997 --> 01:25:17.227 align:start position:0%
been in play where specific conditions
over<01:26:18.960><c> Australia</c><01:26:19.679><c> left</c><01:26:19.920><c> it</c><01:26:20.159><c> more</c><01:26:20.400><c> vulnerable</c>

01:25:17.227 --> 01:25:17.237 align:start position:0%
over Australia left it more vulnerable
 

01:25:17.237 --> 01:25:19.867 align:start position:0%
over Australia left it more vulnerable
to<01:26:21.040><c> solar</c><01:26:21.440><c> radiation.</c>

01:25:19.867 --> 01:25:19.877 align:start position:0%
to solar radiation.
 

01:25:19.877 --> 01:25:22.507 align:start position:0%
to solar radiation.
In<01:26:23.760><c> terms</c><01:26:23.920><c> of</c><01:26:24.159><c> our</c><01:26:24.480><c> global</c><01:26:24.960><c> society,</c><01:26:25.760><c> it's</c>

01:25:22.507 --> 01:25:22.517 align:start position:0%
In terms of our global society, it's
 

01:25:22.517 --> 01:25:24.267 align:start position:0%
In terms of our global society, it's
worth<01:26:26.320><c> noting</c><01:26:26.560><c> that</c><01:26:26.719><c> these</c><01:26:27.040><c> magnetic</c><01:26:27.520><c> changes</c>

01:25:24.267 --> 01:25:24.277 align:start position:0%
worth noting that these magnetic changes
 

01:25:24.277 --> 01:25:26.827 align:start position:0%
worth noting that these magnetic changes
would<01:26:28.159><c> take</c><01:26:28.480><c> many</c><01:26:28.960><c> lifetimes</c><01:26:29.520><c> to</c><01:26:29.679><c> complete,</c>

01:25:26.827 --> 01:25:26.837 align:start position:0%
would take many lifetimes to complete,
 

01:25:26.837 --> 01:25:29.227 align:start position:0%
would take many lifetimes to complete,
even<01:26:30.639><c> at</c><01:26:30.880><c> their</c><01:26:31.120><c> fastest.</c><01:26:32.239><c> This</c><01:26:32.480><c> would</c><01:26:32.639><c> be</c>

01:25:29.227 --> 01:25:29.237 align:start position:0%
even at their fastest. This would be
 

01:25:29.237 --> 01:25:30.987 align:start position:0%
even at their fastest. This would be
slow<01:26:33.120><c> enough</c><01:26:33.360><c> that</c><01:26:33.600><c> we</c><01:26:33.840><c> could</c><01:26:34.000><c> come</c><01:26:34.080><c> to</c><01:26:34.320><c> terms</c>

01:25:30.987 --> 01:25:30.997 align:start position:0%
slow enough that we could come to terms
 

01:25:30.997 --> 01:25:33.947 align:start position:0%
slow enough that we could come to terms
with<01:26:34.800><c> our</c><01:26:35.040><c> new</c><01:26:35.280><c> reality.</c><01:26:36.400><c> If</c><01:26:36.560><c> our</c><01:26:36.880><c> satellites</c>

01:25:33.947 --> 01:25:33.957 align:start position:0%
with our new reality. If our satellites
 

01:25:33.957 --> 01:25:35.787 align:start position:0%
with our new reality. If our satellites
don't<01:26:37.760><c> have</c><01:26:37.920><c> enough</c><01:26:38.159><c> shielding,</c><01:26:38.880><c> we</c><01:26:39.120><c> would</c>

01:25:35.787 --> 01:25:35.797 align:start position:0%
don't have enough shielding, we would
 

01:25:35.797 --> 01:25:37.547 align:start position:0%
don't have enough shielding, we would
have<01:26:39.520><c> time</c><01:26:39.760><c> to</c><01:26:39.920><c> build</c><01:26:40.159><c> some</c><01:26:40.400><c> that</c><01:26:40.560><c> were</c><01:26:40.800><c> better</c>

01:25:37.547 --> 01:25:37.557 align:start position:0%
have time to build some that were better
 

01:25:37.557 --> 01:25:40.347 align:start position:0%
have time to build some that were better
protected.<01:26:42.159><c> If</c><01:26:42.320><c> solar</c><01:26:42.719><c> radiation</c><01:26:43.280><c> becomes</c><01:26:43.679><c> a</c>

01:25:40.347 --> 01:25:40.357 align:start position:0%
protected. If solar radiation becomes a
 

01:25:40.357 --> 01:25:42.666 align:start position:0%
protected. If solar radiation becomes a
larger<01:26:44.239><c> risk,</c><01:26:44.880><c> we</c><01:26:45.120><c> could</c><01:26:45.360><c> remain</c><01:26:45.679><c> indoors</c>

01:25:42.666 --> 01:25:42.676 align:start position:0%
larger risk, we could remain indoors
 

01:25:42.676 --> 01:25:44.987 align:start position:0%
larger risk, we could remain indoors
more,<01:26:47.199><c> sun</c><01:26:47.440><c> cream</c><01:26:47.760><c> might</c><01:26:48.000><c> become</c><01:26:48.320><c> more</c>

01:25:44.987 --> 01:25:44.997 align:start position:0%
more, sun cream might become more
 

01:25:44.997 --> 01:25:46.907 align:start position:0%
more, sun cream might become more
powerful<01:26:49.199><c> to</c><01:26:49.360><c> mitigate</c><01:26:49.760><c> the</c><01:26:50.000><c> dangers</c><01:26:50.320><c> of</c>

01:25:46.907 --> 01:25:46.917 align:start position:0%
powerful to mitigate the dangers of
 

01:25:46.917 --> 01:25:50.427 align:start position:0%
powerful to mitigate the dangers of
cancers<01:26:51.199><c> if</c><01:26:51.360><c> not</c><01:26:51.600><c> remove</c><01:26:51.920><c> them</c><01:26:52.080><c> entirely.</c>

01:25:50.427 --> 01:25:50.437 align:start position:0%
cancers if not remove them entirely.
 

01:25:50.437 --> 01:25:53.547 align:start position:0%
cancers if not remove them entirely.
And<01:26:54.400><c> according</c><01:26:54.800><c> to</c><01:26:54.960><c> NASA,</c><01:26:55.920><c> even</c><01:26:56.159><c> if</c><01:26:56.480><c> our</c><01:26:56.800><c> field</c>

01:25:53.547 --> 01:25:53.557 align:start position:0%
And according to NASA, even if our field
 

01:25:53.557 --> 01:25:56.106 align:start position:0%
And according to NASA, even if our field
were<01:26:57.280><c> to</c><01:26:57.600><c> significantly</c><01:26:58.400><c> weaken,</c><01:26:59.280><c> it's</c><01:26:59.520><c> not</c>

01:25:56.106 --> 01:25:56.116 align:start position:0%
were to significantly weaken, it's not
 

01:25:56.116 --> 01:25:57.547 align:start position:0%
were to significantly weaken, it's not
like<01:26:59.920><c> we</c><01:27:00.159><c> would</c><01:27:00.320><c> be</c><01:27:00.480><c> left</c><01:27:00.639><c> without</c>

01:25:57.547 --> 01:25:57.557 align:start position:0%
like we would be left without
 

01:25:57.557 --> 01:26:00.507 align:start position:0%
like we would be left without
protection.<01:27:02.159><c> Our</c><01:27:02.480><c> atmosphere</c><01:27:03.120><c> itself</c><01:27:03.840><c> can</c>

01:26:00.507 --> 01:26:00.517 align:start position:0%
protection. Our atmosphere itself can
 

01:26:00.517 --> 01:26:02.586 align:start position:0%
protection. Our atmosphere itself can
catch<01:27:04.320><c> radiation,</c><01:27:05.280><c> meaning</c><01:27:05.520><c> that</c><01:27:05.760><c> we</c><01:27:05.920><c> would</c>

01:26:02.586 --> 01:26:02.596 align:start position:0%
catch radiation, meaning that we would
 

01:26:02.596 --> 01:26:04.586 align:start position:0%
catch radiation, meaning that we would
remain<01:27:06.480><c> safe</c><01:27:06.719><c> from</c><01:27:06.960><c> solar</c><01:27:07.280><c> winds</c><01:27:07.520><c> and</c><01:27:07.760><c> cosmic</c>

01:26:04.586 --> 01:26:04.596 align:start position:0%
remain safe from solar winds and cosmic
 

01:26:04.596 --> 01:26:07.626 align:start position:0%
remain safe from solar winds and cosmic
radiation,<01:27:09.040><c> at</c><01:27:09.040><c> least</c><01:27:09.360><c> to</c><01:27:09.679><c> some</c><01:27:10.000><c> degree.</c><01:27:10.960><c> It</c>

01:26:07.626 --> 01:26:07.636 align:start position:0%
radiation, at least to some degree. It
 

01:26:07.636 --> 01:26:09.626 align:start position:0%
radiation, at least to some degree. It
would<01:27:11.360><c> take</c><01:27:11.600><c> far</c><01:27:11.920><c> longer</c><01:27:12.239><c> than</c><01:27:12.400><c> 10,000</c><01:27:12.960><c> years</c>

01:26:09.626 --> 01:26:09.636 align:start position:0%
would take far longer than 10,000 years
 

01:26:09.636 --> 01:26:11.387 align:start position:0%
would take far longer than 10,000 years
for<01:27:13.520><c> our</c><01:27:13.679><c> atmosphere's</c><01:27:14.320><c> ozone</c><01:27:14.719><c> to</c><01:27:14.880><c> be</c>

01:26:11.387 --> 01:26:11.397 align:start position:0%
for our atmosphere's ozone to be
 

01:26:11.397 --> 01:26:14.586 align:start position:0%
for our atmosphere's ozone to be
stripped<01:27:15.280><c> away.</c><01:27:16.480><c> But</c><01:27:16.880><c> I</c><01:27:17.199><c> would</c><01:27:17.440><c> be</c><01:27:17.679><c> surprised</c>

01:26:14.586 --> 01:26:14.596 align:start position:0%
stripped away. But I would be surprised
 

01:26:14.596 --> 01:26:16.987 align:start position:0%
stripped away. But I would be surprised
if<01:27:18.480><c> there</c><01:27:18.719><c> wasn't</c><01:27:18.960><c> at</c><01:27:19.040><c> least</c><01:27:19.360><c> some</c><01:27:19.600><c> turmoil,</c>

01:26:16.987 --> 01:26:16.997 align:start position:0%
if there wasn't at least some turmoil,
 

01:26:16.997 --> 01:26:18.907 align:start position:0%
if there wasn't at least some turmoil,
at least<01:27:20.880><c> while</c><01:27:21.120><c> we</c><01:27:21.360><c> adjusted</c><01:27:21.920><c> to</c><01:27:22.239><c> living</c>

01:26:18.907 --> 01:26:18.917 align:start position:0%
at least while we adjusted to living
 

01:26:18.917 --> 01:26:21.307 align:start position:0%
at least while we adjusted to living
under<01:27:22.800><c> a</c><01:27:23.040><c> reduced</c><01:27:23.360><c> magnetic</c><01:27:23.840><c> field.</c><01:27:24.639><c> Big</c>

01:26:21.307 --> 01:26:21.317 align:start position:0%
under a reduced magnetic field. Big
 

01:26:21.317 --> 01:26:23.867 align:start position:0%
under a reduced magnetic field. Big
changes<01:27:25.199><c> to</c><01:27:25.440><c> how</c><01:27:25.600><c> a</c><01:27:25.840><c> society</c><01:27:26.400><c> operates</c><01:27:27.120><c> are</c>

01:26:23.867 --> 01:26:23.877 align:start position:0%
changes to how a society operates are
 

01:26:23.877 --> 01:26:27.547 align:start position:0%
changes to how a society operates are
always<01:27:27.840><c> painful.</c><01:27:29.199><c> And</c><01:27:29.520><c> this</c><01:27:29.920><c> isn't</c><01:27:30.480><c> entirely</c>

01:26:27.547 --> 01:26:27.557 align:start position:0%
always painful. And this isn't entirely
 

01:26:27.557 --> 01:26:30.187 align:start position:0%
always painful. And this isn't entirely
hypothetical.<01:27:32.480><c> Did</c><01:27:32.719><c> you</c><01:27:32.880><c> know</c><01:27:33.120><c> the</c><01:27:33.360><c> Earth's</c>

01:26:30.187 --> 01:26:30.197 align:start position:0%
hypothetical. Did you know the Earth's
 

01:26:30.197 --> 01:26:32.106 align:start position:0%
hypothetical. Did you know the Earth's
magnetic<01:27:34.159><c> field</c><01:27:34.560><c> has</c><01:27:34.880><c> been</c><01:27:35.120><c> steadily</c>

01:26:32.106 --> 01:26:32.116 align:start position:0%
magnetic field has been steadily
 

01:26:32.116 --> 01:26:35.307 align:start position:0%
magnetic field has been steadily
weakening<01:27:36.320><c> for</c><01:27:36.480><c> the</c><01:27:36.719><c> last</c><01:27:37.040><c> 200</c><01:27:37.600><c> years?</c><01:27:38.639><c> It</c>

01:26:35.307 --> 01:26:35.317 align:start position:0%
weakening for the last 200 years? It
 

01:26:35.317 --> 01:26:37.867 align:start position:0%
weakening for the last 200 years? It
would<01:27:39.040><c> take</c><01:27:39.280><c> another</c><01:27:39.679><c> 1,300</c><01:27:40.880><c> years</c><01:27:41.040><c> for</c><01:27:41.199><c> it</c><01:27:41.360><c> to</c>

01:26:37.867 --> 01:26:37.877 align:start position:0%
would take another 1,300 years for it to
 

01:26:37.877 --> 01:26:39.867 align:start position:0%
would take another 1,300 years for it to
vanish<01:27:41.840><c> completely.</c><01:27:42.560><c> So,</c><01:27:42.719><c> there's</c><01:27:42.960><c> plenty</c><01:27:43.280><c> of</c>

01:26:39.867 --> 01:26:39.877 align:start position:0%
vanish completely. So, there's plenty of
 

01:26:39.877 --> 01:26:41.707 align:start position:0%
vanish completely. So, there's plenty of
time<01:27:43.600><c> for</c><01:27:43.760><c> it</c><01:27:43.920><c> to</c><01:27:44.080><c> stop</c><01:27:44.320><c> its</c><01:27:44.560><c> current</c><01:27:44.800><c> downward</c>

01:26:41.707 --> 01:26:41.717 align:start position:0%
time for it to stop its current downward
 

01:26:41.717 --> 01:26:43.867 align:start position:0%
time for it to stop its current downward
trend.<01:27:46.000><c> And</c><01:27:46.159><c> there's</c><01:27:46.480><c> no</c><01:27:46.719><c> reason</c><01:27:46.880><c> to</c><01:27:47.120><c> think</c>

01:26:43.867 --> 01:26:43.877 align:start position:0%
trend. And there's no reason to think
 

01:26:43.877 --> 01:26:46.827 align:start position:0%
trend. And there's no reason to think
this<01:27:47.679><c> isn't</c><01:27:48.000><c> just</c><01:27:48.239><c> a</c><01:27:48.400><c> temporary</c><01:27:48.800><c> wobble.</c><01:27:50.000><c> But</c>

01:26:46.827 --> 01:26:46.837 align:start position:0%
this isn't just a temporary wobble. But
 

01:26:46.837 --> 01:26:49.467 align:start position:0%
this isn't just a temporary wobble. But
on<01:27:50.639><c> top</c><01:27:50.800><c> of</c><01:27:50.880><c> that,</c><01:27:51.520><c> there</c><01:27:51.760><c> is</c><01:27:52.000><c> also</c><01:27:52.320><c> the</c><01:27:52.719><c> South</c>

01:26:49.467 --> 01:26:49.477 align:start position:0%
on top of that, there is also the South
 

01:26:49.477 --> 01:26:52.106 align:start position:0%
on top of that, there is also the South
Atlantic<01:27:53.679><c> anomaly</c><01:27:54.239><c> to</c><01:27:54.480><c> consider.</c><01:27:55.280><c> A</c><01:27:55.440><c> section</c>

01:26:52.106 --> 01:26:52.116 align:start position:0%
Atlantic anomaly to consider. A section
 

01:26:52.116 --> 01:26:54.027 align:start position:0%
Atlantic anomaly to consider. A section
of<01:27:55.840><c> the</c><01:27:56.000><c> Earth's</c><01:27:56.320><c> magnetic</c><01:27:56.719><c> field</c><01:27:57.040><c> that</c><01:27:57.280><c> is</c>

01:26:54.027 --> 01:26:54.037 align:start position:0%
of the Earth's magnetic field that is
 

01:26:54.037 --> 01:26:56.507 align:start position:0%
of the Earth's magnetic field that is
already<01:27:58.239><c> showing</c><01:27:58.639><c> signs</c><01:27:58.960><c> of</c><01:27:59.360><c> significant</c>

01:26:56.507 --> 01:26:56.517 align:start position:0%
already showing signs of significant
 

01:26:56.517 --> 01:26:59.066 align:start position:0%
already showing signs of significant
weakening<01:28:00.800><c> that</c><01:28:01.120><c> covers</c><01:28:01.679><c> most</c><01:28:02.000><c> of</c><01:28:02.159><c> the</c><01:28:02.320><c> space</c>

01:26:59.066 --> 01:26:59.076 align:start position:0%
weakening that covers most of the space
 

01:26:59.076 --> 01:27:01.387 align:start position:0%
weakening that covers most of the space
around<01:28:03.040><c> South</c><01:28:03.360><c> America</c><01:28:04.080><c> and</c><01:28:04.320><c> the</c><01:28:04.560><c> neighboring</c>

01:27:01.387 --> 01:27:01.397 align:start position:0%
around South America and the neighboring
 

01:27:01.397 --> 01:27:03.066 align:start position:0%
around South America and the neighboring
ocean.

01:27:03.066 --> 01:27:03.076 align:start position:0%
ocean.
 

01:27:03.076 --> 01:27:05.146 align:start position:0%
ocean.
This<01:28:06.960><c> zone</c><01:28:07.360><c> might</c><01:28:07.600><c> not</c><01:28:07.840><c> influence</c><01:28:08.320><c> life</c><01:28:08.560><c> on</c>

01:27:05.146 --> 01:27:05.156 align:start position:0%
This zone might not influence life on
 

01:27:05.156 --> 01:27:07.547 align:start position:0%
This zone might not influence life on
the<01:28:08.880><c> ground,</c><01:28:09.440><c> but</c><01:28:09.760><c> is</c><01:28:10.000><c> dangerous</c><01:28:10.480><c> enough</c><01:28:10.800><c> that</c>

01:27:07.547 --> 01:27:07.557 align:start position:0%
the ground, but is dangerous enough that
 

01:27:07.557 --> 01:27:10.427 align:start position:0%
the ground, but is dangerous enough that
it<01:28:11.440><c> has</c><01:28:11.760><c> fried</c><01:28:12.159><c> satellites</c><01:28:12.960><c> and</c><01:28:13.440><c> threatened</c>

01:27:10.427 --> 01:27:10.437 align:start position:0%
it has fried satellites and threatened
 

01:27:10.437 --> 01:27:13.307 align:start position:0%
it has fried satellites and threatened
astronauts.<01:28:15.120><c> A</c><01:28:15.280><c> Hubble</c><01:28:15.679><c> telescope</c><01:28:16.400><c> has</c><01:28:16.719><c> to</c>

01:27:13.307 --> 01:27:13.317 align:start position:0%
astronauts. A Hubble telescope has to
 

01:27:13.317 --> 01:27:15.467 align:start position:0%
astronauts. A Hubble telescope has to
turn<01:28:17.040><c> itself</c><01:28:17.440><c> off</c><01:28:17.920><c> every</c><01:28:18.320><c> time</c><01:28:18.480><c> it</c><01:28:18.719><c> flies</c>

01:27:15.467 --> 01:27:15.477 align:start position:0%
turn itself off every time it flies
 

01:27:15.477 --> 01:27:18.267 align:start position:0%
turn itself off every time it flies
through<01:28:19.280><c> it.</c><01:28:20.159><c> Imagine</c><01:28:20.480><c> that.</c><01:28:20.960><c> But</c><01:28:21.120><c> across</c><01:28:21.520><c> the</c>

01:27:18.267 --> 01:27:18.277 align:start position:0%
through it. Imagine that. But across the
 

01:27:18.277 --> 01:27:20.586 align:start position:0%
through it. Imagine that. But across the
entire<01:28:22.239><c> globe,</c><01:28:23.040><c> that's</c><01:28:23.360><c> what</c><01:28:23.600><c> we</c><01:28:23.840><c> might</c>

01:27:20.586 --> 01:27:20.596 align:start position:0%
entire globe, that's what we might
 

01:27:20.596 --> 01:27:23.467 align:start position:0%
entire globe, that's what we might
expect<01:28:24.560><c> while</c><01:28:24.800><c> the</c><01:28:24.960><c> poles</c><01:28:25.360><c> are</c><01:28:25.520><c> reversing.</c>

01:27:23.467 --> 01:27:23.477 align:start position:0%
expect while the poles are reversing.
 

01:27:23.477 --> 01:27:26.106 align:start position:0%
expect while the poles are reversing.
Concerningly,<01:28:27.920><c> the</c><01:28:28.159><c> South</c><01:28:28.480><c> Atlantic</c><01:28:29.040><c> anomaly</c>

01:27:26.106 --> 01:27:26.116 align:start position:0%
Concerningly, the South Atlantic anomaly
 

01:27:26.116 --> 01:27:28.267 align:start position:0%
Concerningly, the South Atlantic anomaly
has<01:28:30.000><c> been</c><01:28:30.159><c> growing</c><01:28:30.719><c> continuously</c><01:28:31.360><c> since</c><01:28:31.600><c> we</c>

01:27:28.267 --> 01:27:28.277 align:start position:0%
has been growing continuously since we
 

01:27:28.277 --> 01:27:30.507 align:start position:0%
has been growing continuously since we
started<01:28:32.239><c> keeping</c><01:28:32.639><c> track</c><01:28:32.800><c> of</c><01:28:32.960><c> it,</c><01:28:33.600><c> possibly</c>

01:27:30.507 --> 01:27:30.517 align:start position:0%
started keeping track of it, possibly
 

01:27:30.517 --> 01:27:32.267 align:start position:0%
started keeping track of it, possibly
suggesting<01:28:34.560><c> the</c><01:28:34.800><c> approach</c><01:28:35.120><c> of</c><01:28:35.440><c> either</c>

01:27:32.267 --> 01:27:32.277 align:start position:0%
suggesting the approach of either
 

01:27:32.277 --> 01:27:34.187 align:start position:0%
suggesting the approach of either
another<01:28:36.320><c> geomagnetic</c><01:28:37.120><c> wobble</c><01:28:37.440><c> like</c><01:28:37.600><c> the</c>

01:27:34.187 --> 01:27:34.197 align:start position:0%
another geomagnetic wobble like the
 

01:27:34.197 --> 01:27:36.666 align:start position:0%
another geomagnetic wobble like the
Dashamps<01:28:38.400><c> event</c><01:28:38.880><c> or</c><01:28:39.120><c> that</c><01:28:39.360><c> a</c><01:28:39.600><c> full-blown</c>

01:27:36.666 --> 01:27:36.676 align:start position:0%
Dashamps event or that a full-blown
 

01:27:36.676 --> 01:27:39.787 align:start position:0%
Dashamps event or that a full-blown
reversal<01:28:40.800><c> is</c><01:28:41.120><c> already</c><01:28:41.600><c> upon</c><01:28:41.920><c> us.</c><01:28:42.880><c> If</c><01:28:43.120><c> it</c>

01:27:39.787 --> 01:27:39.797 align:start position:0%
reversal is already upon us. If it
 

01:27:39.797 --> 01:27:42.347 align:start position:0%
reversal is already upon us. If it
happens,<01:28:44.159><c> it</c><01:28:44.480><c> won't</c><01:28:44.960><c> likely</c><01:28:45.440><c> be</c><01:28:45.679><c> something</c>

01:27:42.347 --> 01:27:42.357 align:start position:0%
happens, it won't likely be something
 

01:27:42.357 --> 01:27:44.586 align:start position:0%
happens, it won't likely be something
that<01:28:46.159><c> ends</c><01:28:46.400><c> civilization</c><01:28:46.960><c> as</c><01:28:47.199><c> we</c><01:28:47.360><c> know</c><01:28:47.440><c> it.</c>

01:27:44.586 --> 01:27:44.596 align:start position:0%
that ends civilization as we know it.
 

01:27:44.596 --> 01:27:46.347 align:start position:0%
that ends civilization as we know it.
But<01:28:48.320><c> if</c><01:28:48.480><c> the</c><01:28:48.719><c> study</c><01:28:49.040><c> about</c><01:28:49.360><c> Australian</c>

01:27:46.347 --> 01:27:46.357 align:start position:0%
But if the study about Australian
 

01:27:46.357 --> 01:27:49.227 align:start position:0%
But if the study about Australian
megapora<01:28:50.719><c> is</c><01:28:51.040><c> correct,</c><01:28:51.840><c> it</c><01:28:52.080><c> isn't</c><01:28:52.480><c> going</c><01:28:52.639><c> to</c>

01:27:49.227 --> 01:27:49.237 align:start position:0%
megapora is correct, it isn't going to
 

01:27:49.237 --> 01:27:52.187 align:start position:0%
megapora is correct, it isn't going to
be<01:28:52.960><c> without</c><01:28:53.280><c> impact</c><01:28:53.760><c> either.</c><01:28:54.800><c> species</c><01:28:55.360><c> could</c>

01:27:52.187 --> 01:27:52.197 align:start position:0%
be without impact either. species could
 

01:27:52.197 --> 01:27:55.066 align:start position:0%
be without impact either. species could
die.<01:28:56.800><c> Humans</c><01:28:57.280><c> will</c><01:28:57.520><c> have</c><01:28:57.679><c> to</c><01:28:57.840><c> accommodate</c><01:28:58.400><c> a</c>

01:27:55.066 --> 01:27:55.076 align:start position:0%
die. Humans will have to accommodate a
 

01:27:55.076 --> 01:27:57.146 align:start position:0%
die. Humans will have to accommodate a
very<01:28:58.880><c> different,</c><01:28:59.600><c> more</c><01:28:59.840><c> hazardous</c><01:29:00.400><c> space</c>

01:27:57.146 --> 01:27:57.156 align:start position:0%
very different, more hazardous space
 

01:27:57.156 --> 01:27:58.666 align:start position:0%
very different, more hazardous space
environment.

01:27:58.666 --> 01:27:58.676 align:start position:0%
environment.
 

01:27:58.676 --> 01:28:00.027 align:start position:0%
environment.
It's<01:29:02.639><c> interesting</c><01:29:03.040><c> to</c><01:29:03.199><c> learn</c><01:29:03.360><c> about</c>

01:28:00.027 --> 01:28:00.037 align:start position:0%
It's interesting to learn about
 

01:28:00.037 --> 01:28:02.027 align:start position:0%
It's interesting to learn about
geomagnetic<01:29:04.320><c> reversals</c><01:29:05.040><c> and</c><01:29:05.280><c> their</c>

01:28:02.027 --> 01:28:02.037 align:start position:0%
geomagnetic reversals and their
 

01:28:02.037 --> 01:28:04.106 align:start position:0%
geomagnetic reversals and their
potential<01:29:06.000><c> impacts</c><01:29:06.480><c> on</c><01:29:06.639><c> the</c><01:29:06.800><c> planet.</c><01:29:07.520><c> But</c>

01:28:04.106 --> 01:28:04.116 align:start position:0%
potential impacts on the planet. But
 

01:28:04.116 --> 01:28:06.106 align:start position:0%
potential impacts on the planet. But
while<01:29:08.000><c> we</c><01:29:08.159><c> are</c><01:29:08.400><c> not</c><01:29:08.639><c> likely</c><01:29:09.040><c> to</c><01:29:09.199><c> see</c><01:29:09.440><c> one</c>

01:28:06.106 --> 01:28:06.116 align:start position:0%
while we are not likely to see one
 

01:28:06.116 --> 01:28:08.347 align:start position:0%
while we are not likely to see one
happen<01:29:09.920><c> in</c><01:29:10.239><c> our</c><01:29:10.480><c> lifetimes,</c><01:29:11.520><c> for</c><01:29:11.679><c> the</c>

01:28:08.347 --> 01:28:08.357 align:start position:0%
happen in our lifetimes, for the
 

01:28:08.357 --> 01:28:10.987 align:start position:0%
happen in our lifetimes, for the
generations<01:29:12.400><c> of</c><01:29:12.560><c> humanity</c><01:29:13.199><c> after</c><01:29:13.600><c> us,</c><01:29:14.320><c> this</c>

01:28:10.987 --> 01:28:10.997 align:start position:0%
generations of humanity after us, this
 

01:28:10.997 --> 01:28:12.507 align:start position:0%
generations of humanity after us, this
might<01:29:14.800><c> turn</c><01:29:14.960><c> out</c><01:29:15.120><c> to</c><01:29:15.280><c> be</c><01:29:15.440><c> a</c><01:29:15.600><c> lot</c><01:29:15.760><c> less</c>

01:28:12.507 --> 01:28:12.517 align:start position:0%
might turn out to be a lot less
 

01:28:12.517 --> 01:28:14.907 align:start position:0%
might turn out to be a lot less
hypothetical.<01:29:17.360><c> They</c><01:29:17.600><c> might</c><01:29:17.760><c> be</c><01:29:18.000><c> seeing</c><01:29:18.239><c> it</c>

01:28:14.907 --> 01:28:14.917 align:start position:0%
hypothetical. They might be seeing it
 

01:28:14.917 --> 01:28:19.707 align:start position:0%
hypothetical. They might be seeing it
firsthand.

01:28:19.707 --> 01:28:19.717 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:28:19.717 --> 01:28:22.187 align:start position:0%
 
Thanks<01:29:23.600><c> for</c><01:29:23.840><c> watching.</c><01:29:25.040><c> If</c><01:29:25.280><c> you've</c><01:29:25.520><c> been</c>

01:28:22.187 --> 01:28:22.197 align:start position:0%
Thanks for watching. If you've been
 

01:28:22.197 --> 01:28:24.267 align:start position:0%
Thanks for watching. If you've been
enjoying<01:29:26.159><c> Astramm's</c><01:29:26.800><c> videos</c><01:29:27.120><c> and</c><01:29:27.440><c> want</c><01:29:27.679><c> to</c>

01:28:24.267 --> 01:28:24.277 align:start position:0%
enjoying Astramm's videos and want to
 

01:28:24.277 --> 01:28:26.507 align:start position:0%
enjoying Astramm's videos and want to
help<01:29:28.080><c> keep</c><01:29:28.239><c> this</c><01:29:28.480><c> channel</c><01:29:28.800><c> thriving,</c><01:29:29.760><c> I</c><01:29:29.920><c> want</c>

01:28:26.507 --> 01:28:26.517 align:start position:0%
help keep this channel thriving, I want
 

01:28:26.517 --> 01:28:28.507 align:start position:0%
help keep this channel thriving, I want
to<01:29:30.239><c> ask</c><01:29:30.400><c> you</c><01:29:30.560><c> to</c><01:29:30.719><c> take</c><01:29:30.960><c> less</c><01:29:31.280><c> than</c><01:29:31.440><c> a</c><01:29:31.679><c> minute</c><01:29:31.840><c> to</c>

01:28:28.507 --> 01:28:28.517 align:start position:0%
to ask you to take less than a minute to
 

01:28:28.517 --> 01:28:31.307 align:start position:0%
to ask you to take less than a minute to
check<01:29:32.320><c> out</c><01:29:32.560><c> the</c><01:29:32.800><c> Astramm</c><01:29:33.440><c> Patreon.</c><01:29:34.480><c> It's</c><01:29:34.719><c> not</c>

01:28:31.307 --> 01:28:31.317 align:start position:0%
check out the Astramm Patreon. It's not
 

01:28:31.317 --> 01:28:33.707 align:start position:0%
check out the Astramm Patreon. It's not
just<01:29:35.199><c> ad</c><01:29:35.600><c> free</c><01:29:35.920><c> videos,</c><01:29:36.560><c> but</c><01:29:36.719><c> it's</c><01:29:36.880><c> a</c><01:29:37.040><c> way</c><01:29:37.120><c> to</c>

01:28:33.707 --> 01:28:33.717 align:start position:0%
just ad free videos, but it's a way to
 

01:28:33.717 --> 01:28:36.027 align:start position:0%
just ad free videos, but it's a way to
make<01:29:37.440><c> Astramm's</c><01:29:38.080><c> videos</c><01:29:38.480><c> less</c><01:29:38.800><c> reliant</c><01:29:39.280><c> on</c>

01:28:36.027 --> 01:28:36.037 align:start position:0%
make Astramm's videos less reliant on
 

01:28:36.037 --> 01:28:38.907 align:start position:0%
make Astramm's videos less reliant on
sponsors<01:29:40.159><c> and</c><01:29:40.480><c> algorithms.</c><01:29:41.679><c> The</c><01:29:41.920><c> link</c><01:29:42.239><c> is</c>

01:28:38.907 --> 01:28:38.917 align:start position:0%
sponsors and algorithms. The link is
 

01:28:38.917 --> 01:28:41.547 align:start position:0%
sponsors and algorithms. The link is
below.<01:29:43.360><c> Your</c><01:29:43.600><c> membership</c><01:29:44.159><c> directly</c><01:29:44.800><c> helps</c>

01:28:41.547 --> 01:28:41.557 align:start position:0%
below. Your membership directly helps
 

01:28:41.557 --> 01:28:43.626 align:start position:0%
below. Your membership directly helps
ensure<01:29:45.600><c> that</c><01:29:45.840><c> future</c><01:29:46.239><c> videos</c><01:29:46.639><c> can</c><01:29:46.880><c> stay</c>

01:28:43.626 --> 01:28:43.636 align:start position:0%
ensure that future videos can stay
 

01:28:43.636 --> 01:28:46.187 align:start position:0%
ensure that future videos can stay
independent,<01:29:48.239><c> highquality,</c><01:29:49.360><c> and</c>

01:28:46.187 --> 01:28:46.197 align:start position:0%
independent, highquality, and
 

01:28:46.197 --> 01:28:49.227 align:start position:0%
independent, highquality, and
consistent.<01:29:50.800><c> created</c><01:29:51.199><c> for</c><01:29:51.520><c> curiosity,</c><01:29:52.560><c> not</c>

01:28:49.227 --> 01:28:49.237 align:start position:0%
consistent. created for curiosity, not
 

01:28:49.237 --> 01:28:51.947 align:start position:0%
consistent. created for curiosity, not
clicks.<01:29:53.920><c> Thanks</c><01:29:54.239><c> so</c><01:29:54.480><c> much</c><01:29:54.719><c> for</c><01:29:55.040><c> considering</c>

01:28:51.947 --> 01:28:51.957 align:start position:0%
clicks. Thanks so much for considering
 

01:28:51.957 --> 01:28:56.317 align:start position:0%
clicks. Thanks so much for considering
it.<01:29:56.159><c> I'll</c><01:29:56.400><c> see</c><01:29:56.480><c> you</c><01:29:56.639><c> next</c><01:29:56.880><c> time.</c>