WEBVTT

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Earth<00:00:02.240><c> is</c><00:00:02.480><c> the</c><00:00:02.720><c> place</c><00:00:02.960><c> we</c><00:00:03.280><c> call</c><00:00:03.679><c> home.</c><00:00:04.880><c> It's</c>

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Earth is the place we call home. It's
 

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Earth is the place we call home. It's
where<00:00:05.359><c> we</c><00:00:05.600><c> work,</c><00:00:06.319><c> eat,</c><00:00:06.960><c> sleep,</c><00:00:07.520><c> and</c><00:00:07.759><c> go</c><00:00:08.000><c> about</c>

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where we work, eat, sleep, and go about
 

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where we work, eat, sleep, and go about
our<00:00:08.639><c> daily</c><00:00:08.960><c> lives.</c><00:00:09.920><c> But</c><00:00:10.160><c> how</c><00:00:10.400><c> well</c><00:00:10.719><c> do</c><00:00:10.880><c> we</c>

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our daily lives. But how well do we
 

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our daily lives. But how well do we
really<00:00:11.679><c> know</c><00:00:11.920><c> it?</c><00:00:13.120><c> For</c><00:00:13.519><c> much</c><00:00:13.759><c> of</c><00:00:13.920><c> history,</c><00:00:14.480><c> it</c>

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really know it? For much of history, it
 

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really know it? For much of history, it
would<00:00:14.880><c> have</c><00:00:15.040><c> been</c><00:00:15.440><c> completely</c>

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would have been completely
 

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would have been completely
unrecognizable<00:00:17.039><c> to</c><00:00:17.199><c> us.</c><00:00:18.160><c> Not</c><00:00:18.400><c> the</c><00:00:18.960><c> blue</c>

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unrecognizable to us. Not the blue
 

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unrecognizable to us. Not the blue
marble<00:00:19.680><c> we</c><00:00:19.920><c> know</c><00:00:20.160><c> today,</c><00:00:21.039><c> but</c><00:00:21.520><c> molten,</c>

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marble we know today, but molten,
 

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marble we know today, but molten,
frozen,<00:00:23.760><c> populated</c><00:00:24.480><c> by</c><00:00:24.800><c> towering,</c><00:00:25.760><c> almost</c>

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frozen, populated by towering, almost
 

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frozen, populated by towering, almost
alien-like<00:00:27.119><c> creatures</c><00:00:27.599><c> that</c><00:00:28.080><c> dominated,</c>

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alien-like creatures that dominated,
 

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alien-like creatures that dominated,
then<00:00:29.760><c> died.</c><00:00:31.039><c> Earth</c><00:00:31.519><c> has</c><00:00:31.920><c> been</c><00:00:32.239><c> through</c><00:00:32.960><c> many</c>

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then died. Earth has been through many
 

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then died. Earth has been through many
phases.<00:00:34.800><c> Let's</c><00:00:35.120><c> imagine</c><00:00:35.520><c> that</c><00:00:35.920><c> alien</c>

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phases. Let's imagine that alien
 

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phases. Let's imagine that alien
scientists<00:00:37.040><c> who</c><00:00:37.280><c> have</c><00:00:37.760><c> never</c><00:00:38.160><c> seen</c><00:00:38.480><c> Earth</c><00:00:38.800><c> as</c>

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scientists who have never seen Earth as
 

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scientists who have never seen Earth as
it<00:00:39.200><c> is</c><00:00:39.440><c> today</c><00:00:40.320><c> visited</c><00:00:40.960><c> during</c><00:00:41.280><c> these</c><00:00:41.680><c> various</c>

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it is today visited during these various
 

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it is today visited during these various
stages<00:00:42.640><c> in</c><00:00:42.879><c> its</c><00:00:43.120><c> development.</c><00:00:44.320><c> Depending</c><00:00:44.719><c> on</c>

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stages in its development. Depending on
 

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stages in its development. Depending on
when<00:00:45.200><c> they</c><00:00:45.440><c> arrived,</c><00:00:46.239><c> they</c><00:00:46.480><c> would</c><00:00:46.640><c> have</c>

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when they arrived, they would have
 

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when they arrived, they would have
formed<00:00:47.280><c> completely</c><00:00:47.840><c> different</c><00:00:48.160><c> ideas</c><00:00:48.559><c> about</c>

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formed completely different ideas about
 

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formed completely different ideas about
the<00:00:49.039><c> kind</c><00:00:49.360><c> of</c><00:00:49.520><c> planet</c><00:00:50.000><c> Earth</c><00:00:50.399><c> was.</c><00:00:51.360><c> What</c><00:00:51.600><c> would</c>

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the kind of planet Earth was. What would
 

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the kind of planet Earth was. What would
they<00:00:52.000><c> have</c><00:00:52.160><c> seen</c><00:00:52.800><c> 300</c><00:00:53.199><c> million</c><00:00:53.520><c> years</c><00:00:53.760><c> ago,</c><00:00:54.559><c> 2</c>

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they have seen 300 million years ago, 2
 

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they have seen 300 million years ago, 2
billion<00:00:55.360><c> years</c><00:00:55.520><c> ago,</c><00:00:56.480><c> 4.5</c><00:00:57.520><c> billion?</c><00:00:58.559><c> And</c><00:00:58.800><c> what</c>

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billion years ago, 4.5 billion? And what
 

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billion years ago, 4.5 billion? And what
will<00:00:59.440><c> they</c><00:00:59.680><c> see</c><00:01:00.000><c> in</c><00:01:00.239><c> the</c><00:01:00.399><c> future?</c>

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will they see in the future?
 

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will they see in the future?
I'm<00:01:02.480><c> Alex</c><00:01:02.879><c> Mccoan,</c><00:01:03.520><c> and</c><00:01:03.760><c> you're</c><00:01:04.080><c> watching</c>

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I'm Alex Mccoan, and you're watching
 

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I'm Alex Mccoan, and you're watching
Astramm.<00:01:05.360><c> Join</c><00:01:05.680><c> me</c><00:01:05.840><c> today</c><00:01:06.159><c> in</c><00:01:06.400><c> this</c><00:01:06.640><c> supercut</c>

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Astramm. Join me today in this supercut
 

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Astramm. Join me today in this supercut
as<00:01:07.680><c> we</c><00:01:07.920><c> recreate</c><00:01:08.479><c> Earth's</c><00:01:09.119><c> complete</c><00:01:09.760><c> history</c>

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as we recreate Earth's complete history
 

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as we recreate Earth's complete history
from<00:01:10.799><c> its</c><00:01:11.119><c> glorious</c><00:01:11.680><c> birth</c><00:01:12.320><c> to</c><00:01:12.560><c> its</c><00:01:12.799><c> final</c>

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from its glorious birth to its final
 

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from its glorious birth to its final
moments<00:01:14.080><c> with</c><00:01:14.400><c> some</c><00:01:14.720><c> of</c><00:01:14.880><c> the</c><00:01:15.200><c> greatest</c>

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moments with some of the greatest
 

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moments with some of the greatest
changes<00:01:16.400><c> along</c><00:01:16.799><c> the</c><00:01:17.040><c> way.</c>

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Now,<00:01:22.159><c> before</c><00:01:22.479><c> we</c><00:01:22.799><c> start,</c><00:01:23.360><c> a</c><00:01:23.680><c> little</c>

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Now, before we start, a little
 

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Now, before we start, a little
disclaimer.<00:01:24.960><c> To</c><00:01:25.119><c> answer</c><00:01:25.360><c> these</c><00:01:25.680><c> questions,</c>

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disclaimer. To answer these questions,
 

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disclaimer. To answer these questions,
we'll<00:01:26.479><c> need</c><00:01:26.560><c> to</c><00:01:26.720><c> draw</c><00:01:27.040><c> on</c><00:01:27.280><c> some</c><00:01:27.439><c> models</c><00:01:27.920><c> that</c>

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we'll need to draw on some models that
 

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we'll need to draw on some models that
not<00:01:28.640><c> all</c><00:01:29.040><c> our</c><00:01:29.360><c> scientists</c><00:01:29.840><c> agree</c><00:01:30.159><c> on.</c>

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not all our scientists agree on.
 

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not all our scientists agree on.
Traveling<00:01:31.759><c> into</c><00:01:32.079><c> the</c><00:01:32.400><c> extremely</c><00:01:33.200><c> distant</c>

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Traveling into the extremely distant
 

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Traveling into the extremely distant
past<00:01:34.320><c> always</c><00:01:34.799><c> carries</c><00:01:35.200><c> some</c><00:01:35.439><c> error</c><00:01:35.759><c> bars.</c>

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past always carries some error bars.
 

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past always carries some error bars.
Some<00:01:36.960><c> of</c><00:01:37.040><c> the</c><00:01:37.280><c> science</c><00:01:37.680><c> we're</c><00:01:38.000><c> pretty</c><00:01:38.240><c> sure</c>

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Some of the science we're pretty sure
 

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Some of the science we're pretty sure
about.<00:01:39.200><c> Other</c><00:01:39.520><c> things</c><00:01:39.920><c> are</c><00:01:40.240><c> still</c><00:01:40.479><c> being</c>

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about. Other things are still being
 

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about. Other things are still being
debated.<00:01:41.920><c> So,</c><00:01:42.400><c> as</c><00:01:42.640><c> we</c><00:01:42.799><c> indulge</c><00:01:43.360><c> our</c>

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debated. So, as we indulge our
 

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debated. So, as we indulge our
imagination,<00:01:44.560><c> let's</c><00:01:44.880><c> keep</c><00:01:45.119><c> in</c><00:01:45.280><c> mind</c><00:01:45.520><c> that</c>

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imagination, let's keep in mind that
 

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imagination, let's keep in mind that
some<00:01:46.000><c> of</c><00:01:46.159><c> these</c><00:01:46.399><c> claims</c><00:01:46.799><c> are</c><00:01:47.040><c> still</c><00:01:47.360><c> being</c>

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some of these claims are still being
 

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some of these claims are still being
developed<00:01:48.320><c> and</c><00:01:48.799><c> rigorously</c><00:01:49.520><c> questioned</c><00:01:50.240><c> as</c>

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developed and rigorously questioned as
 

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developed and rigorously questioned as
they<00:01:50.720><c> should</c><00:01:50.960><c> be.</c><00:01:51.759><c> But</c><00:01:52.000><c> to</c><00:01:52.240><c> the</c><00:01:52.399><c> best</c><00:01:52.560><c> of</c><00:01:52.720><c> our</c>

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they should be. But to the best of our
 

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they should be. But to the best of our
current<00:01:53.200><c> knowledge,</c><00:01:53.920><c> this</c><00:01:54.159><c> is</c><00:01:54.320><c> what</c><00:01:54.479><c> our</c>

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current knowledge, this is what our
 

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current knowledge, this is what our
planet<00:01:55.439><c> could</c><00:01:55.840><c> have</c><00:01:56.079><c> been</c><00:01:56.320><c> like.</c>

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planet could have been like.
 

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planet could have been like.
It<00:01:58.320><c> is</c><00:01:58.479><c> a</c><00:01:58.880><c> well-known</c><00:01:59.360><c> idea</c><00:02:00.000><c> that</c><00:02:00.240><c> our</c><00:02:00.560><c> solar</c>

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It is a well-known idea that our solar
 

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It is a well-known idea that our solar
system<00:02:01.119><c> was</c><00:02:01.360><c> formed</c><00:02:01.680><c> from</c><00:02:01.840><c> an</c><00:02:02.000><c> accreting</c><00:02:02.560><c> disc</c>

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system was formed from an accreting disc
 

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system was formed from an accreting disc
of<00:02:02.960><c> intergalactic</c><00:02:03.759><c> dust</c><00:02:04.159><c> and</c><00:02:04.320><c> matter</c><00:02:04.960><c> 4.6</c>

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of intergalactic dust and matter 4.6
 

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of intergalactic dust and matter 4.6
billion<00:02:06.399><c> years</c><00:02:06.560><c> ago,</c><00:02:07.439><c> circling</c><00:02:08.000><c> around</c><00:02:08.319><c> a</c>

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billion years ago, circling around a
 

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billion years ago, circling around a
gravitational<00:02:09.360><c> center</c><00:02:10.000><c> that</c><00:02:10.319><c> would</c><00:02:10.879><c> later</c>

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gravitational center that would later
 

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gravitational center that would later
house<00:02:11.920><c> the</c><00:02:12.160><c> sun.</c><00:02:13.280><c> Gravitational</c>

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house the sun. Gravitational
 

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house the sun. Gravitational
disturbances<00:02:14.720><c> caused</c><00:02:15.200><c> some</c><00:02:15.440><c> of</c><00:02:15.599><c> this</c><00:02:15.840><c> dust</c><00:02:16.160><c> to</c>

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disturbances caused some of this dust to
 

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disturbances caused some of this dust to
bunch<00:02:16.720><c> together.</c><00:02:17.760><c> And</c><00:02:17.920><c> once</c><00:02:18.239><c> that</c><00:02:18.560><c> happened,</c>

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bunch together. And once that happened,
 

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bunch together. And once that happened,
each<00:02:19.680><c> larger</c><00:02:20.080><c> ball</c><00:02:20.319><c> of</c><00:02:20.480><c> matter</c><00:02:20.879><c> found</c><00:02:21.120><c> itself</c>

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each larger ball of matter found itself
 

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each larger ball of matter found itself
snowballing<00:02:22.400><c> in</c><00:02:22.640><c> size.</c><00:02:23.520><c> Larger</c><00:02:24.000><c> clumps</c><00:02:24.400><c> had</c>

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snowballing in size. Larger clumps had
 

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snowballing in size. Larger clumps had
larger<00:02:25.120><c> gravitational</c><00:02:25.760><c> pull</c><00:02:26.480><c> which</c><00:02:26.800><c> pulled</c>

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larger gravitational pull which pulled
 

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larger gravitational pull which pulled
in<00:02:27.360><c> more</c><00:02:27.520><c> mass</c><00:02:28.160><c> to</c><00:02:28.400><c> grow</c><00:02:28.720><c> the</c><00:02:29.040><c> clumps.</c><00:02:30.400><c> At</c><00:02:30.640><c> this</c>

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in more mass to grow the clumps. At this
 

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in more mass to grow the clumps. At this
point<00:02:31.040><c> in</c><00:02:31.280><c> history,</c><00:02:31.840><c> the</c><00:02:32.160><c> vast</c><00:02:32.879><c> spinning</c><00:02:33.360><c> disc</c>

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point in history, the vast spinning disc
 

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point in history, the vast spinning disc
of<00:02:33.760><c> matter</c><00:02:34.080><c> from</c><00:02:34.319><c> which</c><00:02:34.560><c> our</c><00:02:34.959><c> whole</c><00:02:35.280><c> solar</c>

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of matter from which our whole solar
 

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of matter from which our whole solar
system<00:02:35.920><c> was</c><00:02:36.160><c> created</c><00:02:36.959><c> had</c><00:02:37.280><c> clumped</c><00:02:37.599><c> together</c>

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system was created had clumped together
 

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system was created had clumped together
into<00:02:38.480><c> planet</c><00:02:38.800><c> decimals.</c><00:02:40.000><c> These</c><00:02:40.319><c> were</c><00:02:40.640><c> further</c>

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into planet decimals. These were further
 

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into planet decimals. These were further
attracted<00:02:41.519><c> to</c><00:02:41.680><c> each</c><00:02:41.920><c> other,</c><00:02:42.560><c> crashing</c>

02:43.110 --> 02:43.120 align:start position:0%
attracted to each other, crashing
 

02:43.120 --> 02:44.949 align:start position:0%
attracted to each other, crashing
together<00:02:43.519><c> to</c><00:02:43.760><c> form</c><00:02:44.000><c> the</c><00:02:44.160><c> planets</c><00:02:44.560><c> we</c><00:02:44.720><c> know</c>

02:44.949 --> 02:44.959 align:start position:0%
together to form the planets we know
 

02:44.959 --> 02:48.949 align:start position:0%
together to form the planets we know
today.<00:02:46.080><c> Within</c><00:02:46.480><c> a</c><00:02:46.720><c> mere</c><00:02:47.360><c> 100</c><00:02:47.680><c> million</c><00:02:48.080><c> years,</c>

02:48.949 --> 02:48.959 align:start position:0%
today. Within a mere 100 million years,
 

02:48.959 --> 02:51.750 align:start position:0%
today. Within a mere 100 million years,
this<00:02:49.280><c> process</c><00:02:49.680><c> of</c><00:02:49.920><c> planetary</c><00:02:50.560><c> accretion</c><00:02:51.440><c> had</c>

02:51.750 --> 02:51.760 align:start position:0%
this process of planetary accretion had
 

02:51.760 --> 02:54.070 align:start position:0%
this process of planetary accretion had
gathered<00:02:52.080><c> up</c><00:02:52.480><c> almost</c><00:02:53.040><c> all</c><00:02:53.280><c> the</c><00:02:53.519><c> material</c>

02:54.070 --> 02:54.080 align:start position:0%
gathered up almost all the material
 

02:54.080 --> 02:56.390 align:start position:0%
gathered up almost all the material
nearer<00:02:54.480><c> to</c><00:02:54.640><c> the</c><00:02:54.800><c> sun</c><00:02:55.200><c> to</c><00:02:55.440><c> form</c><00:02:55.760><c> what</c><00:02:56.000><c> we</c><00:02:56.160><c> call</c>

02:56.390 --> 02:56.400 align:start position:0%
nearer to the sun to form what we call
 

02:56.400 --> 02:59.830 align:start position:0%
nearer to the sun to form what we call
the<00:02:56.640><c> terrestrial</c><00:02:57.280><c> planets,</c><00:02:58.239><c> Mercury,</c><00:02:59.040><c> Venus,</c>

02:59.830 --> 02:59.840 align:start position:0%
the terrestrial planets, Mercury, Venus,
 

02:59.840 --> 03:03.670 align:start position:0%
the terrestrial planets, Mercury, Venus,
Mars,<00:03:00.720><c> and</c><00:03:01.280><c> our</c><00:03:01.680><c> very</c><00:03:02.080><c> own</c><00:03:02.640><c> infant</c><00:03:03.360><c> planet</c>

03:03.670 --> 03:03.680 align:start position:0%
Mars, and our very own infant planet
 

03:03.680 --> 03:05.830 align:start position:0%
Mars, and our very own infant planet
Earth.

03:05.830 --> 03:05.840 align:start position:0%
Earth.
 

03:05.840 --> 03:08.790 align:start position:0%
Earth.
100<00:03:06.400><c> million</c><00:03:06.800><c> years</c><00:03:07.040><c> later,</c><00:03:07.920><c> the</c><00:03:08.159><c> Earth</c><00:03:08.480><c> is</c>

03:08.790 --> 03:08.800 align:start position:0%
100 million years later, the Earth is
 

03:08.800 --> 03:12.070 align:start position:0%
100 million years later, the Earth is
basically<00:03:09.360><c> a</c><00:03:09.599><c> hot,</c><00:03:10.400><c> viscous</c><00:03:11.040><c> ball</c><00:03:11.360><c> of</c><00:03:11.599><c> molten</c>

03:12.070 --> 03:12.080 align:start position:0%
basically a hot, viscous ball of molten
 

03:12.080 --> 03:14.550 align:start position:0%
basically a hot, viscous ball of molten
rock.<00:03:12.800><c> and</c><00:03:13.040><c> I</c><00:03:13.200><c> doubt</c><00:03:13.440><c> our</c><00:03:13.760><c> alien</c><00:03:14.159><c> visitors</c>

03:14.550 --> 03:14.560 align:start position:0%
rock. and I doubt our alien visitors
 

03:14.560 --> 03:17.190 align:start position:0%
rock. and I doubt our alien visitors
will<00:03:14.800><c> want</c><00:03:14.959><c> to</c><00:03:15.120><c> hang</c><00:03:15.280><c> around</c><00:03:15.599><c> for</c><00:03:15.760><c> very</c><00:03:16.080><c> long.</c>

03:17.190 --> 03:17.200 align:start position:0%
will want to hang around for very long.
 

03:17.200 --> 03:19.910 align:start position:0%
will want to hang around for very long.
Earth's<00:03:17.760><c> thin</c><00:03:18.159><c> atmosphere</c><00:03:18.879><c> is</c><00:03:19.120><c> made</c><00:03:19.519><c> mostly</c>

03:19.910 --> 03:19.920 align:start position:0%
Earth's thin atmosphere is made mostly
 

03:19.920 --> 03:23.190 align:start position:0%
Earth's thin atmosphere is made mostly
of<00:03:20.239><c> hydrogen</c><00:03:20.800><c> and</c><00:03:21.040><c> helium,</c><00:03:22.080><c> most</c><00:03:22.319><c> of</c><00:03:22.480><c> which</c><00:03:22.800><c> is</c>

03:23.190 --> 03:23.200 align:start position:0%
of hydrogen and helium, most of which is
 

03:23.200 --> 03:25.509 align:start position:0%
of hydrogen and helium, most of which is
stripped<00:03:23.599><c> by</c><00:03:23.840><c> the</c><00:03:24.000><c> solar</c><00:03:24.400><c> wind</c><00:03:25.040><c> since</c><00:03:25.280><c> the</c>

03:25.509 --> 03:25.519 align:start position:0%
stripped by the solar wind since the
 

03:25.519 --> 03:27.430 align:start position:0%
stripped by the solar wind since the
Earth<00:03:25.840><c> hasn't</c><00:03:26.159><c> yet</c><00:03:26.400><c> formed</c><00:03:26.720><c> a</c><00:03:26.959><c> magnetic</c>

03:27.430 --> 03:27.440 align:start position:0%
Earth hasn't yet formed a magnetic
 

03:27.440 --> 03:30.470 align:start position:0%
Earth hasn't yet formed a magnetic
field.<00:03:28.400><c> As</c><00:03:28.640><c> a</c><00:03:28.800><c> result,</c><00:03:29.280><c> the</c><00:03:29.519><c> young</c><00:03:29.760><c> planet</c><00:03:30.159><c> has</c>

03:30.470 --> 03:30.480 align:start position:0%
field. As a result, the young planet has
 

03:30.480 --> 03:32.470 align:start position:0%
field. As a result, the young planet has
little<00:03:30.799><c> protection</c><00:03:31.200><c> from</c><00:03:31.440><c> the</c><00:03:31.599><c> sun's</c><00:03:32.080><c> cosmic</c>

03:32.470 --> 03:32.480 align:start position:0%
little protection from the sun's cosmic
 

03:32.480 --> 03:35.030 align:start position:0%
little protection from the sun's cosmic
rays,<00:03:33.120><c> and</c><00:03:33.360><c> the</c><00:03:33.519><c> planet</c><00:03:33.920><c> is</c><00:03:34.159><c> a</c><00:03:34.400><c> hot</c><00:03:34.640><c> bed</c><00:03:34.879><c> of</c>

03:35.030 --> 03:35.040 align:start position:0%
rays, and the planet is a hot bed of
 

03:35.040 --> 03:37.030 align:start position:0%
rays, and the planet is a hot bed of
radiation.

03:37.030 --> 03:37.040 align:start position:0%
radiation.
 

03:37.040 --> 03:39.589 align:start position:0%
radiation.
Earth<00:03:37.360><c> is</c><00:03:37.599><c> also</c><00:03:37.920><c> constantly</c><00:03:38.480><c> being</c><00:03:38.799><c> bombarded</c>

03:39.589 --> 03:39.599 align:start position:0%
Earth is also constantly being bombarded
 

03:39.599 --> 03:42.229 align:start position:0%
Earth is also constantly being bombarded
with<00:03:39.920><c> asteroids</c><00:03:40.560><c> and</c><00:03:40.799><c> comets</c><00:03:41.599><c> which</c><00:03:41.840><c> add</c><00:03:42.080><c> to</c>

03:42.229 --> 03:42.239 align:start position:0%
with asteroids and comets which add to
 

03:42.239 --> 03:45.750 align:start position:0%
with asteroids and comets which add to
its<00:03:42.480><c> mass,</c><00:03:43.200><c> a</c><00:03:43.519><c> process</c><00:03:43.920><c> called</c><00:03:44.239><c> accretion.</c>

03:45.750 --> 03:45.760 align:start position:0%
its mass, a process called accretion.
 

03:45.760 --> 03:48.070 align:start position:0%
its mass, a process called accretion.
Just<00:03:46.000><c> imagine</c><00:03:46.400><c> a</c><00:03:46.720><c> big</c><00:03:47.040><c> ball</c><00:03:47.280><c> of</c><00:03:47.440><c> chewing</c><00:03:47.840><c> gum</c>

03:48.070 --> 03:48.080 align:start position:0%
Just imagine a big ball of chewing gum
 

03:48.080 --> 03:50.390 align:start position:0%
Just imagine a big ball of chewing gum
that<00:03:48.319><c> you</c><00:03:48.560><c> keep</c><00:03:48.799><c> adding</c><00:03:49.120><c> to</c><00:03:49.440><c> with</c><00:03:49.680><c> fresh</c><00:03:50.000><c> wads</c>

03:50.390 --> 03:50.400 align:start position:0%
that you keep adding to with fresh wads
 

03:50.400 --> 03:53.589 align:start position:0%
that you keep adding to with fresh wads
of<00:03:50.560><c> gum</c><00:03:50.959><c> and</c><00:03:51.200><c> you'll</c><00:03:51.440><c> get</c><00:03:51.599><c> the</c><00:03:51.760><c> idea.</c>

03:53.589 --> 03:53.599 align:start position:0%
of gum and you'll get the idea.
 

03:53.599 --> 03:56.070 align:start position:0%
of gum and you'll get the idea.
So,<00:03:54.000><c> not</c><00:03:54.319><c> only</c><00:03:54.560><c> is</c><00:03:54.799><c> the</c><00:03:54.959><c> young</c><00:03:55.280><c> Earth</c><00:03:55.599><c> hot</c><00:03:55.840><c> and</c>

03:56.070 --> 03:56.080 align:start position:0%
So, not only is the young Earth hot and
 

03:56.080 --> 03:59.750 align:start position:0%
So, not only is the young Earth hot and
gooey,<00:03:57.120><c> it's</c><00:03:57.439><c> also</c><00:03:57.920><c> growing.</c><00:03:59.120><c> But</c><00:03:59.280><c> these</c><00:03:59.599><c> are</c>

03:59.750 --> 03:59.760 align:start position:0%
gooey, it's also growing. But these are
 

03:59.760 --> 04:01.670 align:start position:0%
gooey, it's also growing. But these are
not<00:03:59.920><c> the</c><00:04:00.159><c> only</c><00:04:00.400><c> impacts</c><00:04:00.799><c> the</c><00:04:00.959><c> planet</c><00:04:01.280><c> has</c><00:04:01.519><c> to</c>

04:01.670 --> 04:01.680 align:start position:0%
not the only impacts the planet has to
 

04:01.680 --> 04:04.710 align:start position:0%
not the only impacts the planet has to
contend<00:04:01.920><c> with.</c><00:04:02.879><c> In</c><00:04:03.120><c> the</c><00:04:03.360><c> recent</c><00:04:03.840><c> past,</c><00:04:04.480><c> there</c>

04:04.710 --> 04:04.720 align:start position:0%
contend with. In the recent past, there
 

04:04.720 --> 04:07.270 align:start position:0%
contend with. In the recent past, there
was<00:04:04.879><c> a</c><00:04:05.120><c> cataclysmic</c><00:04:06.080><c> event</c><00:04:06.560><c> in</c><00:04:06.799><c> which</c><00:04:07.040><c> a</c>

04:07.270 --> 04:07.280 align:start position:0%
was a cataclysmic event in which a
 

04:07.280 --> 04:09.750 align:start position:0%
was a cataclysmic event in which a
protolanet<00:04:08.159><c> collided</c><00:04:08.640><c> with</c><00:04:08.879><c> the</c><00:04:09.040><c> Earth,</c>

04:09.750 --> 04:09.760 align:start position:0%
protolanet collided with the Earth,
 

04:09.760 --> 04:17.110 align:start position:0%
protolanet collided with the Earth,
resulting<00:04:10.319><c> in</c><00:04:10.560><c> the</c><00:04:10.720><c> formation</c><00:04:11.360><c> of</c><00:04:11.599><c> our</c><00:04:11.920><c> moon.</c>

04:17.110 --> 04:17.120 align:start position:0%
 
 

04:17.120 --> 04:19.830 align:start position:0%
 
Outside<00:04:17.519><c> of</c><00:04:17.680><c> that</c><00:04:18.079><c> massive</c><00:04:18.880><c> cataclysmic</c>

04:19.830 --> 04:19.840 align:start position:0%
Outside of that massive cataclysmic
 

04:19.840 --> 04:21.590 align:start position:0%
Outside of that massive cataclysmic
event,<00:04:20.479><c> you</c><00:04:20.720><c> might</c><00:04:20.880><c> have</c><00:04:21.040><c> thought</c><00:04:21.199><c> that</c><00:04:21.440><c> the</c>

04:21.590 --> 04:21.600 align:start position:0%
event, you might have thought that the
 

04:21.600 --> 04:23.830 align:start position:0%
event, you might have thought that the
bombment<00:04:22.240><c> of</c><00:04:22.400><c> asteroids</c><00:04:22.960><c> into</c><00:04:23.199><c> the</c><00:04:23.360><c> Earth</c><00:04:23.600><c> and</c>

04:23.830 --> 04:23.840 align:start position:0%
bombment of asteroids into the Earth and
 

04:23.840 --> 04:27.590 align:start position:0%
bombment of asteroids into the Earth and
Moon<00:04:24.400><c> was</c><00:04:24.639><c> a</c><00:04:24.960><c> fairly</c><00:04:25.440><c> even</c><00:04:25.919><c> process.</c><00:04:27.120><c> But</c><00:04:27.280><c> that</c>

04:27.590 --> 04:27.600 align:start position:0%
Moon was a fairly even process. But that
 

04:27.600 --> 04:29.749 align:start position:0%
Moon was a fairly even process. But that
might<00:04:27.840><c> not</c><00:04:28.160><c> have</c><00:04:28.320><c> been</c><00:04:28.479><c> the</c><00:04:28.720><c> case.</c><00:04:29.280><c> At</c><00:04:29.440><c> least</c>

04:29.749 --> 04:29.759 align:start position:0%
might not have been the case. At least
 

04:29.759 --> 04:31.590 align:start position:0%
might not have been the case. At least
not<00:04:30.000><c> according</c><00:04:30.400><c> to</c><00:04:30.560><c> evidence</c><00:04:30.960><c> discovered</c><00:04:31.440><c> by</c>

04:31.590 --> 04:31.600 align:start position:0%
not according to evidence discovered by
 

04:31.600 --> 04:33.510 align:start position:0%
not according to evidence discovered by
NASA<00:04:32.080><c> astronauts</c><00:04:32.639><c> during</c><00:04:32.880><c> their</c><00:04:33.120><c> visit</c><00:04:33.360><c> to</c>

04:33.510 --> 04:33.520 align:start position:0%
NASA astronauts during their visit to
 

04:33.520 --> 04:35.909 align:start position:0%
NASA astronauts during their visit to
the<00:04:33.680><c> moon</c><00:04:33.840><c> in</c><00:04:34.080><c> the</c><00:04:34.240><c> 1960s.</c>

04:35.909 --> 04:35.919 align:start position:0%
the moon in the 1960s.
 

04:35.919 --> 04:37.749 align:start position:0%
the moon in the 1960s.
When<00:04:36.080><c> the</c><00:04:36.240><c> Apollo</c><00:04:36.639><c> astronauts</c><00:04:37.280><c> came</c><00:04:37.520><c> home</c>

04:37.749 --> 04:37.759 align:start position:0%
When the Apollo astronauts came home
 

04:37.759 --> 04:39.749 align:start position:0%
When the Apollo astronauts came home
from<00:04:38.000><c> the</c><00:04:38.160><c> moon,</c><00:04:38.720><c> the</c><00:04:38.960><c> rocks</c><00:04:39.280><c> they</c><00:04:39.520><c> brought</c>

04:39.749 --> 04:39.759 align:start position:0%
from the moon, the rocks they brought
 

04:39.759 --> 04:42.950 align:start position:0%
from the moon, the rocks they brought
with<00:04:39.919><c> them</c><00:04:40.240><c> told</c><00:04:40.560><c> a</c><00:04:40.960><c> surprising</c><00:04:41.600><c> story.</c><00:04:42.720><c> The</c>

04:42.950 --> 04:42.960 align:start position:0%
with them told a surprising story. The
 

04:42.960 --> 04:45.270 align:start position:0%
with them told a surprising story. The
astronauts<00:04:43.600><c> had</c><00:04:43.840><c> brought</c><00:04:44.080><c> home</c><00:04:44.479><c> samples</c>

04:45.270 --> 04:45.280 align:start position:0%
astronauts had brought home samples
 

04:45.280 --> 04:48.950 align:start position:0%
astronauts had brought home samples
containing<00:04:46.240><c> impact</c><00:04:46.800><c> melt.</c><00:04:47.840><c> Rocks</c><00:04:48.240><c> that</c><00:04:48.560><c> had</c>

04:48.950 --> 04:48.960 align:start position:0%
containing impact melt. Rocks that had
 

04:48.960 --> 04:51.350 align:start position:0%
containing impact melt. Rocks that had
superheated<00:04:49.680><c> into</c><00:04:50.000><c> magma</c><00:04:50.479><c> due</c><00:04:50.639><c> to</c><00:04:50.800><c> being</c><00:04:51.040><c> hit</c>

04:51.350 --> 04:51.360 align:start position:0%
superheated into magma due to being hit
 

04:51.360 --> 04:54.550 align:start position:0%
superheated into magma due to being hit
by<00:04:51.680><c> a</c><00:04:51.840><c> meteorite,</c><00:04:52.800><c> which</c><00:04:53.120><c> had</c><00:04:53.680><c> later</c>

04:54.550 --> 04:54.560 align:start position:0%
by a meteorite, which had later
 

04:54.560 --> 04:57.909 align:start position:0%
by a meteorite, which had later
gradually<00:04:55.199><c> cooled</c><00:04:55.680><c> back</c><00:04:56.000><c> into</c><00:04:56.320><c> solid</c><00:04:56.639><c> form.</c>

04:57.909 --> 04:57.919 align:start position:0%
gradually cooled back into solid form.
 

04:57.919 --> 04:59.909 align:start position:0%
gradually cooled back into solid form.
But<00:04:58.160><c> while</c><00:04:58.479><c> the</c><00:04:58.639><c> Apollo</c><00:04:59.040><c> team</c><00:04:59.280><c> had</c><00:04:59.520><c> collected</c>

04:59.909 --> 04:59.919 align:start position:0%
But while the Apollo team had collected
 

04:59.919 --> 05:02.950 align:start position:0%
But while the Apollo team had collected
these<00:05:00.320><c> reconstituted</c><00:05:01.280><c> rocks</c><00:05:01.759><c> from</c><00:05:02.400><c> different</c>

05:02.950 --> 05:02.960 align:start position:0%
these reconstituted rocks from different
 

05:02.960 --> 05:04.950 align:start position:0%
these reconstituted rocks from different
areas<00:05:03.360><c> and</c><00:05:03.680><c> craters</c><00:05:04.080><c> on</c><00:05:04.320><c> the</c><00:05:04.479><c> near</c><00:05:04.639><c> side</c><00:05:04.880><c> of</c>

05:04.950 --> 05:04.960 align:start position:0%
areas and craters on the near side of
 

05:04.960 --> 05:07.830 align:start position:0%
areas and craters on the near side of
the<00:05:05.120><c> moon,</c><00:05:05.919><c> almost</c><00:05:06.320><c> all</c><00:05:06.639><c> of</c><00:05:06.800><c> them</c><00:05:07.199><c> were</c><00:05:07.440><c> dated</c>

05:07.830 --> 05:07.840 align:start position:0%
the moon, almost all of them were dated
 

05:07.840 --> 05:12.150 align:start position:0%
the moon, almost all of them were dated
to<00:05:08.080><c> around</c><00:05:08.639><c> 4.1</c><00:05:09.520><c> to</c><00:05:09.919><c> 3.8</c><00:05:10.880><c> billion</c><00:05:11.280><c> years</c><00:05:11.440><c> ago</c>

05:12.150 --> 05:12.160 align:start position:0%
to around 4.1 to 3.8 billion years ago
 

05:12.160 --> 05:15.350 align:start position:0%
to around 4.1 to 3.8 billion years ago
with<00:05:12.560><c> very</c><00:05:12.880><c> few</c><00:05:13.280><c> showing</c><00:05:13.680><c> older</c><00:05:14.080><c> impacts.</c><00:05:15.199><c> The</c>

05:15.350 --> 05:15.360 align:start position:0%
with very few showing older impacts. The
 

05:15.360 --> 05:18.150 align:start position:0%
with very few showing older impacts. The
implication,<00:05:16.639><c> for</c><00:05:16.880><c> some</c><00:05:17.120><c> reason,</c><00:05:17.840><c> during</c>

05:18.150 --> 05:18.160 align:start position:0%
implication, for some reason, during
 

05:18.160 --> 05:20.469 align:start position:0%
implication, for some reason, during
this<00:05:18.400><c> period</c><00:05:18.720><c> of</c><00:05:19.039><c> roughly</c><00:05:19.600><c> half</c><00:05:19.919><c> a</c><00:05:20.080><c> billion</c>

05:20.469 --> 05:20.479 align:start position:0%
this period of roughly half a billion
 

05:20.479 --> 05:23.749 align:start position:0%
this period of roughly half a billion
years,<00:05:21.360><c> there</c><00:05:21.600><c> was</c><00:05:21.840><c> an</c><00:05:22.160><c> abnormal</c><00:05:23.039><c> spike</c><00:05:23.440><c> in</c>

05:23.749 --> 05:23.759 align:start position:0%
years, there was an abnormal spike in
 

05:23.759 --> 05:26.150 align:start position:0%
years, there was an abnormal spike in
falling<00:05:24.160><c> meteorites</c><00:05:24.880><c> that</c><00:05:25.120><c> crashed</c><00:05:25.680><c> into</c><00:05:25.919><c> our</c>

05:26.150 --> 05:26.160 align:start position:0%
falling meteorites that crashed into our
 

05:26.160 --> 05:29.830 align:start position:0%
falling meteorites that crashed into our
moon.<00:05:27.199><c> This</c><00:05:27.520><c> idea</c><00:05:28.160><c> came</c><00:05:28.479><c> to</c><00:05:28.639><c> be</c><00:05:28.880><c> known</c><00:05:29.280><c> as</c><00:05:29.600><c> the</c>

05:29.830 --> 05:29.840 align:start position:0%
moon. This idea came to be known as the
 

05:29.840 --> 05:32.390 align:start position:0%
moon. This idea came to be known as the
late<00:05:30.320><c> heavy</c><00:05:30.880><c> bombardment.</c>

05:32.390 --> 05:32.400 align:start position:0%
late heavy bombardment.
 

05:32.400 --> 05:35.830 align:start position:0%
late heavy bombardment.
This<00:05:32.639><c> idea</c><00:05:33.360><c> is</c><00:05:34.000><c> controversial</c><00:05:35.199><c> and</c><00:05:35.600><c> not</c>

05:35.830 --> 05:35.840 align:start position:0%
This idea is controversial and not
 

05:35.840 --> 05:37.749 align:start position:0%
This idea is controversial and not
everyone<00:05:36.320><c> agrees</c><00:05:36.720><c> that</c><00:05:36.960><c> it</c><00:05:37.199><c> happened</c><00:05:37.520><c> that</c>

05:37.749 --> 05:37.759 align:start position:0%
everyone agrees that it happened that
 

05:37.759 --> 05:40.550 align:start position:0%
everyone agrees that it happened that
way.<00:05:38.639><c> Such</c><00:05:38.960><c> is</c><00:05:39.199><c> the</c><00:05:39.440><c> nature</c><00:05:39.759><c> of</c><00:05:40.080><c> scientific</c>

05:40.550 --> 05:40.560 align:start position:0%
way. Such is the nature of scientific
 

05:40.560 --> 05:43.830 align:start position:0%
way. Such is the nature of scientific
debate<00:05:41.120><c> built</c><00:05:41.440><c> on</c><00:05:41.840><c> limited</c><00:05:42.320><c> evidence.</c><00:05:43.600><c> We</c>

05:43.830 --> 05:43.840 align:start position:0%
debate built on limited evidence. We
 

05:43.840 --> 05:45.430 align:start position:0%
debate built on limited evidence. We
don't<00:05:44.000><c> get</c><00:05:44.160><c> to</c><00:05:44.320><c> go</c><00:05:44.479><c> to</c><00:05:44.560><c> the</c><00:05:44.720><c> moon</c><00:05:44.960><c> very</c><00:05:45.199><c> often</c>

05:45.430 --> 05:45.440 align:start position:0%
don't get to go to the moon very often
 

05:45.440 --> 05:48.310 align:start position:0%
don't get to go to the moon very often
to<00:05:45.600><c> collect</c><00:05:45.919><c> more</c><00:05:46.160><c> samples.</c><00:05:47.440><c> So,</c><00:05:47.759><c> it's</c><00:05:48.080><c> hard</c>

05:48.310 --> 05:48.320 align:start position:0%
to collect more samples. So, it's hard
 

05:48.320 --> 05:50.950 align:start position:0%
to collect more samples. So, it's hard
to<00:05:48.560><c> tell</c><00:05:48.880><c> if</c><00:05:49.360><c> some</c><00:05:49.680><c> process</c><00:05:50.479><c> has</c><00:05:50.720><c> been</c>

05:50.950 --> 05:50.960 align:start position:0%
to tell if some process has been
 

05:50.960 --> 05:54.070 align:start position:0%
to tell if some process has been
muddying<00:05:51.440><c> the</c><00:05:51.600><c> waters.</c><00:05:52.960><c> But</c><00:05:53.280><c> if</c><00:05:53.600><c> the</c><00:05:53.759><c> late</c>

05:54.070 --> 05:54.080 align:start position:0%
muddying the waters. But if the late
 

05:54.080 --> 05:57.110 align:start position:0%
muddying the waters. But if the late
heavy<00:05:54.479><c> bombardment</c><00:05:55.280><c> happened,</c><00:05:56.560><c> what</c><00:05:56.880><c> could</c>

05:57.110 --> 05:57.120 align:start position:0%
heavy bombardment happened, what could
 

05:57.120 --> 05:59.749 align:start position:0%
heavy bombardment happened, what could
have<00:05:57.280><c> caused</c><00:05:57.600><c> it?</c><00:05:58.320><c> And</c><00:05:58.479><c> to</c><00:05:58.720><c> answer</c><00:05:58.960><c> that,</c><00:05:59.440><c> we</c>

05:59.749 --> 05:59.759 align:start position:0%
have caused it? And to answer that, we
 

05:59.759 --> 06:02.310 align:start position:0%
have caused it? And to answer that, we
need<00:05:59.919><c> to</c><00:06:00.080><c> consider</c><00:06:00.560><c> conditions</c><00:06:01.520><c> back</c><00:06:01.919><c> at</c><00:06:02.160><c> the</c>

06:02.310 --> 06:02.320 align:start position:0%
need to consider conditions back at the
 

06:02.320 --> 06:06.230 align:start position:0%
need to consider conditions back at the
dawn<00:06:02.720><c> of</c><00:06:02.960><c> our</c><00:06:03.199><c> solar</c><00:06:03.600><c> system.</c>

06:06.230 --> 06:06.240 align:start position:0%
dawn of our solar system.
 

06:06.240 --> 06:08.950 align:start position:0%
dawn of our solar system.
Our<00:06:06.560><c> aliens</c><00:06:07.280><c> review</c><00:06:07.840><c> the</c><00:06:08.080><c> solar</c><00:06:08.400><c> system</c><00:06:08.720><c> 4</c>

06:08.950 --> 06:08.960 align:start position:0%
Our aliens review the solar system 4
 

06:08.960 --> 06:10.950 align:start position:0%
Our aliens review the solar system 4
billion<00:06:09.360><c> years</c><00:06:09.520><c> ago.</c><00:06:10.160><c> And</c><00:06:10.400><c> although</c><00:06:10.720><c> they</c>

06:10.950 --> 06:10.960 align:start position:0%
billion years ago. And although they
 

06:10.960 --> 06:13.189 align:start position:0%
billion years ago. And although they
find<00:06:11.360><c> many</c><00:06:11.680><c> asteroids</c><00:06:12.240><c> have</c><00:06:12.400><c> accreted</c><00:06:12.960><c> into</c>

06:13.189 --> 06:13.199 align:start position:0%
find many asteroids have accreted into
 

06:13.199 --> 06:15.590 align:start position:0%
find many asteroids have accreted into
the<00:06:13.360><c> terrestrial</c><00:06:13.919><c> planets</c><00:06:14.319><c> by</c><00:06:14.639><c> this</c><00:06:14.800><c> point,</c>

06:15.590 --> 06:15.600 align:start position:0%
the terrestrial planets by this point,
 

06:15.600 --> 06:18.710 align:start position:0%
the terrestrial planets by this point,
not<00:06:15.919><c> all</c><00:06:16.319><c> will</c><00:06:16.560><c> have</c><00:06:16.720><c> met</c><00:06:16.960><c> that</c><00:06:17.199><c> fate.</c><00:06:18.400><c> There</c>

06:18.710 --> 06:18.720 align:start position:0%
not all will have met that fate. There
 

06:18.720 --> 06:21.430 align:start position:0%
not all will have met that fate. There
would<00:06:19.039><c> still</c><00:06:19.360><c> be</c><00:06:19.680><c> some</c><00:06:20.240><c> isolated</c><00:06:20.880><c> leftovers</c>

06:21.430 --> 06:21.440 align:start position:0%
would still be some isolated leftovers
 

06:21.440 --> 06:23.749 align:start position:0%
would still be some isolated leftovers
between<00:06:21.759><c> these</c><00:06:22.080><c> planets.</c><00:06:22.960><c> Some</c><00:06:23.360><c> are</c><00:06:23.600><c> still</c>

06:23.749 --> 06:23.759 align:start position:0%
between these planets. Some are still
 

06:23.759 --> 06:26.629 align:start position:0%
between these planets. Some are still
out<00:06:23.919><c> there</c><00:06:24.160><c> today,</c><00:06:24.800><c> like</c><00:06:25.039><c> the</c><00:06:25.199><c> 1.5</c><00:06:26.160><c> million</c>

06:26.629 --> 06:26.639 align:start position:0%
out there today, like the 1.5 million
 

06:26.639 --> 06:28.550 align:start position:0%
out there today, like the 1.5 million
floating<00:06:27.120><c> asteroids</c><00:06:27.680><c> orbiting</c><00:06:28.080><c> the</c><00:06:28.240><c> sun</c>

06:28.550 --> 06:28.560 align:start position:0%
floating asteroids orbiting the sun
 

06:28.560 --> 06:31.510 align:start position:0%
floating asteroids orbiting the sun
between<00:06:29.039><c> Mars</c><00:06:29.360><c> and</c><00:06:29.520><c> Jupiter.</c><00:06:30.800><c> But</c><00:06:31.199><c> this</c>

06:31.510 --> 06:31.520 align:start position:0%
between Mars and Jupiter. But this
 

06:31.520 --> 06:33.670 align:start position:0%
between Mars and Jupiter. But this
process<00:06:32.080><c> had</c><00:06:32.400><c> pretty</c><00:06:32.639><c> much</c><00:06:32.960><c> cleared</c><00:06:33.280><c> out</c>

06:33.670 --> 06:33.680 align:start position:0%
process had pretty much cleared out
 

06:33.680 --> 06:36.309 align:start position:0%
process had pretty much cleared out
everything<00:06:34.160><c> in</c><00:06:34.319><c> the</c><00:06:34.479><c> inner</c><00:06:34.800><c> solar</c><00:06:35.039><c> system.</c>

06:36.309 --> 06:36.319 align:start position:0%
everything in the inner solar system.
 

06:36.319 --> 06:38.070 align:start position:0%
everything in the inner solar system.
Because<00:06:36.639><c> of</c><00:06:36.720><c> this,</c><00:06:37.039><c> you</c><00:06:37.199><c> might</c><00:06:37.440><c> expect</c><00:06:37.840><c> to</c>

06:38.070 --> 06:38.080 align:start position:0%
Because of this, you might expect to
 

06:38.080 --> 06:40.469 align:start position:0%
Because of this, you might expect to
have<00:06:38.400><c> more</c><00:06:38.720><c> impacts</c><00:06:39.120><c> at</c><00:06:39.360><c> the</c><00:06:39.520><c> beginning,</c><00:06:40.160><c> but</c>

06:40.469 --> 06:40.479 align:start position:0%
have more impacts at the beginning, but
 

06:40.479 --> 06:43.110 align:start position:0%
have more impacts at the beginning, but
fewer<00:06:40.880><c> and</c><00:06:41.120><c> fewer</c><00:06:41.440><c> impacts</c><00:06:41.919><c> as</c><00:06:42.160><c> time</c><00:06:42.400><c> went</c><00:06:42.639><c> on,</c>

06:43.110 --> 06:43.120 align:start position:0%
fewer and fewer impacts as time went on,
 

06:43.120 --> 06:45.270 align:start position:0%
fewer and fewer impacts as time went on,
not<00:06:43.280><c> a</c><00:06:43.520><c> sudden</c><00:06:43.919><c> spike.</c>

06:45.270 --> 06:45.280 align:start position:0%
not a sudden spike.
 

06:45.280 --> 06:47.749 align:start position:0%
not a sudden spike.
So<00:06:45.600><c> why</c><00:06:45.919><c> could</c><00:06:46.160><c> there</c><00:06:46.400><c> have</c><00:06:46.639><c> been</c><00:06:46.880><c> a</c><00:06:47.120><c> surge</c><00:06:47.520><c> in</c>

06:47.749 --> 06:47.759 align:start position:0%
So why could there have been a surge in
 

06:47.759 --> 06:51.350 align:start position:0%
So why could there have been a surge in
impacts<00:06:48.560><c> 4.1</c><00:06:49.600><c> billion</c><00:06:50.000><c> years</c><00:06:50.240><c> ago</c><00:06:50.800><c> that</c><00:06:51.120><c> gave</c>

06:51.350 --> 06:51.360 align:start position:0%
impacts 4.1 billion years ago that gave
 

06:51.360 --> 06:55.029 align:start position:0%
impacts 4.1 billion years ago that gave
our<00:06:51.680><c> moon</c><00:06:52.240><c> such</c><00:06:52.639><c> a</c><00:06:52.880><c> beating?</c><00:06:54.240><c> That</c><00:06:54.639><c> has</c>

06:55.029 --> 06:55.039 align:start position:0%
our moon such a beating? That has
 

06:55.039 --> 06:58.390 align:start position:0%
our moon such a beating? That has
created<00:06:55.759><c> quite</c><00:06:56.080><c> a</c><00:06:56.319><c> puzzle</c><00:06:56.639><c> for</c><00:06:56.880><c> scientists.</c>

06:58.390 --> 06:58.400 align:start position:0%
created quite a puzzle for scientists.
 

06:58.400 --> 07:00.950 align:start position:0%
created quite a puzzle for scientists.
Although<00:06:58.960><c> some</c><00:06:59.520><c> now</c><00:06:59.840><c> think</c><00:07:00.240><c> they</c><00:07:00.560><c> may</c><00:07:00.800><c> have</c>

07:00.950 --> 07:00.960 align:start position:0%
Although some now think they may have
 

07:00.960 --> 07:03.510 align:start position:0%
Although some now think they may have
solved<00:07:01.280><c> it.</c><00:07:02.160><c> And</c><00:07:02.400><c> to</c><00:07:02.560><c> solve</c><00:07:02.800><c> such</c><00:07:02.960><c> a</c><00:07:03.120><c> puzzle,</c>

07:03.510 --> 07:03.520 align:start position:0%
solved it. And to solve such a puzzle,
 

07:03.520 --> 07:05.029 align:start position:0%
solved it. And to solve such a puzzle,
scientists<00:07:03.919><c> would</c><00:07:04.160><c> need</c><00:07:04.319><c> to</c><00:07:04.479><c> bring</c><00:07:04.720><c> their</c>

07:05.029 --> 07:05.039 align:start position:0%
scientists would need to bring their
 

07:05.039 --> 07:07.749 align:start position:0%
scientists would need to bring their
agame<00:07:06.000><c> drawing</c><00:07:06.400><c> on</c><00:07:06.639><c> prior</c><00:07:07.039><c> knowledge</c><00:07:07.360><c> and</c>

07:07.749 --> 07:07.759 align:start position:0%
agame drawing on prior knowledge and
 

07:07.759 --> 07:10.150 align:start position:0%
agame drawing on prior knowledge and
data<00:07:08.160><c> to</c><00:07:08.400><c> figure</c><00:07:08.560><c> out</c><00:07:08.800><c> what</c><00:07:09.280><c> answer</c><00:07:09.599><c> fits</c><00:07:10.000><c> the</c>

07:10.150 --> 07:10.160 align:start position:0%
data to figure out what answer fits the
 

07:10.160 --> 07:12.550 align:start position:0%
data to figure out what answer fits the
evidence<00:07:10.560><c> best.</c><00:07:11.360><c> Too</c><00:07:11.680><c> bad</c><00:07:11.840><c> that</c><00:07:12.080><c> there</c><00:07:12.319><c> wasn't</c>

07:12.550 --> 07:12.560 align:start position:0%
evidence best. Too bad that there wasn't
 

07:12.560 --> 07:14.309 align:start position:0%
evidence best. Too bad that there wasn't
something<00:07:12.880><c> that</c><00:07:13.120><c> could</c><00:07:13.520><c> provide</c><00:07:13.919><c> instant</c>

07:14.309 --> 07:14.319 align:start position:0%
something that could provide instant
 

07:14.319 --> 07:16.390 align:start position:0%
something that could provide instant
feedback<00:07:14.960><c> to</c><00:07:15.199><c> let</c><00:07:15.360><c> them</c><00:07:15.599><c> know</c><00:07:15.840><c> they</c><00:07:16.080><c> got</c><00:07:16.160><c> the</c>

07:16.390 --> 07:16.400 align:start position:0%
feedback to let them know they got the
 

07:16.400 --> 07:18.629 align:start position:0%
feedback to let them know they got the
answer<00:07:16.639><c> right.</c><00:07:17.360><c> But</c><00:07:17.599><c> if</c><00:07:17.919><c> you're</c><00:07:18.240><c> looking</c><00:07:18.400><c> for</c>

07:16.493 --> 07:19.124 align:start position:0%
puzzle of that spike in impact.
According

07:19.124 --> 07:19.134 align:start position:0%
According
 

07:19.134 --> 07:21.124 align:start position:0%
According
to<00:08:23.120><c> some</c><00:08:23.360><c> scientists,</c><00:08:24.160><c> the</c><00:08:24.400><c> finger</c><00:08:24.800><c> of</c>

07:21.124 --> 07:21.134 align:start position:0%
to some scientists, the finger of
 

07:21.134 --> 07:24.164 align:start position:0%
to some scientists, the finger of
suspicion<00:08:25.599><c> points</c><00:08:26.000><c> towards</c><00:08:26.800><c> Jupiter,</c><00:08:27.759><c> the</c>

07:24.164 --> 07:24.174 align:start position:0%
suspicion points towards Jupiter, the
 

07:24.174 --> 07:26.564 align:start position:0%
suspicion points towards Jupiter, the
largest<00:08:28.479><c> planet</c><00:08:28.800><c> in</c><00:08:29.039><c> our</c><00:08:29.280><c> solar</c><00:08:29.599><c> system</c><00:08:30.080><c> with</c>

07:26.564 --> 07:26.574 align:start position:0%
largest planet in our solar system with
 

07:26.574 --> 07:29.284 align:start position:0%
largest planet in our solar system with
more<00:08:30.720><c> than</c><00:08:31.039><c> 2</c><00:08:31.360><c> and</c><00:08:31.599><c> 1/2</c><00:08:32.000><c> times</c><00:08:32.320><c> the</c><00:08:32.560><c> mass</c><00:08:32.880><c> of</c>

07:29.284 --> 07:29.294 align:start position:0%
more than 2 and 1/2 times the mass of
 

07:29.294 --> 07:32.083 align:start position:0%
more than 2 and 1/2 times the mass of
all<00:08:33.440><c> the</c><00:08:33.680><c> other</c><00:08:33.919><c> planets</c><00:08:34.399><c> combined</c><00:08:35.360><c> and</c><00:08:35.680><c> the</c>

07:32.083 --> 07:32.093 align:start position:0%
all the other planets combined and the
 

07:32.093 --> 07:34.563 align:start position:0%
all the other planets combined and the
first<00:08:36.159><c> to</c><00:08:36.399><c> form</c><00:08:36.880><c> along</c><00:08:37.120><c> with</c><00:08:37.360><c> Saturn</c><00:08:37.919><c> as</c><00:08:38.159><c> our</c>

07:34.563 --> 07:34.573 align:start position:0%
first to form along with Saturn as our
 

07:34.573 --> 07:37.044 align:start position:0%
first to form along with Saturn as our
solar<00:08:38.719><c> system</c><00:08:39.039><c> took</c><00:08:39.279><c> shape.</c><00:08:40.399><c> If</c><00:08:40.560><c> you</c><00:08:40.719><c> would</c>

07:37.044 --> 07:37.054 align:start position:0%
solar system took shape. If you would
 

07:37.054 --> 07:38.883 align:start position:0%
solar system took shape. If you would
like<00:08:41.039><c> to</c><00:08:41.200><c> learn</c><00:08:41.360><c> more</c><00:08:41.519><c> about</c><00:08:41.760><c> Jupiter</c><00:08:42.240><c> and</c><00:08:42.479><c> its</c>

07:38.883 --> 07:38.893 align:start position:0%
like to learn more about Jupiter and its
 

07:38.893 --> 07:41.123 align:start position:0%
like to learn more about Jupiter and its
influence<00:08:43.120><c> on</c><00:08:43.360><c> our</c><00:08:43.519><c> solar</c><00:08:43.839><c> system,</c><00:08:44.560><c> check</c><00:08:44.800><c> out</c>

07:41.123 --> 07:41.133 align:start position:0%
influence on our solar system, check out
 

07:41.133 --> 07:43.204 align:start position:0%
influence on our solar system, check out
this<00:08:45.200><c> video.</c>

07:43.204 --> 07:43.214 align:start position:0%
this video.
 

07:43.214 --> 07:46.003 align:start position:0%
this video.
The<00:08:47.360><c> suspected</c><00:08:48.000><c> behavior</c><00:08:48.480><c> of</c><00:08:48.800><c> Jupiter</c><00:08:49.279><c> is</c><00:08:49.519><c> key</c>

07:46.003 --> 07:46.013 align:start position:0%
The suspected behavior of Jupiter is key
 

07:46.013 --> 07:47.764 align:start position:0%
The suspected behavior of Jupiter is key
to<00:08:50.080><c> explaining</c><00:08:50.480><c> the</c><00:08:50.640><c> observations</c><00:08:51.200><c> that</c><00:08:51.440><c> have</c>

07:47.764 --> 07:47.774 align:start position:0%
to explaining the observations that have
 

07:47.774 --> 07:49.764 align:start position:0%
to explaining the observations that have
led<00:08:51.839><c> to</c><00:08:51.920><c> the</c><00:08:52.160><c> proposal</c><00:08:52.560><c> of</c><00:08:52.720><c> the</c><00:08:52.959><c> late</c><00:08:53.200><c> heavy</c>

07:49.764 --> 07:49.774 align:start position:0%
led to the proposal of the late heavy
 

07:49.774 --> 07:53.044 align:start position:0%
led to the proposal of the late heavy
bombardment<00:08:54.160><c> theory.</c><00:08:55.519><c> Jupiter</c><00:08:56.160><c> is</c><00:08:56.480><c> not</c>

07:53.044 --> 07:53.054 align:start position:0%
bombardment theory. Jupiter is not
 

07:53.054 --> 07:55.123 align:start position:0%
bombardment theory. Jupiter is not
thought<00:08:57.279><c> to</c><00:08:57.519><c> have</c><00:08:57.760><c> always</c><00:08:58.080><c> orbited</c><00:08:58.560><c> at</c><00:08:58.720><c> a</c>

07:55.123 --> 07:55.133 align:start position:0%
thought to have always orbited at a
 

07:55.133 --> 07:59.284 align:start position:0%
thought to have always orbited at a
distance<00:08:59.279><c> of</c><00:08:59.680><c> 768</c><00:09:01.040><c> million</c><00:09:01.360><c> km</c><00:09:01.839><c> from</c><00:09:02.000><c> the</c><00:09:02.160><c> sun.</c>

07:59.284 --> 07:59.294 align:start position:0%
distance of 768 million km from the sun.
 

07:59.294 --> 08:02.003 align:start position:0%
distance of 768 million km from the sun.
Initially,<00:09:04.000><c> Jupiter</c><00:09:04.560><c> moved</c><00:09:04.959><c> inward</c><00:09:05.440><c> towards</c>

08:02.003 --> 08:02.013 align:start position:0%
Initially, Jupiter moved inward towards
 

08:02.013 --> 08:04.484 align:start position:0%
Initially, Jupiter moved inward towards
the<00:09:06.000><c> sun,</c><00:09:06.800><c> reaching</c><00:09:07.200><c> roughly</c><00:09:07.519><c> where</c><00:09:07.839><c> Mars</c>

08:04.484 --> 08:04.494 align:start position:0%
the sun, reaching roughly where Mars
 

08:04.494 --> 08:07.443 align:start position:0%
the sun, reaching roughly where Mars
orbits<00:09:08.800><c> now,</c><00:09:09.680><c> as</c><00:09:10.320><c> Mars</c><00:09:10.720><c> and</c><00:09:10.880><c> the</c><00:09:11.040><c> other</c>

08:07.443 --> 08:07.453 align:start position:0%
orbits now, as Mars and the other
 

08:07.453 --> 08:08.884 align:start position:0%
orbits now, as Mars and the other
planets<00:09:11.600><c> didn't</c><00:09:11.839><c> exist</c><00:09:12.080><c> there</c><00:09:12.320><c> at</c><00:09:12.560><c> that</c>

08:08.884 --> 08:08.894 align:start position:0%
planets didn't exist there at that
 

08:08.894 --> 08:12.324 align:start position:0%
planets didn't exist there at that
point,<00:09:13.680><c> only</c><00:09:13.920><c> to</c><00:09:14.160><c> then</c><00:09:14.560><c> change</c><00:09:14.959><c> direction</c><00:09:15.839><c> and</c>

08:12.324 --> 08:12.334 align:start position:0%
point, only to then change direction and
 

08:12.334 --> 08:15.284 align:start position:0%
point, only to then change direction and
pull<00:09:16.399><c> away</c><00:09:16.720><c> again.</c><00:09:17.839><c> All</c><00:09:18.080><c> of</c><00:09:18.240><c> this</c><00:09:18.560><c> possibly</c>

08:15.284 --> 08:15.294 align:start position:0%
pull away again. All of this possibly
 

08:15.294 --> 08:16.964 align:start position:0%
pull away again. All of this possibly
happened<00:09:19.440><c> within</c><00:09:19.920><c> just</c><00:09:20.240><c> hundreds</c><00:09:20.640><c> of</c>

08:16.964 --> 08:16.974 align:start position:0%
happened within just hundreds of
 

08:16.974 --> 08:20.804 align:start position:0%
happened within just hundreds of
thousands<00:09:21.680><c> to</c><00:09:21.920><c> a</c><00:09:22.160><c> few</c><00:09:22.399><c> million</c><00:09:22.800><c> years.</c>

08:20.804 --> 08:20.814 align:start position:0%
thousands to a few million years.
 

08:20.814 --> 08:23.844 align:start position:0%
thousands to a few million years.
What<00:09:24.959><c> made</c><00:09:25.360><c> Jupiter</c><00:09:25.920><c> behave</c><00:09:26.240><c> like</c><00:09:26.480><c> this?</c><00:09:27.360><c> The</c>

08:23.844 --> 08:23.854 align:start position:0%
What made Jupiter behave like this? The
 

08:23.854 --> 08:26.404 align:start position:0%
What made Jupiter behave like this? The
short<00:09:28.000><c> answer</c><00:09:28.320><c> is</c><00:09:29.120><c> its</c><00:09:29.519><c> relationship</c><00:09:30.000><c> with</c>

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short answer is its relationship with
 

08:26.414 --> 08:29.284 align:start position:0%
short answer is its relationship with
Saturn.<00:09:31.360><c> When</c><00:09:31.600><c> Jupiter</c><00:09:32.080><c> formed,</c><00:09:32.720><c> there</c><00:09:32.959><c> was</c>

08:29.284 --> 08:29.294 align:start position:0%
Saturn. When Jupiter formed, there was
 

08:29.294 --> 08:31.524 align:start position:0%
Saturn. When Jupiter formed, there was
still<00:09:33.360><c> a</c><00:09:33.600><c> huge</c><00:09:34.080><c> amount</c><00:09:34.320><c> of</c><00:09:34.560><c> gas</c><00:09:34.880><c> swirling</c>

08:31.524 --> 08:31.534 align:start position:0%
still a huge amount of gas swirling
 

08:31.534 --> 08:34.563 align:start position:0%
still a huge amount of gas swirling
around<00:09:35.680><c> our</c><00:09:36.000><c> developing</c><00:09:36.560><c> sun.</c><00:09:37.600><c> This</c><00:09:37.839><c> gas</c>

08:34.563 --> 08:34.573 align:start position:0%
around our developing sun. This gas
 

08:34.573 --> 08:37.284 align:start position:0%
around our developing sun. This gas
dragged<00:09:39.040><c> Jupiter</c><00:09:39.600><c> along</c><00:09:40.240><c> towards</c><00:09:40.640><c> the</c><00:09:40.880><c> center</c>

08:37.284 --> 08:37.294 align:start position:0%
dragged Jupiter along towards the center
 

08:37.294 --> 08:40.404 align:start position:0%
dragged Jupiter along towards the center
of<00:09:41.279><c> the</c><00:09:41.440><c> newly</c><00:09:41.839><c> forming</c><00:09:42.240><c> solar</c><00:09:42.560><c> system.</c><00:09:43.680><c> Once</c>

08:40.404 --> 08:40.414 align:start position:0%
of the newly forming solar system. Once
 

08:40.414 --> 08:43.604 align:start position:0%
of the newly forming solar system. Once
Saturn<00:09:44.800><c> had</c><00:09:45.040><c> formed,</c><00:09:45.839><c> it</c><00:09:46.080><c> also</c><00:09:46.560><c> joined</c><00:09:46.959><c> this</c>

08:43.604 --> 08:43.614 align:start position:0%
Saturn had formed, it also joined this
 

08:43.614 --> 08:46.884 align:start position:0%
Saturn had formed, it also joined this
death<00:09:47.760><c> ride</c><00:09:48.000><c> towards</c><00:09:48.399><c> the</c><00:09:48.560><c> sun.</c><00:09:49.680><c> However,</c><00:09:50.399><c> the</c>

08:46.884 --> 08:46.894 align:start position:0%
death ride towards the sun. However, the
 

08:46.894 --> 08:49.123 align:start position:0%
death ride towards the sun. However, the
two<00:09:51.040><c> new</c><00:09:51.360><c> planets</c><00:09:51.839><c> bonded</c><00:09:52.480><c> as</c><00:09:52.720><c> their</c>

08:49.123 --> 08:49.133 align:start position:0%
two new planets bonded as their
 

08:49.133 --> 08:51.524 align:start position:0%
two new planets bonded as their
gravities<00:09:53.440><c> combined,</c><00:09:54.240><c> and</c><00:09:54.480><c> the</c><00:09:54.640><c> sudden</c><00:09:54.959><c> tug</c>

08:51.524 --> 08:51.534 align:start position:0%
gravities combined, and the sudden tug
 

08:51.534 --> 08:54.324 align:start position:0%
gravities combined, and the sudden tug
of<00:09:55.600><c> Saturn</c><00:09:56.000><c> behind</c><00:09:56.399><c> it</c><00:09:56.800><c> was</c><00:09:57.040><c> enough</c><00:09:57.360><c> to</c><00:09:57.600><c> arrest</c>

08:54.324 --> 08:54.334 align:start position:0%
of Saturn behind it was enough to arrest
 

08:54.334 --> 08:56.484 align:start position:0%
of Saturn behind it was enough to arrest
Jupiter's<00:09:58.720><c> grand</c><00:09:58.959><c> procession</c><00:09:59.519><c> towards</c><00:10:00.080><c> the</c>

08:56.484 --> 08:56.494 align:start position:0%
Jupiter's grand procession towards the
 

08:56.494 --> 08:59.044 align:start position:0%
Jupiter's grand procession towards the
solar<00:10:00.640><c> systems</c><00:10:01.040><c> inner</c><00:10:01.360><c> territory</c><00:10:02.399><c> and</c><00:10:02.640><c> to</c>

08:59.044 --> 08:59.054 align:start position:0%
solar systems inner territory and to
 

08:59.054 --> 09:01.204 align:start position:0%
solar systems inner territory and to
gently<00:10:03.360><c> pull</c><00:10:03.680><c> it</c><00:10:03.839><c> back</c><00:10:04.080><c> to</c><00:10:04.240><c> the</c><00:10:04.399><c> orbit</c><00:10:04.800><c> we</c><00:10:04.959><c> see</c>

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gently pull it back to the orbit we see
 

09:01.214 --> 09:03.364 align:start position:0%
gently pull it back to the orbit we see
it<00:10:05.200><c> at</c><00:10:05.440><c> today.</c>

09:03.364 --> 09:03.374 align:start position:0%
it at today.
 

09:03.374 --> 09:05.683 align:start position:0%
it at today.
But<00:10:07.440><c> this</c><00:10:07.760><c> procession</c><00:10:08.399><c> was</c><00:10:08.720><c> not</c><00:10:09.040><c> without</c>

09:05.683 --> 09:05.693 align:start position:0%
But this procession was not without
 

09:05.693 --> 09:09.044 align:start position:0%
But this procession was not without
impact.<00:10:10.560><c> Quite</c><00:10:10.880><c> literally,</c><00:10:12.080><c> our</c><00:10:12.399><c> asteroid</c>

09:09.044 --> 09:09.054 align:start position:0%
impact. Quite literally, our asteroid
 

09:09.054 --> 09:13.123 align:start position:0%
impact. Quite literally, our asteroid
belt<00:10:13.440><c> with</c><00:10:13.680><c> its</c><00:10:14.000><c> 1</c><00:10:14.240><c> to2</c><00:10:15.120><c> million</c><00:10:15.600><c> asteroids</c>

09:13.123 --> 09:13.133 align:start position:0%
belt with its 1 to2 million asteroids
 

09:13.133 --> 09:16.563 align:start position:0%
belt with its 1 to2 million asteroids
potentially<00:10:17.680><c> only</c><00:10:18.079><c> represents</c><00:10:18.800><c> less</c><00:10:19.120><c> than</c><00:10:19.519><c> 1%</c>

09:16.563 --> 09:16.573 align:start position:0%
potentially only represents less than 1%
 

09:16.573 --> 09:20.404 align:start position:0%
potentially only represents less than 1%
of<00:10:20.640><c> the</c><00:10:20.800><c> matter</c><00:10:21.200><c> that</c><00:10:21.839><c> used</c><00:10:22.320><c> to</c><00:10:22.640><c> be</c><00:10:22.800><c> there.</c><00:10:24.000><c> So</c>

09:20.404 --> 09:20.414 align:start position:0%
of the matter that used to be there. So
 

09:20.414 --> 09:22.724 align:start position:0%
of the matter that used to be there. So
when<00:10:24.640><c> Jupiter</c><00:10:25.120><c> came</c><00:10:25.440><c> sweeping</c><00:10:26.000><c> through</c><00:10:26.320><c> with</c>

09:22.724 --> 09:22.734 align:start position:0%
when Jupiter came sweeping through with
 

09:22.734 --> 09:25.204 align:start position:0%
when Jupiter came sweeping through with
its<00:10:26.880><c> massive</c><00:10:27.600><c> farreaching</c><00:10:28.399><c> gravitational</c>

09:25.204 --> 09:25.214 align:start position:0%
its massive farreaching gravitational
 

09:25.214 --> 09:28.884 align:start position:0%
its massive farreaching gravitational
pull,<00:10:29.920><c> a</c><00:10:30.160><c> lot</c><00:10:30.240><c> of</c><00:10:30.399><c> orbits</c><00:10:30.959><c> became</c><00:10:31.519><c> disrupted</c>

09:28.884 --> 09:28.894 align:start position:0%
pull, a lot of orbits became disrupted
 

09:28.894 --> 09:31.284 align:start position:0%
pull, a lot of orbits became disrupted
and<00:10:33.040><c> many</c><00:10:33.279><c> of</c><00:10:33.519><c> those</c><00:10:33.760><c> objects</c><00:10:34.399><c> started</c><00:10:34.880><c> to</c>

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and many of those objects started to
 

09:31.294 --> 09:34.003 align:start position:0%
and many of those objects started to
fall<00:10:35.440><c> inward.</c><00:10:36.480><c> Let's</c><00:10:36.800><c> hope</c><00:10:37.040><c> our</c><00:10:37.440><c> visiting</c>

09:34.003 --> 09:34.013 align:start position:0%
fall inward. Let's hope our visiting
 

09:34.013 --> 09:36.484 align:start position:0%
fall inward. Let's hope our visiting
aliens<00:10:38.480><c> have</c><00:10:38.800><c> decent</c><00:10:39.279><c> maneuverability</c><00:10:40.079><c> on</c>

09:36.484 --> 09:36.494 align:start position:0%
aliens have decent maneuverability on
 

09:36.494 --> 09:39.683 align:start position:0%
aliens have decent maneuverability on
their<00:10:40.480><c> ship.</c><00:10:41.920><c> Two</c><00:10:42.240><c> types</c><00:10:42.560><c> of</c><00:10:42.720><c> asteroids</c><00:10:43.279><c> were</c>

09:39.683 --> 09:39.693 align:start position:0%
their ship. Two types of asteroids were
 

09:39.693 --> 09:42.084 align:start position:0%
their ship. Two types of asteroids were
brought<00:10:43.760><c> into</c><00:10:44.079><c> this</c><00:10:44.320><c> process</c><00:10:45.200><c> from</c><00:10:45.519><c> both</c><00:10:45.680><c> the</c>

09:42.084 --> 09:42.094 align:start position:0%
brought into this process from both the
 

09:42.094 --> 09:45.524 align:start position:0%
brought into this process from both the
inner<00:10:46.399><c> and</c><00:10:46.959><c> outer</c><00:10:47.360><c> solar</c><00:10:47.680><c> system.</c><00:10:48.720><c> This</c><00:10:48.959><c> fact</c>

09:45.524 --> 09:45.534 align:start position:0%
inner and outer solar system. This fact
 

09:45.534 --> 09:48.243 align:start position:0%
inner and outer solar system. This fact
becomes<00:10:49.839><c> quite</c><00:10:50.160><c> important</c><00:10:50.640><c> later.</c><00:10:51.600><c> Not</c><00:10:51.920><c> all</c>

09:48.243 --> 09:48.253 align:start position:0%
becomes quite important later. Not all
 

09:48.253 --> 09:50.404 align:start position:0%
becomes quite important later. Not all
asteroids<00:10:52.640><c> are</c><00:10:52.800><c> the</c><00:10:52.959><c> same</c><00:10:53.440><c> and</c><00:10:53.680><c> you</c><00:10:53.839><c> may</c><00:10:54.000><c> be</c>

09:50.404 --> 09:50.414 align:start position:0%
asteroids are the same and you may be
 

09:50.414 --> 09:53.443 align:start position:0%
asteroids are the same and you may be
familiar<00:10:54.560><c> with</c><00:10:54.720><c> the</c><00:10:54.959><c> terms</c><00:10:56.240><c> and</c><00:10:56.720><c> cype</c>

09:53.443 --> 09:53.453 align:start position:0%
familiar with the terms and cype
 

09:53.453 --> 09:55.284 align:start position:0%
familiar with the terms and cype
asteroids.

09:55.284 --> 09:55.294 align:start position:0%
asteroids.
 

09:55.294 --> 09:57.764 align:start position:0%
asteroids.
S-type<00:10:59.600><c> asteroids</c><00:11:00.160><c> are</c><00:11:00.240><c> the</c><00:11:00.480><c> stony</c><00:11:00.959><c> asteroids</c>

09:57.764 --> 09:57.774 align:start position:0%
S-type asteroids are the stony asteroids
 

09:57.774 --> 10:00.084 align:start position:0%
S-type asteroids are the stony asteroids
from<00:11:01.839><c> the</c><00:11:02.000><c> inner</c><00:11:02.320><c> solar</c><00:11:02.640><c> system</c><00:11:03.279><c> mainly</c><00:11:03.680><c> made</c>

10:00.084 --> 10:00.094 align:start position:0%
from the inner solar system mainly made
 

10:00.094 --> 10:02.404 align:start position:0%
from the inner solar system mainly made
up<00:11:04.079><c> from</c><00:11:04.480><c> silicut</c><00:11:05.040><c> materials</c><00:11:05.600><c> and</c><00:11:05.839><c> nickel</c>

10:02.404 --> 10:02.414 align:start position:0%
up from silicut materials and nickel
 

10:02.414 --> 10:05.044 align:start position:0%
up from silicut materials and nickel
iron.<00:11:07.120><c> They</c><00:11:07.360><c> are</c><00:11:07.519><c> drier</c><00:11:08.160><c> because</c><00:11:08.480><c> they</c><00:11:08.720><c> come</c>

10:05.044 --> 10:05.054 align:start position:0%
iron. They are drier because they come
 

10:05.054 --> 10:07.524 align:start position:0%
iron. They are drier because they come
from<00:11:09.200><c> closer</c><00:11:09.519><c> to</c><00:11:09.680><c> the</c><00:11:09.839><c> sun.</c><00:11:10.800><c> Sea</c><00:11:11.120><c> type</c>

10:07.524 --> 10:07.534 align:start position:0%
from closer to the sun. Sea type
 

10:07.534 --> 10:10.404 align:start position:0%
from closer to the sun. Sea type
asteroids,<00:11:12.480><c> the</c><00:11:12.720><c> condrite</c><00:11:13.279><c> or</c><00:11:13.600><c> carbonatous</c>

10:10.404 --> 10:10.414 align:start position:0%
asteroids, the condrite or carbonatous
 

10:10.414 --> 10:13.204 align:start position:0%
asteroids, the condrite or carbonatous
asteroids<00:11:15.120><c> are</c><00:11:15.279><c> the</c><00:11:15.519><c> most</c><00:11:15.680><c> common</c><00:11:16.480><c> and</c><00:11:16.800><c> are</c>

10:13.204 --> 10:13.214 align:start position:0%
asteroids are the most common and are
 

10:13.214 --> 10:15.604 align:start position:0%
asteroids are the most common and are
among<00:11:17.440><c> the</c><00:11:17.760><c> most</c><00:11:18.079><c> ancient</c><00:11:18.560><c> objects</c><00:11:18.959><c> in</c><00:11:19.200><c> our</c>

10:15.604 --> 10:15.614 align:start position:0%
among the most ancient objects in our
 

10:15.614 --> 10:18.644 align:start position:0%
among the most ancient objects in our
solar<00:11:19.760><c> system.</c><00:11:20.800><c> They</c><00:11:21.120><c> come</c><00:11:21.440><c> from</c><00:11:21.760><c> the</c><00:11:22.079><c> outer</c>

10:18.644 --> 10:18.654 align:start position:0%
solar system. They come from the outer
 

10:18.654 --> 10:21.284 align:start position:0%
solar system. They come from the outer
asteroid<00:11:23.040><c> belts</c><00:11:23.680><c> and</c><00:11:24.000><c> they</c><00:11:24.160><c> contain</c><00:11:24.720><c> much</c>

10:21.284 --> 10:21.294 align:start position:0%
asteroid belts and they contain much
 

10:21.294 --> 10:23.364 align:start position:0%
asteroid belts and they contain much
larger<00:11:25.519><c> amounts</c><00:11:25.839><c> of</c><00:11:26.079><c> something</c><00:11:26.720><c> that</c><00:11:26.959><c> would</c>

10:23.364 --> 10:23.374 align:start position:0%
larger amounts of something that would
 

10:23.374 --> 10:26.724 align:start position:0%
larger amounts of something that would
later<00:11:27.839><c> prove</c><00:11:28.240><c> crucial</c><00:11:28.720><c> to</c><00:11:28.959><c> our</c><00:11:29.200><c> planet,</c>

10:26.724 --> 10:26.734 align:start position:0%
later prove crucial to our planet,
 

10:26.734 --> 10:28.484 align:start position:0%
later prove crucial to our planet,
water.

10:28.484 --> 10:28.494 align:start position:0%
water.
 

10:28.494 --> 10:30.964 align:start position:0%
water.
And<00:11:32.640><c> all</c><00:11:32.880><c> of</c><00:11:33.040><c> these</c><00:11:33.279><c> asteroids</c><00:11:33.920><c> began</c><00:11:34.240><c> to</c><00:11:34.480><c> fall</c>

10:30.964 --> 10:30.974 align:start position:0%
And all of these asteroids began to fall
 

10:30.974 --> 10:33.204 align:start position:0%
And all of these asteroids began to fall
through<00:11:35.040><c> the</c><00:11:35.279><c> patch</c><00:11:35.519><c> of</c><00:11:35.680><c> space</c><00:11:36.240><c> our</c><00:11:36.640><c> planet</c>

10:33.204 --> 10:33.214 align:start position:0%
through the patch of space our planet
 

10:33.214 --> 10:34.964 align:start position:0%
through the patch of space our planet
was<00:11:37.279><c> orbiting.</c>

10:34.964 --> 10:34.974 align:start position:0%
was orbiting.
 

10:34.974 --> 10:37.443 align:start position:0%
was orbiting.
The<00:11:39.040><c> timing</c><00:11:39.440><c> of</c><00:11:39.600><c> this,</c><00:11:40.000><c> as</c><00:11:40.320><c> far</c><00:11:40.480><c> as</c><00:11:40.640><c> our</c><00:11:40.959><c> planet</c>

10:37.443 --> 10:37.453 align:start position:0%
The timing of this, as far as our planet
 

10:37.453 --> 10:40.404 align:start position:0%
The timing of this, as far as our planet
is<00:11:41.519><c> concerned,</c><00:11:42.000><c> was</c><00:11:42.320><c> crucial.</c><00:11:43.440><c> By</c><00:11:43.760><c> then,</c><00:11:44.000><c> the</c>

10:40.404 --> 10:40.414 align:start position:0%
is concerned, was crucial. By then, the
 

10:40.414 --> 10:42.324 align:start position:0%
is concerned, was crucial. By then, the
surface<00:11:44.560><c> of</c><00:11:44.720><c> the</c><00:11:44.800><c> Earth</c><00:11:45.040><c> had</c><00:11:45.279><c> cooled</c><00:11:45.600><c> to</c><00:11:45.839><c> form</c>

10:42.324 --> 10:42.334 align:start position:0%
surface of the Earth had cooled to form
 

10:42.334 --> 10:45.204 align:start position:0%
surface of the Earth had cooled to form
a<00:11:46.399><c> more</c><00:11:46.640><c> stable</c><00:11:47.040><c> crust,</c><00:11:47.920><c> what</c><00:11:48.160><c> we</c><00:11:48.399><c> know</c><00:11:48.640><c> as</c><00:11:48.880><c> the</c>

10:45.204 --> 10:45.214 align:start position:0%
a more stable crust, what we know as the
 

10:45.214 --> 10:48.964 align:start position:0%
a more stable crust, what we know as the
lithosphere<00:11:49.920><c> today.</c><00:11:51.360><c> This</c><00:11:51.839><c> insulated</c>

10:48.964 --> 10:48.974 align:start position:0%
lithosphere today. This insulated
 

10:48.974 --> 10:51.044 align:start position:0%
lithosphere today. This insulated
anything<00:11:53.279><c> above</c><00:11:53.680><c> from</c><00:11:53.920><c> the</c><00:11:54.079><c> enormous</c><00:11:54.560><c> heat</c><00:11:54.720><c> of</c>

10:51.044 --> 10:51.054 align:start position:0%
anything above from the enormous heat of
 

10:51.054 --> 10:53.443 align:start position:0%
anything above from the enormous heat of
the<00:11:55.040><c> magma</c><00:11:55.440><c> below.</c><00:11:56.320><c> The</c><00:11:56.480><c> magma</c><00:11:56.880><c> near</c><00:11:57.120><c> the</c>

10:53.443 --> 10:53.453 align:start position:0%
the magma below. The magma near the
 

10:53.453 --> 10:55.284 align:start position:0%
the magma below. The magma near the
surface<00:11:57.600><c> was</c><00:11:57.920><c> much</c><00:11:58.240><c> hotter</c><00:11:58.560><c> than</c><00:11:58.720><c> it</c><00:11:58.880><c> is</c>

10:55.284 --> 10:55.294 align:start position:0%
surface was much hotter than it is
 

10:55.294 --> 10:57.844 align:start position:0%
surface was much hotter than it is
today,<00:11:59.760><c> around</c><00:12:00.160><c> 1,600°</c>

10:57.844 --> 10:57.854 align:start position:0%
today, around 1,600°
 

10:57.854 --> 11:01.764 align:start position:0%
today, around 1,600°
C,<00:12:02.480><c> and</c><00:12:02.720><c> it</c><00:12:02.959><c> was</c><00:12:03.360><c> much</c><00:12:03.680><c> more</c><00:12:03.920><c> liquid.</c><00:12:05.120><c> Heavier</c>

11:01.764 --> 11:01.774 align:start position:0%
C, and it was much more liquid. Heavier
 

11:01.774 --> 11:04.404 align:start position:0%
C, and it was much more liquid. Heavier
elements,<00:12:06.399><c> especially</c><00:12:06.959><c> iron,</c><00:12:07.680><c> had</c><00:12:07.920><c> sunk</c>

11:04.404 --> 11:04.414 align:start position:0%
elements, especially iron, had sunk
 

11:04.414 --> 11:06.563 align:start position:0%
elements, especially iron, had sunk
towards<00:12:08.560><c> the</c><00:12:08.800><c> central</c><00:12:09.120><c> core,</c><00:12:09.920><c> leaving</c><00:12:10.160><c> the</c>

11:06.563 --> 11:06.573 align:start position:0%
towards the central core, leaving the
 

11:06.573 --> 11:08.243 align:start position:0%
towards the central core, leaving the
lighter<00:12:10.720><c> elements</c><00:12:11.120><c> and</c><00:12:11.360><c> minerals</c><00:12:11.680><c> at</c><00:12:11.920><c> the</c>

11:08.243 --> 11:08.253 align:start position:0%
lighter elements and minerals at the
 

11:08.253 --> 11:11.123 align:start position:0%
lighter elements and minerals at the
surface.<00:12:13.040><c> As</c><00:12:13.279><c> the</c><00:12:13.440><c> asteroids</c><00:12:14.079><c> rain</c><00:12:14.399><c> down</c><00:12:14.639><c> onto</c>

11:11.123 --> 11:11.133 align:start position:0%
surface. As the asteroids rain down onto
 

11:11.133 --> 11:13.044 align:start position:0%
surface. As the asteroids rain down onto
the<00:12:15.120><c> surface,</c><00:12:15.680><c> they</c><00:12:16.000><c> brought</c><00:12:16.240><c> with</c><00:12:16.480><c> them</c><00:12:16.639><c> a</c>

11:13.044 --> 11:13.054 align:start position:0%
the surface, they brought with them a
 

11:13.054 --> 11:15.044 align:start position:0%
the surface, they brought with them a
whole<00:12:17.120><c> range</c><00:12:17.440><c> of</c><00:12:17.680><c> elements</c><00:12:18.160><c> and</c><00:12:18.399><c> minerals</c>

11:15.044 --> 11:15.054 align:start position:0%
whole range of elements and minerals
 

11:15.054 --> 11:16.803 align:start position:0%
whole range of elements and minerals
that<00:12:19.120><c> would</c><00:12:19.360><c> remain</c><00:12:19.760><c> as</c><00:12:20.079><c> part</c><00:12:20.240><c> of</c><00:12:20.399><c> this</c>

11:16.803 --> 11:16.813 align:start position:0%
that would remain as part of this
 

11:16.813 --> 11:19.524 align:start position:0%
that would remain as part of this
surface<00:12:21.200><c> layer.</c><00:12:22.000><c> It</c><00:12:22.240><c> is</c><00:12:22.399><c> now</c><00:12:22.639><c> thought</c><00:12:22.959><c> that</c>

11:19.524 --> 11:19.534 align:start position:0%
surface layer. It is now thought that
 

11:19.534 --> 11:21.524 align:start position:0%
surface layer. It is now thought that
many<00:12:23.680><c> of</c><00:12:23.839><c> the</c><00:12:24.000><c> important</c><00:12:24.399><c> deposits</c><00:12:24.880><c> we</c><00:12:25.120><c> find</c>

11:21.524 --> 11:21.534 align:start position:0%
many of the important deposits we find
 

11:21.534 --> 11:24.324 align:start position:0%
many of the important deposits we find
at<00:12:25.519><c> the</c><00:12:25.680><c> surface</c><00:12:26.000><c> today,</c><00:12:26.800><c> ores</c><00:12:27.360><c> and</c><00:12:27.600><c> metals</c>

11:24.324 --> 11:24.334 align:start position:0%
at the surface today, ores and metals
 

11:24.334 --> 11:27.604 align:start position:0%
at the surface today, ores and metals
such<00:12:28.399><c> as</c><00:12:28.720><c> lead,</c><00:12:29.279><c> nickel,</c><00:12:29.920><c> copper,</c><00:12:30.320><c> and</c><00:12:30.639><c> gold</c>

11:27.604 --> 11:27.614 align:start position:0%
such as lead, nickel, copper, and gold
 

11:27.614 --> 11:30.724 align:start position:0%
such as lead, nickel, copper, and gold
were<00:12:31.680><c> brought</c><00:12:32.079><c> here</c><00:12:32.480><c> in</c><00:12:32.720><c> this</c><00:12:33.040><c> way.</c>

11:30.724 --> 11:30.734 align:start position:0%
were brought here in this way.
 

11:30.734 --> 11:32.724 align:start position:0%
were brought here in this way.
More<00:12:34.959><c> important</c><00:12:35.360><c> than</c><00:12:35.600><c> valuable</c><00:12:36.079><c> metals,</c>

11:32.724 --> 11:32.734 align:start position:0%
More important than valuable metals,
 

11:32.734 --> 11:36.563 align:start position:0%
More important than valuable metals,
however,<00:12:37.040><c> was</c><00:12:37.360><c> the</c><00:12:37.600><c> arrival</c><00:12:38.079><c> of</c><00:12:38.480><c> water.</c><00:12:39.760><c> Vast</c>

11:36.563 --> 11:36.573 align:start position:0%
however, was the arrival of water. Vast
 

11:36.573 --> 11:38.644 align:start position:0%
however, was the arrival of water. Vast
amounts<00:12:40.880><c> of</c><00:12:41.120><c> water.</c>

11:38.644 --> 11:38.654 align:start position:0%
amounts of water.
 

11:38.654 --> 11:41.123 align:start position:0%
amounts of water.
Had<00:12:42.880><c> all</c><00:12:43.040><c> this</c><00:12:43.279><c> water</c><00:12:43.680><c> arrived</c><00:12:44.160><c> earlier</c><00:12:44.639><c> when</c>

11:41.123 --> 11:41.133 align:start position:0%
Had all this water arrived earlier when
 

11:41.133 --> 11:43.524 align:start position:0%
Had all this water arrived earlier when
the<00:12:45.120><c> surface</c><00:12:45.360><c> of</c><00:12:45.519><c> our</c><00:12:45.760><c> planet</c><00:12:46.079><c> was</c><00:12:46.320><c> hotter</c><00:12:47.120><c> and</c>

11:43.524 --> 11:43.534 align:start position:0%
the surface of our planet was hotter and
 

11:43.534 --> 11:45.844 align:start position:0%
the surface of our planet was hotter and
less<00:12:47.680><c> able</c><00:12:47.920><c> to</c><00:12:48.160><c> maintain</c><00:12:48.480><c> an</c><00:12:48.720><c> atmosphere,</c>

11:45.844 --> 11:45.854 align:start position:0%
less able to maintain an atmosphere,
 

11:45.854 --> 11:47.764 align:start position:0%
less able to maintain an atmosphere,
much<00:12:50.160><c> or</c><00:12:50.399><c> all</c><00:12:50.560><c> of</c><00:12:50.720><c> it</c><00:12:50.880><c> would</c><00:12:51.040><c> have</c><00:12:51.200><c> escaped</c>

11:47.764 --> 11:47.774 align:start position:0%
much or all of it would have escaped
 

11:47.774 --> 11:50.164 align:start position:0%
much or all of it would have escaped
back<00:12:51.760><c> into</c><00:12:52.079><c> space,</c><00:12:52.880><c> possibly</c><00:12:53.440><c> leaving</c><00:12:53.760><c> the</c>

11:50.164 --> 11:50.174 align:start position:0%
back into space, possibly leaving the
 

11:50.174 --> 11:53.204 align:start position:0%
back into space, possibly leaving the
planet<00:12:54.480><c> an</c><00:12:54.720><c> arid</c><00:12:55.279><c> desert</c><00:12:55.760><c> like</c><00:12:56.079><c> Mars</c><00:12:56.639><c> and</c><00:12:56.880><c> the</c>

11:53.204 --> 11:53.214 align:start position:0%
planet an arid desert like Mars and the
 

11:53.214 --> 11:56.563 align:start position:0%
planet an arid desert like Mars and the
moon.<00:12:57.920><c> A</c><00:12:58.079><c> lucky</c><00:12:58.399><c> break</c><00:12:58.639><c> for</c><00:12:58.880><c> Earth.</c>

11:56.563 --> 11:56.573 align:start position:0%
moon. A lucky break for Earth.
 

11:56.573 --> 11:58.884 align:start position:0%
moon. A lucky break for Earth.
Surrounding<00:13:01.120><c> Earth</c><00:13:01.519><c> during</c><00:13:01.839><c> the</c><00:13:02.079><c> bombarding</c>

11:58.884 --> 11:58.894 align:start position:0%
Surrounding Earth during the bombarding
 

11:58.894 --> 12:01.844 align:start position:0%
Surrounding Earth during the bombarding
chaos<00:13:03.120><c> 4</c><00:13:03.440><c> billion</c><00:13:03.760><c> years</c><00:13:03.920><c> ago</c><00:13:04.639><c> was</c><00:13:04.880><c> a</c><00:13:05.120><c> toxic</c>

12:01.844 --> 12:01.854 align:start position:0%
chaos 4 billion years ago was a toxic
 

12:01.854 --> 12:04.644 align:start position:0%
chaos 4 billion years ago was a toxic
atmosphere<00:13:06.320><c> of</c><00:13:06.639><c> methane</c><00:13:07.200><c> and</c><00:13:07.440><c> ammonia</c>

12:04.644 --> 12:04.654 align:start position:0%
atmosphere of methane and ammonia
 

12:04.654 --> 12:07.044 align:start position:0%
atmosphere of methane and ammonia
covering<00:13:08.959><c> an</c><00:13:09.279><c> unstable</c><00:13:09.839><c> but</c><00:13:10.160><c> solidifying</c>

12:07.044 --> 12:07.054 align:start position:0%
covering an unstable but solidifying
 

12:07.054 --> 12:10.563 align:start position:0%
covering an unstable but solidifying
surface<00:13:11.279><c> of</c><00:13:11.519><c> bassalt</c><00:13:12.079><c> type</c><00:13:12.399><c> rock.</c><00:13:13.279><c> Dark</c><00:13:13.680><c> gray,</c>

12:10.563 --> 12:10.573 align:start position:0%
surface of bassalt type rock. Dark gray,
 

12:10.573 --> 12:13.204 align:start position:0%
surface of bassalt type rock. Dark gray,
almost<00:13:14.800><c> black</c><00:13:15.120><c> in</c><00:13:15.360><c> color,</c><00:13:16.000><c> and</c><00:13:16.160><c> with</c><00:13:16.560><c> brightly</c>

12:13.204 --> 12:13.214 align:start position:0%
almost black in color, and with brightly
 

12:13.214 --> 12:15.284 align:start position:0%
almost black in color, and with brightly
glowing<00:13:17.440><c> lava</c><00:13:18.000><c> erupting</c><00:13:18.399><c> through</c><00:13:18.639><c> faults</c>

12:15.284 --> 12:15.294 align:start position:0%
glowing lava erupting through faults
 

12:15.294 --> 12:17.123 align:start position:0%
glowing lava erupting through faults
where<00:13:19.360><c> it</c><00:13:19.519><c> was</c><00:13:19.680><c> shattered</c><00:13:20.160><c> by</c><00:13:20.320><c> the</c><00:13:20.480><c> incoming</c>

12:17.123 --> 12:17.133 align:start position:0%
where it was shattered by the incoming
 

12:17.133 --> 12:19.443 align:start position:0%
where it was shattered by the incoming
hailtorm<00:13:21.519><c> of</c><00:13:21.680><c> asteroids.</c>

12:19.443 --> 12:19.453 align:start position:0%
hailtorm of asteroids.
 

12:19.453 --> 12:22.003 align:start position:0%
hailtorm of asteroids.
Steaming<00:13:23.839><c> oceans</c><00:13:24.320><c> of</c><00:13:24.480><c> water</c><00:13:24.800><c> were</c><00:13:25.040><c> forming,</c>

12:22.003 --> 12:22.013 align:start position:0%
Steaming oceans of water were forming,
 

12:22.013 --> 12:24.084 align:start position:0%
Steaming oceans of water were forming,
helping<00:13:26.240><c> to</c><00:13:26.480><c> further</c><00:13:26.800><c> cool</c><00:13:27.120><c> the</c><00:13:27.360><c> developing</c>

12:24.084 --> 12:24.094 align:start position:0%
helping to further cool the developing
 

12:24.094 --> 12:27.524 align:start position:0%
helping to further cool the developing
surface.<00:13:28.880><c> a</c><00:13:29.279><c> true</c><00:13:29.680><c> vision</c><00:13:30.160><c> of</c><00:13:30.399><c> hellfire</c><00:13:31.120><c> and</c>

12:27.524 --> 12:27.534 align:start position:0%
surface. a true vision of hellfire and
 

12:27.534 --> 12:29.044 align:start position:0%
surface. a true vision of hellfire and
brimstone.

12:29.044 --> 12:29.054 align:start position:0%
brimstone.
 

12:29.054 --> 12:31.204 align:start position:0%
brimstone.
It<00:13:33.120><c> is</c><00:13:33.519><c> partly</c><00:13:33.920><c> because</c><00:13:34.160><c> of</c><00:13:34.320><c> this</c><00:13:34.560><c> churning</c>

12:31.204 --> 12:31.214 align:start position:0%
It is partly because of this churning
 

12:31.214 --> 12:34.003 align:start position:0%
It is partly because of this churning
nature<00:13:35.279><c> of</c><00:13:35.440><c> the</c><00:13:35.600><c> surface</c><00:13:36.480><c> floating</c><00:13:36.959><c> on</c><00:13:37.360><c> liquid</c>

12:34.003 --> 12:34.013 align:start position:0%
nature of the surface floating on liquid
 

12:34.013 --> 12:37.284 align:start position:0%
nature of the surface floating on liquid
magma<00:13:38.639><c> that</c><00:13:38.959><c> today</c><00:13:39.360><c> we</c><00:13:39.680><c> see</c><00:13:40.079><c> no</c><00:13:40.480><c> trace</c><00:13:40.800><c> of</c><00:13:40.959><c> the</c>

12:37.284 --> 12:37.294 align:start position:0%
magma that today we see no trace of the
 

12:37.294 --> 12:40.084 align:start position:0%
magma that today we see no trace of the
craters<00:13:41.680><c> left</c><00:13:42.000><c> by</c><00:13:42.240><c> these</c><00:13:42.560><c> impacts.</c><00:13:43.760><c> The</c>

12:40.084 --> 12:40.094 align:start position:0%
craters left by these impacts. The
 

12:40.094 --> 12:42.243 align:start position:0%
craters left by these impacts. The
forming<00:13:44.320><c> lithosphere</c><00:13:45.040><c> was</c><00:13:45.279><c> fractured</c><00:13:45.760><c> into</c>

12:42.243 --> 12:42.253 align:start position:0%
forming lithosphere was fractured into
 

12:42.253 --> 12:45.204 align:start position:0%
forming lithosphere was fractured into
many<00:13:46.720><c> small</c><00:13:47.120><c> tectonic</c><00:13:47.760><c> plates</c><00:13:48.399><c> that</c><00:13:48.720><c> moved</c>

12:45.204 --> 12:45.214 align:start position:0%
many small tectonic plates that moved
 

12:45.214 --> 12:47.204 align:start position:0%
many small tectonic plates that moved
around<00:13:49.360><c> and</c><00:13:49.600><c> recycled</c><00:13:50.079><c> themselves</c><00:13:50.639><c> much</c>

12:47.204 --> 12:47.214 align:start position:0%
around and recycled themselves much
 

12:47.214 --> 12:50.003 align:start position:0%
around and recycled themselves much
faster<00:13:51.440><c> than</c><00:13:51.600><c> they</c><00:13:51.839><c> do</c><00:13:52.000><c> today.</c><00:13:52.959><c> And</c><00:13:53.200><c> no</c><00:13:53.440><c> trace</c>

12:50.003 --> 12:50.013 align:start position:0%
faster than they do today. And no trace
 

12:50.013 --> 12:53.683 align:start position:0%
faster than they do today. And no trace
of<00:13:54.079><c> these</c><00:13:54.480><c> early</c><00:13:54.880><c> rocks</c><00:13:55.360><c> remains.</c><00:13:56.639><c> The</c><00:13:56.880><c> oldest</c>

12:53.683 --> 12:53.693 align:start position:0%
of these early rocks remains. The oldest
 

12:53.693 --> 12:56.324 align:start position:0%
of these early rocks remains. The oldest
surviving<00:13:58.000><c> rock</c><00:13:58.320><c> formations</c><00:13:58.800><c> on</c><00:13:59.120><c> our</c><00:13:59.360><c> planet</c>

12:56.324 --> 12:56.334 align:start position:0%
surviving rock formations on our planet
 

12:56.334 --> 12:58.324 align:start position:0%
surviving rock formations on our planet
roughly<00:14:00.639><c> marked</c><00:14:00.959><c> the</c><00:14:01.199><c> end</c><00:14:01.279><c> of</c><00:14:01.440><c> the</c><00:14:01.600><c> Hadian</c>

12:58.324 --> 12:58.334 align:start position:0%
roughly marked the end of the Hadian
 

12:58.334 --> 13:01.443 align:start position:0%
roughly marked the end of the Hadian
period.<00:14:03.199><c> And</c><00:14:03.360><c> by</c><00:14:03.680><c> this</c><00:14:03.920><c> time,</c><00:14:04.560><c> this</c><00:14:04.800><c> intense</c>

13:01.443 --> 13:01.453 align:start position:0%
period. And by this time, this intense
 

13:01.453 --> 13:03.924 align:start position:0%
period. And by this time, this intense
bombardment<00:14:05.920><c> of</c><00:14:06.240><c> our</c><00:14:06.560><c> planet</c><00:14:07.120><c> had</c><00:14:07.440><c> likely</c>

13:03.924 --> 13:03.934 align:start position:0%
bombardment of our planet had likely
 

13:03.934 --> 13:07.123 align:start position:0%
bombardment of our planet had likely
come<00:14:08.000><c> to</c><00:14:08.160><c> an</c><00:14:08.320><c> end.</c>

13:07.123 --> 13:07.133 align:start position:0%
come to an end.
 

13:07.133 --> 13:09.443 align:start position:0%
come to an end.
The<00:14:11.199><c> end</c><00:14:11.360><c> of</c><00:14:11.440><c> the</c><00:14:11.600><c> Hadian</c><00:14:12.160><c> era</c><00:14:12.399><c> also</c><00:14:12.720><c> marks</c><00:14:13.040><c> the</c>

13:09.443 --> 13:09.453 align:start position:0%
The end of the Hadian era also marks the
 

13:09.453 --> 13:11.204 align:start position:0%
The end of the Hadian era also marks the
beginning<00:14:13.519><c> of</c><00:14:13.680><c> a</c><00:14:13.920><c> new</c><00:14:14.160><c> development</c><00:14:14.639><c> in</c><00:14:14.880><c> our</c>

13:11.204 --> 13:11.214 align:start position:0%
beginning of a new development in our
 

13:11.214 --> 13:14.003 align:start position:0%
beginning of a new development in our
planet's<00:14:15.600><c> fascinating</c><00:14:16.240><c> history,</c><00:14:17.120><c> the</c><00:14:17.440><c> story</c>

13:14.003 --> 13:14.013 align:start position:0%
planet's fascinating history, the story
 

13:14.013 --> 13:16.964 align:start position:0%
planet's fascinating history, the story
of<00:14:18.240><c> life.</c><00:14:19.360><c> It</c><00:14:19.519><c> has</c><00:14:19.680><c> long</c><00:14:19.920><c> been</c><00:14:20.079><c> debated</c><00:14:20.560><c> how</c>

13:16.964 --> 13:16.974 align:start position:0%
of life. It has long been debated how
 

13:16.974 --> 13:18.964 align:start position:0%
of life. It has long been debated how
the<00:14:21.040><c> very</c><00:14:21.360><c> beginnings</c><00:14:21.760><c> of</c><00:14:21.920><c> life</c><00:14:22.320><c> may</c><00:14:22.560><c> have</c>

13:18.964 --> 13:18.974 align:start position:0%
the very beginnings of life may have
 

13:18.974 --> 13:21.363 align:start position:0%
the very beginnings of life may have
evolved<00:14:23.120><c> on</c><00:14:23.360><c> Earth.</c><00:14:24.240><c> Key</c><00:14:24.560><c> building</c><00:14:24.800><c> blocks</c>

13:21.363 --> 13:21.373 align:start position:0%
evolved on Earth. Key building blocks
 

13:21.373 --> 13:23.924 align:start position:0%
evolved on Earth. Key building blocks
would<00:14:25.440><c> have</c><00:14:25.600><c> been</c><00:14:25.760><c> needed</c><00:14:26.480><c> like</c><00:14:26.800><c> hydrocarbons</c>

13:23.924 --> 13:23.934 align:start position:0%
would have been needed like hydrocarbons
 

13:23.934 --> 13:26.724 align:start position:0%
would have been needed like hydrocarbons
and<00:14:28.000><c> other</c><00:14:28.399><c> complex</c><00:14:28.959><c> molecules.</c><00:14:30.240><c> What</c>

13:26.724 --> 13:26.734 align:start position:0%
and other complex molecules. What
 

13:26.734 --> 13:28.724 align:start position:0%
and other complex molecules. What
conditions<00:14:30.959><c> could</c><00:14:31.199><c> have</c><00:14:31.360><c> led</c><00:14:31.600><c> to</c><00:14:31.760><c> the</c><00:14:32.000><c> origins</c>

13:28.724 --> 13:28.734 align:start position:0%
conditions could have led to the origins
 

13:28.734 --> 13:32.243 align:start position:0%
conditions could have led to the origins
of<00:14:32.880><c> this</c><00:14:33.279><c> organic</c><00:14:34.079><c> molecular</c><00:14:34.720><c> soup?</c>

13:32.243 --> 13:32.253 align:start position:0%
of this organic molecular soup?
 

13:32.253 --> 13:34.324 align:start position:0%
of this organic molecular soup?
Interestingly,<00:14:37.040><c> while</c><00:14:37.360><c> there</c><00:14:37.600><c> is</c><00:14:37.760><c> debate</c>

13:34.324 --> 13:34.334 align:start position:0%
Interestingly, while there is debate
 

13:34.334 --> 13:36.243 align:start position:0%
Interestingly, while there is debate
over<00:14:38.399><c> the</c><00:14:38.639><c> reality</c><00:14:39.040><c> of</c><00:14:39.279><c> the</c><00:14:39.440><c> late</c><00:14:39.760><c> heavy</c>

13:36.243 --> 13:36.253 align:start position:0%
over the reality of the late heavy
 

13:36.253 --> 13:38.803 align:start position:0%
over the reality of the late heavy
bombardment,<00:14:41.279><c> this</c><00:14:41.519><c> theory</c><00:14:41.920><c> does</c><00:14:42.160><c> help</c><00:14:42.399><c> to</c>

13:38.803 --> 13:38.813 align:start position:0%
bombardment, this theory does help to
 

13:38.813 --> 13:42.084 align:start position:0%
bombardment, this theory does help to
answer<00:14:43.040><c> this</c><00:14:43.440><c> vital</c><00:14:44.000><c> question.</c><00:14:45.279><c> It</c><00:14:45.600><c> is</c><00:14:45.680><c> now</c>

13:42.084 --> 13:42.094 align:start position:0%
answer this vital question. It is now
 

13:42.094 --> 13:44.243 align:start position:0%
answer this vital question. It is now
known<00:14:46.240><c> that</c><00:14:46.560><c> all</c><00:14:46.880><c> five</c><00:14:47.199><c> of</c><00:14:47.360><c> the</c><00:14:47.680><c> essential</c>

13:44.243 --> 13:44.253 align:start position:0%
known that all five of the essential
 

13:44.253 --> 13:47.683 align:start position:0%
known that all five of the essential
building<00:14:48.399><c> blocks</c><00:14:48.639><c> of</c><00:14:48.880><c> DNA</c><00:14:49.360><c> and</c><00:14:49.680><c> RNA</c><00:14:50.639><c> exist</c><00:14:51.120><c> in</c>

13:47.683 --> 13:47.693 align:start position:0%
building blocks of DNA and RNA exist in
 

13:47.693 --> 13:51.683 align:start position:0%
building blocks of DNA and RNA exist in
space<00:14:52.399><c> and</c><00:14:52.720><c> have</c><00:14:53.120><c> been</c><00:14:53.360><c> found</c><00:14:53.600><c> on</c><00:14:53.839><c> meteorites.</c>

13:51.683 --> 13:51.693 align:start position:0%
space and have been found on meteorites.
 

13:51.693 --> 13:53.844 align:start position:0%
space and have been found on meteorites.
But<00:14:55.680><c> while</c><00:14:55.920><c> the</c><00:14:56.079><c> meteorites</c><00:14:56.800><c> we</c><00:14:57.040><c> see</c><00:14:57.360><c> today</c>

13:53.844 --> 13:53.854 align:start position:0%
But while the meteorites we see today
 

13:53.854 --> 13:55.524 align:start position:0%
But while the meteorites we see today
burning<00:14:58.000><c> up</c><00:14:58.160><c> in</c><00:14:58.320><c> the</c><00:14:58.399><c> night</c><00:14:58.720><c> sky</c><00:14:58.959><c> as</c><00:14:59.199><c> they</c>

13:55.524 --> 13:55.534 align:start position:0%
burning up in the night sky as they
 

13:55.534 --> 13:57.764 align:start position:0%
burning up in the night sky as they
enter<00:14:59.600><c> our</c><00:14:59.920><c> atmosphere</c><00:15:00.560><c> could</c><00:15:00.880><c> never</c><00:15:01.279><c> bring</c>

13:57.764 --> 13:57.774 align:start position:0%
enter our atmosphere could never bring
 

13:57.774 --> 13:59.524 align:start position:0%
enter our atmosphere could never bring
anything<00:15:01.920><c> as</c><00:15:02.160><c> delicate</c><00:15:02.480><c> as</c><00:15:02.639><c> these</c><00:15:02.880><c> molecules</c>

13:59.524 --> 13:59.534 align:start position:0%
anything as delicate as these molecules
 

13:59.534 --> 14:01.924 align:start position:0%
anything as delicate as these molecules
to<00:15:03.519><c> the</c><00:15:03.680><c> surface</c><00:15:03.920><c> of</c><00:15:04.079><c> our</c><00:15:04.320><c> planet,</c><00:15:05.120><c> they</c><00:15:05.440><c> would</c>

14:01.924 --> 14:01.934 align:start position:0%
to the surface of our planet, they would
 

14:01.934 --> 14:03.924 align:start position:0%
to the surface of our planet, they would
burn<00:15:06.079><c> away</c><00:15:06.399><c> to</c><00:15:06.639><c> nothing</c><00:15:07.120><c> before</c><00:15:07.440><c> even</c>

14:03.924 --> 14:03.934 align:start position:0%
burn away to nothing before even
 

14:03.934 --> 14:06.084 align:start position:0%
burn away to nothing before even
reaching<00:15:08.079><c> the</c><00:15:08.320><c> stratosphere.</c>

14:06.084 --> 14:06.094 align:start position:0%
reaching the stratosphere.
 

14:06.094 --> 14:08.884 align:start position:0%
reaching the stratosphere.
But<00:15:10.160><c> when</c><00:15:10.639><c> much</c><00:15:11.199><c> larger</c><00:15:11.680><c> objects</c><00:15:12.079><c> from</c><00:15:12.399><c> space</c>

14:08.884 --> 14:08.894 align:start position:0%
But when much larger objects from space
 

14:08.894 --> 14:11.123 align:start position:0%
But when much larger objects from space
were<00:15:12.959><c> raining</c><00:15:13.440><c> water</c><00:15:13.839><c> and</c><00:15:14.079><c> ice</c><00:15:14.399><c> onto</c><00:15:14.720><c> our</c>

14:11.123 --> 14:11.133 align:start position:0%
were raining water and ice onto our
 

14:11.133 --> 14:13.844 align:start position:0%
were raining water and ice onto our
newly<00:15:15.360><c> formed</c><00:15:15.680><c> surface,</c><00:15:16.720><c> it</c><00:15:16.959><c> is</c><00:15:17.199><c> certainly</c>

14:13.844 --> 14:13.854 align:start position:0%
newly formed surface, it is certainly
 

14:13.854 --> 14:16.164 align:start position:0%
newly formed surface, it is certainly
possible<00:15:18.160><c> that</c><00:15:18.399><c> they</c><00:15:18.800><c> seeded</c><00:15:19.199><c> the</c><00:15:19.440><c> Earth</c><00:15:19.680><c> with</c>

14:16.164 --> 14:16.174 align:start position:0%
possible that they seeded the Earth with
 

14:16.174 --> 14:18.243 align:start position:0%
possible that they seeded the Earth with
some<00:15:20.240><c> of</c><00:15:20.399><c> the</c><00:15:20.639><c> right</c><00:15:20.880><c> ingredients</c><00:15:21.440><c> that</c><00:15:21.760><c> made</c>

14:18.243 --> 14:18.253 align:start position:0%
some of the right ingredients that made
 

14:18.253 --> 14:21.604 align:start position:0%
some of the right ingredients that made
life<00:15:22.880><c> viable.</c><00:15:24.320><c> There</c><00:15:24.560><c> is</c><00:15:24.880><c> compelling</c>

14:21.604 --> 14:21.614 align:start position:0%
life viable. There is compelling
 

14:21.614 --> 14:24.164 align:start position:0%
life viable. There is compelling
evidence<00:15:25.920><c> that</c><00:15:26.160><c> life</c><00:15:26.560><c> began</c><00:15:27.279><c> at</c><00:15:27.519><c> the</c><00:15:27.680><c> very</c>

14:24.164 --> 14:24.174 align:start position:0%
evidence that life began at the very
 

14:24.174 --> 14:26.563 align:start position:0%
evidence that life began at the very
time<00:15:28.320><c> when</c><00:15:28.560><c> this</c><00:15:28.880><c> bombardment</c><00:15:29.519><c> was</c><00:15:29.839><c> ending</c>

14:26.563 --> 14:26.573 align:start position:0%
time when this bombardment was ending
 

14:26.573 --> 14:29.924 align:start position:0%
time when this bombardment was ending
and<00:15:30.720><c> new</c><00:15:30.880><c> oceans</c><00:15:31.440><c> had</c><00:15:31.680><c> formed.</c>

14:29.924 --> 14:29.934 align:start position:0%
and new oceans had formed.
 

14:29.934 --> 14:31.683 align:start position:0%
and new oceans had formed.
Finding<00:15:34.079><c> the</c><00:15:34.320><c> answers</c><00:15:34.560><c> to</c><00:15:34.800><c> many</c><00:15:35.040><c> of</c><00:15:35.199><c> these</c>

14:31.683 --> 14:31.693 align:start position:0%
Finding the answers to many of these
 

14:31.693 --> 14:34.724 align:start position:0%
Finding the answers to many of these
questions<00:15:36.000><c> is</c><00:15:36.560><c> almost</c><00:15:37.040><c> impossible</c><00:15:37.600><c> on</c><00:15:37.839><c> Earth</c>

14:34.724 --> 14:34.734 align:start position:0%
questions is almost impossible on Earth
 

14:34.734 --> 14:37.044 align:start position:0%
questions is almost impossible on Earth
because<00:15:39.199><c> so</c><00:15:39.600><c> little</c><00:15:40.000><c> remains</c><00:15:40.399><c> from</c><00:15:40.639><c> this</c>

14:37.044 --> 14:37.054 align:start position:0%
because so little remains from this
 

14:37.054 --> 14:40.084 align:start position:0%
because so little remains from this
time.<00:15:41.600><c> This</c><00:15:41.839><c> is</c><00:15:42.000><c> why</c><00:15:42.399><c> scientists</c><00:15:43.040><c> are</c><00:15:43.279><c> so</c><00:15:43.600><c> keen</c>

14:40.084 --> 14:40.094 align:start position:0%
time. This is why scientists are so keen
 

14:40.094 --> 14:42.803 align:start position:0%
time. This is why scientists are so keen
to<00:15:44.079><c> study</c><00:15:44.480><c> clues</c><00:15:45.120><c> that</c><00:15:45.440><c> may</c><00:15:45.760><c> still</c><00:15:46.000><c> exist</c><00:15:46.399><c> on</c>

14:42.803 --> 14:42.813 align:start position:0%
to study clues that may still exist on
 

14:42.813 --> 14:45.524 align:start position:0%
to study clues that may still exist on
the<00:15:46.800><c> moon.</c><00:15:47.920><c> The</c><00:15:48.160><c> reason</c><00:15:48.399><c> why</c><00:15:48.720><c> this</c><00:15:48.959><c> evidence</c>

14:45.524 --> 14:45.534 align:start position:0%
the moon. The reason why this evidence
 

14:45.534 --> 14:47.844 align:start position:0%
the moon. The reason why this evidence
is<00:15:49.519><c> so</c><00:15:49.759><c> well</c><00:15:50.000><c> preserved</c><00:15:50.399><c> on</c><00:15:50.560><c> the</c><00:15:50.720><c> moon</c><00:15:50.959><c> is</c><00:15:51.199><c> that</c>

14:47.844 --> 14:47.854 align:start position:0%
is so well preserved on the moon is that
 

14:47.854 --> 14:50.484 align:start position:0%
is so well preserved on the moon is that
unlike<00:15:52.160><c> on</c><00:15:52.399><c> Earth,</c><00:15:53.040><c> the</c><00:15:53.279><c> surface</c><00:15:53.600><c> of</c><00:15:53.759><c> our</c><00:15:54.000><c> moon</c>

14:50.484 --> 14:50.494 align:start position:0%
unlike on Earth, the surface of our moon
 

14:50.494 --> 14:53.123 align:start position:0%
unlike on Earth, the surface of our moon
was<00:15:54.720><c> already</c><00:15:55.199><c> quite</c><00:15:55.519><c> stable</c><00:15:56.320><c> without</c><00:15:56.720><c> the</c>

14:53.123 --> 14:53.133 align:start position:0%
was already quite stable without the
 

14:53.133 --> 14:55.123 align:start position:0%
was already quite stable without the
churning<00:15:57.440><c> and</c><00:15:57.680><c> recycling</c><00:15:58.320><c> of</c><00:15:58.480><c> the</c><00:15:58.639><c> surface</c>

14:55.123 --> 14:55.133 align:start position:0%
churning and recycling of the surface
 

14:55.133 --> 14:57.123 align:start position:0%
churning and recycling of the surface
that<00:15:59.279><c> occurred</c><00:15:59.759><c> here</c><00:16:00.079><c> on</c><00:16:00.320><c> Earth</c><00:16:00.560><c> at</c><00:16:00.720><c> that</c>

14:57.123 --> 14:57.133 align:start position:0%
that occurred here on Earth at that
 

14:57.133 --> 15:00.484 align:start position:0%
that occurred here on Earth at that
time.<00:16:01.680><c> So</c><00:16:02.000><c> the</c><00:16:02.240><c> craters</c><00:16:02.720><c> remain</c><00:16:03.040><c> intact.</c>

15:00.484 --> 15:00.494 align:start position:0%
time. So the craters remain intact.
 

15:00.494 --> 15:02.724 align:start position:0%
time. So the craters remain intact.
Also,<00:16:04.639><c> the</c><00:16:04.880><c> surface</c><00:16:05.120><c> of</c><00:16:05.279><c> the</c><00:16:05.440><c> moon</c><00:16:05.759><c> is</c><00:16:06.160><c> not</c>

15:02.724 --> 15:02.734 align:start position:0%
Also, the surface of the moon is not
 

15:02.734 --> 15:05.443 align:start position:0%
Also, the surface of the moon is not
being<00:16:06.880><c> constantly</c><00:16:07.600><c> eroded</c><00:16:07.920><c> by</c><00:16:08.160><c> weathering.</c>

15:05.443 --> 15:05.453 align:start position:0%
being constantly eroded by weathering.
 

15:05.453 --> 15:08.724 align:start position:0%
being constantly eroded by weathering.
There<00:16:09.519><c> are</c><00:16:09.920><c> no</c><00:16:10.240><c> seas</c><00:16:10.720><c> to</c><00:16:10.880><c> grind</c><00:16:11.199><c> it</c><00:16:11.440><c> down.</c><00:16:12.240><c> No</c>

15:08.724 --> 15:08.734 align:start position:0%
There are no seas to grind it down. No
 

15:08.734 --> 15:10.884 align:start position:0%
There are no seas to grind it down. No
wind<00:16:12.880><c> and</c><00:16:13.120><c> acid</c><00:16:13.440><c> rain</c><00:16:13.759><c> to</c><00:16:13.920><c> wear</c><00:16:14.240><c> away</c><00:16:14.480><c> the</c>

15:10.884 --> 15:10.894 align:start position:0%
wind and acid rain to wear away the
 

15:10.894 --> 15:13.923 align:start position:0%
wind and acid rain to wear away the
rock.<00:16:15.759><c> The</c><00:16:16.000><c> dust</c><00:16:16.399><c> that</c><00:16:16.720><c> covers</c><00:16:17.040><c> the</c><00:16:17.199><c> surface</c>

15:13.923 --> 15:13.933 align:start position:0%
rock. The dust that covers the surface
 

15:13.933 --> 15:16.404 align:start position:0%
rock. The dust that covers the surface
is<00:16:18.160><c> pulverized</c><00:16:18.880><c> rock</c><00:16:19.360><c> that</c><00:16:19.680><c> remains</c>

15:16.404 --> 15:16.414 align:start position:0%
is pulverized rock that remains
 

15:16.414 --> 15:18.724 align:start position:0%
is pulverized rock that remains
undisturbed<00:16:21.199><c> following</c><00:16:21.680><c> those</c><00:16:22.000><c> dramatic</c>

15:18.724 --> 15:18.734 align:start position:0%
undisturbed following those dramatic
 

15:18.734 --> 15:22.484 align:start position:0%
undisturbed following those dramatic
impacts<00:16:23.120><c> from</c><00:16:23.519><c> billions</c><00:16:23.920><c> of</c><00:16:24.160><c> years</c><00:16:24.320><c> ago.</c>

15:22.484 --> 15:22.494 align:start position:0%
impacts from billions of years ago.
 

15:22.494 --> 15:24.484 align:start position:0%
impacts from billions of years ago.
There<00:16:26.639><c> are</c><00:16:26.880><c> craters</c><00:16:27.360><c> on</c><00:16:27.600><c> our</c><00:16:27.920><c> planet's</c>

15:24.484 --> 15:24.494 align:start position:0%
There are craters on our planet's
 

15:24.494 --> 15:27.363 align:start position:0%
There are craters on our planet's
surface<00:16:29.120><c> such</c><00:16:29.279><c> as</c><00:16:29.519><c> the</c><00:16:29.920><c> Behringer</c><00:16:30.560><c> Crater</c><00:16:30.959><c> in</c>

15:27.363 --> 15:27.373 align:start position:0%
surface such as the Behringer Crater in
 

15:27.373 --> 15:30.724 align:start position:0%
surface such as the Behringer Crater in
Arizona,<00:16:31.839><c> USA,</c><00:16:32.880><c> but</c><00:16:33.040><c> that</c><00:16:33.360><c> dates</c><00:16:33.759><c> only</c><00:16:34.079><c> from</c>

15:30.724 --> 15:30.734 align:start position:0%
Arizona, USA, but that dates only from
 

15:30.734 --> 15:33.844 align:start position:0%
Arizona, USA, but that dates only from
50,000<00:16:35.279><c> years</c><00:16:35.440><c> ago.</c><00:16:36.480><c> Of</c><00:16:36.800><c> the</c><00:16:37.040><c> late</c><00:16:37.360><c> heavy</c>

15:33.844 --> 15:33.854 align:start position:0%
50,000 years ago. Of the late heavy
 

15:33.854 --> 15:36.324 align:start position:0%
50,000 years ago. Of the late heavy
bombardment<00:16:38.480><c> era</c><00:16:38.720><c> craters</c><00:16:39.120><c> themselves,</c>

15:36.324 --> 15:36.334 align:start position:0%
bombardment era craters themselves,
 

15:36.334 --> 15:38.803 align:start position:0%
bombardment era craters themselves,
there<00:16:40.480><c> is</c><00:16:40.959><c> nothing</c><00:16:41.440><c> visible</c><00:16:41.920><c> at</c><00:16:42.160><c> the</c><00:16:42.320><c> present</c>

15:38.803 --> 15:38.813 align:start position:0%
there is nothing visible at the present
 

15:38.813 --> 15:41.443 align:start position:0%
there is nothing visible at the present
time.<00:16:43.440><c> If</c><00:16:43.680><c> such</c><00:16:43.920><c> craters</c><00:16:44.480><c> do</c><00:16:44.800><c> survive</c>

15:41.443 --> 15:41.453 align:start position:0%
time. If such craters do survive
 

15:41.453 --> 15:43.604 align:start position:0%
time. If such craters do survive
somewhere<00:16:45.680><c> on</c><00:16:45.920><c> our</c><00:16:46.240><c> planet</c><00:16:46.639><c> that</c><00:16:46.959><c> have</c><00:16:47.199><c> not</c>

15:43.604 --> 15:43.614 align:start position:0%
somewhere on our planet that have not
 

15:43.614 --> 15:46.003 align:start position:0%
somewhere on our planet that have not
been<00:16:47.680><c> completely</c><00:16:48.320><c> eroded</c><00:16:48.639><c> away,</c><00:16:49.360><c> they</c><00:16:49.600><c> could</c>

15:46.003 --> 15:46.013 align:start position:0%
been completely eroded away, they could
 

15:46.013 --> 15:48.724 align:start position:0%
been completely eroded away, they could
be<00:16:49.920><c> buried</c><00:16:50.480><c> under</c><00:16:50.880><c> later</c><00:16:51.199><c> sediments</c><00:16:51.759><c> or</c><00:16:52.160><c> lava</c>

15:48.724 --> 15:48.734 align:start position:0%
be buried under later sediments or lava
 

15:48.734 --> 15:52.563 align:start position:0%
be buried under later sediments or lava
flows<00:16:53.440><c> and</c><00:16:53.759><c> we</c><00:16:54.079><c> may</c><00:16:54.320><c> never</c><00:16:54.560><c> find</c><00:16:54.880><c> them.</c>

15:52.563 --> 15:52.573 align:start position:0%
flows and we may never find them.
 

15:52.573 --> 15:54.803 align:start position:0%
flows and we may never find them.
We've<00:16:56.800><c> been</c><00:16:56.959><c> able</c><00:16:57.199><c> to</c><00:16:57.360><c> make</c><00:16:57.680><c> progress</c><00:16:58.079><c> in</c><00:16:58.399><c> our</c>

15:54.803 --> 15:54.813 align:start position:0%
We've been able to make progress in our
 

15:54.813 --> 15:56.563 align:start position:0%
We've been able to make progress in our
understanding<00:16:59.040><c> of</c><00:16:59.199><c> this</c><00:16:59.519><c> era</c><00:16:59.759><c> thanks</c><00:17:00.000><c> to</c><00:17:00.160><c> the</c>

15:56.563 --> 15:56.573 align:start position:0%
understanding of this era thanks to the
 

15:56.573 --> 16:01.044 align:start position:0%
understanding of this era thanks to the
astonishing<00:17:01.440><c> 382</c><00:17:02.800><c> kg</c><00:17:03.440><c> of</c><00:17:03.600><c> moon</c><00:17:03.920><c> surface</c><00:17:04.319><c> rock</c>

16:01.044 --> 16:01.054 align:start position:0%
astonishing 382 kg of moon surface rock
 

16:01.054 --> 16:02.644 align:start position:0%
astonishing 382 kg of moon surface rock
brought<00:17:05.199><c> back</c><00:17:05.360><c> to</c><00:17:05.520><c> Earth</c><00:17:05.760><c> from</c><00:17:05.919><c> the</c><00:17:06.079><c> Apollo</c>

16:02.644 --> 16:02.654 align:start position:0%
brought back to Earth from the Apollo
 

16:02.654 --> 16:05.363 align:start position:0%
brought back to Earth from the Apollo
missions.<00:17:07.600><c> Radiometric</c><00:17:08.400><c> dating</c><00:17:08.799><c> of</c><00:17:08.959><c> these</c>

16:05.363 --> 16:05.373 align:start position:0%
missions. Radiometric dating of these
 

16:05.373 --> 16:07.123 align:start position:0%
missions. Radiometric dating of these
rock<00:17:09.520><c> samples</c><00:17:09.919><c> indicated</c><00:17:10.400><c> that</c><00:17:10.559><c> they</c><00:17:10.799><c> were</c>

16:07.123 --> 16:07.133 align:start position:0%
rock samples indicated that they were
 

16:07.133 --> 16:09.284 align:start position:0%
rock samples indicated that they were
last<00:17:11.280><c> molten</c><00:17:11.760><c> during</c><00:17:12.000><c> a</c><00:17:12.240><c> narrow</c><00:17:12.640><c> period</c><00:17:12.959><c> of</c>

16:09.284 --> 16:09.294 align:start position:0%
last molten during a narrow period of
 

16:09.294 --> 16:12.564 align:start position:0%
last molten during a narrow period of
time<00:17:13.520><c> around</c><00:17:14.160><c> 3.9</c><00:17:15.120><c> billion</c><00:17:15.520><c> years</c><00:17:15.679><c> ago,</c>

16:12.564 --> 16:12.574 align:start position:0%
time around 3.9 billion years ago,
 

16:12.574 --> 16:14.404 align:start position:0%
time around 3.9 billion years ago,
consistent<00:17:16.880><c> with</c><00:17:17.120><c> when</c><00:17:17.439><c> we</c><00:17:17.679><c> believe</c><00:17:17.919><c> that</c>

16:14.404 --> 16:14.414 align:start position:0%
consistent with when we believe that
 

16:14.414 --> 16:16.564 align:start position:0%
consistent with when we believe that
Earth<00:17:18.559><c> and</c><00:17:18.959><c> other</c><00:17:19.199><c> inner</c><00:17:19.520><c> planets</c><00:17:19.919><c> were</c><00:17:20.160><c> being</c>

16:16.564 --> 16:16.574 align:start position:0%
Earth and other inner planets were being
 

16:16.574 --> 16:18.884 align:start position:0%
Earth and other inner planets were being
bombarded<00:17:21.039><c> by</c><00:17:21.199><c> asteroids.</c>

16:18.884 --> 16:18.894 align:start position:0%
bombarded by asteroids.
 

16:18.894 --> 16:21.444 align:start position:0%
bombarded by asteroids.
Those<00:17:23.280><c> large</c><00:17:23.679><c> craters</c><00:17:24.079><c> you</c><00:17:24.319><c> see</c><00:17:24.400><c> on</c><00:17:24.640><c> the</c><00:17:24.720><c> moon</c>

16:21.444 --> 16:21.454 align:start position:0%
Those large craters you see on the moon
 

16:21.454 --> 16:23.603 align:start position:0%
Those large craters you see on the moon
are<00:17:25.520><c> where</c><00:17:25.839><c> asteroids</c><00:17:26.480><c> have</c><00:17:26.720><c> impacted</c><00:17:27.199><c> the</c>

16:23.603 --> 16:23.613 align:start position:0%
are where asteroids have impacted the
 

16:23.613 --> 16:26.644 align:start position:0%
are where asteroids have impacted the
surface<00:17:28.400><c> and</c><00:17:28.640><c> when</c><00:17:28.880><c> lava</c><00:17:29.200><c> has</c><00:17:29.440><c> flowed</c><00:17:29.760><c> out</c>

16:26.644 --> 16:26.654 align:start position:0%
surface and when lava has flowed out
 

16:26.654 --> 16:28.963 align:start position:0%
surface and when lava has flowed out
forming<00:17:31.039><c> those</c><00:17:31.520><c> characteristic</c><00:17:32.400><c> smooth</c>

16:28.963 --> 16:28.973 align:start position:0%
forming those characteristic smooth
 

16:28.973 --> 16:32.164 align:start position:0%
forming those characteristic smooth
craters<00:17:33.440><c> that</c><00:17:33.600><c> we</c><00:17:33.840><c> can</c><00:17:34.000><c> see</c><00:17:34.160><c> on</c><00:17:34.400><c> clear</c><00:17:34.720><c> nights.</c>

16:32.164 --> 16:32.174 align:start position:0%
craters that we can see on clear nights.
 

16:32.174 --> 16:34.324 align:start position:0%
craters that we can see on clear nights.
But<00:17:36.160><c> did</c><00:17:36.320><c> the</c><00:17:36.480><c> visiting</c><00:17:36.880><c> aliens</c><00:17:37.440><c> witness</c><00:17:37.919><c> this</c>

16:34.324 --> 16:34.334 align:start position:0%
But did the visiting aliens witness this
 

16:34.334 --> 16:36.484 align:start position:0%
But did the visiting aliens witness this
uptick<00:17:38.559><c> in</c><00:17:38.799><c> asteroid</c><00:17:39.280><c> activity</c><00:17:39.760><c> in</c><00:17:40.000><c> the</c><00:17:40.160><c> first</c>

16:36.484 --> 16:36.494 align:start position:0%
uptick in asteroid activity in the first
 

16:36.494 --> 16:39.203 align:start position:0%
uptick in asteroid activity in the first
place?<00:17:41.200><c> As</c><00:17:41.440><c> I</c><00:17:41.600><c> mentioned</c><00:17:41.840><c> a</c><00:17:42.080><c> minute</c><00:17:42.240><c> ago,</c><00:17:42.799><c> not</c>

16:39.203 --> 16:39.213 align:start position:0%
place? As I mentioned a minute ago, not
 

16:39.213 --> 16:41.124 align:start position:0%
place? As I mentioned a minute ago, not
everybody<00:17:43.440><c> agrees</c><00:17:43.919><c> in</c><00:17:44.160><c> the</c><00:17:44.320><c> theory</c><00:17:44.640><c> of</c><00:17:44.799><c> the</c>

16:41.124 --> 16:41.134 align:start position:0%
everybody agrees in the theory of the
 

16:41.134 --> 16:44.004 align:start position:0%
everybody agrees in the theory of the
late<00:17:45.280><c> heavy</c><00:17:45.600><c> bombardment.</c><00:17:46.720><c> And</c><00:17:46.880><c> as</c><00:17:47.200><c> much</c><00:17:47.520><c> more</c>

16:44.004 --> 16:44.014 align:start position:0%
late heavy bombardment. And as much more
 

16:44.014 --> 16:46.004 align:start position:0%
late heavy bombardment. And as much more
refined<00:17:48.400><c> analytic</c><00:17:48.960><c> techniques</c><00:17:49.440><c> have</c><00:17:49.679><c> been</c>

16:46.004 --> 16:46.014 align:start position:0%
refined analytic techniques have been
 

16:46.014 --> 16:48.244 align:start position:0%
refined analytic techniques have been
developed<00:17:50.240><c> over</c><00:17:50.559><c> time,</c><00:17:51.360><c> questions</c><00:17:51.760><c> have</c><00:17:51.919><c> been</c>

16:48.244 --> 16:48.254 align:start position:0%
developed over time, questions have been
 

16:48.254 --> 16:50.164 align:start position:0%
developed over time, questions have been
raised<00:17:52.400><c> about</c><00:17:52.559><c> the</c><00:17:52.799><c> time</c><00:17:53.039><c> scale</c><00:17:53.360><c> and</c><00:17:53.600><c> duration</c>

16:50.164 --> 16:50.174 align:start position:0%
raised about the time scale and duration
 

16:50.174 --> 16:52.884 align:start position:0%
raised about the time scale and duration
of<00:17:54.240><c> this</c><00:17:54.480><c> period</c><00:17:54.720><c> of</c><00:17:54.880><c> asteroid</c><00:17:55.360><c> activity.</c>

16:52.884 --> 16:52.894 align:start position:0%
of this period of asteroid activity.
 

16:52.894 --> 16:55.444 align:start position:0%
of this period of asteroid activity.
Some<00:17:57.120><c> dating</c><00:17:57.600><c> inconsistencies</c><00:17:58.559><c> suggest</c><00:17:59.039><c> that</c>

16:55.444 --> 16:55.454 align:start position:0%
Some dating inconsistencies suggest that
 

16:55.454 --> 16:57.444 align:start position:0%
Some dating inconsistencies suggest that
the<00:17:59.440><c> craters</c><00:17:59.840><c> may</c><00:18:00.080><c> have</c><00:18:00.240><c> formed</c><00:18:00.559><c> over</c><00:18:00.720><c> a</c><00:18:01.039><c> much</c>

16:57.444 --> 16:57.454 align:start position:0%
the craters may have formed over a much
 

16:57.454 --> 16:59.843 align:start position:0%
the craters may have formed over a much
longer<00:18:01.760><c> period</c><00:18:02.000><c> of</c><00:18:02.240><c> time,</c><00:18:02.880><c> tailing</c><00:18:03.360><c> off</c><00:18:03.520><c> from</c>

16:59.843 --> 16:59.853 align:start position:0%
longer period of time, tailing off from
 

16:59.853 --> 17:01.764 align:start position:0%
longer period of time, tailing off from
the<00:18:03.840><c> planetary</c><00:18:04.320><c> accretion</c><00:18:04.880><c> that</c><00:18:05.120><c> formed</c><00:18:05.440><c> the</c>

17:01.764 --> 17:01.774 align:start position:0%
the planetary accretion that formed the
 

17:01.774 --> 17:04.164 align:start position:0%
the planetary accretion that formed the
terrestrial<00:18:06.080><c> planets</c><00:18:06.799><c> rather</c><00:18:07.120><c> than</c><00:18:07.360><c> a</c><00:18:07.679><c> more</c>

17:04.164 --> 17:04.174 align:start position:0%
terrestrial planets rather than a more
 

17:04.174 --> 17:07.124 align:start position:0%
terrestrial planets rather than a more
concentrated<00:18:08.720><c> period</c><00:18:09.120><c> of</c><00:18:09.360><c> activity.</c>

17:07.124 --> 17:07.134 align:start position:0%
concentrated period of activity.
 

17:07.134 --> 17:09.044 align:start position:0%
concentrated period of activity.
The<00:18:11.200><c> sample</c><00:18:11.600><c> materials</c><00:18:12.160><c> that</c><00:18:12.480><c> scientists</c>

17:09.044 --> 17:09.054 align:start position:0%
The sample materials that scientists
 

17:09.054 --> 17:11.124 align:start position:0%
The sample materials that scientists
have<00:18:13.120><c> available</c><00:18:13.440><c> from</c><00:18:13.679><c> the</c><00:18:13.760><c> Apollo</c><00:18:14.240><c> missions</c>

17:11.124 --> 17:11.134 align:start position:0%
have available from the Apollo missions
 

17:11.134 --> 17:13.604 align:start position:0%
have available from the Apollo missions
are<00:18:15.280><c> still</c><00:18:15.520><c> limited</c><00:18:16.240><c> as</c><00:18:16.480><c> they</c><00:18:16.720><c> stem</c><00:18:17.039><c> from</c><00:18:17.280><c> just</c>

17:13.604 --> 17:13.614 align:start position:0%
are still limited as they stem from just
 

17:13.614 --> 17:17.044 align:start position:0%
are still limited as they stem from just
a<00:18:17.679><c> few</c><00:18:18.240><c> carefully</c><00:18:18.799><c> selected</c><00:18:19.280><c> locations.</c><00:18:20.640><c> More</c>

17:17.044 --> 17:17.054 align:start position:0%
a few carefully selected locations. More
 

17:17.054 --> 17:18.884 align:start position:0%
a few carefully selected locations. More
samples<00:18:21.280><c> from</c><00:18:21.520><c> future</c><00:18:21.840><c> missions</c><00:18:22.320><c> will</c>

17:18.884 --> 17:18.894 align:start position:0%
samples from future missions will
 

17:18.894 --> 17:20.244 align:start position:0%
samples from future missions will
hopefully<00:18:23.120><c> resolve</c><00:18:23.520><c> some</c><00:18:23.679><c> of</c><00:18:23.840><c> those</c>

17:20.244 --> 17:20.254 align:start position:0%
hopefully resolve some of those
 

17:20.254 --> 17:22.804 align:start position:0%
hopefully resolve some of those
controversies.<00:18:25.280><c> And</c><00:18:25.520><c> the</c><00:18:25.760><c> NASA</c><00:18:26.160><c> Arteimus</c>

17:22.804 --> 17:22.814 align:start position:0%
controversies. And the NASA Arteimus
 

17:22.814 --> 17:24.564 align:start position:0%
controversies. And the NASA Arteimus
missions<00:18:26.960><c> are</c><00:18:27.200><c> currently</c><00:18:27.679><c> aiming</c><00:18:28.000><c> to</c><00:18:28.160><c> do</c>

17:24.564 --> 17:24.574 align:start position:0%
missions are currently aiming to do
 

17:24.574 --> 17:26.164 align:start position:0%
missions are currently aiming to do
another<00:18:28.720><c> landing</c><00:18:29.039><c> on</c><00:18:29.280><c> the</c><00:18:29.360><c> surface</c><00:18:29.679><c> of</c><00:18:29.840><c> the</c>

17:26.164 --> 17:26.174 align:start position:0%
another landing on the surface of the
 

17:26.174 --> 17:29.444 align:start position:0%
another landing on the surface of the
moon<00:18:30.240><c> in</c><00:18:30.559><c> 2028.</c><00:18:32.000><c> I</c><00:18:32.240><c> can't</c><00:18:32.480><c> wait</c><00:18:32.640><c> to</c><00:18:32.880><c> see</c><00:18:33.039><c> what</c>

17:29.444 --> 17:29.454 align:start position:0%
moon in 2028. I can't wait to see what
 

17:29.454 --> 17:32.324 align:start position:0%
moon in 2028. I can't wait to see what
new<00:18:33.520><c> discoveries</c><00:18:34.000><c> this</c><00:18:34.320><c> could</c><00:18:34.559><c> bring.</c>

17:32.324 --> 17:32.334 align:start position:0%
new discoveries this could bring.
 

17:32.334 --> 17:34.723 align:start position:0%
new discoveries this could bring.
Our<00:18:36.480><c> alien</c><00:18:36.880><c> scientists</c><00:18:37.440><c> are</c><00:18:37.679><c> thrilled</c><00:18:38.160><c> at</c><00:18:38.320><c> the</c>

17:34.723 --> 17:34.733 align:start position:0%
Our alien scientists are thrilled at the
 

17:34.733 --> 17:36.083 align:start position:0%
Our alien scientists are thrilled at the
development<00:18:38.960><c> of</c><00:18:39.120><c> life</c><00:18:39.360><c> that</c><00:18:39.520><c> has</c><00:18:39.760><c> just</c>

17:36.083 --> 17:36.093 align:start position:0%
development of life that has just
 

17:36.093 --> 17:38.164 align:start position:0%
development of life that has just
started<00:18:40.240><c> down</c><00:18:40.480><c> below</c><00:18:41.039><c> right</c><00:18:41.360><c> before</c><00:18:41.679><c> their</c>

17:38.164 --> 17:38.174 align:start position:0%
started down below right before their
 

17:38.174 --> 17:40.723 align:start position:0%
started down below right before their
eyes.<00:18:42.960><c> At</c><00:18:43.200><c> the</c><00:18:43.360><c> moment,</c><00:18:43.840><c> that</c><00:18:44.080><c> life</c><00:18:44.320><c> is</c>

17:40.723 --> 17:40.733 align:start position:0%
eyes. At the moment, that life is
 

17:40.733 --> 17:43.203 align:start position:0%
eyes. At the moment, that life is
simple,<00:18:45.120><c> the</c><00:18:45.280><c> most</c><00:18:45.520><c> basic</c><00:18:45.840><c> of</c><00:18:46.080><c> microbes,</c>

17:43.203 --> 17:43.213 align:start position:0%
simple, the most basic of microbes,
 

17:43.213 --> 17:45.924 align:start position:0%
simple, the most basic of microbes,
possessing<00:18:47.679><c> very</c><00:18:48.160><c> few</c><00:18:48.480><c> features</c><00:18:49.039><c> for</c><00:18:49.280><c> sure</c>

17:45.924 --> 17:45.934 align:start position:0%
possessing very few features for sure
 

17:45.934 --> 17:48.404 align:start position:0%
possessing very few features for sure
beyond<00:18:50.160><c> the</c><00:18:50.400><c> ability</c><00:18:50.720><c> to</c><00:18:51.039><c> replicate</c><00:18:51.520><c> and</c><00:18:52.000><c> take</c>

17:48.404 --> 17:48.414 align:start position:0%
beyond the ability to replicate and take
 

17:48.414 --> 17:51.044 align:start position:0%
beyond the ability to replicate and take
in<00:18:52.559><c> nutrients.</c><00:18:53.679><c> This</c><00:18:54.000><c> certainly</c><00:18:54.480><c> warrants</c>

17:51.044 --> 17:51.054 align:start position:0%
in nutrients. This certainly warrants
 

17:51.054 --> 17:52.884 align:start position:0%
in nutrients. This certainly warrants
further<00:18:55.200><c> observation</c><00:18:55.840><c> though,</c><00:18:56.320><c> so</c><00:18:56.480><c> the</c>

17:52.884 --> 17:52.894 align:start position:0%
further observation though, so the
 

17:52.894 --> 17:54.963 align:start position:0%
further observation though, so the
aliens<00:18:57.120><c> decide</c><00:18:57.440><c> to</c><00:18:57.679><c> let</c><00:18:57.919><c> things</c><00:18:58.160><c> cook</c><00:18:58.480><c> for</c><00:18:58.640><c> a</c>

17:54.963 --> 17:54.973 align:start position:0%
aliens decide to let things cook for a
 

17:54.973 --> 17:57.044 align:start position:0%
aliens decide to let things cook for a
bit<00:18:59.120><c> before</c><00:18:59.360><c> they</c><00:18:59.600><c> later</c><00:19:00.000><c> return</c><00:19:00.400><c> to</c><00:19:00.640><c> check</c>

17:57.044 --> 17:57.054 align:start position:0%
bit before they later return to check
 

17:57.054 --> 18:01.843 align:start position:0%
bit before they later return to check
how<00:19:01.120><c> things</c><00:19:01.360><c> are</c><00:19:01.600><c> going.</c>

18:01.843 --> 18:01.853 align:start position:0%
 
 

18:01.853 --> 18:03.684 align:start position:0%
 
Let's<00:19:05.919><c> imagine</c><00:19:06.240><c> that</c><00:19:06.400><c> the</c><00:19:06.559><c> aliens</c><00:19:06.960><c> return</c><00:19:07.280><c> to</c>

18:03.684 --> 18:03.694 align:start position:0%
Let's imagine that the aliens return to
 

18:03.694 --> 18:06.083 align:start position:0%
Let's imagine that the aliens return to
Earth<00:19:07.760><c> and</c><00:19:08.240><c> 1</c><00:19:08.559><c> and</c><00:19:08.640><c> a</c><00:19:08.799><c> half</c><00:19:09.200><c> billion</c><00:19:09.679><c> years</c>

18:06.083 --> 18:06.093 align:start position:0%
Earth and 1 and a half billion years
 

18:06.093 --> 18:08.484 align:start position:0%
Earth and 1 and a half billion years
have<00:19:10.160><c> passed</c><00:19:10.960><c> and</c><00:19:11.200><c> instead</c><00:19:11.520><c> of</c><00:19:11.679><c> a</c><00:19:11.840><c> molten</c>

18:08.484 --> 18:08.494 align:start position:0%
have passed and instead of a molten
 

18:08.494 --> 18:11.364 align:start position:0%
have passed and instead of a molten
planet,<00:19:13.120><c> they</c><00:19:13.520><c> find</c><00:19:13.919><c> what</c><00:19:14.240><c> our</c><00:19:14.640><c> scientists</c>

18:11.364 --> 18:11.374 align:start position:0%
planet, they find what our scientists
 

18:11.374 --> 18:14.804 align:start position:0%
planet, they find what our scientists
call<00:19:15.679><c> the</c><00:19:16.000><c> pale</c><00:19:16.640><c> orange</c><00:19:17.120><c> dot.</c>

18:14.804 --> 18:14.814 align:start position:0%
call the pale orange dot.
 

18:14.814 --> 18:17.044 align:start position:0%
call the pale orange dot.
Earth<00:19:18.960><c> has</c><00:19:19.200><c> developed</c><00:19:19.600><c> a</c><00:19:19.840><c> solid</c><00:19:20.240><c> crust</c><00:19:20.640><c> and</c>

18:17.044 --> 18:17.054 align:start position:0%
Earth has developed a solid crust and
 

18:17.054 --> 18:19.364 align:start position:0%
Earth has developed a solid crust and
magnetic<00:19:21.360><c> field</c><00:19:22.080><c> which</c><00:19:22.320><c> has</c><00:19:22.480><c> retained</c><00:19:22.960><c> a</c>

18:19.364 --> 18:19.374 align:start position:0%
magnetic field which has retained a
 

18:19.374 --> 18:22.164 align:start position:0%
magnetic field which has retained a
methanerich<00:19:24.080><c> atmosphere</c><00:19:24.880><c> with</c><00:19:25.120><c> a</c><00:19:25.360><c> distinct</c>

18:22.164 --> 18:22.174 align:start position:0%
methanerich atmosphere with a distinct
 

18:22.174 --> 18:25.524 align:start position:0%
methanerich atmosphere with a distinct
pale<00:19:26.559><c> orange</c><00:19:26.960><c> haze</c><00:19:28.000><c> very</c><00:19:28.320><c> much</c><00:19:28.559><c> like</c><00:19:28.799><c> Saturn's</c>

18:25.524 --> 18:25.534 align:start position:0%
pale orange haze very much like Saturn's
 

18:25.534 --> 18:27.124 align:start position:0%
pale orange haze very much like Saturn's
Titan.

18:27.124 --> 18:27.134 align:start position:0%
Titan.
 

18:27.134 --> 18:29.764 align:start position:0%
Titan.
Earth<00:19:31.360><c> also</c><00:19:31.679><c> has</c><00:19:32.000><c> vast</c><00:19:32.480><c> oceans</c><00:19:32.880><c> of</c><00:19:33.120><c> liquid</c>

18:29.764 --> 18:29.774 align:start position:0%
Earth also has vast oceans of liquid
 

18:29.774 --> 18:32.564 align:start position:0%
Earth also has vast oceans of liquid
water<00:19:34.000><c> formed</c><00:19:34.320><c> from</c><00:19:34.640><c> rainfall.</c><00:19:35.919><c> Looking</c>

18:32.564 --> 18:32.574 align:start position:0%
water formed from rainfall. Looking
 

18:32.574 --> 18:35.203 align:start position:0%
water formed from rainfall. Looking
upward,<00:19:37.200><c> our</c><00:19:37.520><c> alien</c><00:19:38.000><c> scientists</c><00:19:38.559><c> see</c><00:19:38.799><c> a</c>

18:35.203 --> 18:35.213 align:start position:0%
upward, our alien scientists see a
 

18:35.213 --> 18:38.404 align:start position:0%
upward, our alien scientists see a
terrifyingly<00:19:40.000><c> huge</c><00:19:40.480><c> moon</c><00:19:40.799><c> overhead,</c><00:19:41.919><c> far</c>

18:38.404 --> 18:38.414 align:start position:0%
terrifyingly huge moon overhead, far
 

18:38.414 --> 18:41.203 align:start position:0%
terrifyingly huge moon overhead, far
closer<00:19:42.640><c> than</c><00:19:42.880><c> it</c><00:19:43.039><c> is</c><00:19:43.200><c> today.</c><00:19:44.400><c> Here's</c><00:19:44.640><c> a</c><00:19:44.799><c> fun</c>

18:41.203 --> 18:41.213 align:start position:0%
closer than it is today. Here's a fun
 

18:41.213 --> 18:43.764 align:start position:0%
closer than it is today. Here's a fun
fact.<00:19:45.679><c> The</c><00:19:45.919><c> moon</c><00:19:46.240><c> has</c><00:19:46.480><c> slowly</c><00:19:46.960><c> been</c><00:19:47.200><c> drifting</c>

18:43.764 --> 18:43.774 align:start position:0%
fact. The moon has slowly been drifting
 

18:43.774 --> 18:46.244 align:start position:0%
fact. The moon has slowly been drifting
away<00:19:47.840><c> from</c><00:19:48.080><c> Earth</c><00:19:48.320><c> for</c><00:19:48.559><c> the</c><00:19:48.720><c> past</c><00:19:48.960><c> 2.5</c><00:19:49.679><c> billion</c>

18:46.244 --> 18:46.254 align:start position:0%
away from Earth for the past 2.5 billion
 

18:46.254 --> 18:48.723 align:start position:0%
away from Earth for the past 2.5 billion
years<00:19:50.720><c> and</c><00:19:50.960><c> is</c><00:19:51.280><c> still</c><00:19:51.600><c> moving</c><00:19:51.919><c> away</c><00:19:52.160><c> from</c><00:19:52.320><c> us</c>

18:48.723 --> 18:48.733 align:start position:0%
years and is still moving away from us
 

18:48.733 --> 18:52.164 align:start position:0%
years and is still moving away from us
at<00:19:52.720><c> the</c><00:19:52.880><c> rate</c><00:19:53.120><c> of</c><00:19:53.360><c> 3.8</c><00:19:54.160><c> cm</c><00:19:54.640><c> per</c><00:19:54.960><c> year.</c><00:19:55.840><c> This</c>

18:52.164 --> 18:52.174 align:start position:0%
at the rate of 3.8 cm per year. This
 

18:52.174 --> 18:54.963 align:start position:0%
at the rate of 3.8 cm per year. This
drift<00:19:56.400><c> will</c><00:19:56.720><c> eventually</c><00:19:57.360><c> stop,</c><00:19:58.000><c> but</c><00:19:58.320><c> not</c><00:19:58.559><c> for</c>

18:54.963 --> 18:54.973 align:start position:0%
drift will eventually stop, but not for
 

18:54.973 --> 18:57.924 align:start position:0%
drift will eventually stop, but not for
another<00:19:59.200><c> several</c><00:19:59.679><c> billion</c><00:20:00.160><c> years.</c>

18:57.924 --> 18:57.934 align:start position:0%
another several billion years.
 

18:57.934 --> 19:01.203 align:start position:0%
another several billion years.
But<00:20:02.240><c> 2.5</c><00:20:02.880><c> billion</c><00:20:03.280><c> years</c><00:20:03.440><c> ago,</c><00:20:04.000><c> the</c><00:20:04.240><c> moon</c><00:20:04.559><c> is</c>

19:01.203 --> 19:01.213 align:start position:0%
But 2.5 billion years ago, the moon is
 

19:01.213 --> 19:04.164 align:start position:0%
But 2.5 billion years ago, the moon is
much<00:20:05.520><c> much</c><00:20:05.919><c> closer.</c><00:20:06.960><c> And</c><00:20:07.120><c> this</c><00:20:07.360><c> proximity</c>

19:04.164 --> 19:04.174 align:start position:0%
much much closer. And this proximity
 

19:04.174 --> 19:06.804 align:start position:0%
much much closer. And this proximity
leads<00:20:08.320><c> to</c><00:20:08.640><c> far</c><00:20:09.039><c> stronger</c><00:20:09.600><c> tidal</c><00:20:10.080><c> forces</c><00:20:10.480><c> in</c>

19:06.804 --> 19:06.814 align:start position:0%
leads to far stronger tidal forces in
 

19:06.814 --> 19:08.644 align:start position:0%
leads to far stronger tidal forces in
the<00:20:10.799><c> oceans.</c>

19:08.644 --> 19:08.654 align:start position:0%
the oceans.
 

19:08.654 --> 19:11.044 align:start position:0%
the oceans.
While<00:20:12.720><c> this</c><00:20:12.960><c> snapshot</c><00:20:13.440><c> of</c><00:20:13.679><c> Earth</c><00:20:14.000><c> is</c><00:20:14.400><c> probably</c>

19:11.044 --> 19:11.054 align:start position:0%
While this snapshot of Earth is probably
 

19:11.054 --> 19:12.644 align:start position:0%
While this snapshot of Earth is probably
more<00:20:15.120><c> Earthlike</c><00:20:15.679><c> than</c><00:20:15.840><c> the</c><00:20:16.080><c> previous</c>

19:12.644 --> 19:12.654 align:start position:0%
more Earthlike than the previous
 

19:12.654 --> 19:15.604 align:start position:0%
more Earthlike than the previous
snapshot,<00:20:17.360><c> to</c><00:20:17.600><c> me</c><00:20:18.000><c> it</c><00:20:18.320><c> almost</c><00:20:18.640><c> feels</c><00:20:19.120><c> more</c>

19:15.604 --> 19:15.614 align:start position:0%
snapshot, to me it almost feels more
 

19:15.614 --> 19:18.484 align:start position:0%
snapshot, to me it almost feels more
alien<00:20:19.919><c> than</c><00:20:20.160><c> before.</c><00:20:21.600><c> Earth</c><00:20:21.919><c> must</c><00:20:22.160><c> have</c>

19:18.484 --> 19:18.494 align:start position:0%
alien than before. Earth must have
 

19:18.494 --> 19:21.124 align:start position:0%
alien than before. Earth must have
looked<00:20:22.559><c> like</c><00:20:22.799><c> a</c><00:20:23.039><c> barren</c><00:20:23.520><c> dream</c><00:20:23.919><c> world,</c><00:20:24.559><c> a</c><00:20:24.799><c> lot</c>

19:21.124 --> 19:21.134 align:start position:0%
looked like a barren dream world, a lot
 

19:21.134 --> 19:23.364 align:start position:0%
looked like a barren dream world, a lot
closer<00:20:25.280><c> to</c><00:20:25.520><c> a</c><00:20:25.760><c> surreal</c><00:20:26.240><c> Salvador</c><00:20:26.799><c> Daly</c>

19:23.364 --> 19:23.374 align:start position:0%
closer to a surreal Salvador Daly
 

19:23.374 --> 19:25.284 align:start position:0%
closer to a surreal Salvador Daly
painting<00:20:27.760><c> than</c><00:20:27.919><c> the</c><00:20:28.159><c> teameming</c><00:20:28.559><c> planet</c><00:20:28.880><c> we</c>

19:25.284 --> 19:25.294 align:start position:0%
painting than the teameming planet we
 

19:25.294 --> 19:27.924 align:start position:0%
painting than the teameming planet we
know<00:20:29.360><c> today.</c>

19:27.924 --> 19:27.934 align:start position:0%
know today.
 

19:27.934 --> 19:29.684 align:start position:0%
know today.
Being<00:20:32.240><c> experienced</c><00:20:32.799><c> in</c><00:20:32.960><c> the</c><00:20:33.120><c> field</c><00:20:33.360><c> of</c>

19:29.684 --> 19:29.694 align:start position:0%
Being experienced in the field of
 

19:29.694 --> 19:32.564 align:start position:0%
Being experienced in the field of
astrobiology,<00:20:34.880><c> our</c><00:20:35.200><c> alien</c><00:20:35.679><c> scientists</c><00:20:36.159><c> take</c>

19:32.564 --> 19:32.574 align:start position:0%
astrobiology, our alien scientists take
 

19:32.574 --> 19:35.203 align:start position:0%
astrobiology, our alien scientists take
some<00:20:36.640><c> blue</c><00:20:36.960><c> green</c><00:20:37.360><c> water</c><00:20:37.679><c> samples</c><00:20:38.480><c> and</c><00:20:38.799><c> find</c>

19:35.203 --> 19:35.213 align:start position:0%
some blue green water samples and find
 

19:35.213 --> 19:37.364 align:start position:0%
some blue green water samples and find
the<00:20:39.360><c> cause</c><00:20:39.600><c> of</c><00:20:39.679><c> this</c><00:20:39.919><c> orange</c><00:20:40.240><c> haze.</c>

19:37.364 --> 19:37.374 align:start position:0%
the cause of this orange haze.
 

19:37.374 --> 19:39.684 align:start position:0%
the cause of this orange haze.
photosynthesizing<00:20:42.400><c> bacteria</c><00:20:43.200><c> called</c>

19:39.684 --> 19:39.694 align:start position:0%
photosynthesizing bacteria called
 

19:39.694 --> 19:41.524 align:start position:0%
photosynthesizing bacteria called
cyanobacteria.

19:41.524 --> 19:41.534 align:start position:0%
cyanobacteria.
 

19:41.534 --> 19:43.684 align:start position:0%
cyanobacteria.
The<00:20:45.600><c> life</c><00:20:45.840><c> they</c><00:20:46.240><c> first</c><00:20:46.559><c> witnessed</c><00:20:47.280><c> has</c>

19:43.684 --> 19:43.694 align:start position:0%
The life they first witnessed has
 

19:43.694 --> 19:45.524 align:start position:0%
The life they first witnessed has
evolved.

19:45.524 --> 19:45.534 align:start position:0%
evolved.
 

19:45.534 --> 19:47.604 align:start position:0%
evolved.
These<00:20:49.679><c> primitive</c><00:20:50.159><c> bacteria</c><00:20:50.720><c> are</c><00:20:50.960><c> living</c><00:20:51.200><c> in</c>

19:47.604 --> 19:47.614 align:start position:0%
These primitive bacteria are living in
 

19:47.614 --> 19:49.924 align:start position:0%
These primitive bacteria are living in
communities<00:20:51.919><c> in</c><00:20:52.159><c> shallow</c><00:20:52.559><c> water,</c><00:20:53.280><c> which</c><00:20:53.520><c> in</c>

19:49.924 --> 19:49.934 align:start position:0%
communities in shallow water, which in
 

19:49.934 --> 19:51.684 align:start position:0%
communities in shallow water, which in
turn<00:20:54.080><c> have</c><00:20:54.320><c> released</c><00:20:54.640><c> oxygen</c><00:20:55.200><c> into</c><00:20:55.360><c> the</c>

19:51.684 --> 19:51.694 align:start position:0%
turn have released oxygen into the
 

19:51.694 --> 19:54.083 align:start position:0%
turn have released oxygen into the
atmosphere<00:20:56.159><c> in</c><00:20:56.480><c> an</c><00:20:56.640><c> event</c><00:20:56.960><c> called</c><00:20:57.200><c> the</c><00:20:57.520><c> great</c>

19:54.083 --> 19:54.093 align:start position:0%
atmosphere in an event called the great
 

19:54.093 --> 19:55.764 align:start position:0%
atmosphere in an event called the great
oxidation.

19:55.764 --> 19:55.774 align:start position:0%
oxidation.
 

19:55.774 --> 19:57.843 align:start position:0%
oxidation.
As<00:20:59.840><c> part</c><00:21:00.080><c> of</c><00:21:00.240><c> this</c><00:21:00.480><c> transformation,</c><00:21:01.440><c> the</c>

19:57.843 --> 19:57.853 align:start position:0%
As part of this transformation, the
 

19:57.853 --> 20:00.484 align:start position:0%
As part of this transformation, the
earth<00:21:02.000><c> now</c><00:21:02.320><c> has</c><00:21:02.480><c> a</c><00:21:02.720><c> protective</c><00:21:03.200><c> ozone</c><00:21:03.840><c> layer</c>

20:00.484 --> 20:00.494 align:start position:0%
earth now has a protective ozone layer
 

20:00.494 --> 20:02.484 align:start position:0%
earth now has a protective ozone layer
which<00:21:04.559><c> shields</c><00:21:04.960><c> life</c><00:21:05.280><c> from</c><00:21:05.440><c> the</c><00:21:05.679><c> most</c><00:21:05.840><c> harmful</c>

20:02.484 --> 20:02.494 align:start position:0%
which shields life from the most harmful
 

20:02.494 --> 20:04.963 align:start position:0%
which shields life from the most harmful
effects<00:21:06.720><c> of</c><00:21:06.880><c> solar</c><00:21:07.280><c> radiation.</c>

20:04.963 --> 20:04.973 align:start position:0%
effects of solar radiation.
 

20:04.973 --> 20:07.924 align:start position:0%
effects of solar radiation.
The<00:21:09.039><c> bacteria</c><00:21:09.760><c> are</c><00:21:10.000><c> also</c><00:21:10.400><c> producing</c><00:21:11.039><c> unusual</c>

20:07.924 --> 20:07.934 align:start position:0%
The bacteria are also producing unusual
 

20:07.934 --> 20:10.723 align:start position:0%
The bacteria are also producing unusual
rock<00:21:12.080><c> structures</c><00:21:12.720><c> called</c><00:21:13.039><c> strumatalytes</c>

20:10.723 --> 20:10.733 align:start position:0%
rock structures called strumatalytes
 

20:10.733 --> 20:13.044 align:start position:0%
rock structures called strumatalytes
similar<00:21:14.880><c> to</c><00:21:15.039><c> these</c><00:21:15.440><c> modern</c><00:21:15.760><c> ones</c><00:21:16.159><c> located</c><00:21:16.559><c> in</c>

20:13.044 --> 20:13.054 align:start position:0%
similar to these modern ones located in
 

20:13.054 --> 20:16.804 align:start position:0%
similar to these modern ones located in
Western<00:21:17.280><c> Australia</c><00:21:17.919><c> Shark</c><00:21:18.320><c> Bay.</c>

20:16.804 --> 20:16.814 align:start position:0%
Western Australia Shark Bay.
 

20:16.814 --> 20:20.083 align:start position:0%
Western Australia Shark Bay.
Cyanobacteria<00:21:21.919><c> form</c><00:21:22.400><c> strumatalytes</c><00:21:23.600><c> by</c>

20:20.083 --> 20:20.093 align:start position:0%
Cyanobacteria form strumatalytes by
 

20:20.093 --> 20:22.004 align:start position:0%
Cyanobacteria form strumatalytes by
cementing<00:21:24.559><c> grains</c><00:21:24.880><c> of</c><00:21:25.039><c> sediment</c><00:21:25.520><c> together</c>

20:22.004 --> 20:22.014 align:start position:0%
cementing grains of sediment together
 

20:22.014 --> 20:25.764 align:start position:0%
cementing grains of sediment together
with<00:21:26.240><c> bofilms</c><00:21:27.520><c> or</c><00:21:27.919><c> to</c><00:21:28.240><c> put</c><00:21:28.400><c> it</c><00:21:28.559><c> in</c><00:21:28.720><c> another</c><00:21:29.039><c> way</c>

20:25.764 --> 20:25.774 align:start position:0%
with bofilms or to put it in another way
 

20:25.774 --> 20:28.564 align:start position:0%
with bofilms or to put it in another way
microbial<00:21:30.480><c> slime.</c>

20:28.564 --> 20:28.574 align:start position:0%
microbial slime.
 

20:28.574 --> 20:30.404 align:start position:0%
microbial slime.
Strumatalytes<00:21:33.360><c> are</c><00:21:33.520><c> one</c><00:21:33.679><c> of</c><00:21:33.760><c> the</c><00:21:33.919><c> bio</c>

20:30.404 --> 20:30.414 align:start position:0%
Strumatalytes are one of the bio
 

20:30.414 --> 20:33.044 align:start position:0%
Strumatalytes are one of the bio
signatures<00:21:34.799><c> that</c><00:21:35.039><c> astrobiologists</c><00:21:36.080><c> say</c><00:21:36.559><c> we</c>

20:33.044 --> 20:33.054 align:start position:0%
signatures that astrobiologists say we
 

20:33.054 --> 20:35.364 align:start position:0%
signatures that astrobiologists say we
should<00:21:37.039><c> be</c><00:21:37.200><c> looking</c><00:21:37.440><c> for</c><00:21:37.679><c> on</c><00:21:37.919><c> other</c><00:21:38.159><c> planets.</c>

20:35.364 --> 20:35.374 align:start position:0%
should be looking for on other planets.
 

20:35.374 --> 20:38.004 align:start position:0%
should be looking for on other planets.
Although<00:21:39.760><c> they</c><00:21:40.159><c> can</c><00:21:40.400><c> have</c><00:21:40.720><c> nonbiological</c>

20:38.004 --> 20:38.014 align:start position:0%
Although they can have nonbiological
 

20:38.014 --> 20:40.244 align:start position:0%
Although they can have nonbiological
causes,<00:21:42.640><c> so</c><00:21:42.799><c> you</c><00:21:43.039><c> have</c><00:21:43.120><c> to</c><00:21:43.280><c> look</c><00:21:43.440><c> at</c><00:21:43.600><c> them</c><00:21:43.760><c> on</c><00:21:43.919><c> a</c>

20:40.244 --> 20:40.254 align:start position:0%
causes, so you have to look at them on a
 

20:40.254 --> 20:43.524 align:start position:0%
causes, so you have to look at them on a
microscopic<00:21:44.799><c> scale</c><00:21:45.039><c> to</c><00:21:45.280><c> be</c><00:21:45.440><c> sure.</c><00:21:46.880><c> Without</c>

20:43.524 --> 20:43.534 align:start position:0%
microscopic scale to be sure. Without
 

20:43.534 --> 20:46.484 align:start position:0%
microscopic scale to be sure. Without
any<00:21:47.760><c> competitors,</c><00:21:48.799><c> the</c><00:21:48.960><c> cyanobacteria</c>

20:46.484 --> 20:46.494 align:start position:0%
any competitors, the cyanobacteria
 

20:46.494 --> 20:50.004 align:start position:0%
any competitors, the cyanobacteria
reigns<00:21:50.720><c> supreme.</c><00:21:52.159><c> Using</c><00:21:52.559><c> solar</c><00:21:52.960><c> energy,</c><00:21:53.600><c> they</c>

20:50.004 --> 20:50.014 align:start position:0%
reigns supreme. Using solar energy, they
 

20:50.014 --> 20:52.323 align:start position:0%
reigns supreme. Using solar energy, they
are<00:21:54.000><c> converting</c><00:21:54.559><c> carbon</c><00:21:55.039><c> dioxide</c><00:21:55.520><c> and</c><00:21:55.840><c> water</c>

20:52.323 --> 20:52.333 align:start position:0%
are converting carbon dioxide and water
 

20:52.333 --> 20:55.044 align:start position:0%
are converting carbon dioxide and water
into<00:21:56.559><c> nutrients,</c><00:21:57.600><c> seeding</c><00:21:58.080><c> the</c><00:21:58.320><c> atmosphere</c>

20:55.044 --> 20:55.054 align:start position:0%
into nutrients, seeding the atmosphere
 

20:55.054 --> 20:58.644 align:start position:0%
into nutrients, seeding the atmosphere
with<00:21:59.200><c> oxygen</c><00:21:59.679><c> as</c><00:21:59.919><c> a</c><00:22:00.080><c> byproduct.</c><00:22:01.440><c> Bacteria</c><00:22:02.240><c> are</c>

20:58.644 --> 20:58.654 align:start position:0%
with oxygen as a byproduct. Bacteria are
 

20:58.654 --> 21:00.963 align:start position:0%
with oxygen as a byproduct. Bacteria are
now<00:22:02.720><c> the</c><00:22:03.039><c> uncontested</c><00:22:03.840><c> rulers</c><00:22:04.240><c> of</c><00:22:04.480><c> planet</c>

21:00.963 --> 21:00.973 align:start position:0%
now the uncontested rulers of planet
 

21:00.973 --> 21:03.364 align:start position:0%
now the uncontested rulers of planet
Earth,<00:22:05.520><c> and</c><00:22:05.679><c> they</c><00:22:06.000><c> have</c><00:22:06.240><c> permanently</c><00:22:06.880><c> altered</c>

21:03.364 --> 21:03.374 align:start position:0%
Earth, and they have permanently altered
 

21:03.374 --> 21:05.684 align:start position:0%
Earth, and they have permanently altered
their<00:22:07.440><c> atmosphere</c><00:22:08.080><c> in</c><00:22:08.400><c> ways</c><00:22:08.640><c> that</c><00:22:08.880><c> make</c><00:22:09.120><c> our</c>

21:05.684 --> 21:05.694 align:start position:0%
their atmosphere in ways that make our
 

21:05.694 --> 21:10.484 align:start position:0%
their atmosphere in ways that make our
current<00:22:09.840><c> way</c><00:22:10.080><c> of</c><00:22:10.240><c> life</c><00:22:10.720><c> possible.</c>

21:10.484 --> 21:10.494 align:start position:0%
 
 

21:10.494 --> 21:12.963 align:start position:0%
 
Enthusiastic<00:22:15.120><c> for</c><00:22:15.360><c> Earth's</c><00:22:15.840><c> future,</c><00:22:16.480><c> our</c>

21:12.963 --> 21:12.973 align:start position:0%
Enthusiastic for Earth's future, our
 

21:12.973 --> 21:14.963 align:start position:0%
Enthusiastic for Earth's future, our
alien<00:22:17.200><c> scientists</c><00:22:17.760><c> decide</c><00:22:18.080><c> to</c><00:22:18.240><c> come</c><00:22:18.400><c> back</c><00:22:18.559><c> to</c>

21:14.963 --> 21:14.973 align:start position:0%
alien scientists decide to come back to
 

21:14.973 --> 21:18.884 align:start position:0%
alien scientists decide to come back to
Earth<00:22:19.280><c> 650</c><00:22:20.320><c> million</c><00:22:20.640><c> years</c><00:22:20.880><c> ago.</c><00:22:21.919><c> And</c><00:22:22.159><c> boy,</c>

21:18.884 --> 21:18.894 align:start position:0%
Earth 650 million years ago. And boy,
 

21:18.894 --> 21:21.604 align:start position:0%
Earth 650 million years ago. And boy,
what<00:22:22.960><c> a</c><00:22:23.280><c> difference</c><00:22:23.840><c> 1.9</c><00:22:24.640><c> billion</c><00:22:25.120><c> years</c>

21:21.604 --> 21:21.614 align:start position:0%
what a difference 1.9 billion years
 

21:21.614 --> 21:24.244 align:start position:0%
what a difference 1.9 billion years
makes.<00:22:26.480><c> The</c><00:22:26.720><c> planet</c><00:22:27.120><c> is</c><00:22:27.280><c> now</c><00:22:27.600><c> in</c><00:22:27.840><c> its</c>

21:24.244 --> 21:24.254 align:start position:0%
makes. The planet is now in its
 

21:24.254 --> 21:27.284 align:start position:0%
makes. The planet is now in its
cryogenian<00:22:29.200><c> period</c><00:22:29.919><c> at</c><00:22:30.159><c> a</c><00:22:30.320><c> time</c><00:22:30.559><c> scientists</c>

21:27.284 --> 21:27.294 align:start position:0%
cryogenian period at a time scientists
 

21:27.294 --> 21:30.323 align:start position:0%
cryogenian period at a time scientists
call<00:22:31.840><c> snowball</c><00:22:32.559><c> earth.</c>

21:30.323 --> 21:30.333 align:start position:0%
call snowball earth.
 

21:30.333 --> 21:32.644 align:start position:0%
call snowball earth.
According<00:22:34.559><c> to</c><00:22:34.720><c> these</c><00:22:35.039><c> models,</c><00:22:35.760><c> Earth</c><00:22:36.080><c> is</c>

21:32.644 --> 21:32.654 align:start position:0%
According to these models, Earth is
 

21:32.654 --> 21:35.764 align:start position:0%
According to these models, Earth is
completely<00:22:37.200><c> frozen</c><00:22:37.679><c> over.</c><00:22:38.960><c> Think</c><00:22:39.280><c> of</c><00:22:39.440><c> the</c>

21:35.764 --> 21:35.774 align:start position:0%
completely frozen over. Think of the
 

21:35.774 --> 21:38.884 align:start position:0%
completely frozen over. Think of the
last<00:22:40.000><c> pletosene</c><00:22:40.880><c> ice</c><00:22:41.120><c> age</c><00:22:41.760><c> only</c><00:22:42.159><c> a</c><00:22:42.400><c> lot</c>

21:38.884 --> 21:38.894 align:start position:0%
last pletosene ice age only a lot
 

21:38.894 --> 21:42.004 align:start position:0%
last pletosene ice age only a lot
colder.<00:22:44.000><c> In</c><00:22:44.240><c> fact,</c><00:22:44.720><c> all</c><00:22:45.120><c> of</c><00:22:45.360><c> the</c><00:22:45.520><c> Earth's</c>

21:42.004 --> 21:42.014 align:start position:0%
colder. In fact, all of the Earth's
 

21:42.014 --> 21:44.564 align:start position:0%
colder. In fact, all of the Earth's
surface<00:22:46.480><c> and</c><00:22:46.799><c> half</c><00:22:47.120><c> of</c><00:22:47.280><c> its</c><00:22:47.520><c> total</c><00:22:48.000><c> ocean</c>

21:44.564 --> 21:44.574 align:start position:0%
surface and half of its total ocean
 

21:44.574 --> 21:48.004 align:start position:0%
surface and half of its total ocean
water<00:22:49.039><c> are</c><00:22:49.280><c> frozen</c><00:22:49.919><c> solid.</c><00:22:51.200><c> The</c><00:22:51.440><c> Earth</c><00:22:51.679><c> has</c>

21:48.004 --> 21:48.014 align:start position:0%
water are frozen solid. The Earth has
 

21:48.014 --> 21:50.404 align:start position:0%
water are frozen solid. The Earth has
become<00:22:52.320><c> so</c><00:22:52.640><c> cold</c><00:22:53.120><c> that</c><00:22:53.440><c> temperatures</c><00:22:53.919><c> at</c><00:22:54.080><c> the</c>

21:50.404 --> 21:50.414 align:start position:0%
become so cold that temperatures at the
 

21:50.414 --> 21:52.323 align:start position:0%
become so cold that temperatures at the
equator<00:22:54.799><c> are</c><00:22:55.120><c> similar</c><00:22:55.360><c> to</c><00:22:55.600><c> those</c><00:22:55.840><c> in</c>

21:52.323 --> 21:52.333 align:start position:0%
equator are similar to those in
 

21:52.333 --> 21:55.364 align:start position:0%
equator are similar to those in
modern-day<00:22:56.880><c> Antarctica.</c>

21:55.364 --> 21:55.374 align:start position:0%
modern-day Antarctica.
 

21:55.374 --> 21:57.203 align:start position:0%
modern-day Antarctica.
While<00:22:59.520><c> the</c><00:22:59.679><c> scientists</c><00:23:00.240><c> aren't</c><00:23:00.559><c> sure</c><00:23:00.799><c> what</c>

21:57.203 --> 21:57.213 align:start position:0%
While the scientists aren't sure what
 

21:57.213 --> 21:59.124 align:start position:0%
While the scientists aren't sure what
triggered<00:23:01.440><c> this</c><00:23:01.760><c> downshift</c><00:23:02.320><c> in</c><00:23:02.480><c> global</c>

21:59.124 --> 21:59.134 align:start position:0%
triggered this downshift in global
 

21:59.134 --> 22:01.604 align:start position:0%
triggered this downshift in global
temperatures,<00:23:03.919><c> some</c><00:23:04.159><c> theories</c><00:23:04.720><c> include</c><00:23:05.200><c> a</c>

22:01.604 --> 22:01.614 align:start position:0%
temperatures, some theories include a
 

22:01.614 --> 22:04.244 align:start position:0%
temperatures, some theories include a
major<00:23:05.840><c> volcanic</c><00:23:06.480><c> eruption</c><00:23:06.960><c> that</c><00:23:07.280><c> spewed</c><00:23:07.679><c> ash</c>

22:04.244 --> 22:04.254 align:start position:0%
major volcanic eruption that spewed ash
 

22:04.254 --> 22:06.963 align:start position:0%
major volcanic eruption that spewed ash
into<00:23:08.320><c> the</c><00:23:08.480><c> atmosphere,</c><00:23:09.600><c> a</c><00:23:09.840><c> vast</c><00:23:10.159><c> reduction</c><00:23:10.559><c> in</c>

22:06.963 --> 22:06.973 align:start position:0%
into the atmosphere, a vast reduction in
 

22:06.973 --> 22:08.404 align:start position:0%
into the atmosphere, a vast reduction in
greenhouse<00:23:11.360><c> gases</c><00:23:11.840><c> due</c><00:23:12.000><c> to</c>

22:08.404 --> 22:08.414 align:start position:0%
greenhouse gases due to
 

22:08.414 --> 22:10.484 align:start position:0%
greenhouse gases due to
photosynthesizing<00:23:13.280><c> life</c><00:23:13.600><c> forms,</c><00:23:14.080><c> and</c>

22:10.484 --> 22:10.494 align:start position:0%
photosynthesizing life forms, and
 

22:10.494 --> 22:13.444 align:start position:0%
photosynthesizing life forms, and
Mealankovich<00:23:15.120><c> cycles.</c><00:23:16.400><c> There's</c><00:23:16.799><c> already</c><00:23:17.039><c> a</c>

22:13.444 --> 22:13.454 align:start position:0%
Mealankovich cycles. There's already a
 

22:13.454 --> 22:15.364 align:start position:0%
Mealankovich cycles. There's already a
video<00:23:17.520><c> dedicated</c><00:23:17.919><c> to</c><00:23:18.080><c> Melankovich</c><00:23:18.720><c> cycles</c><00:23:19.039><c> on</c>

22:15.364 --> 22:15.374 align:start position:0%
video dedicated to Melankovich cycles on
 

22:15.374 --> 22:17.524 align:start position:0%
video dedicated to Melankovich cycles on
our<00:23:19.360><c> channel,</c><00:23:20.159><c> but</c><00:23:20.400><c> here's</c><00:23:20.720><c> a</c><00:23:20.880><c> really</c><00:23:21.120><c> quick</c>

22:17.524 --> 22:17.534 align:start position:0%
our channel, but here's a really quick
 

22:17.534 --> 22:19.604 align:start position:0%
our channel, but here's a really quick
recap<00:23:21.840><c> of</c><00:23:22.080><c> what</c><00:23:22.320><c> they</c><00:23:22.480><c> are</c><00:23:22.720><c> and</c><00:23:23.039><c> what</c><00:23:23.200><c> they</c>

22:19.604 --> 22:19.614 align:start position:0%
recap of what they are and what they
 

22:19.614 --> 22:23.284 align:start position:0%
recap of what they are and what they
mean.<00:23:24.640><c> The</c><00:23:24.960><c> first</c><00:23:25.360><c> is</c><00:23:25.760><c> the</c><00:23:26.080><c> eccentricity</c><00:23:26.960><c> of</c>

22:23.284 --> 22:23.294 align:start position:0%
mean. The first is the eccentricity of
 

22:23.294 --> 22:25.444 align:start position:0%
mean. The first is the eccentricity of
the<00:23:27.280><c> Earth's</c><00:23:27.600><c> orbit.</c><00:23:28.480><c> When</c><00:23:28.720><c> the</c><00:23:28.880><c> pole</c><00:23:29.120><c> of</c>

22:25.444 --> 22:25.454 align:start position:0%
the Earth's orbit. When the pole of
 

22:25.454 --> 22:27.124 align:start position:0%
the Earth's orbit. When the pole of
gravity<00:23:29.600><c> from</c><00:23:29.840><c> Saturn</c><00:23:30.159><c> and</c><00:23:30.320><c> Jupiter</c><00:23:30.720><c> is</c>

22:27.124 --> 22:27.134 align:start position:0%
gravity from Saturn and Jupiter is
 

22:27.134 --> 22:29.764 align:start position:0%
gravity from Saturn and Jupiter is
stronger,<00:23:31.840><c> Earth</c><00:23:32.159><c> is</c><00:23:32.400><c> forced</c><00:23:32.799><c> into</c><00:23:33.039><c> a</c><00:23:33.280><c> more</c>

22:29.764 --> 22:29.774 align:start position:0%
stronger, Earth is forced into a more
 

22:29.774 --> 22:31.924 align:start position:0%
stronger, Earth is forced into a more
elliptical<00:23:34.080><c> orbit,</c><00:23:34.720><c> which</c><00:23:35.039><c> happens</c><00:23:35.360><c> around</c>

22:31.924 --> 22:31.934 align:start position:0%
elliptical orbit, which happens around
 

22:31.934 --> 22:35.044 align:start position:0%
elliptical orbit, which happens around
every<00:23:36.320><c> 100,000</c><00:23:37.200><c> years.</c><00:23:38.080><c> During</c><00:23:38.400><c> times</c><00:23:38.720><c> of</c>

22:35.044 --> 22:35.054 align:start position:0%
every 100,000 years. During times of
 

22:35.054 --> 22:37.524 align:start position:0%
every 100,000 years. During times of
highly<00:23:39.280><c> elliptical</c><00:23:39.760><c> orbit,</c><00:23:40.480><c> Earth</c><00:23:40.720><c> sees</c><00:23:41.120><c> the</c>

22:37.524 --> 22:37.534 align:start position:0%
highly elliptical orbit, Earth sees the
 

22:37.534 --> 22:39.364 align:start position:0%
highly elliptical orbit, Earth sees the
greatest<00:23:41.760><c> variation</c><00:23:42.240><c> in</c><00:23:42.480><c> the</c><00:23:42.640><c> length</c><00:23:42.880><c> of</c><00:23:43.039><c> each</c>

22:39.364 --> 22:39.374 align:start position:0%
greatest variation in the length of each
 

22:39.374 --> 22:41.764 align:start position:0%
greatest variation in the length of each
season<00:23:44.000><c> with</c><00:23:44.240><c> summer</c><00:23:44.640><c> lasting</c><00:23:45.039><c> longer</c><00:23:45.440><c> than</c>

22:41.764 --> 22:41.774 align:start position:0%
season with summer lasting longer than
 

22:41.774 --> 22:44.644 align:start position:0%
season with summer lasting longer than
winter.<00:23:46.799><c> Any</c><00:23:47.120><c> planetary</c><00:23:47.600><c> orbit</c><00:23:48.000><c> features</c>

22:44.644 --> 22:44.654 align:start position:0%
winter. Any planetary orbit features
 

22:44.654 --> 22:47.124 align:start position:0%
winter. Any planetary orbit features
ahelion<00:23:49.440><c> when</c><00:23:49.679><c> the</c><00:23:49.919><c> planet</c><00:23:50.159><c> is</c><00:23:50.400><c> furthest</c><00:23:50.799><c> from</c>

22:47.124 --> 22:47.134 align:start position:0%
ahelion when the planet is furthest from
 

22:47.134 --> 22:50.083 align:start position:0%
ahelion when the planet is furthest from
the<00:23:51.120><c> sun</c><00:23:51.520><c> and</c><00:23:51.919><c> perihelion</c><00:23:53.039><c> where</c><00:23:53.360><c> it</c><00:23:53.600><c> is</c>

22:50.083 --> 22:50.093 align:start position:0%
the sun and perihelion where it is
 

22:50.093 --> 22:53.203 align:start position:0%
the sun and perihelion where it is
closest.<00:23:55.200><c> However,</c><00:23:55.760><c> a</c><00:23:56.080><c> highly</c><00:23:56.559><c> elliptical</c>

22:53.203 --> 22:53.213 align:start position:0%
closest. However, a highly elliptical
 

22:53.213 --> 22:55.284 align:start position:0%
closest. However, a highly elliptical
orbit<00:23:57.440><c> means</c><00:23:57.679><c> that</c><00:23:57.840><c> the</c><00:23:58.000><c> Earth's</c><00:23:58.320><c> aphhelon</c><00:23:58.880><c> in</c>

22:55.284 --> 22:55.294 align:start position:0%
orbit means that the Earth's aphhelon in
 

22:55.294 --> 22:57.524 align:start position:0%
orbit means that the Earth's aphhelon in
July<00:23:59.679><c> is</c><00:24:00.000><c> at</c><00:24:00.159><c> its</c><00:24:00.480><c> furthest</c><00:24:00.880><c> distance</c><00:24:01.200><c> from</c>

22:57.524 --> 22:57.534 align:start position:0%
July is at its furthest distance from
 

22:57.534 --> 22:59.364 align:start position:0%
July is at its furthest distance from
the<00:24:01.520><c> sun.</c><00:24:02.159><c> So</c><00:24:02.320><c> the</c><00:24:02.559><c> amount</c><00:24:02.720><c> of</c><00:24:02.880><c> solar</c>

22:59.364 --> 22:59.374 align:start position:0%
the sun. So the amount of solar
 

22:59.374 --> 23:01.524 align:start position:0%
the sun. So the amount of solar
radiation<00:24:03.600><c> that</c><00:24:03.919><c> reaches</c><00:24:04.320><c> Earth</c><00:24:04.720><c> during</c><00:24:05.039><c> this</c>

23:01.524 --> 23:01.534 align:start position:0%
radiation that reaches Earth during this
 

23:01.534 --> 23:04.804 align:start position:0%
radiation that reaches Earth during this
time<00:24:05.679><c> is</c><00:24:05.919><c> around</c><00:24:06.480><c> 23%</c><00:24:07.600><c> less</c><00:24:07.919><c> than</c><00:24:08.240><c> during</c>

23:04.804 --> 23:04.814 align:start position:0%
time is around 23% less than during
 

23:04.814 --> 23:09.044 align:start position:0%
time is around 23% less than during
perihelion<00:24:09.440><c> in</c><00:24:09.760><c> January.</c><00:24:10.880><c> The</c><00:24:11.120><c> result</c><00:24:12.080><c> warmer</c>

23:09.044 --> 23:09.054 align:start position:0%
perihelion in January. The result warmer
 

23:09.054 --> 23:10.323 align:start position:0%
perihelion in January. The result warmer
shorter<00:24:13.279><c> winters</c><00:24:13.600><c> for</c><00:24:13.760><c> the</c><00:24:13.919><c> northern</c>

23:10.323 --> 23:10.333 align:start position:0%
shorter winters for the northern
 

23:10.333 --> 23:15.364 align:start position:0%
shorter winters for the northern
hemisphere<00:24:15.279><c> and</c><00:24:15.760><c> cooler</c><00:24:16.480><c> longer</c><00:24:16.960><c> summers.</c>

23:15.364 --> 23:15.374 align:start position:0%
hemisphere and cooler longer summers.
 

23:15.374 --> 23:17.524 align:start position:0%
hemisphere and cooler longer summers.
The<00:24:19.440><c> second</c><00:24:19.679><c> Melankovich</c><00:24:20.400><c> cycle</c><00:24:20.799><c> concerns</c>

23:17.524 --> 23:17.534 align:start position:0%
The second Melankovich cycle concerns
 

23:17.534 --> 23:21.203 align:start position:0%
The second Melankovich cycle concerns
the<00:24:21.760><c> oblquity</c><00:24:22.880><c> or</c><00:24:23.360><c> tilt</c><00:24:24.000><c> of</c><00:24:24.240><c> the</c><00:24:24.400><c> Earth</c><00:24:24.720><c> on</c><00:24:24.880><c> its</c>

23:21.203 --> 23:21.213 align:start position:0%
the oblquity or tilt of the Earth on its
 

23:21.213 --> 23:24.244 align:start position:0%
the oblquity or tilt of the Earth on its
axis.<00:24:26.159><c> The</c><00:24:26.400><c> more</c><00:24:26.720><c> tilted</c><00:24:27.120><c> the</c><00:24:27.279><c> Earth,</c><00:24:27.840><c> the</c>

23:24.244 --> 23:24.254 align:start position:0%
axis. The more tilted the Earth, the
 

23:24.254 --> 23:26.404 align:start position:0%
axis. The more tilted the Earth, the
more<00:24:28.320><c> extreme</c><00:24:28.720><c> the</c><00:24:28.960><c> seasons.</c><00:24:29.840><c> And</c><00:24:30.000><c> this</c>

23:26.404 --> 23:26.414 align:start position:0%
more extreme the seasons. And this
 

23:26.414 --> 23:30.004 align:start position:0%
more extreme the seasons. And this
varies<00:24:30.480><c> on</c><00:24:30.640><c> a</c><00:24:30.799><c> roughly</c><00:24:31.200><c> 41,000year</c><00:24:32.480><c> cycle.</c><00:24:33.440><c> So</c>

23:30.004 --> 23:30.014 align:start position:0%
varies on a roughly 41,000year cycle. So
 

23:30.014 --> 23:32.244 align:start position:0%
varies on a roughly 41,000year cycle. So
when<00:24:34.159><c> Earth</c><00:24:34.400><c> is</c><00:24:34.640><c> less</c><00:24:34.960><c> tilted,</c><00:24:35.840><c> the</c>

23:32.244 --> 23:32.254 align:start position:0%
when Earth is less tilted, the
 

23:32.254 --> 23:34.164 align:start position:0%
when Earth is less tilted, the
difference<00:24:36.400><c> between</c><00:24:36.799><c> seasons</c><00:24:37.279><c> is</c><00:24:37.679><c> mild</c>

23:34.164 --> 23:34.174 align:start position:0%
difference between seasons is mild
 

23:34.174 --> 23:36.164 align:start position:0%
difference between seasons is mild
enough<00:24:38.240><c> that</c><00:24:38.480><c> the</c><00:24:38.799><c> summer</c><00:24:39.200><c> can't</c><00:24:39.520><c> melt</c><00:24:39.840><c> the</c>

23:36.164 --> 23:36.174 align:start position:0%
enough that the summer can't melt the
 

23:36.174 --> 23:38.564 align:start position:0%
enough that the summer can't melt the
winter<00:24:40.320><c> ice,</c><00:24:40.960><c> which</c><00:24:41.360><c> could</c><00:24:41.679><c> allow</c><00:24:42.000><c> it</c><00:24:42.159><c> to</c>

23:38.564 --> 23:38.574 align:start position:0%
winter ice, which could allow it to
 

23:38.574 --> 23:42.723 align:start position:0%
winter ice, which could allow it to
accumulate<00:24:43.120><c> and</c><00:24:43.440><c> bring</c><00:24:43.679><c> about</c><00:24:43.919><c> an</c><00:24:44.159><c> ice</c><00:24:44.400><c> age.</c>

23:42.723 --> 23:42.733 align:start position:0%
accumulate and bring about an ice age.
 

23:42.733 --> 23:45.284 align:start position:0%
accumulate and bring about an ice age.
The<00:24:46.799><c> third</c><00:24:47.039><c> cycle</c><00:24:47.520><c> is</c><00:24:47.760><c> known</c><00:24:48.080><c> as</c><00:24:48.559><c> axial</c>

23:45.284 --> 23:45.294 align:start position:0%
The third cycle is known as axial
 

23:45.294 --> 23:48.484 align:start position:0%
The third cycle is known as axial
procession<00:24:50.080><c> or</c><00:24:50.480><c> wobble.</c><00:24:51.679><c> Like</c><00:24:51.840><c> the</c><00:24:52.080><c> name</c>

23:48.484 --> 23:48.494 align:start position:0%
procession or wobble. Like the name
 

23:48.494 --> 23:50.963 align:start position:0%
procession or wobble. Like the name
suggests,<00:24:53.039><c> the</c><00:24:53.279><c> Earth</c><00:24:53.600><c> can</c><00:24:53.840><c> wobble</c><00:24:54.320><c> upon</c><00:24:54.640><c> its</c>

23:50.963 --> 23:50.973 align:start position:0%
suggests, the Earth can wobble upon its
 

23:50.973 --> 23:53.124 align:start position:0%
suggests, the Earth can wobble upon its
rotational<00:24:55.360><c> axis</c><00:24:56.000><c> as</c><00:24:56.240><c> a</c><00:24:56.480><c> result</c><00:24:56.640><c> of</c><00:24:56.799><c> the</c>

23:53.124 --> 23:53.134 align:start position:0%
rotational axis as a result of the
 

23:53.134 --> 23:54.884 align:start position:0%
rotational axis as a result of the
gravitational<00:24:57.520><c> influences</c><00:24:58.159><c> from</c><00:24:58.320><c> the</c><00:24:58.480><c> sun</c>

23:54.884 --> 23:54.894 align:start position:0%
gravitational influences from the sun
 

23:54.894 --> 23:57.044 align:start position:0%
gravitational influences from the sun
and<00:24:58.960><c> moon,</c><00:24:59.360><c> which</c><00:24:59.679><c> cause</c><00:24:59.840><c> the</c><00:25:00.080><c> Earth</c><00:25:00.320><c> to</c><00:25:00.480><c> bulge</c>

23:57.044 --> 23:57.054 align:start position:0%
and moon, which cause the Earth to bulge
 

23:57.054 --> 23:59.284 align:start position:0%
and moon, which cause the Earth to bulge
outward<00:25:01.279><c> slightly</c><00:25:01.679><c> at</c><00:25:01.840><c> the</c><00:25:02.000><c> equator</c><00:25:02.799><c> rather</c>

23:59.284 --> 23:59.294 align:start position:0%
outward slightly at the equator rather
 

23:59.294 --> 24:02.083 align:start position:0%
outward slightly at the equator rather
than<00:25:03.440><c> maintain</c><00:25:03.919><c> a</c><00:25:04.240><c> perfect</c><00:25:04.640><c> sphere.</c><00:25:05.600><c> This</c>

24:02.083 --> 24:02.093 align:start position:0%
than maintain a perfect sphere. This
 

24:02.093 --> 24:05.124 align:start position:0%
than maintain a perfect sphere. This
movement<00:25:06.320><c> varies</c><00:25:06.640><c> on</c><00:25:06.799><c> a</c><00:25:07.039><c> 26,000year</c><00:25:08.240><c> cycle</c>

24:05.124 --> 24:05.134 align:start position:0%
movement varies on a 26,000year cycle
 

24:05.134 --> 24:07.203 align:start position:0%
movement varies on a 26,000year cycle
and<00:25:09.200><c> makes</c><00:25:09.360><c> the</c><00:25:09.600><c> contrast</c><00:25:10.000><c> between</c><00:25:10.400><c> seasons</c>

24:07.203 --> 24:07.213 align:start position:0%
and makes the contrast between seasons
 

24:07.213 --> 24:10.244 align:start position:0%
and makes the contrast between seasons
more<00:25:11.520><c> or</c><00:25:11.840><c> less</c><00:25:12.159><c> extreme</c><00:25:12.960><c> depending</c><00:25:13.440><c> on</c><00:25:13.679><c> when</c>

24:10.244 --> 24:10.254 align:start position:0%
more or less extreme depending on when
 

24:10.254 --> 24:12.884 align:start position:0%
more or less extreme depending on when
perihelion<00:25:14.799><c> occurs</c><00:25:15.200><c> in</c><00:25:15.440><c> each</c><00:25:15.679><c> hemisphere.</c>

24:12.884 --> 24:12.894 align:start position:0%
perihelion occurs in each hemisphere.
 

24:12.894 --> 24:15.443 align:start position:0%
perihelion occurs in each hemisphere.
For<00:25:16.880><c> example,</c><00:25:17.760><c> modern-day</c><00:25:18.480><c> perihelion</c>

24:15.443 --> 24:15.453 align:start position:0%
For example, modern-day perihelion
 

24:15.453 --> 24:17.604 align:start position:0%
For example, modern-day perihelion
occurs<00:25:19.760><c> during</c><00:25:20.080><c> the</c><00:25:20.320><c> northern</c><00:25:20.720><c> hemisphere's</c>

24:17.604 --> 24:17.614 align:start position:0%
occurs during the northern hemisphere's
 

24:17.614 --> 24:19.843 align:start position:0%
occurs during the northern hemisphere's
winter,<00:25:22.240><c> meaning</c><00:25:22.480><c> that</c><00:25:22.880><c> their</c><00:25:23.200><c> seasonal</c>

24:19.843 --> 24:19.853 align:start position:0%
winter, meaning that their seasonal
 

24:19.853 --> 24:22.723 align:start position:0%
winter, meaning that their seasonal
fluctuations<00:25:24.559><c> are</c><00:25:24.880><c> less</c><00:25:25.279><c> extreme</c><00:25:26.000><c> than</c><00:25:26.320><c> for</c>

24:22.723 --> 24:22.733 align:start position:0%
fluctuations are less extreme than for
 

24:22.733 --> 24:24.804 align:start position:0%
fluctuations are less extreme than for
the<00:25:26.720><c> southern</c><00:25:27.039><c> hemisphere.</c>

24:24.804 --> 24:24.814 align:start position:0%
the southern hemisphere.
 

24:24.814 --> 24:26.884 align:start position:0%
the southern hemisphere.
Of<00:25:28.960><c> course,</c><00:25:29.520><c> it</c><00:25:29.760><c> was</c><00:25:29.840><c> quite</c><00:25:30.080><c> likely</c><00:25:30.480><c> a</c>

24:26.884 --> 24:26.894 align:start position:0%
Of course, it was quite likely a
 

24:26.894 --> 24:28.723 align:start position:0%
Of course, it was quite likely a
combination<00:25:31.120><c> of</c><00:25:31.360><c> factors</c><00:25:31.679><c> that</c><00:25:31.919><c> amplified</c>

24:28.723 --> 24:28.733 align:start position:0%
combination of factors that amplified
 

24:28.733 --> 24:30.963 align:start position:0%
combination of factors that amplified
this<00:25:32.799><c> global</c><00:25:33.279><c> cooling.</c>

24:30.963 --> 24:30.973 align:start position:0%
this global cooling.
 

24:30.973 --> 24:33.443 align:start position:0%
this global cooling.
Interestingly<00:25:35.440><c> enough,</c><00:25:36.240><c> underneath</c><00:25:37.039><c> all</c>

24:33.443 --> 24:33.453 align:start position:0%
Interestingly enough, underneath all
 

24:33.453 --> 24:36.164 align:start position:0%
Interestingly enough, underneath all
this<00:25:37.520><c> glacial</c><00:25:38.000><c> ice</c><00:25:38.640><c> is</c><00:25:38.880><c> a</c><00:25:39.120><c> single</c><00:25:39.600><c> superc</c>

24:36.164 --> 24:36.174 align:start position:0%
this glacial ice is a single superc
 

24:36.174 --> 24:39.203 align:start position:0%
this glacial ice is a single superc
continent<00:25:40.640><c> called</c><00:25:41.120><c> Panotia,</c><00:25:42.400><c> centered</c><00:25:42.799><c> on</c>

24:39.203 --> 24:39.213 align:start position:0%
continent called Panotia, centered on
 

24:39.213 --> 24:41.124 align:start position:0%
continent called Panotia, centered on
the<00:25:43.200><c> South</c><00:25:43.440><c> Pole.</c>

24:41.124 --> 24:41.134 align:start position:0%
the South Pole.
 

24:41.134 --> 24:44.164 align:start position:0%
the South Pole.
However,<00:25:45.600><c> given</c><00:25:45.919><c> the</c><00:25:46.159><c> vast</c><00:25:46.720><c> glacial</c><00:25:47.279><c> cover,</c>

24:44.164 --> 24:44.174 align:start position:0%
However, given the vast glacial cover,
 

24:44.174 --> 24:46.404 align:start position:0%
However, given the vast glacial cover,
our<00:25:48.320><c> alien</c><00:25:48.720><c> visitors</c><00:25:49.279><c> are</c><00:25:49.520><c> having</c><00:25:49.760><c> trouble</c>

24:46.404 --> 24:46.414 align:start position:0%
our alien visitors are having trouble
 

24:46.414 --> 24:49.284 align:start position:0%
our alien visitors are having trouble
discerning<00:25:50.720><c> land</c><00:25:51.039><c> from</c><00:25:51.279><c> ocean.</c>

24:49.284 --> 24:49.294 align:start position:0%
discerning land from ocean.
 

24:49.294 --> 24:51.604 align:start position:0%
discerning land from ocean.
As<00:25:53.360><c> a</c><00:25:53.600><c> side</c><00:25:53.840><c> note,</c><00:25:54.480><c> don't</c><00:25:54.720><c> confuse</c><00:25:55.200><c> this</c>

24:51.604 --> 24:51.614 align:start position:0%
As a side note, don't confuse this
 

24:51.614 --> 24:54.404 align:start position:0%
As a side note, don't confuse this
superc<00:25:55.679><c> continent</c><00:25:56.159><c> with</c><00:25:56.480><c> Pangia.</c><00:25:57.919><c> Plate</c>

24:54.404 --> 24:54.414 align:start position:0%
superc continent with Pangia. Plate
 

24:54.414 --> 24:56.723 align:start position:0%
superc continent with Pangia. Plate
tectonics<00:25:58.880><c> will</c><00:25:59.120><c> eventually</c><00:25:59.760><c> break</c><00:26:00.000><c> apart</c>

24:56.723 --> 24:56.733 align:start position:0%
tectonics will eventually break apart
 

24:56.733 --> 24:59.044 align:start position:0%
tectonics will eventually break apart
Panotia<00:26:01.279><c> and</c><00:26:01.520><c> reform</c><00:26:02.000><c> that</c><00:26:02.240><c> later</c><00:26:02.559><c> superc</c>

24:59.044 --> 24:59.054 align:start position:0%
Panotia and reform that later superc
 

24:59.054 --> 25:00.644 align:start position:0%
Panotia and reform that later superc
continent<00:26:03.360><c> in</c><00:26:03.520><c> a</c><00:26:03.679><c> few</c><00:26:03.840><c> hundred</c><00:26:04.159><c> million</c>

25:00.644 --> 25:00.654 align:start position:0%
continent in a few hundred million
 

25:00.654 --> 25:02.644 align:start position:0%
continent in a few hundred million
years.<00:26:05.279><c> But</c><00:26:05.520><c> let's</c><00:26:05.760><c> not</c><00:26:05.919><c> get</c><00:26:06.080><c> ahead</c><00:26:06.320><c> of</c>

25:02.644 --> 25:02.654 align:start position:0%
years. But let's not get ahead of
 

25:02.654 --> 25:06.164 align:start position:0%
years. But let's not get ahead of
ourselves.<00:26:07.679><c> Our</c><00:26:08.159><c> space</c><00:26:08.480><c> visitors</c><00:26:09.120><c> land</c><00:26:09.600><c> and</c>

25:06.164 --> 25:06.174 align:start position:0%
ourselves. Our space visitors land and
 

25:06.174 --> 25:09.443 align:start position:0%
ourselves. Our space visitors land and
wander<00:26:10.480><c> around</c><00:26:10.799><c> the</c><00:26:11.039><c> vast</c><00:26:11.679><c> endless</c><00:26:12.240><c> glaciers,</c>

25:09.443 --> 25:09.453 align:start position:0%
wander around the vast endless glaciers,
 

25:09.453 --> 25:11.764 align:start position:0%
wander around the vast endless glaciers,
amazed<00:26:13.840><c> that</c><00:26:14.080><c> this</c><00:26:14.320><c> frozen</c><00:26:14.880><c> landscape</c><00:26:15.360><c> was</c>

25:11.764 --> 25:11.774 align:start position:0%
amazed that this frozen landscape was
 

25:11.774 --> 25:15.203 align:start position:0%
amazed that this frozen landscape was
once<00:26:15.919><c> covered</c><00:26:16.240><c> in</c><00:26:16.559><c> molten</c><00:26:17.039><c> rock.</c><00:26:18.240><c> At</c><00:26:18.559><c> first,</c>

25:15.203 --> 25:15.213 align:start position:0%
once covered in molten rock. At first,
 

25:15.213 --> 25:17.044 align:start position:0%
once covered in molten rock. At first,
they<00:26:19.279><c> think</c><00:26:19.440><c> the</c><00:26:19.679><c> harsh</c><00:26:20.080><c> climate</c><00:26:20.480><c> might</c><00:26:20.640><c> have</c>

25:17.044 --> 25:17.054 align:start position:0%
they think the harsh climate might have
 

25:17.054 --> 25:19.764 align:start position:0%
they think the harsh climate might have
wiped<00:26:21.200><c> out</c><00:26:21.520><c> Earth's</c><00:26:21.919><c> fledgling</c><00:26:22.559><c> life,</c><00:26:23.360><c> but</c>

25:19.764 --> 25:19.774 align:start position:0%
wiped out Earth's fledgling life, but
 

25:19.774 --> 25:22.004 align:start position:0%
wiped out Earth's fledgling life, but
that<00:26:23.919><c> life</c><00:26:24.240><c> has</c><00:26:24.480><c> proven</c><00:26:25.120><c> remarkably</c>

25:22.004 --> 25:22.014 align:start position:0%
that life has proven remarkably
 

25:22.014 --> 25:25.524 align:start position:0%
that life has proven remarkably
resilient.<00:26:27.120><c> Cyanobacteria</c><00:26:28.480><c> remain</c><00:26:28.960><c> in</c><00:26:29.200><c> the</c>

25:25.524 --> 25:25.534 align:start position:0%
resilient. Cyanobacteria remain in the
 

25:25.534 --> 25:28.164 align:start position:0%
resilient. Cyanobacteria remain in the
ocean,<00:26:30.080><c> perhaps</c><00:26:30.559><c> clustered</c><00:26:31.120><c> around</c><00:26:31.520><c> hot</c>

25:28.164 --> 25:28.174 align:start position:0%
ocean, perhaps clustered around hot
 

25:28.174 --> 25:30.804 align:start position:0%
ocean, perhaps clustered around hot
hydrothermal<00:26:32.799><c> vents,</c><00:26:33.600><c> much</c><00:26:33.840><c> like</c><00:26:34.080><c> the</c><00:26:34.320><c> black</c>

25:30.804 --> 25:30.814 align:start position:0%
hydrothermal vents, much like the black
 

25:30.814 --> 25:32.564 align:start position:0%
hydrothermal vents, much like the black
smokers<00:26:35.120><c> that</c><00:26:35.440><c> are</c><00:26:35.600><c> currently</c><00:26:36.000><c> at</c><00:26:36.240><c> the</c>

25:32.564 --> 25:32.574 align:start position:0%
smokers that are currently at the
 

25:32.574 --> 25:35.124 align:start position:0%
smokers that are currently at the
midatlantic<00:26:37.360><c> ridge.</c>

25:35.124 --> 25:35.134 align:start position:0%
midatlantic ridge.
 

25:35.134 --> 25:37.684 align:start position:0%
midatlantic ridge.
There<00:26:39.200><c> are</c><00:26:39.440><c> also</c><00:26:39.919><c> newly</c><00:26:40.320><c> evolved</c><00:26:40.799><c> microbial</c>

25:37.684 --> 25:37.694 align:start position:0%
There are also newly evolved microbial
 

25:37.694 --> 25:41.044 align:start position:0%
There are also newly evolved microbial
life<00:26:41.760><c> forms</c><00:26:42.320><c> such</c><00:26:42.559><c> as</c><00:26:42.799><c> red</c><00:26:43.120><c> algae.</c>

25:41.044 --> 25:41.054 align:start position:0%
life forms such as red algae.
 

25:41.054 --> 25:43.684 align:start position:0%
life forms such as red algae.
Complex<00:26:45.679><c> multisellular</c><00:26:46.720><c> life</c><00:26:47.120><c> remains</c>

25:43.684 --> 25:43.694 align:start position:0%
Complex multisellular life remains
 

25:43.694 --> 25:46.083 align:start position:0%
Complex multisellular life remains
elusive,<00:26:48.480><c> but</c><00:26:48.720><c> the</c><00:26:48.960><c> fact</c><00:26:49.120><c> that</c><00:26:49.360><c> life</c><00:26:49.679><c> has</c>

25:46.083 --> 25:46.093 align:start position:0%
elusive, but the fact that life has
 

25:46.093 --> 25:47.924 align:start position:0%
elusive, but the fact that life has
found<00:26:50.159><c> a</c><00:26:50.320><c> way</c><00:26:50.480><c> to</c><00:26:50.720><c> survive</c><00:26:51.120><c> the</c><00:26:51.360><c> planet's</c>

25:47.924 --> 25:47.934 align:start position:0%
found a way to survive the planet's
 

25:47.934 --> 25:50.723 align:start position:0%
found a way to survive the planet's
harshest<00:26:52.400><c> freezing</c><00:26:52.880><c> events</c><00:26:53.279><c> so</c><00:26:53.520><c> far</c><00:26:54.080><c> is</c><00:26:54.320><c> a</c>

25:50.723 --> 25:50.733 align:start position:0%
harshest freezing events so far is a
 

25:50.733 --> 25:53.604 align:start position:0%
harshest freezing events so far is a
testament<00:26:54.960><c> to</c><00:26:55.120><c> its</c><00:26:55.360><c> staying</c><00:26:55.760><c> power.</c>

25:53.604 --> 25:53.614 align:start position:0%
testament to its staying power.
 

25:53.614 --> 25:56.164 align:start position:0%
testament to its staying power.
At<00:26:57.679><c> this</c><00:26:57.919><c> point,</c><00:26:58.480><c> I'd</c><00:26:58.799><c> like</c><00:26:58.960><c> to</c><00:26:59.120><c> imagine</c><00:26:59.679><c> our</c>

25:56.164 --> 25:56.174 align:start position:0%
At this point, I'd like to imagine our
 

25:56.174 --> 25:58.404 align:start position:0%
At this point, I'd like to imagine our
alien<00:27:00.400><c> visitors</c><00:27:00.880><c> having</c><00:27:01.200><c> an</c><00:27:01.440><c> argument</c><00:27:01.919><c> among</c>

25:58.404 --> 25:58.414 align:start position:0%
alien visitors having an argument among
 

25:58.414 --> 26:00.644 align:start position:0%
alien visitors having an argument among
themselves.<00:27:03.279><c> The</c><00:27:03.520><c> youngest</c><00:27:04.000><c> and</c><00:27:04.240><c> most</c>

26:00.644 --> 26:00.654 align:start position:0%
themselves. The youngest and most
 

26:00.654 --> 26:02.323 align:start position:0%
themselves. The youngest and most
temperamental<00:27:05.039><c> of</c><00:27:05.200><c> the</c><00:27:05.360><c> group</c><00:27:05.600><c> is</c><00:27:05.760><c> having</c><00:27:06.000><c> a</c>

26:02.323 --> 26:02.333 align:start position:0%
temperamental of the group is having a
 

26:02.333 --> 26:05.044 align:start position:0%
temperamental of the group is having a
tantrum.<00:27:07.279><c> First</c><00:27:07.520><c> a</c><00:27:07.679><c> lava</c><00:27:08.000><c> ball,</c><00:27:08.480><c> then</c><00:27:08.720><c> a</c>

26:05.044 --> 26:05.054 align:start position:0%
tantrum. First a lava ball, then a
 

26:05.054 --> 26:07.443 align:start position:0%
tantrum. First a lava ball, then a
barren<00:27:09.360><c> bacterial</c><00:27:09.919><c> playground,</c><00:27:10.640><c> and</c><00:27:10.880><c> now</c><00:27:11.039><c> a</c>

26:07.443 --> 26:07.453 align:start position:0%
barren bacterial playground, and now a
 

26:07.453 --> 26:10.323 align:start position:0%
barren bacterial playground, and now a
ball<00:27:11.520><c> of</c><00:27:11.679><c> ice,</c><00:27:12.080><c> it</c><00:27:12.240><c> exclaims.</c><00:27:13.279><c> Why</c><00:27:13.520><c> do</c><00:27:13.679><c> we</c><00:27:13.919><c> keep</c>

26:10.323 --> 26:10.333 align:start position:0%
ball of ice, it exclaims. Why do we keep
 

26:10.333 --> 26:13.124 align:start position:0%
ball of ice, it exclaims. Why do we keep
coming<00:27:14.480><c> back</c><00:27:14.799><c> here?</c><00:27:15.919><c> But</c><00:27:16.080><c> the</c><00:27:16.320><c> eldest</c><00:27:16.640><c> of</c><00:27:16.799><c> the</c>

26:13.124 --> 26:13.134 align:start position:0%
coming back here? But the eldest of the
 

26:13.134 --> 26:15.604 align:start position:0%
coming back here? But the eldest of the
group<00:27:17.200><c> puts</c><00:27:17.520><c> an</c><00:27:17.679><c> arm,</c><00:27:18.400><c> tentacle,</c><00:27:19.120><c> or</c>

26:15.604 --> 26:15.614 align:start position:0%
group puts an arm, tentacle, or
 

26:15.614 --> 26:17.364 align:start position:0%
group puts an arm, tentacle, or
articulated<00:27:20.080><c> limb</c><00:27:20.400><c> of</c><00:27:20.559><c> our</c><00:27:20.720><c> preference</c>

26:17.364 --> 26:17.374 align:start position:0%
articulated limb of our preference
 

26:17.374 --> 26:19.924 align:start position:0%
articulated limb of our preference
around<00:27:21.440><c> its</c><00:27:21.760><c> younger</c><00:27:22.080><c> comrade.</c><00:27:23.279><c> patience.</c>

26:19.924 --> 26:19.934 align:start position:0%
around its younger comrade. patience.
 

26:19.934 --> 26:21.843 align:start position:0%
around its younger comrade. patience.
The<00:27:24.000><c> wise</c><00:27:24.240><c> alien</c><00:27:24.640><c> taurus</c><00:27:25.039><c> says</c><00:27:25.279><c> to</c><00:27:25.440><c> its</c>

26:21.843 --> 26:21.853 align:start position:0%
The wise alien taurus says to its
 

26:21.853 --> 26:24.244 align:start position:0%
The wise alien taurus says to its
impertinent<00:27:26.400><c> partner,</c><00:27:27.120><c> "I</c><00:27:27.520><c> have</c><00:27:27.600><c> a</c><00:27:27.840><c> feeling</c>

26:24.244 --> 26:24.254 align:start position:0%
impertinent partner, "I have a feeling
 

26:24.254 --> 26:26.004 align:start position:0%
impertinent partner, "I have a feeling
this<00:27:28.400><c> planet</c><00:27:28.720><c> is</c><00:27:28.880><c> in</c><00:27:29.039><c> for</c><00:27:29.279><c> some</c><00:27:29.440><c> major</c>

26:26.004 --> 26:26.014 align:start position:0%
this planet is in for some major
 

26:26.014 --> 26:28.484 align:start position:0%
this planet is in for some major
shakeups.<00:27:30.799><c> Let's</c><00:27:31.120><c> come</c><00:27:31.279><c> back</c><00:27:31.520><c> in</c><00:27:31.760><c> another</c><00:27:32.080><c> few</c>

26:28.484 --> 26:28.494 align:start position:0%
shakeups. Let's come back in another few
 

26:28.494 --> 26:30.564 align:start position:0%
shakeups. Let's come back in another few
hundred<00:27:32.640><c> million</c><00:27:32.960><c> years.</c><00:27:33.679><c> I</c><00:27:33.919><c> think</c><00:27:34.000><c> it</c><00:27:34.240><c> will</c>

26:30.564 --> 26:30.574 align:start position:0%
hundred million years. I think it will
 

26:30.574 --> 26:34.723 align:start position:0%
hundred million years. I think it will
be<00:27:34.480><c> worth</c><00:27:34.720><c> the</c><00:27:34.960><c> trip."</c>

26:34.723 --> 26:34.733 align:start position:0%
 
 

26:34.733 --> 26:37.284 align:start position:0%
 
So,<00:27:39.200><c> giving</c><00:27:39.440><c> the</c><00:27:39.679><c> planet</c><00:27:40.000><c> time</c><00:27:40.240><c> to</c><00:27:40.480><c> change,</c>

26:37.284 --> 26:37.294 align:start position:0%
So, giving the planet time to change,
 

26:37.294 --> 26:39.604 align:start position:0%
So, giving the planet time to change,
our<00:27:41.440><c> alien</c><00:27:41.919><c> scientists</c><00:27:42.400><c> decide</c><00:27:42.720><c> to</c><00:27:42.880><c> come</c><00:27:43.120><c> back</c>

26:39.604 --> 26:39.614 align:start position:0%
our alien scientists decide to come back
 

26:39.614 --> 26:42.884 align:start position:0%
our alien scientists decide to come back
during<00:27:43.679><c> the</c><00:27:43.840><c> Deonian</c><00:27:44.480><c> period</c><00:27:45.360><c> 360</c><00:27:46.400><c> million</c>

26:42.884 --> 26:42.894 align:start position:0%
during the Deonian period 360 million
 

26:42.894 --> 26:45.284 align:start position:0%
during the Deonian period 360 million
years<00:27:46.960><c> ago,</c><00:27:47.600><c> and</c><00:27:47.840><c> they</c><00:27:48.080><c> are</c><00:27:48.240><c> shocked</c><00:27:48.640><c> by</c><00:27:48.880><c> what</c>

26:45.284 --> 26:45.294 align:start position:0%
years ago, and they are shocked by what
 

26:45.294 --> 26:48.004 align:start position:0%
years ago, and they are shocked by what
they<00:27:49.360><c> see.</c><00:27:50.320><c> The</c><00:27:50.559><c> planet</c><00:27:50.960><c> has</c><00:27:51.279><c> thawed</c>

26:48.004 --> 26:48.014 align:start position:0%
they see. The planet has thawed
 

26:48.014 --> 26:50.404 align:start position:0%
they see. The planet has thawed
completely<00:27:52.880><c> with</c><00:27:53.200><c> temperatures</c><00:27:53.760><c> generally</c>

26:50.404 --> 26:50.414 align:start position:0%
completely with temperatures generally
 

26:50.414 --> 26:52.884 align:start position:0%
completely with temperatures generally
warmer<00:27:54.720><c> than</c><00:27:54.880><c> those</c><00:27:55.120><c> of</c><00:27:55.360><c> the</c><00:27:55.520><c> present</c><00:27:55.840><c> day.</c>

26:52.884 --> 26:52.894 align:start position:0%
warmer than those of the present day.
 

26:52.894 --> 26:54.804 align:start position:0%
warmer than those of the present day.
Scientists<00:27:57.200><c> estimate</c><00:27:57.679><c> that</c><00:27:57.919><c> the</c><00:27:58.159><c> tropical</c>

26:54.804 --> 26:54.814 align:start position:0%
Scientists estimate that the tropical
 

26:54.814 --> 26:57.684 align:start position:0%
Scientists estimate that the tropical
sea<00:27:58.960><c> surface</c><00:27:59.440><c> temperatures</c><00:27:59.919><c> range</c><00:28:00.399><c> from</c><00:28:00.799><c> 30°</c>

26:57.684 --> 26:57.694 align:start position:0%
sea surface temperatures range from 30°
 

26:57.694 --> 27:01.684 align:start position:0%
sea surface temperatures range from 30°
C<00:28:02.159><c> to</c><00:28:02.480><c> 21°</c><00:28:03.840><c> later</c><00:28:04.080><c> in</c><00:28:04.240><c> the</c><00:28:04.399><c> Devonian,</c><00:28:05.279><c> a</c>

27:01.684 --> 27:01.694 align:start position:0%
C to 21° later in the Devonian, a
 

27:01.694 --> 27:03.443 align:start position:0%
C to 21° later in the Devonian, a
temperature<00:28:06.000><c> drop</c><00:28:06.240><c> that</c><00:28:06.480><c> coincides</c><00:28:07.039><c> with</c>

27:03.443 --> 27:03.453 align:start position:0%
temperature drop that coincides with
 

27:03.453 --> 27:06.244 align:start position:0%
temperature drop that coincides with
diminishing<00:28:07.840><c> CO2</c><00:28:08.399><c> levels</c><00:28:08.960><c> due</c><00:28:09.200><c> to</c><00:28:09.440><c> increasing</c>

27:06.244 --> 27:06.254 align:start position:0%
diminishing CO2 levels due to increasing
 

27:06.254 --> 27:09.203 align:start position:0%
diminishing CO2 levels due to increasing
plant<00:28:10.399><c> growth.</c><00:28:11.760><c> The</c><00:28:12.000><c> superc</c><00:28:12.320><c> continent</c><00:28:12.799><c> has</c>

27:09.203 --> 27:09.213 align:start position:0%
plant growth. The superc continent has
 

27:09.213 --> 27:11.124 align:start position:0%
plant growth. The superc continent has
broken<00:28:13.360><c> up</c><00:28:13.600><c> and</c><00:28:13.919><c> formed</c><00:28:14.399><c> multiple</c>

27:11.124 --> 27:11.134 align:start position:0%
broken up and formed multiple
 

27:11.134 --> 27:13.443 align:start position:0%
broken up and formed multiple
continents,<00:28:15.760><c> the</c><00:28:16.000><c> largest</c><00:28:16.320><c> of</c><00:28:16.559><c> which</c><00:28:16.880><c> is</c>

27:13.443 --> 27:13.453 align:start position:0%
continents, the largest of which is
 

27:13.453 --> 27:14.963 align:start position:0%
continents, the largest of which is
Gonduana.

27:14.963 --> 27:14.973 align:start position:0%
Gonduana.
 

27:14.973 --> 27:17.044 align:start position:0%
Gonduana.
Covering<00:28:19.200><c> the</c><00:28:19.440><c> South</c><00:28:19.679><c> Pole</c><00:28:20.080><c> and</c><00:28:20.320><c> much</c><00:28:20.559><c> of</c><00:28:20.720><c> the</c>

27:17.044 --> 27:17.054 align:start position:0%
Covering the South Pole and much of the
 

27:17.054 --> 27:19.044 align:start position:0%
Covering the South Pole and much of the
southern<00:28:21.200><c> hemisphere,</c><00:28:22.159><c> Gondana</c>

27:19.044 --> 27:19.054 align:start position:0%
southern hemisphere, Gondana
 

27:19.054 --> 27:21.524 align:start position:0%
southern hemisphere, Gondana
incorporates<00:28:23.679><c> much</c><00:28:24.000><c> of</c><00:28:24.159><c> what</c><00:28:24.399><c> is</c><00:28:24.720><c> modern-day</c>

27:21.524 --> 27:21.534 align:start position:0%
incorporates much of what is modern-day
 

27:21.534 --> 27:24.644 align:start position:0%
incorporates much of what is modern-day
Africa,<00:28:26.320><c> South</c><00:28:26.640><c> America,</c><00:28:27.440><c> Antarctica,</c>

27:24.644 --> 27:24.654 align:start position:0%
Africa, South America, Antarctica,
 

27:24.654 --> 27:27.203 align:start position:0%
Africa, South America, Antarctica,
Australia,<00:28:29.279><c> and</c><00:28:29.520><c> India.</c><00:28:30.240><c> So,</c><00:28:30.480><c> it's</c><00:28:30.720><c> pretty</c>

27:27.203 --> 27:27.213 align:start position:0%
Australia, and India. So, it's pretty
 

27:27.213 --> 27:30.004 align:start position:0%
Australia, and India. So, it's pretty
big.<00:28:32.000><c> But</c><00:28:32.159><c> the</c><00:28:32.399><c> most</c><00:28:32.559><c> dramatic</c><00:28:33.200><c> change</c><00:28:33.520><c> our</c>

27:30.004 --> 27:30.014 align:start position:0%
big. But the most dramatic change our
 

27:30.014 --> 27:32.563 align:start position:0%
big. But the most dramatic change our
visitors<00:28:34.320><c> notice</c><00:28:34.799><c> is</c><00:28:35.039><c> that</c><00:28:35.360><c> life</c><00:28:35.679><c> has</c><00:28:36.000><c> already</c>

27:32.563 --> 27:32.573 align:start position:0%
visitors notice is that life has already
 

27:32.573 --> 27:35.604 align:start position:0%
visitors notice is that life has already
undergone<00:28:37.039><c> the</c><00:28:37.279><c> Cambrian</c><00:28:38.000><c> explosion.</c><00:28:39.200><c> a</c>

27:35.604 --> 27:35.614 align:start position:0%
undergone the Cambrian explosion. a
 

27:35.614 --> 27:38.164 align:start position:0%
undergone the Cambrian explosion. a
rapid<00:28:39.840><c> expansion</c><00:28:40.240><c> of</c><00:28:40.480><c> biological</c><00:28:41.200><c> diversity</c>

27:38.164 --> 27:38.174 align:start position:0%
rapid expansion of biological diversity
 

27:38.174 --> 27:40.484 align:start position:0%
rapid expansion of biological diversity
that<00:28:42.320><c> filled</c><00:28:42.640><c> the</c><00:28:42.799><c> seas</c><00:28:43.120><c> with</c><00:28:43.440><c> all</c><00:28:43.760><c> sorts</c><00:28:44.159><c> of</c>

27:40.484 --> 27:40.494 align:start position:0%
that filled the seas with all sorts of
 

27:40.494 --> 27:42.644 align:start position:0%
that filled the seas with all sorts of
complex<00:28:44.799><c> life.</c>

27:42.644 --> 27:42.654 align:start position:0%
complex life.
 

27:42.654 --> 27:44.323 align:start position:0%
complex life.
The<00:28:46.640><c> oceans</c><00:28:47.039><c> are</c><00:28:47.200><c> now</c><00:28:47.440><c> teeming</c><00:28:47.919><c> with</c>

27:44.323 --> 27:44.333 align:start position:0%
The oceans are now teeming with
 

27:44.333 --> 27:48.004 align:start position:0%
The oceans are now teeming with
trilobytes,<00:28:49.440><c> clam-like</c><00:28:50.159><c> brachopods,</c><00:28:51.520><c> and</c>

27:48.004 --> 27:48.014 align:start position:0%
trilobytes, clam-like brachopods, and
 

27:48.014 --> 27:51.604 align:start position:0%
trilobytes, clam-like brachopods, and
complex<00:28:52.320><c> marine</c><00:28:52.799><c> vertebrates</c><00:28:53.600><c> such</c><00:28:53.840><c> as</c><00:28:54.080><c> fish.</c>

27:51.604 --> 27:51.614 align:start position:0%
complex marine vertebrates such as fish.
 

27:51.614 --> 27:54.083 align:start position:0%
complex marine vertebrates such as fish.
Among<00:28:55.760><c> the</c><00:28:56.000><c> more</c><00:28:56.240><c> fearsome</c><00:28:56.799><c> specimens</c><00:28:57.600><c> are</c>

27:54.083 --> 27:54.093 align:start position:0%
Among the more fearsome specimens are
 

27:54.093 --> 27:58.404 align:start position:0%
Among the more fearsome specimens are
Dunlioas,<00:28:59.360><c> a</c><00:28:59.679><c> massive</c><00:29:00.480><c> armored</c><00:29:00.960><c> fish</c><00:29:01.360><c> 10</c><00:29:01.679><c> m</c><00:29:02.000><c> in</c>

27:58.404 --> 27:58.414 align:start position:0%
Dunlioas, a massive armored fish 10 m in
 

27:58.414 --> 28:01.684 align:start position:0%
Dunlioas, a massive armored fish 10 m in
length<00:29:02.880><c> and</c><00:29:03.200><c> Titanicthus,</c><00:29:04.559><c> another</c><00:29:05.039><c> giant</c>

28:01.684 --> 28:01.694 align:start position:0%
length and Titanicthus, another giant
 

28:01.694 --> 28:04.404 align:start position:0%
length and Titanicthus, another giant
with<00:29:05.760><c> a</c><00:29:06.000><c> taste</c><00:29:06.320><c> for</c><00:29:06.480><c> smaller</c><00:29:06.880><c> prey</c><00:29:07.520><c> like</c><00:29:07.760><c> krill</c>

28:04.404 --> 28:04.414 align:start position:0%
with a taste for smaller prey like krill
 

28:04.414 --> 28:06.723 align:start position:0%
with a taste for smaller prey like krill
like<00:29:08.399><c> zup</c><00:29:08.640><c> plankton.</c>

28:06.723 --> 28:06.733 align:start position:0%
like zup plankton.
 

28:06.733 --> 28:08.644 align:start position:0%
like zup plankton.
Given<00:29:10.880><c> the</c><00:29:11.039><c> presence</c><00:29:11.360><c> of</c><00:29:11.520><c> these</c><00:29:11.840><c> fish</c><00:29:12.159><c> that</c>

28:08.644 --> 28:08.654 align:start position:0%
Given the presence of these fish that
 

28:08.654 --> 28:10.644 align:start position:0%
Given the presence of these fish that
look<00:29:12.720><c> like</c><00:29:13.039><c> great</c><00:29:13.360><c> white</c><00:29:13.679><c> sharks</c><00:29:14.159><c> crossed</c>

28:10.644 --> 28:10.654 align:start position:0%
look like great white sharks crossed
 

28:10.654 --> 28:13.044 align:start position:0%
look like great white sharks crossed
with<00:29:14.720><c> armored</c><00:29:15.120><c> submarines,</c><00:29:16.159><c> our</c><00:29:16.399><c> alien</c>

28:13.044 --> 28:13.054 align:start position:0%
with armored submarines, our alien
 

28:13.054 --> 28:15.203 align:start position:0%
with armored submarines, our alien
scientists<00:29:17.360><c> decide</c><00:29:17.760><c> not</c><00:29:17.919><c> to</c><00:29:18.080><c> go</c><00:29:18.240><c> for</c><00:29:18.399><c> a</c><00:29:18.559><c> swim</c>

28:15.203 --> 28:15.213 align:start position:0%
scientists decide not to go for a swim
 

28:15.213 --> 28:18.404 align:start position:0%
scientists decide not to go for a swim
despite<00:29:19.360><c> the</c><00:29:19.600><c> invitingly</c><00:29:20.320><c> warm</c><00:29:20.640><c> waters.</c>

28:18.404 --> 28:18.414 align:start position:0%
despite the invitingly warm waters.
 

28:18.414 --> 28:20.484 align:start position:0%
despite the invitingly warm waters.
Meanwhile,<00:29:23.120><c> plants</c><00:29:23.440><c> have</c><00:29:23.760><c> completely</c>

28:20.484 --> 28:20.494 align:start position:0%
Meanwhile, plants have completely
 

28:20.494 --> 28:22.644 align:start position:0%
Meanwhile, plants have completely
transformed<00:29:24.960><c> what</c><00:29:25.279><c> was</c><00:29:25.440><c> once</c><00:29:25.919><c> barren</c>

28:22.644 --> 28:22.654 align:start position:0%
transformed what was once barren
 

28:22.654 --> 28:25.284 align:start position:0%
transformed what was once barren
continental<00:29:27.120><c> crust.</c><00:29:28.240><c> With</c><00:29:28.480><c> no</c><00:29:28.720><c> large</c>

28:25.284 --> 28:25.294 align:start position:0%
continental crust. With no large
 

28:25.294 --> 28:27.684 align:start position:0%
continental crust. With no large
herbivores<00:29:29.760><c> in</c><00:29:29.919><c> existence,</c><00:29:30.799><c> vegetation</c>

28:27.684 --> 28:27.694 align:start position:0%
herbivores in existence, vegetation
 

28:27.694 --> 28:30.644 align:start position:0%
herbivores in existence, vegetation
grows<00:29:32.000><c> unchecked</c><00:29:32.720><c> into</c><00:29:33.120><c> dense,</c><00:29:33.840><c> sprawling</c>

28:30.644 --> 28:30.654 align:start position:0%
grows unchecked into dense, sprawling
 

28:30.654 --> 28:32.884 align:start position:0%
grows unchecked into dense, sprawling
forest<00:29:35.200><c> which</c><00:29:35.440><c> have</c><00:29:35.600><c> produced</c><00:29:36.000><c> a</c><00:29:36.320><c> layer</c><00:29:36.480><c> of</c>

28:32.884 --> 28:32.894 align:start position:0%
forest which have produced a layer of
 

28:32.894 --> 28:36.244 align:start position:0%
forest which have produced a layer of
stable,<00:29:37.360><c> nutrient-rich</c><00:29:38.240><c> top</c><00:29:38.559><c> soil.</c>

28:36.244 --> 28:36.254 align:start position:0%
stable, nutrient-rich top soil.
 

28:36.254 --> 28:38.563 align:start position:0%
stable, nutrient-rich top soil.
But<00:29:40.240><c> these</c><00:29:40.559><c> trees</c><00:29:40.880><c> would</c><00:29:41.200><c> look</c><00:29:41.520><c> very</c><00:29:41.840><c> unusual</c>

28:38.563 --> 28:38.573 align:start position:0%
But these trees would look very unusual
 

28:38.573 --> 28:42.004 align:start position:0%
But these trees would look very unusual
to<00:29:42.640><c> us.</c><00:29:43.279><c> They</c><00:29:43.520><c> are</c><00:29:43.760><c> vascular</c><00:29:44.399><c> plants</c><00:29:45.440><c> related</c>

28:42.004 --> 28:42.014 align:start position:0%
to us. They are vascular plants related
 

28:42.014 --> 28:45.203 align:start position:0%
to us. They are vascular plants related
to<00:29:46.000><c> today's</c><00:29:46.480><c> ferns</c><00:29:47.039><c> and</c><00:29:47.360><c> some</c><00:29:47.679><c> conifers.</c>

28:45.203 --> 28:45.213 align:start position:0%
to today's ferns and some conifers.
 

28:45.213 --> 28:47.443 align:start position:0%
to today's ferns and some conifers.
There<00:29:49.279><c> is</c><00:29:49.520><c> also</c><00:29:49.840><c> an</c><00:29:50.080><c> enormous</c><00:29:50.640><c> treelike</c>

28:47.443 --> 28:47.453 align:start position:0%
There is also an enormous treelike
 

28:47.453 --> 28:50.164 align:start position:0%
There is also an enormous treelike
fungus<00:29:52.080><c> called</c><00:29:52.480><c> prototaxes</c>

28:50.164 --> 28:50.174 align:start position:0%
fungus called prototaxes
 

28:50.174 --> 28:53.764 align:start position:0%
fungus called prototaxes
which<00:29:54.240><c> stands</c><00:29:54.559><c> some</c><00:29:54.799><c> 8</c><00:29:55.039><c> m</c><00:29:55.520><c> tall.</c><00:29:56.640><c> Very</c><00:29:56.960><c> likely</c>

28:53.764 --> 28:53.774 align:start position:0%
which stands some 8 m tall. Very likely
 

28:53.774 --> 28:56.404 align:start position:0%
which stands some 8 m tall. Very likely
these<00:29:57.919><c> mysterious</c><00:29:58.720><c> treelike</c><00:29:59.360><c> structures</c><00:29:59.919><c> are</c>

28:56.404 --> 28:56.414 align:start position:0%
these mysterious treelike structures are
 

28:56.414 --> 28:59.203 align:start position:0%
these mysterious treelike structures are
fruing<00:30:00.720><c> bodies</c><00:30:01.120><c> of</c><00:30:01.440><c> far</c><00:30:01.760><c> larger</c><00:30:02.240><c> subterranean</c>

28:59.203 --> 28:59.213 align:start position:0%
fruing bodies of far larger subterranean
 

28:59.213 --> 29:02.323 align:start position:0%
fruing bodies of far larger subterranean
organisms<00:30:03.919><c> which</c><00:30:04.240><c> haven't</c><00:30:04.559><c> been</c><00:30:04.799><c> preserved.</c>

29:02.323 --> 29:02.333 align:start position:0%
organisms which haven't been preserved.
 

29:02.333 --> 29:04.723 align:start position:0%
organisms which haven't been preserved.
A<00:30:06.399><c> few</c><00:30:06.640><c> marine</c><00:30:06.960><c> species</c><00:30:07.600><c> have</c><00:30:07.840><c> even</c><00:30:08.080><c> evolved</c>

29:04.723 --> 29:04.733 align:start position:0%
A few marine species have even evolved
 

29:04.733 --> 29:07.443 align:start position:0%
A few marine species have even evolved
limbs<00:30:09.120><c> and</c><00:30:09.360><c> are</c><00:30:09.520><c> beginning</c><00:30:09.840><c> to</c><00:30:10.080><c> walk</c><00:30:10.320><c> on</c><00:30:10.640><c> land,</c>

29:07.443 --> 29:07.453 align:start position:0%
limbs and are beginning to walk on land,
 

29:07.453 --> 29:10.563 align:start position:0%
limbs and are beginning to walk on land,
such<00:30:11.440><c> as</c><00:30:11.760><c> Ichioga,</c><00:30:13.200><c> a</c><00:30:13.440><c> rather</c><00:30:13.760><c> charming</c>

29:10.563 --> 29:10.573 align:start position:0%
such as Ichioga, a rather charming
 

29:10.573 --> 29:12.963 align:start position:0%
such as Ichioga, a rather charming
four-legged<00:30:15.120><c> vertebrate</c><00:30:15.840><c> that</c><00:30:16.080><c> looks</c><00:30:16.320><c> like</c><00:30:16.559><c> a</c>

29:12.963 --> 29:12.973 align:start position:0%
four-legged vertebrate that looks like a
 

29:12.973 --> 29:15.443 align:start position:0%
four-legged vertebrate that looks like a
modern<00:30:17.200><c> amphibian</c><00:30:18.000><c> whose</c><00:30:18.320><c> stout</c><00:30:18.640><c> limbs</c><00:30:18.960><c> and</c>

29:15.443 --> 29:15.453 align:start position:0%
modern amphibian whose stout limbs and
 

29:15.453 --> 29:17.604 align:start position:0%
modern amphibian whose stout limbs and
lungs<00:30:19.600><c> allow</c><00:30:19.840><c> it</c><00:30:20.000><c> to</c><00:30:20.240><c> navigate</c><00:30:20.720><c> swamplike</c>

29:17.604 --> 29:17.614 align:start position:0%
lungs allow it to navigate swamplike
 

29:17.614 --> 29:21.284 align:start position:0%
lungs allow it to navigate swamplike
habitats.

29:21.284 --> 29:21.294 align:start position:0%
 
 

29:21.294 --> 29:23.364 align:start position:0%
 
As<00:30:25.520><c> our</c><00:30:25.840><c> alien</c><00:30:26.320><c> visitors</c><00:30:26.799><c> leave</c><00:30:27.039><c> the</c>

29:23.364 --> 29:23.374 align:start position:0%
As our alien visitors leave the
 

29:23.374 --> 29:25.684 align:start position:0%
As our alien visitors leave the
Deavonian<00:30:27.840><c> period</c><00:30:28.240><c> Earth,</c><00:30:28.880><c> they</c><00:30:29.200><c> finally</c>

29:25.684 --> 29:25.694 align:start position:0%
Deavonian period Earth, they finally
 

29:25.694 --> 29:28.323 align:start position:0%
Deavonian period Earth, they finally
have<00:30:29.679><c> a</c><00:30:29.919><c> sense</c><00:30:30.159><c> of</c><00:30:30.320><c> the</c><00:30:30.559><c> ecological</c><00:30:31.360><c> diversity</c>

29:28.323 --> 29:28.333 align:start position:0%
have a sense of the ecological diversity
 

29:28.333 --> 29:30.963 align:start position:0%
have a sense of the ecological diversity
and<00:30:32.480><c> temperate</c><00:30:32.960><c> climate</c><00:30:33.360><c> that</c><00:30:33.520><c> will</c><00:30:33.760><c> follow.</c>

29:30.963 --> 29:30.973 align:start position:0%
and temperate climate that will follow.
 

29:30.973 --> 29:33.364 align:start position:0%
and temperate climate that will follow.
The<00:30:35.039><c> once</c><00:30:35.360><c> molten</c><00:30:35.840><c> planet</c><00:30:36.320><c> turned</c><00:30:36.720><c> pale</c>

29:33.364 --> 29:33.374 align:start position:0%
The once molten planet turned pale
 

29:33.374 --> 29:36.323 align:start position:0%
The once molten planet turned pale
orange<00:30:37.600><c> dot</c><00:30:38.159><c> turned</c><00:30:38.480><c> giant</c><00:30:38.880><c> snowball</c><00:30:39.840><c> now</c>

29:36.323 --> 29:36.333 align:start position:0%
orange dot turned giant snowball now
 

29:36.333 --> 29:38.323 align:start position:0%
orange dot turned giant snowball now
somewhat<00:30:40.640><c> resembles</c><00:30:41.120><c> the</c><00:30:41.360><c> blue</c><00:30:41.600><c> marble</c><00:30:41.919><c> we</c>

29:38.323 --> 29:38.333 align:start position:0%
somewhat resembles the blue marble we
 

29:38.333 --> 29:41.203 align:start position:0%
somewhat resembles the blue marble we
know<00:30:42.399><c> today.</c><00:30:43.600><c> The</c><00:30:43.840><c> next</c><00:30:44.080><c> time</c><00:30:44.320><c> our</c><00:30:44.720><c> time</c>

29:41.203 --> 29:41.213 align:start position:0%
know today. The next time our time
 

29:41.213 --> 29:43.524 align:start position:0%
know today. The next time our time
traveling<00:30:45.360><c> aliens</c><00:30:45.760><c> return</c><00:30:46.000><c> to</c><00:30:46.159><c> Earth,</c><00:30:46.799><c> nearly</c>

29:43.524 --> 29:43.534 align:start position:0%
traveling aliens return to Earth, nearly
 

29:43.534 --> 29:46.723 align:start position:0%
traveling aliens return to Earth, nearly
100<00:30:48.000><c> million</c><00:30:48.399><c> years</c><00:30:48.720><c> have</c><00:30:48.960><c> passed.</c><00:30:49.919><c> Earth</c><00:30:50.320><c> is</c>

29:46.723 --> 29:46.733 align:start position:0%
100 million years have passed. Earth is
 

29:46.733 --> 29:49.924 align:start position:0%
100 million years have passed. Earth is
now<00:30:50.880><c> in</c><00:30:51.120><c> its</c><00:30:51.440><c> early</c><00:30:52.080><c> perian</c><00:30:52.799><c> period,</c>

29:49.924 --> 29:49.934 align:start position:0%
now in its early perian period,
 

29:49.934 --> 29:52.884 align:start position:0%
now in its early perian period,
approximately<00:30:54.720><c> 280</c><00:30:55.679><c> million</c><00:30:56.080><c> years</c><00:30:56.399><c> before</c>

29:52.884 --> 29:52.894 align:start position:0%
approximately 280 million years before
 

29:52.894 --> 29:55.924 align:start position:0%
approximately 280 million years before
the<00:30:56.960><c> present</c><00:30:57.279><c> day.</c><00:30:58.480><c> The</c><00:30:58.720><c> aliens</c><00:30:59.120><c> are</c><00:30:59.279><c> keen</c><00:30:59.520><c> to</c>

29:55.924 --> 29:55.934 align:start position:0%
the present day. The aliens are keen to
 

29:55.934 --> 29:58.164 align:start position:0%
the present day. The aliens are keen to
see<00:30:59.919><c> what</c><00:31:00.240><c> new</c><00:31:00.559><c> shifts</c><00:31:01.039><c> have</c><00:31:01.279><c> taken</c><00:31:01.600><c> place</c><00:31:01.840><c> in</c>

29:58.164 --> 29:58.174 align:start position:0%
see what new shifts have taken place in
 

29:58.174 --> 30:00.963 align:start position:0%
see what new shifts have taken place in
the<00:31:02.080><c> Earth's</c><00:31:02.399><c> geology</c><00:31:03.039><c> and</c><00:31:03.360><c> biospheres.</c><00:31:04.640><c> So</c>

30:00.963 --> 30:00.973 align:start position:0%
the Earth's geology and biospheres. So
 

30:00.973 --> 30:03.764 align:start position:0%
the Earth's geology and biospheres. So
they<00:31:05.039><c> look</c><00:31:05.200><c> out</c><00:31:05.440><c> across</c><00:31:05.840><c> the</c><00:31:06.080><c> planet.</c>

30:03.764 --> 30:03.774 align:start position:0%
they look out across the planet.
 

30:03.774 --> 30:06.164 align:start position:0%
they look out across the planet.
The<00:31:07.840><c> biggest</c><00:31:08.320><c> geographical</c><00:31:09.039><c> change</c><00:31:09.520><c> is</c><00:31:09.760><c> that</c>

30:06.164 --> 30:06.174 align:start position:0%
The biggest geographical change is that
 

30:06.174 --> 30:09.684 align:start position:0%
The biggest geographical change is that
the<00:31:10.240><c> continents</c><00:31:10.720><c> of</c><00:31:11.039><c> Eura</c><00:31:11.919><c> and</c><00:31:12.240><c> Gonduana</c><00:31:13.200><c> have</c>

30:09.684 --> 30:09.694 align:start position:0%
the continents of Eura and Gonduana have
 

30:09.694 --> 30:12.244 align:start position:0%
the continents of Eura and Gonduana have
combined<00:31:14.000><c> into</c><00:31:14.320><c> a</c><00:31:14.480><c> single</c><00:31:14.799><c> land</c><00:31:15.120><c> mass</c><00:31:15.600><c> called</c>

30:12.244 --> 30:12.254 align:start position:0%
combined into a single land mass called
 

30:12.254 --> 30:13.924 align:start position:0%
combined into a single land mass called
Angia.

30:13.924 --> 30:13.934 align:start position:0%
Angia.
 

30:13.934 --> 30:16.164 align:start position:0%
Angia.
The<00:31:18.000><c> collision</c><00:31:18.399><c> of</c><00:31:18.640><c> these</c><00:31:18.960><c> continents</c><00:31:19.840><c> called</c>

30:16.164 --> 30:16.174 align:start position:0%
The collision of these continents called
 

30:16.174 --> 30:19.284 align:start position:0%
The collision of these continents called
the<00:31:20.320><c> Veriscan</c><00:31:20.880><c> origin</c><00:31:21.840><c> unleashes</c><00:31:22.559><c> powerful</c>

30:19.284 --> 30:19.294 align:start position:0%
the Veriscan origin unleashes powerful
 

30:19.294 --> 30:21.684 align:start position:0%
the Veriscan origin unleashes powerful
tectonic<00:31:23.760><c> forces</c><00:31:24.399><c> that</c><00:31:24.640><c> create</c><00:31:24.960><c> a</c><00:31:25.200><c> mountain</c>

30:21.684 --> 30:21.694 align:start position:0%
tectonic forces that create a mountain
 

30:21.694 --> 30:23.684 align:start position:0%
tectonic forces that create a mountain
range<00:31:25.919><c> called</c><00:31:26.159><c> the</c><00:31:26.399><c> central</c><00:31:26.880><c> pangian</c>

30:23.684 --> 30:23.694 align:start position:0%
range called the central pangian
 

30:23.694 --> 30:27.124 align:start position:0%
range called the central pangian
mountains.<00:31:28.720><c> How</c><00:31:28.960><c> tall</c><00:31:29.279><c> are</c><00:31:29.440><c> they?</c><00:31:30.240><c> Well,</c>

30:27.124 --> 30:27.134 align:start position:0%
mountains. How tall are they? Well,
 

30:27.134 --> 30:29.364 align:start position:0%
mountains. How tall are they? Well,
Mount<00:31:31.279><c> Everest</c><00:31:31.760><c> is</c><00:31:31.919><c> in</c><00:31:32.080><c> the</c><00:31:32.159><c> right</c><00:31:32.399><c> ballpark</c>

30:29.364 --> 30:29.374 align:start position:0%
Mount Everest is in the right ballpark
 

30:29.374 --> 30:31.524 align:start position:0%
Mount Everest is in the right ballpark
as<00:31:33.440><c> this</c><00:31:33.679><c> range</c><00:31:34.000><c> is</c><00:31:34.159><c> comparable</c><00:31:34.720><c> in</c><00:31:34.960><c> size</c><00:31:35.200><c> to</c>

30:31.524 --> 30:31.534 align:start position:0%
as this range is comparable in size to
 

30:31.534 --> 30:34.404 align:start position:0%
as this range is comparable in size to
the<00:31:35.520><c> modern</c><00:31:35.840><c> Himalayas.</c><00:31:37.200><c> In</c><00:31:37.440><c> fact,</c><00:31:37.840><c> they</c><00:31:38.159><c> are</c>

30:34.404 --> 30:34.414 align:start position:0%
the modern Himalayas. In fact, they are
 

30:34.414 --> 30:36.884 align:start position:0%
the modern Himalayas. In fact, they are
so<00:31:38.559><c> tall</c><00:31:38.960><c> that</c><00:31:39.279><c> they</c><00:31:39.519><c> have</c><00:31:39.600><c> a</c><00:31:39.840><c> profound</c><00:31:40.399><c> effect</c>

30:36.884 --> 30:36.894 align:start position:0%
so tall that they have a profound effect
 

30:36.894 --> 30:39.364 align:start position:0%
so tall that they have a profound effect
on<00:31:40.960><c> the</c><00:31:41.120><c> climate</c><00:31:41.440><c> of</c><00:31:41.600><c> Pangia.</c><00:31:42.640><c> The</c><00:31:42.880><c> central</c>

30:39.364 --> 30:39.374 align:start position:0%
on the climate of Pangia. The central
 

30:39.374 --> 30:41.843 align:start position:0%
on the climate of Pangia. The central
pangian<00:31:43.840><c> mountains</c><00:31:44.480><c> lie</c><00:31:44.799><c> just</c><00:31:45.120><c> beneath</c><00:31:45.440><c> the</c>

30:41.843 --> 30:41.853 align:start position:0%
pangian mountains lie just beneath the
 

30:41.853 --> 30:44.884 align:start position:0%
pangian mountains lie just beneath the
equatorial<00:31:46.399><c> rainy</c><00:31:46.799><c> belt</c><00:31:47.679><c> and</c><00:31:47.919><c> our</c><00:31:48.240><c> scientists</c>

30:44.884 --> 30:44.894 align:start position:0%
equatorial rainy belt and our scientists
 

30:44.894 --> 30:47.044 align:start position:0%
equatorial rainy belt and our scientists
quickly<00:31:49.120><c> discover</c><00:31:49.679><c> the</c><00:31:50.000><c> impact</c><00:31:50.399><c> of</c><00:31:50.559><c> these</c>

30:47.044 --> 30:47.054 align:start position:0%
quickly discover the impact of these
 

30:47.054 --> 30:49.843 align:start position:0%
quickly discover the impact of these
giant<00:31:51.200><c> mountains</c><00:31:51.679><c> on</c><00:31:51.919><c> the</c><00:31:52.080><c> entire</c><00:31:52.480><c> continent.</c>

30:49.843 --> 30:49.853 align:start position:0%
giant mountains on the entire continent.
 

30:49.853 --> 30:52.804 align:start position:0%
giant mountains on the entire continent.
South<00:31:53.919><c> of</c><00:31:54.080><c> the</c><00:31:54.240><c> range,</c><00:31:54.720><c> it</c><00:31:54.960><c> is</c><00:31:55.120><c> a</c><00:31:55.519><c> mega</c><00:31:56.000><c> monsoon</c>

30:52.804 --> 30:52.814 align:start position:0%
South of the range, it is a mega monsoon
 

30:52.814 --> 30:55.843 align:start position:0%
South of the range, it is a mega monsoon
climate.<00:31:58.000><c> However,</c><00:31:58.559><c> there</c><00:31:58.799><c> is</c><00:31:58.960><c> a</c><00:31:59.120><c> flip</c><00:31:59.440><c> side</c>

30:55.843 --> 30:55.853 align:start position:0%
climate. However, there is a flip side
 

30:55.853 --> 30:58.563 align:start position:0%
climate. However, there is a flip side
to<00:31:59.840><c> all</c><00:32:00.080><c> this</c><00:32:00.399><c> rain.</c><00:32:01.279><c> The</c><00:32:01.440><c> mountain</c><00:32:01.760><c> range</c><00:32:02.159><c> in</c>

30:58.563 --> 30:58.573 align:start position:0%
to all this rain. The mountain range in
 

30:58.573 --> 31:01.284 align:start position:0%
to all this rain. The mountain range in
turn<00:32:02.720><c> casts</c><00:32:03.120><c> a</c><00:32:03.360><c> rain</c><00:32:03.679><c> shadow</c><00:32:04.080><c> to</c><00:32:04.320><c> the</c><00:32:04.480><c> north</c>

31:01.284 --> 31:01.294 align:start position:0%
turn casts a rain shadow to the north
 

31:01.294 --> 31:03.843 align:start position:0%
turn casts a rain shadow to the north
which<00:32:05.440><c> creates</c><00:32:05.840><c> a</c><00:32:06.080><c> huge</c><00:32:06.480><c> desert</c><00:32:06.880><c> in</c><00:32:07.039><c> Pangia's</c>

31:03.843 --> 31:03.853 align:start position:0%
which creates a huge desert in Pangia's
 

31:03.853 --> 31:05.364 align:start position:0%
which creates a huge desert in Pangia's
interior.

31:05.364 --> 31:05.374 align:start position:0%
interior.
 

31:05.374 --> 31:08.004 align:start position:0%
interior.
Basically,<00:32:10.000><c> when</c><00:32:10.320><c> air</c><00:32:10.640><c> travels</c><00:32:11.039><c> over</c><00:32:11.440><c> tall</c>

31:08.004 --> 31:08.014 align:start position:0%
Basically, when air travels over tall
 

31:08.014 --> 31:10.804 align:start position:0%
Basically, when air travels over tall
mountains,<00:32:12.559><c> it</c><00:32:12.880><c> moves</c><00:32:13.120><c> upward</c><00:32:13.600><c> and</c><00:32:13.840><c> cools</c>

31:10.804 --> 31:10.814 align:start position:0%
mountains, it moves upward and cools
 

31:10.814 --> 31:13.284 align:start position:0%
mountains, it moves upward and cools
causing<00:32:15.120><c> precipitation</c><00:32:16.320><c> so</c><00:32:16.480><c> that</c><00:32:16.720><c> by</c><00:32:16.880><c> the</c>

31:13.284 --> 31:13.294 align:start position:0%
causing precipitation so that by the
 

31:13.294 --> 31:15.524 align:start position:0%
causing precipitation so that by the
time<00:32:17.279><c> it</c><00:32:17.519><c> crosses</c><00:32:17.840><c> the</c><00:32:18.080><c> mountains,</c><00:32:18.799><c> the</c><00:32:19.039><c> air</c>

31:15.524 --> 31:15.534 align:start position:0%
time it crosses the mountains, the air
 

31:15.534 --> 31:18.484 align:start position:0%
time it crosses the mountains, the air
is<00:32:19.600><c> pretty</c><00:32:20.000><c> arid.</c><00:32:21.120><c> We</c><00:32:21.360><c> see</c><00:32:21.519><c> this</c><00:32:21.760><c> effect</c><00:32:22.080><c> today</c>

31:18.484 --> 31:18.494 align:start position:0%
is pretty arid. We see this effect today
 

31:18.494 --> 31:20.723 align:start position:0%
is pretty arid. We see this effect today
in<00:32:22.480><c> the</c><00:32:22.640><c> Gobi</c><00:32:23.039><c> Desert,</c><00:32:23.600><c> which</c><00:32:23.840><c> is</c><00:32:24.000><c> located</c><00:32:24.320><c> in</c>

31:20.723 --> 31:20.733 align:start position:0%
in the Gobi Desert, which is located in
 

31:20.733 --> 31:23.764 align:start position:0%
in the Gobi Desert, which is located in
the<00:32:24.720><c> rain</c><00:32:24.960><c> shadow</c><00:32:25.360><c> of</c><00:32:25.519><c> the</c><00:32:25.760><c> Himalayas.</c>

31:23.764 --> 31:23.774 align:start position:0%
the rain shadow of the Himalayas.
 

31:23.774 --> 31:26.164 align:start position:0%
the rain shadow of the Himalayas.
Pangia's<00:32:28.159><c> formation</c><00:32:28.640><c> is</c><00:32:28.880><c> a</c><00:32:29.120><c> great</c><00:32:29.440><c> example</c><00:32:29.840><c> of</c>

31:26.164 --> 31:26.174 align:start position:0%
Pangia's formation is a great example of
 

31:26.174 --> 31:28.404 align:start position:0%
Pangia's formation is a great example of
how<00:32:30.320><c> plate</c><00:32:30.640><c> tectonics</c><00:32:31.279><c> not</c><00:32:31.600><c> only</c><00:32:31.760><c> impact</c><00:32:32.080><c> the</c>

31:28.404 --> 31:28.414 align:start position:0%
how plate tectonics not only impact the
 

31:28.414 --> 31:30.723 align:start position:0%
how plate tectonics not only impact the
world's<00:32:32.559><c> land</c><00:32:32.799><c> masses</c><00:32:33.200><c> and</c><00:32:33.440><c> oceans,</c><00:32:34.080><c> but</c><00:32:34.320><c> its</c>

31:30.723 --> 31:30.733 align:start position:0%
world's land masses and oceans, but its
 

31:30.733 --> 31:32.884 align:start position:0%
world's land masses and oceans, but its
weather<00:32:34.960><c> as</c><00:32:35.279><c> well.</c>

31:32.884 --> 31:32.894 align:start position:0%
weather as well.
 

31:32.894 --> 31:35.044 align:start position:0%
weather as well.
Yet,<00:32:37.360><c> there</c><00:32:37.600><c> are</c><00:32:37.840><c> also</c><00:32:38.159><c> other</c><00:32:38.480><c> factors</c>

31:35.044 --> 31:35.054 align:start position:0%
Yet, there are also other factors
 

31:35.054 --> 31:37.604 align:start position:0%
Yet, there are also other factors
shaking<00:32:39.360><c> up</c><00:32:39.519><c> the</c><00:32:39.760><c> world's</c><00:32:40.080><c> climate.</c><00:32:41.120><c> During</c>

31:37.604 --> 31:37.614 align:start position:0%
shaking up the world's climate. During
 

31:37.614 --> 31:40.404 align:start position:0%
shaking up the world's climate. During
the<00:32:41.679><c> early</c><00:32:42.000><c> Perian,</c><00:32:42.960><c> the</c><00:32:43.200><c> Earth</c><00:32:43.440><c> is</c><00:32:43.760><c> still</c><00:32:44.000><c> in</c>

31:40.404 --> 31:40.414 align:start position:0%
the early Perian, the Earth is still in
 

31:40.414 --> 31:42.804 align:start position:0%
the early Perian, the Earth is still in
the<00:32:44.399><c> latter</c><00:32:44.720><c> days</c><00:32:45.039><c> of</c><00:32:45.200><c> an</c><00:32:45.440><c> ice</c><00:32:45.760><c> age</c><00:32:46.240><c> dating</c>

31:42.804 --> 31:42.814 align:start position:0%
the latter days of an ice age dating
 

31:42.814 --> 31:45.364 align:start position:0%
the latter days of an ice age dating
back<00:32:46.880><c> tens</c><00:32:47.279><c> of</c><00:32:47.440><c> millions</c><00:32:47.760><c> of</c><00:32:47.919><c> years,</c><00:32:48.640><c> an</c><00:32:48.880><c> event</c>

31:45.364 --> 31:45.374 align:start position:0%
back tens of millions of years, an event
 

31:45.374 --> 31:49.364 align:start position:0%
back tens of millions of years, an event
known<00:32:49.760><c> as</c><00:32:50.000><c> the</c><00:32:50.240><c> late</c><00:32:50.559><c> Paleozoic</c><00:32:51.519><c> ice</c><00:32:51.840><c> house.</c>

31:49.364 --> 31:49.374 align:start position:0%
known as the late Paleozoic ice house.
 

31:49.374 --> 31:51.604 align:start position:0%
known as the late Paleozoic ice house.
Our<00:32:53.519><c> leading</c><00:32:53.840><c> theory</c><00:32:54.240><c> for</c><00:32:54.399><c> this</c><00:32:54.640><c> cooling</c><00:32:55.200><c> is</c>

31:51.604 --> 31:51.614 align:start position:0%
Our leading theory for this cooling is
 

31:51.614 --> 31:53.683 align:start position:0%
Our leading theory for this cooling is
that<00:32:55.679><c> the</c><00:32:55.919><c> explosion</c><00:32:56.399><c> of</c><00:32:56.640><c> plant</c><00:32:56.880><c> life</c><00:32:57.200><c> during</c>

31:53.683 --> 31:53.693 align:start position:0%
that the explosion of plant life during
 

31:53.693 --> 31:56.323 align:start position:0%
that the explosion of plant life during
the<00:32:57.760><c> carboniferous</c><00:32:58.880><c> raised</c><00:32:59.279><c> Earth's</c><00:32:59.679><c> oxygen</c>

31:56.323 --> 31:56.333 align:start position:0%
the carboniferous raised Earth's oxygen
 

31:56.333 --> 31:59.364 align:start position:0%
the carboniferous raised Earth's oxygen
levels<00:33:00.640><c> and</c><00:33:00.960><c> diminished</c><00:33:01.440><c> its</c><00:33:01.679><c> CO2</c><00:33:02.720><c> leading</c><00:33:03.039><c> to</c>

31:59.364 --> 31:59.374 align:start position:0%
levels and diminished its CO2 leading to
 

31:59.374 --> 32:01.604 align:start position:0%
levels and diminished its CO2 leading to
a<00:33:03.440><c> reduction</c><00:33:03.840><c> in</c><00:33:04.000><c> the</c><00:33:04.159><c> greenhouse</c><00:33:04.720><c> effect</c>

32:01.604 --> 32:01.614 align:start position:0%
a reduction in the greenhouse effect
 

32:01.614 --> 32:03.843 align:start position:0%
a reduction in the greenhouse effect
with<00:33:05.760><c> Melankovich</c><00:33:06.480><c> cycles</c><00:33:06.880><c> also</c><00:33:07.279><c> likely</c>

32:03.843 --> 32:03.853 align:start position:0%
with Melankovich cycles also likely
 

32:03.853 --> 32:06.323 align:start position:0%
with Melankovich cycles also likely
playing<00:33:07.919><c> a</c><00:33:08.159><c> role.</c><00:33:09.519><c> During</c><00:33:09.760><c> the</c><00:33:09.919><c> late</c>

32:06.323 --> 32:06.333 align:start position:0%
playing a role. During the late
 

32:06.333 --> 32:09.443 align:start position:0%
playing a role. During the late
Paleozoic<00:33:10.880><c> ice</c><00:33:11.200><c> house,</c><00:33:11.840><c> vast</c><00:33:12.320><c> glacias</c><00:33:12.960><c> built</c>

32:09.443 --> 32:09.453 align:start position:0%
Paleozoic ice house, vast glacias built
 

32:09.453 --> 32:11.124 align:start position:0%
Paleozoic ice house, vast glacias built
up<00:33:13.440><c> at</c><00:33:13.600><c> the</c><00:33:13.760><c> poles</c><00:33:14.080><c> and</c><00:33:14.320><c> in</c><00:33:14.480><c> the</c><00:33:14.640><c> higher</c>

32:11.124 --> 32:11.134 align:start position:0%
up at the poles and in the higher
 

32:11.134 --> 32:12.963 align:start position:0%
up at the poles and in the higher
elevations.

32:12.963 --> 32:12.973 align:start position:0%
elevations.
 

32:12.973 --> 32:16.083 align:start position:0%
elevations.
Yet,<00:33:17.440><c> by</c><00:33:17.679><c> the</c><00:33:18.000><c> early</c><00:33:18.320><c> Perian,</c><00:33:19.120><c> the</c><00:33:19.360><c> planet</c><00:33:19.760><c> has</c>

32:16.083 --> 32:16.093 align:start position:0%
Yet, by the early Perian, the planet has
 

32:16.093 --> 32:18.963 align:start position:0%
Yet, by the early Perian, the planet has
begun<00:33:20.320><c> entering</c><00:33:20.799><c> a</c><00:33:21.039><c> warming</c><00:33:21.519><c> trend.</c>

32:18.963 --> 32:18.973 align:start position:0%
begun entering a warming trend.
 

32:18.973 --> 32:21.443 align:start position:0%
begun entering a warming trend.
The<00:33:22.960><c> polar</c><00:33:23.279><c> ice</c><00:33:23.600><c> caps</c><00:33:23.840><c> are</c><00:33:24.000><c> retreating,</c><00:33:24.960><c> but</c>

32:21.443 --> 32:21.453 align:start position:0%
The polar ice caps are retreating, but
 

32:21.453 --> 32:23.443 align:start position:0%
The polar ice caps are retreating, but
glacias<00:33:25.919><c> remain</c><00:33:26.320><c> in</c><00:33:26.559><c> most</c><00:33:26.799><c> of</c><00:33:26.880><c> the</c><00:33:27.039><c> high</c>

32:23.443 --> 32:23.453 align:start position:0%
glacias remain in most of the high
 

32:23.453 --> 32:26.404 align:start position:0%
glacias remain in most of the high
elevation<00:33:27.840><c> mountain</c><00:33:28.240><c> ranges.</c><00:33:29.440><c> So</c><00:33:29.919><c> between</c>

32:26.404 --> 32:26.414 align:start position:0%
elevation mountain ranges. So between
 

32:26.414 --> 32:29.124 align:start position:0%
elevation mountain ranges. So between
the<00:33:30.480><c> climate</c><00:33:30.880><c> disruptions</c><00:33:31.519><c> caused</c><00:33:31.840><c> by</c><00:33:32.080><c> pangia</c>

32:29.124 --> 32:29.134 align:start position:0%
the climate disruptions caused by pangia
 

32:29.134 --> 32:31.364 align:start position:0%
the climate disruptions caused by pangia
and<00:33:33.120><c> the</c><00:33:33.360><c> cooler</c><00:33:33.760><c> than</c><00:33:34.000><c> normal</c><00:33:34.399><c> but</c><00:33:34.720><c> warming</c>

32:31.364 --> 32:31.374 align:start position:0%
and the cooler than normal but warming
 

32:31.374 --> 32:33.683 align:start position:0%
and the cooler than normal but warming
global<00:33:35.600><c> temperatures,</c><00:33:36.480><c> life</c><00:33:36.720><c> forms</c><00:33:37.039><c> on</c><00:33:37.200><c> Earth</c>

32:33.683 --> 32:33.693 align:start position:0%
global temperatures, life forms on Earth
 

32:33.693 --> 32:38.963 align:start position:0%
global temperatures, life forms on Earth
have<00:33:37.840><c> had</c><00:33:38.080><c> a</c><00:33:38.320><c> lot</c><00:33:38.399><c> of</c><00:33:38.640><c> adjustments</c><00:33:39.120><c> to</c><00:33:39.360><c> make.</c>

32:38.963 --> 32:38.973 align:start position:0%
 
 

32:38.973 --> 32:41.044 align:start position:0%
 
Since<00:33:43.120><c> our</c><00:33:43.279><c> aliens</c><00:33:43.760><c> last</c><00:33:44.000><c> visited,</c><00:33:44.640><c> the</c>

32:41.044 --> 32:41.054 align:start position:0%
Since our aliens last visited, the
 

32:41.054 --> 32:43.683 align:start position:0%
Since our aliens last visited, the
formation<00:33:45.279><c> of</c><00:33:45.440><c> Pangia</c><00:33:46.000><c> has</c><00:33:46.240><c> produced</c><00:33:46.559><c> a</c><00:33:46.880><c> vast</c>

32:43.683 --> 32:43.693 align:start position:0%
formation of Pangia has produced a vast
 

32:43.693 --> 32:46.804 align:start position:0%
formation of Pangia has produced a vast
super<00:33:47.840><c> ocean</c><00:33:48.399><c> called</c><00:33:48.720><c> the</c><00:33:48.960><c> Panthalacic</c><00:33:50.240><c> or</c>

32:46.804 --> 32:46.814 align:start position:0%
super ocean called the Panthalacic or
 

32:46.814 --> 32:49.683 align:start position:0%
super ocean called the Panthalacic or
universal<00:33:51.279><c> sea</c><00:33:52.080><c> as</c><00:33:52.320><c> well</c><00:33:52.399><c> as</c><00:33:52.559><c> a</c><00:33:52.799><c> smaller</c><00:33:53.120><c> ocean</c>

32:49.683 --> 32:49.693 align:start position:0%
universal sea as well as a smaller ocean
 

32:49.693 --> 32:52.244 align:start position:0%
universal sea as well as a smaller ocean
called<00:33:53.679><c> the</c><00:33:53.919><c> Paleois.</c>

32:52.244 --> 32:52.254 align:start position:0%
called the Paleois.
 

32:52.254 --> 32:55.443 align:start position:0%
called the Paleois.
The<00:33:56.240><c> Panthalic</c><00:33:57.120><c> is</c><00:33:57.440><c> so</c><00:33:57.760><c> big</c><00:33:58.320><c> it</c><00:33:58.640><c> occupies</c>

32:55.443 --> 32:55.453 align:start position:0%
The Panthalic is so big it occupies
 

32:55.453 --> 32:59.443 align:start position:0%
The Panthalic is so big it occupies
almost<00:33:59.760><c> 70%</c><00:34:00.640><c> of</c><00:34:00.880><c> Earth's</c><00:34:01.279><c> surface.</c>

32:59.443 --> 32:59.453 align:start position:0%
almost 70% of Earth's surface.
 

32:59.453 --> 33:01.924 align:start position:0%
almost 70% of Earth's surface.
To<00:34:03.519><c> gather</c><00:34:03.840><c> more</c><00:34:04.159><c> information</c><00:34:05.039><c> and</c><00:34:05.440><c> if</c>

33:01.924 --> 33:01.934 align:start position:0%
To gather more information and if
 

33:01.934 --> 33:03.764 align:start position:0%
To gather more information and if
possible<00:34:06.480><c> see</c><00:34:06.720><c> what's</c><00:34:06.960><c> down</c><00:34:07.200><c> there</c><00:34:07.360><c> with</c>

33:03.764 --> 33:03.774 align:start position:0%
possible see what's down there with
 

33:03.774 --> 33:06.164 align:start position:0%
possible see what's down there with
their<00:34:07.840><c> own</c><00:34:08.000><c> eyes,</c><00:34:08.800><c> our</c><00:34:09.119><c> aliens</c><00:34:09.599><c> enter</c><00:34:09.839><c> a</c>

33:06.164 --> 33:06.174 align:start position:0%
their own eyes, our aliens enter a
 

33:06.174 --> 33:09.204 align:start position:0%
their own eyes, our aliens enter a
submersible<00:34:10.720><c> and</c><00:34:11.040><c> dive</c><00:34:11.359><c> in.</c><00:34:12.399><c> As</c><00:34:12.560><c> it</c><00:34:12.800><c> turns</c>

33:09.204 --> 33:09.214 align:start position:0%
submersible and dive in. As it turns
 

33:09.214 --> 33:11.604 align:start position:0%
submersible and dive in. As it turns
out,<00:34:13.359><c> the</c><00:34:13.599><c> safety</c><00:34:14.000><c> provided</c><00:34:14.399><c> by</c><00:34:14.639><c> said</c><00:34:14.960><c> vehicle</c>

33:11.604 --> 33:11.614 align:start position:0%
out, the safety provided by said vehicle
 

33:11.614 --> 33:14.644 align:start position:0%
out, the safety provided by said vehicle
is<00:34:15.760><c> much</c><00:34:16.159><c> needed.</c><00:34:17.200><c> Earth's</c><00:34:17.599><c> oceans</c><00:34:18.079><c> have</c><00:34:18.240><c> had</c>

33:14.644 --> 33:14.654 align:start position:0%
is much needed. Earth's oceans have had
 

33:14.654 --> 33:17.523 align:start position:0%
is much needed. Earth's oceans have had
some<00:34:18.800><c> terrifying</c><00:34:19.440><c> new</c><00:34:19.760><c> inhabitants.</c>

33:17.523 --> 33:17.533 align:start position:0%
some terrifying new inhabitants.
 

33:17.533 --> 33:19.684 align:start position:0%
some terrifying new inhabitants.
Among<00:34:21.679><c> them</c><00:34:21.919><c> is</c><00:34:22.240><c> one</c><00:34:22.480><c> of</c><00:34:22.639><c> the</c><00:34:22.879><c> strangest</c>

33:19.684 --> 33:19.694 align:start position:0%
Among them is one of the strangest
 

33:19.694 --> 33:21.924 align:start position:0%
Among them is one of the strangest
predators<00:34:24.159><c> ever</c><00:34:24.480><c> to</c><00:34:24.720><c> patrol</c><00:34:25.119><c> the</c><00:34:25.359><c> watery</c>

33:21.924 --> 33:21.934 align:start position:0%
predators ever to patrol the watery
 

33:21.934 --> 33:25.364 align:start position:0%
predators ever to patrol the watery
depths.<00:34:26.399><c> Pelicopion,</c><00:34:27.760><c> an</c><00:34:28.079><c> 8</c><00:34:28.480><c> m</c><00:34:28.800><c> long</c>

33:25.364 --> 33:25.374 align:start position:0%
depths. Pelicopion, an 8 m long
 

33:25.374 --> 33:27.684 align:start position:0%
depths. Pelicopion, an 8 m long
shark-like<00:34:29.839><c> fish</c><00:34:30.240><c> with</c><00:34:30.480><c> a</c><00:34:30.639><c> wall</c><00:34:30.960><c> of</c><00:34:31.119><c> teeth</c><00:34:31.359><c> in</c>

33:27.684 --> 33:27.694 align:start position:0%
shark-like fish with a wall of teeth in
 

33:27.694 --> 33:31.204 align:start position:0%
shark-like fish with a wall of teeth in
its<00:34:31.760><c> lower</c><00:34:32.000><c> jaw</c><00:34:32.560><c> resembling</c><00:34:33.119><c> a</c><00:34:33.359><c> buzzaw.</c>

33:31.204 --> 33:31.214 align:start position:0%
its lower jaw resembling a buzzaw.
 

33:31.214 --> 33:33.523 align:start position:0%
its lower jaw resembling a buzzaw.
I<00:34:35.520><c> personally</c><00:34:36.159><c> have</c><00:34:36.480><c> always</c><00:34:36.800><c> dreamed</c><00:34:37.040><c> of</c><00:34:37.200><c> a</c>

33:33.523 --> 33:33.533 align:start position:0%
I personally have always dreamed of a
 

33:33.533 --> 33:34.884 align:start position:0%
I personally have always dreamed of a
day<00:34:37.520><c> when</c><00:34:37.760><c> humans</c><00:34:38.240><c> discover</c>

33:34.884 --> 33:34.894 align:start position:0%
day when humans discover
 

33:34.894 --> 33:37.283 align:start position:0%
day when humans discover
extraterrestrial<00:34:39.599><c> life.</c><00:34:40.399><c> But</c><00:34:40.560><c> until</c><00:34:40.879><c> that</c>

33:37.283 --> 33:37.293 align:start position:0%
extraterrestrial life. But until that
 

33:37.293 --> 33:39.604 align:start position:0%
extraterrestrial life. But until that
day<00:34:41.359><c> comes,</c><00:34:42.000><c> our</c><00:34:42.399><c> best</c><00:34:42.720><c> resource</c><00:34:43.119><c> for</c>

33:39.604 --> 33:39.614 align:start position:0%
day comes, our best resource for
 

33:39.614 --> 33:41.604 align:start position:0%
day comes, our best resource for
understanding<00:34:44.079><c> how</c><00:34:44.320><c> life</c><00:34:44.639><c> can</c><00:34:44.800><c> evolve</c><00:34:45.119><c> under</c>

33:41.604 --> 33:41.614 align:start position:0%
understanding how life can evolve under
 

33:41.614 --> 33:44.164 align:start position:0%
understanding how life can evolve under
various<00:34:45.839><c> conditions</c><00:34:46.480><c> is</c><00:34:46.800><c> Earth's</c><00:34:47.359><c> own</c><00:34:47.599><c> fossil</c>

33:44.164 --> 33:44.174 align:start position:0%
various conditions is Earth's own fossil
 

33:44.174 --> 33:46.724 align:start position:0%
various conditions is Earth's own fossil
record.<00:34:49.119><c> Earth</c><00:34:49.440><c> was</c><00:34:49.679><c> a</c><00:34:49.919><c> different</c><00:34:50.159><c> planet</c>

33:46.724 --> 33:46.734 align:start position:0%
record. Earth was a different planet
 

33:46.734 --> 33:49.684 align:start position:0%
record. Earth was a different planet
back<00:34:50.800><c> then.</c><00:34:51.839><c> In</c><00:34:52.159><c> our</c><00:34:52.399><c> own</c><00:34:52.639><c> solar</c><00:34:53.040><c> system,</c>

33:49.684 --> 33:49.694 align:start position:0%
back then. In our own solar system,
 

33:49.694 --> 33:51.924 align:start position:0%
back then. In our own solar system,
moons<00:34:53.839><c> such</c><00:34:54.000><c> as</c><00:34:54.159><c> Europa,</c><00:34:54.960><c> Ganymede,</c><00:34:55.599><c> and</c>

33:51.924 --> 33:51.934 align:start position:0%
moons such as Europa, Ganymede, and
 

33:51.934 --> 33:54.564 align:start position:0%
moons such as Europa, Ganymede, and
Enceladus<00:34:56.639><c> may</c><00:34:56.960><c> have</c><00:34:57.200><c> subsurface</c><00:34:57.920><c> oceans</c>

33:54.564 --> 33:54.574 align:start position:0%
Enceladus may have subsurface oceans
 

33:54.574 --> 33:57.523 align:start position:0%
Enceladus may have subsurface oceans
suitable<00:34:58.880><c> for</c><00:34:59.200><c> strange</c><00:34:59.599><c> life</c><00:34:59.920><c> forms.</c>

33:57.523 --> 33:57.533 align:start position:0%
suitable for strange life forms.
 

33:57.533 --> 34:00.084 align:start position:0%
suitable for strange life forms.
Meanwhile,<00:35:02.000><c> on</c><00:35:02.240><c> land,</c><00:35:02.960><c> insects</c><00:35:03.440><c> have</c><00:35:03.680><c> begun</c>

34:00.084 --> 34:00.094 align:start position:0%
Meanwhile, on land, insects have begun
 

34:00.094 --> 34:02.964 align:start position:0%
Meanwhile, on land, insects have begun
to<00:35:04.079><c> flex</c><00:35:04.400><c> some</c><00:35:04.720><c> serious</c><00:35:05.200><c> muscle.</c><00:35:06.160><c> There</c><00:35:06.480><c> are</c>

34:02.964 --> 34:02.974 align:start position:0%
to flex some serious muscle. There are
 

34:02.974 --> 34:05.044 align:start position:0%
to flex some serious muscle. There are
all<00:35:07.040><c> sorts</c><00:35:07.280><c> of</c><00:35:07.440><c> beetles,</c><00:35:08.320><c> including</c>

34:05.044 --> 34:05.054 align:start position:0%
all sorts of beetles, including
 

34:05.054 --> 34:06.564 align:start position:0%
all sorts of beetles, including
permacupid

34:06.564 --> 34:06.574 align:start position:0%
permacupid
 

34:06.574 --> 34:10.324 align:start position:0%
permacupid
and<00:35:11.040><c> mega</c><00:35:11.440><c> nissotera,</c><00:35:12.800><c> an</c><00:35:13.119><c> extinct</c><00:35:13.599><c> order</c><00:35:14.000><c> of</c>

34:10.324 --> 34:10.334 align:start position:0%
and mega nissotera, an extinct order of
 

34:10.334 --> 34:13.124 align:start position:0%
and mega nissotera, an extinct order of
giant<00:35:14.560><c> dragon</c><00:35:14.960><c> flies.</c><00:35:16.079><c> Just</c><00:35:16.320><c> imagine</c><00:35:16.720><c> a</c>

34:13.124 --> 34:13.134 align:start position:0%
giant dragon flies. Just imagine a
 

34:13.134 --> 34:15.364 align:start position:0%
giant dragon flies. Just imagine a
dragonfly<00:35:17.599><c> with</c><00:35:17.839><c> a</c><00:35:18.000><c> wingspan</c><00:35:18.560><c> about</c><00:35:18.800><c> the</c><00:35:18.960><c> size</c>

34:15.364 --> 34:15.374 align:start position:0%
dragonfly with a wingspan about the size
 

34:15.374 --> 34:17.444 align:start position:0%
dragonfly with a wingspan about the size
of<00:35:19.440><c> common</c><00:35:19.760><c> seagulls</c><00:35:20.400><c> and</c><00:35:20.640><c> you'll</c><00:35:20.960><c> have</c><00:35:21.040><c> the</c>

34:17.444 --> 34:17.454 align:start position:0%
of common seagulls and you'll have the
 

34:17.454 --> 34:21.044 align:start position:0%
of common seagulls and you'll have the
idea.<00:35:22.640><c> Another</c><00:35:23.119><c> frankly</c><00:35:23.599><c> bizarre</c><00:35:24.160><c> newcomer</c>

34:21.044 --> 34:21.054 align:start position:0%
idea. Another frankly bizarre newcomer
 

34:21.054 --> 34:24.564 align:start position:0%
idea. Another frankly bizarre newcomer
is<00:35:25.280><c> Diplocus,</c><00:35:26.720><c> an</c><00:35:26.960><c> early</c><00:35:27.280><c> amphibian</c><00:35:28.000><c> with</c><00:35:28.160><c> a</c>

34:24.564 --> 34:24.574 align:start position:0%
is Diplocus, an early amphibian with a
 

34:24.574 --> 34:27.364 align:start position:0%
is Diplocus, an early amphibian with a
boomerang-shaped<00:35:29.359><c> head.</c><00:35:30.560><c> Look</c><00:35:30.720><c> at</c><00:35:30.880><c> how</c>

34:27.364 --> 34:27.374 align:start position:0%
boomerang-shaped head. Look at how
 

34:27.374 --> 34:29.844 align:start position:0%
boomerang-shaped head. Look at how
fascinating<00:35:31.760><c> these</c><00:35:32.160><c> Earth</c><00:35:32.400><c> aliens</c><00:35:32.960><c> are.</c><00:35:33.359><c> I</c>

34:29.844 --> 34:29.854 align:start position:0%
fascinating these Earth aliens are. I
 

34:29.854 --> 34:31.523 align:start position:0%
fascinating these Earth aliens are. I
can<00:35:33.839><c> hear</c><00:35:34.079><c> our</c><00:35:34.400><c> extraterrestrial</c>

34:31.523 --> 34:31.533 align:start position:0%
can hear our extraterrestrial
 

34:31.533 --> 34:34.884 align:start position:0%
can hear our extraterrestrial
xenozoolologist<00:35:36.480><c> say,</c><00:35:37.359><c> "But</c><00:35:37.680><c> by</c><00:35:38.000><c> far</c><00:35:38.400><c> the</c>

34:34.884 --> 34:34.894 align:start position:0%
xenozoolologist say, "But by far the
 

34:34.894 --> 34:37.204 align:start position:0%
xenozoolologist say, "But by far the
most<00:35:39.119><c> interesting</c><00:35:39.599><c> quadruped</c><00:35:40.400><c> of</c><00:35:40.560><c> the</c><00:35:40.720><c> early</c>

34:37.204 --> 34:37.214 align:start position:0%
most interesting quadruped of the early
 

34:37.214 --> 34:40.324 align:start position:0%
most interesting quadruped of the early
perian<00:35:41.920><c> is</c><00:35:42.079><c> the</c><00:35:42.400><c> dimetradon.</c>

34:40.324 --> 34:40.334 align:start position:0%
perian is the dimetradon.
 

34:40.334 --> 34:42.084 align:start position:0%
perian is the dimetradon.
Although<00:35:44.400><c> it</c><00:35:44.640><c> is</c><00:35:44.800><c> often</c><00:35:45.119><c> mistaken</c><00:35:45.599><c> for</c><00:35:45.760><c> a</c>

34:42.084 --> 34:42.094 align:start position:0%
Although it is often mistaken for a
 

34:42.094 --> 34:44.484 align:start position:0%
Although it is often mistaken for a
dinosaur<00:35:46.480><c> in</c><00:35:46.640><c> the</c><00:35:46.800><c> popular</c><00:35:47.200><c> imagination,</c>

34:44.484 --> 34:44.494 align:start position:0%
dinosaur in the popular imagination,
 

34:44.494 --> 34:47.684 align:start position:0%
dinosaur in the popular imagination,
this<00:35:48.560><c> 2</c><00:35:48.800><c> to</c><00:35:49.040><c> 4</c><00:35:49.280><c> m</c><00:35:49.760><c> sailbacked</c><00:35:50.480><c> predator</c><00:35:51.200><c> is</c>

34:47.684 --> 34:47.694 align:start position:0%
this 2 to 4 m sailbacked predator is
 

34:47.694 --> 34:50.484 align:start position:0%
this 2 to 4 m sailbacked predator is
actually<00:35:51.920><c> a</c><00:35:52.160><c> sinapsid</c><00:35:53.200><c> more</c><00:35:53.440><c> closely</c><00:35:53.920><c> related</c>

34:50.484 --> 34:50.494 align:start position:0%
actually a sinapsid more closely related
 

34:50.494 --> 34:53.204 align:start position:0%
actually a sinapsid more closely related
to<00:35:54.560><c> modern</c><00:35:54.880><c> mammals</c><00:35:55.359><c> than</c><00:35:55.680><c> reptiles.</c>

34:53.204 --> 34:53.214 align:start position:0%
to modern mammals than reptiles.
 

34:53.214 --> 34:55.924 align:start position:0%
to modern mammals than reptiles.
Vimetradon's<00:35:57.920><c> sail</c><00:35:58.480><c> contains</c><00:35:58.960><c> a</c><00:35:59.200><c> network</c><00:35:59.599><c> of</c>

34:55.924 --> 34:55.934 align:start position:0%
Vimetradon's sail contains a network of
 

34:55.934 --> 34:58.084 align:start position:0%
Vimetradon's sail contains a network of
blood<00:36:00.000><c> vessels</c><00:36:00.640><c> which</c><00:36:00.880><c> allows</c><00:36:01.200><c> it</c><00:36:01.440><c> to</c><00:36:01.680><c> raise</c>

34:58.084 --> 34:58.094 align:start position:0%
blood vessels which allows it to raise
 

34:58.094 --> 34:59.604 align:start position:0%
blood vessels which allows it to raise
its<00:36:02.240><c> temperature</c><00:36:02.640><c> more</c><00:36:02.880><c> quickly</c><00:36:03.200><c> in</c>

34:59.604 --> 34:59.614 align:start position:0%
its temperature more quickly in
 

34:59.614 --> 35:01.844 align:start position:0%
its temperature more quickly in
sunlight.<00:36:04.400><c> An</c><00:36:04.640><c> early</c><00:36:04.960><c> step</c><00:36:05.200><c> towards</c>

35:01.844 --> 35:01.854 align:start position:0%
sunlight. An early step towards
 

35:01.854 --> 35:03.924 align:start position:0%
sunlight. An early step towards
temperature<00:36:06.079><c> regulation</c>

35:03.924 --> 35:03.934 align:start position:0%
temperature regulation
 

35:03.934 --> 35:06.404 align:start position:0%
temperature regulation
on<00:36:08.000><c> a</c><00:36:08.160><c> planet</c><00:36:08.640><c> experiencing</c><00:36:09.440><c> all</c><00:36:09.760><c> kinds</c><00:36:10.000><c> of</c>

35:06.404 --> 35:06.414 align:start position:0%
on a planet experiencing all kinds of
 

35:06.414 --> 35:08.964 align:start position:0%
on a planet experiencing all kinds of
climactic<00:36:10.880><c> changes.</c><00:36:11.839><c> This</c><00:36:12.160><c> ability</c><00:36:12.560><c> to</c>

35:08.964 --> 35:08.974 align:start position:0%
climactic changes. This ability to
 

35:08.974 --> 35:11.124 align:start position:0%
climactic changes. This ability to
regulate<00:36:13.359><c> temperature</c><00:36:13.839><c> would</c><00:36:14.160><c> certainly</c><00:36:14.720><c> be</c>

35:11.124 --> 35:11.134 align:start position:0%
regulate temperature would certainly be
 

35:11.134 --> 35:12.644 align:start position:0%
regulate temperature would certainly be
advantageous.

35:12.644 --> 35:12.654 align:start position:0%
advantageous.
 

35:12.654 --> 35:14.724 align:start position:0%
advantageous.
It's<00:36:16.720><c> a</c><00:36:16.960><c> wonderful</c><00:36:17.520><c> illustration</c><00:36:18.000><c> of</c><00:36:18.320><c> how</c>

35:14.724 --> 35:14.734 align:start position:0%
It's a wonderful illustration of how
 

35:14.734 --> 35:17.124 align:start position:0%
It's a wonderful illustration of how
much<00:36:18.800><c> living</c><00:36:19.200><c> organisms</c><00:36:19.839><c> can</c><00:36:20.240><c> and</c><00:36:20.560><c> must</c>

35:17.124 --> 35:17.134 align:start position:0%
much living organisms can and must
 

35:17.134 --> 35:20.164 align:start position:0%
much living organisms can and must
change<00:36:21.200><c> in</c><00:36:21.520><c> order</c><00:36:21.680><c> to</c><00:36:21.839><c> survive.</c><00:36:23.119><c> Our</c><00:36:23.520><c> planet's</c>

35:20.164 --> 35:20.174 align:start position:0%
change in order to survive. Our planet's
 

35:20.174 --> 35:22.644 align:start position:0%
change in order to survive. Our planet's
climate<00:36:24.560><c> is</c><00:36:24.800><c> like</c><00:36:25.040><c> a</c><00:36:25.280><c> complex</c><00:36:25.760><c> system</c><00:36:26.079><c> full</c><00:36:26.320><c> of</c>

35:22.644 --> 35:22.654 align:start position:0%
climate is like a complex system full of
 

35:22.654 --> 35:25.604 align:start position:0%
climate is like a complex system full of
inputs<00:36:27.200><c> with</c><00:36:27.440><c> a</c><00:36:27.599><c> biosphere</c><00:36:28.400><c> as</c><00:36:28.720><c> corresponding</c>

35:25.604 --> 35:25.614 align:start position:0%
inputs with a biosphere as corresponding
 

35:25.614 --> 35:29.044 align:start position:0%
inputs with a biosphere as corresponding
outputs.<00:36:30.800><c> Planets</c><00:36:31.359><c> like</c><00:36:31.599><c> ours</c><00:36:32.160><c> dictate</c><00:36:32.640><c> what</c>

35:29.044 --> 35:29.054 align:start position:0%
outputs. Planets like ours dictate what
 

35:29.054 --> 35:31.364 align:start position:0%
outputs. Planets like ours dictate what
sort<00:36:33.040><c> of</c><00:36:33.200><c> life</c><00:36:33.520><c> can</c><00:36:33.760><c> exist</c><00:36:34.000><c> on</c><00:36:34.160><c> them.</c><00:36:34.960><c> And</c>

35:31.364 --> 35:31.374 align:start position:0%
sort of life can exist on them. And
 

35:31.374 --> 35:34.003 align:start position:0%
sort of life can exist on them. And
interestingly,<00:36:36.160><c> as</c><00:36:36.480><c> a</c><00:36:36.640><c> planet</c><00:36:37.119><c> changes</c><00:36:37.599><c> over</c>

35:34.003 --> 35:34.013 align:start position:0%
interestingly, as a planet changes over
 

35:34.013 --> 35:36.404 align:start position:0%
interestingly, as a planet changes over
time,<00:36:38.400><c> the</c><00:36:38.640><c> type</c><00:36:38.800><c> of</c><00:36:38.960><c> life</c><00:36:39.200><c> it</c><00:36:39.440><c> can</c><00:36:39.599><c> support</c>

35:36.404 --> 35:36.414 align:start position:0%
time, the type of life it can support
 

35:36.414 --> 35:39.204 align:start position:0%
time, the type of life it can support
also<00:36:40.640><c> changes.</c>

35:39.204 --> 35:39.214 align:start position:0%
also changes.
 

35:39.214 --> 35:41.523 align:start position:0%
also changes.
Impressed<00:36:43.520><c> by</c><00:36:43.839><c> Earth's</c><00:36:44.240><c> development,</c><00:36:45.040><c> our</c>

35:41.523 --> 35:41.533 align:start position:0%
Impressed by Earth's development, our
 

35:41.533 --> 35:43.523 align:start position:0%
Impressed by Earth's development, our
alien<00:36:45.760><c> scientists</c><00:36:46.240><c> decide</c><00:36:46.560><c> to</c><00:36:46.720><c> return</c><00:36:47.119><c> in</c>

35:43.523 --> 35:43.533 align:start position:0%
alien scientists decide to return in
 

35:43.533 --> 35:46.243 align:start position:0%
alien scientists decide to return in
another<00:36:47.680><c> 100</c><00:36:48.079><c> million</c><00:36:48.400><c> years.</c><00:36:49.440><c> Unbeknownst</c>

35:46.243 --> 35:46.253 align:start position:0%
another 100 million years. Unbeknownst
 

35:46.253 --> 35:48.324 align:start position:0%
another 100 million years. Unbeknownst
to<00:36:50.240><c> them,</c><00:36:50.720><c> they</c><00:36:50.880><c> will</c><00:36:51.119><c> miss</c><00:36:51.359><c> the</c><00:36:51.680><c> largest</c>

35:48.324 --> 35:48.334 align:start position:0%
to them, they will miss the largest
 

35:48.334 --> 35:50.884 align:start position:0%
to them, they will miss the largest
extinction<00:36:52.720><c> event</c><00:36:52.960><c> in</c><00:36:53.280><c> Earth's</c><00:36:53.680><c> history.</c><00:36:54.560><c> And</c>

35:50.884 --> 35:50.894 align:start position:0%
extinction event in Earth's history. And
 

35:50.894 --> 35:52.644 align:start position:0%
extinction event in Earth's history. And
I'm<00:36:54.880><c> not</c><00:36:55.119><c> talking</c><00:36:55.280><c> about</c><00:36:55.520><c> the</c><00:36:55.760><c> asteroid</c><00:36:56.240><c> that</c>

35:52.644 --> 35:52.654 align:start position:0%
I'm not talking about the asteroid that
 

35:52.654 --> 35:55.684 align:start position:0%
I'm not talking about the asteroid that
eventually<00:36:57.040><c> killed</c><00:36:57.359><c> off</c><00:36:57.520><c> the</c><00:36:57.760><c> dinosaurs.</c><00:36:59.200><c> A</c>

35:55.684 --> 35:55.694 align:start position:0%
eventually killed off the dinosaurs. A
 

35:55.694 --> 35:57.844 align:start position:0%
eventually killed off the dinosaurs. A
much<00:36:59.839><c> more</c><00:37:00.160><c> catastrophic</c><00:37:00.800><c> extinction</c><00:37:01.440><c> takes</c>

35:57.844 --> 35:57.854 align:start position:0%
much more catastrophic extinction takes
 

35:57.854 --> 36:01.124 align:start position:0%
much more catastrophic extinction takes
place<00:37:02.000><c> around</c><00:37:02.640><c> 252</c><00:37:03.760><c> million</c><00:37:04.079><c> years</c><00:37:04.240><c> ago</c>

36:01.124 --> 36:01.134 align:start position:0%
place around 252 million years ago
 

36:01.134 --> 36:03.364 align:start position:0%
place around 252 million years ago
called<00:37:05.200><c> the</c><00:37:05.440><c> Perant</c><00:37:06.000><c> Jurassic</c><00:37:06.640><c> Extinction</c>

36:03.364 --> 36:03.374 align:start position:0%
called the Perant Jurassic Extinction
 

36:03.374 --> 36:06.164 align:start position:0%
called the Perant Jurassic Extinction
event.<00:37:08.400><c> Our</c><00:37:08.720><c> leading</c><00:37:09.040><c> theory</c><00:37:09.520><c> is</c><00:37:09.760><c> that</c>

36:06.164 --> 36:06.174 align:start position:0%
event. Our leading theory is that
 

36:06.174 --> 36:08.324 align:start position:0%
event. Our leading theory is that
volcanic<00:37:10.640><c> eruptions</c><00:37:11.040><c> release</c><00:37:11.359><c> a</c><00:37:11.599><c> huge</c><00:37:11.920><c> amount</c>

36:08.324 --> 36:08.334 align:start position:0%
volcanic eruptions release a huge amount
 

36:08.334 --> 36:10.964 align:start position:0%
volcanic eruptions release a huge amount
of<00:37:12.400><c> CO2</c><00:37:12.960><c> into</c><00:37:13.119><c> the</c><00:37:13.280><c> atmosphere,</c><00:37:14.160><c> which</c><00:37:14.480><c> raise</c>

36:10.964 --> 36:10.974 align:start position:0%
of CO2 into the atmosphere, which raise
 

36:10.974 --> 36:13.283 align:start position:0%
of CO2 into the atmosphere, which raise
global<00:37:15.280><c> temperatures</c><00:37:16.000><c> and</c><00:37:16.320><c> make</c><00:37:16.560><c> the</c><00:37:16.720><c> oceans</c>

36:13.283 --> 36:13.293 align:start position:0%
global temperatures and make the oceans
 

36:13.293 --> 36:15.204 align:start position:0%
global temperatures and make the oceans
more<00:37:17.280><c> acidic.</c>

36:15.204 --> 36:15.214 align:start position:0%
more acidic.
 

36:15.214 --> 36:17.684 align:start position:0%
more acidic.
This<00:37:19.280><c> catastrophic</c><00:37:20.000><c> event</c><00:37:20.560><c> eradicates</c><00:37:21.040><c> about</c>

36:17.684 --> 36:17.694 align:start position:0%
This catastrophic event eradicates about
 

36:17.694 --> 36:20.804 align:start position:0%
This catastrophic event eradicates about
70%<00:37:22.320><c> of</c><00:37:22.640><c> terrestrial</c><00:37:23.200><c> vertebrate</c><00:37:23.760><c> species</c>

36:20.804 --> 36:20.814 align:start position:0%
70% of terrestrial vertebrate species
 

36:20.814 --> 36:24.404 align:start position:0%
70% of terrestrial vertebrate species
and<00:37:25.040><c> 80%</c><00:37:25.680><c> of</c><00:37:25.920><c> all</c><00:37:26.240><c> marine</c><00:37:26.640><c> species.</c><00:37:27.680><c> A</c><00:37:27.920><c> mass</c>

36:24.404 --> 36:24.414 align:start position:0%
and 80% of all marine species. A mass
 

36:24.414 --> 36:27.044 align:start position:0%
and 80% of all marine species. A mass
die<00:37:28.560><c> off</c><00:37:28.880><c> unmatched</c><00:37:29.520><c> by</c><00:37:29.839><c> any</c><00:37:30.160><c> other</c><00:37:30.480><c> in</c><00:37:30.720><c> the</c>

36:27.044 --> 36:27.054 align:start position:0%
die off unmatched by any other in the
 

36:27.054 --> 36:29.763 align:start position:0%
die off unmatched by any other in the
history<00:37:31.119><c> of</c><00:37:31.280><c> the</c><00:37:31.520><c> planet.</c><00:37:32.640><c> Yet,</c><00:37:33.280><c> as</c>

36:29.763 --> 36:29.773 align:start position:0%
history of the planet. Yet, as
 

36:29.773 --> 36:31.684 align:start position:0%
history of the planet. Yet, as
devastating<00:37:34.160><c> as</c><00:37:34.480><c> this</c><00:37:34.720><c> is</c><00:37:34.960><c> in</c><00:37:35.119><c> the</c><00:37:35.280><c> short</c>

36:31.684 --> 36:31.694 align:start position:0%
devastating as this is in the short
 

36:31.694 --> 36:34.003 align:start position:0%
devastating as this is in the short
term,<00:37:36.160><c> it</c><00:37:36.400><c> would</c><00:37:36.720><c> eventually</c><00:37:37.359><c> clear</c><00:37:37.599><c> the</c>

36:34.003 --> 36:34.013 align:start position:0%
term, it would eventually clear the
 

36:34.013 --> 36:36.243 align:start position:0%
term, it would eventually clear the
field<00:37:38.240><c> for</c><00:37:38.480><c> a</c><00:37:38.640><c> whole</c><00:37:38.880><c> lot</c><00:37:39.040><c> of</c><00:37:39.280><c> evolutionary</c>

36:36.243 --> 36:36.253 align:start position:0%
field for a whole lot of evolutionary
 

36:36.253 --> 36:38.564 align:start position:0%
field for a whole lot of evolutionary
diversification<00:37:41.040><c> during</c><00:37:41.359><c> the</c><00:37:41.599><c> Jurassic</c><00:37:42.160><c> and</c>

36:38.564 --> 36:38.574 align:start position:0%
diversification during the Jurassic and
 

36:38.574 --> 36:42.484 align:start position:0%
diversification during the Jurassic and
Jurassic.

36:42.484 --> 36:42.494 align:start position:0%
 
 

36:42.494 --> 36:44.804 align:start position:0%
 
Sensing<00:37:46.800><c> that</c><00:37:47.119><c> change</c><00:37:47.359><c> is</c><00:37:47.520><c> on</c><00:37:47.680><c> the</c><00:37:47.920><c> horizon,</c>

36:44.804 --> 36:44.814 align:start position:0%
Sensing that change is on the horizon,
 

36:44.814 --> 36:47.444 align:start position:0%
Sensing that change is on the horizon,
our<00:37:48.880><c> aliens</c><00:37:49.359><c> skip</c><00:37:49.680><c> forward</c><00:37:50.000><c> again.</c><00:37:50.720><c> This</c><00:37:50.960><c> time</c>

36:47.444 --> 36:47.454 align:start position:0%
our aliens skip forward again. This time
 

36:47.454 --> 36:50.404 align:start position:0%
our aliens skip forward again. This time
just<00:37:51.839><c> 50</c><00:37:52.160><c> million</c><00:37:52.560><c> years.</c><00:37:53.440><c> Their</c><00:37:53.680><c> sense</c><00:37:54.000><c> of</c>

36:50.404 --> 36:50.414 align:start position:0%
just 50 million years. Their sense of
 

36:50.414 --> 36:53.044 align:start position:0%
just 50 million years. Their sense of
timing<00:37:54.720><c> is</c><00:37:55.040><c> excellent.</c><00:37:55.839><c> As</c><00:37:56.079><c> in</c><00:37:56.240><c> the</c><00:37:56.480><c> center</c><00:37:56.720><c> of</c>

36:53.044 --> 36:53.054 align:start position:0%
timing is excellent. As in the center of
 

36:53.054 --> 36:55.283 align:start position:0%
timing is excellent. As in the center of
the<00:37:57.119><c> arid</c><00:37:57.520><c> and</c><00:37:57.839><c> ancient</c><00:37:58.320><c> superc</c><00:37:58.640><c> continent</c>

36:55.283 --> 36:55.293 align:start position:0%
the arid and ancient superc continent
 

36:55.293 --> 36:58.003 align:start position:0%
the arid and ancient superc continent
pangia,<00:38:00.160><c> thousands</c><00:38:00.640><c> of</c><00:38:00.800><c> miles</c><00:38:01.119><c> away</c><00:38:01.440><c> from</c><00:38:01.599><c> the</c>

36:58.003 --> 36:58.013 align:start position:0%
pangia, thousands of miles away from the
 

36:58.013 --> 37:01.044 align:start position:0%
pangia, thousands of miles away from the
sea,<00:38:02.560><c> a</c><00:38:02.800><c> key</c><00:38:03.200><c> moment</c><00:38:03.599><c> in</c><00:38:03.839><c> Earth's</c><00:38:04.240><c> history</c><00:38:04.640><c> is</c>

37:01.044 --> 37:01.054 align:start position:0%
sea, a key moment in Earth's history is
 

37:01.054 --> 37:04.243 align:start position:0%
sea, a key moment in Earth's history is
about<00:38:05.119><c> to</c><00:38:05.359><c> start.</c><00:38:06.320><c> A</c><00:38:06.560><c> rain</c><00:38:07.200><c> is</c><00:38:07.520><c> beginning</c><00:38:07.839><c> to</c>

37:04.243 --> 37:04.253 align:start position:0%
about to start. A rain is beginning to
 

37:04.253 --> 37:07.844 align:start position:0%
about to start. A rain is beginning to
fall.<00:38:09.040><c> But</c><00:38:09.280><c> not</c><00:38:09.440><c> just</c><00:38:09.680><c> any</c><00:38:10.079><c> rain.</c><00:38:11.040><c> Just</c><00:38:11.359><c> off</c>

37:07.844 --> 37:07.854 align:start position:0%
fall. But not just any rain. Just off
 

37:07.854 --> 37:10.564 align:start position:0%
fall. But not just any rain. Just off
Pangia's<00:38:12.480><c> west</c><00:38:12.800><c> coast</c><00:38:13.359><c> in</c><00:38:13.680><c> what</c><00:38:13.920><c> is</c><00:38:14.079><c> now</c>

37:10.564 --> 37:10.574 align:start position:0%
Pangia's west coast in what is now
 

37:10.574 --> 37:14.564 align:start position:0%
Pangia's west coast in what is now
Canada,<00:38:15.599><c> epoch</c><00:38:16.240><c> ending</c><00:38:16.720><c> volcanic</c><00:38:17.359><c> activity</c>

37:14.564 --> 37:14.574 align:start position:0%
Canada, epoch ending volcanic activity
 

37:14.574 --> 37:17.604 align:start position:0%
Canada, epoch ending volcanic activity
sent<00:38:18.720><c> off</c><00:38:18.960><c> a</c><00:38:19.280><c> chain</c><00:38:19.520><c> of</c><00:38:19.760><c> events</c><00:38:20.480><c> that</c><00:38:20.800><c> all</c><00:38:21.119><c> but</c>

37:17.604 --> 37:17.614 align:start position:0%
sent off a chain of events that all but
 

37:17.614 --> 37:19.924 align:start position:0%
sent off a chain of events that all but
made<00:38:21.760><c> this</c><00:38:22.160><c> worldaltering</c><00:38:23.040><c> downpour</c>

37:19.924 --> 37:19.934 align:start position:0%
made this worldaltering downpour
 

37:19.934 --> 37:23.444 align:start position:0%
made this worldaltering downpour
inevitable.<00:38:25.200><c> It</c><00:38:25.440><c> would</c><00:38:25.839><c> never</c><00:38:26.240><c> look</c><00:38:26.480><c> the</c><00:38:26.720><c> same</c>

37:23.444 --> 37:23.454 align:start position:0%
inevitable. It would never look the same
 

37:23.454 --> 37:25.763 align:start position:0%
inevitable. It would never look the same
because<00:38:27.760><c> this</c><00:38:28.160><c> was</c><00:38:28.320><c> the</c><00:38:28.560><c> start</c><00:38:28.800><c> of</c><00:38:28.960><c> a</c><00:38:29.119><c> rain</c>

37:25.763 --> 37:25.773 align:start position:0%
because this was the start of a rain
 

37:25.773 --> 37:28.484 align:start position:0%
because this was the start of a rain
that<00:38:29.920><c> wouldn't</c><00:38:30.320><c> abate</c><00:38:30.960><c> for</c><00:38:31.280><c> more</c><00:38:31.680><c> than</c><00:38:32.000><c> a</c>

37:28.484 --> 37:28.494 align:start position:0%
that wouldn't abate for more than a
 

37:28.494 --> 37:30.484 align:start position:0%
that wouldn't abate for more than a
million<00:38:32.720><c> years.</c>

37:30.484 --> 37:30.494 align:start position:0%
million years.
 

37:30.494 --> 37:33.124 align:start position:0%
million years.
This<00:38:34.720><c> would</c><00:38:35.200><c> truly</c><00:38:35.920><c> push</c><00:38:36.160><c> the</c><00:38:36.480><c> butterfly</c>

37:33.124 --> 37:33.134 align:start position:0%
This would truly push the butterfly
 

37:33.134 --> 37:36.404 align:start position:0%
This would truly push the butterfly
effect<00:38:37.440><c> to</c><00:38:37.760><c> its</c><00:38:38.160><c> limits.</c><00:38:38.960><c> Imagine</c><00:38:39.839><c> if</c><00:38:40.079><c> a</c>

37:36.404 --> 37:36.414 align:start position:0%
effect to its limits. Imagine if a
 

37:36.414 --> 37:38.484 align:start position:0%
effect to its limits. Imagine if a
butterfly<00:38:40.720><c> flapping</c><00:38:41.119><c> its</c><00:38:41.280><c> wings</c><00:38:41.599><c> can</c><00:38:41.760><c> cause</c><00:38:42.079><c> a</c>

37:38.484 --> 37:38.494 align:start position:0%
butterfly flapping its wings can cause a
 

37:38.494 --> 37:41.844 align:start position:0%
butterfly flapping its wings can cause a
tornado<00:38:42.960><c> 1,000</c><00:38:43.440><c> km</c><00:38:44.000><c> away.</c><00:38:44.800><c> What</c><00:38:45.040><c> does</c><00:38:45.280><c> an</c>

37:41.844 --> 37:41.854 align:start position:0%
tornado 1,000 km away. What does an
 

37:41.854 --> 37:44.724 align:start position:0%
tornado 1,000 km away. What does an
eruption<00:38:46.480><c> 100</c><00:38:46.960><c> times</c><00:38:47.359><c> larger</c><00:38:47.760><c> than</c><00:38:48.000><c> a</c><00:38:48.240><c> super</c>

37:44.724 --> 37:44.734 align:start position:0%
eruption 100 times larger than a super
 

37:44.734 --> 37:48.084 align:start position:0%
eruption 100 times larger than a super
volcano<00:38:49.200><c> cause?</c><00:38:50.640><c> Before</c><00:38:50.960><c> the</c><00:38:51.119><c> rain</c><00:38:51.440><c> began,</c>

37:48.084 --> 37:48.094 align:start position:0%
volcano cause? Before the rain began,
 

37:48.094 --> 37:49.844 align:start position:0%
volcano cause? Before the rain began,
life<00:38:52.160><c> in</c><00:38:52.400><c> many</c><00:38:52.640><c> parts</c><00:38:52.880><c> of</c><00:38:52.960><c> the</c><00:38:53.200><c> world</c><00:38:53.359><c> was</c>

37:49.844 --> 37:49.854 align:start position:0%
life in many parts of the world was
 

37:49.854 --> 37:52.243 align:start position:0%
life in many parts of the world was
adapted<00:38:54.079><c> to</c><00:38:54.240><c> the</c><00:38:54.400><c> drier</c><00:38:54.800><c> climate.</c><00:38:55.520><c> The</c><00:38:55.760><c> superc</c>

37:52.243 --> 37:52.253 align:start position:0%
adapted to the drier climate. The superc
 

37:52.253 --> 37:54.564 align:start position:0%
adapted to the drier climate. The superc
continent<00:38:56.560><c> pangia's</c><00:38:57.359><c> huge</c><00:38:57.680><c> size</c><00:38:58.000><c> meant</c><00:38:58.240><c> that</c>

37:54.564 --> 37:54.574 align:start position:0%
continent pangia's huge size meant that
 

37:54.574 --> 37:56.724 align:start position:0%
continent pangia's huge size meant that
the<00:38:58.640><c> center</c><00:38:58.960><c> was</c><00:38:59.200><c> far</c><00:38:59.520><c> removed</c><00:38:59.839><c> from</c><00:39:00.079><c> coastal</c>

37:56.724 --> 37:56.734 align:start position:0%
the center was far removed from coastal
 

37:56.734 --> 37:58.884 align:start position:0%
the center was far removed from coastal
climates<00:39:01.200><c> and</c><00:39:01.520><c> therefore</c><00:39:01.920><c> received</c><00:39:02.400><c> very</c>

37:58.884 --> 37:58.894 align:start position:0%
climates and therefore received very
 

37:58.894 --> 38:01.204 align:start position:0%
climates and therefore received very
little<00:39:02.960><c> rain,</c><00:39:03.680><c> favoring</c><00:39:04.160><c> the</c><00:39:04.400><c> evolution</c><00:39:04.800><c> of</c>

38:01.204 --> 38:01.214 align:start position:0%
little rain, favoring the evolution of
 

38:01.214 --> 38:03.523 align:start position:0%
little rain, favoring the evolution of
species<00:39:05.599><c> that</c><00:39:05.920><c> required</c><00:39:06.400><c> less</c><00:39:06.800><c> water</c><00:39:07.119><c> to</c>

38:03.523 --> 38:03.533 align:start position:0%
species that required less water to
 

38:03.533 --> 38:06.724 align:start position:0%
species that required less water to
survive.<00:39:08.640><c> During</c><00:39:08.960><c> this</c><00:39:09.200><c> dry</c><00:39:09.599><c> period</c><00:39:10.079><c> around</c>

38:06.724 --> 38:06.734 align:start position:0%
survive. During this dry period around
 

38:06.734 --> 38:08.644 align:start position:0%
survive. During this dry period around
300<00:39:11.119><c> million</c><00:39:11.520><c> years</c><00:39:11.680><c> ago</c><00:39:12.160><c> in</c><00:39:12.320><c> the</c>

38:08.644 --> 38:08.654 align:start position:0%
300 million years ago in the
 

38:08.654 --> 38:11.364 align:start position:0%
300 million years ago in the
Carboniferous<00:39:13.280><c> period,</c><00:39:14.160><c> several</c><00:39:14.640><c> species</c>

38:11.364 --> 38:11.374 align:start position:0%
Carboniferous period, several species
 

38:11.374 --> 38:14.003 align:start position:0%
Carboniferous period, several species
emerged<00:39:15.680><c> that</c><00:39:15.920><c> are</c><00:39:16.079><c> still</c><00:39:16.480><c> important</c><00:39:16.960><c> today,</c>

38:14.003 --> 38:14.013 align:start position:0%
emerged that are still important today,
 

38:14.013 --> 38:16.724 align:start position:0%
emerged that are still important today,
including<00:39:18.480><c> dragonflies,</c><00:39:19.520><c> millipedes,</c><00:39:20.240><c> and</c>

38:16.724 --> 38:16.734 align:start position:0%
including dragonflies, millipedes, and
 

38:16.734 --> 38:19.604 align:start position:0%
including dragonflies, millipedes, and
spiders.<00:39:22.000><c> Throughout</c><00:39:22.480><c> this</c><00:39:22.720><c> period,</c><00:39:23.200><c> the</c>

38:19.604 --> 38:19.614 align:start position:0%
spiders. Throughout this period, the
 

38:19.614 --> 38:22.164 align:start position:0%
spiders. Throughout this period, the
Diabsids<00:39:24.240><c> also</c><00:39:24.640><c> exploded.</c><00:39:25.520><c> A</c><00:39:25.760><c> group</c>

38:22.164 --> 38:22.174 align:start position:0%
Diabsids also exploded. A group
 

38:22.174 --> 38:25.283 align:start position:0%
Diabsids also exploded. A group
containing<00:39:26.560><c> lizards</c><00:39:27.040><c> and</c><00:39:27.359><c> snakes</c><00:39:27.920><c> as</c><00:39:28.160><c> well</c><00:39:28.320><c> as</c>

38:25.283 --> 38:25.293 align:start position:0%
containing lizards and snakes as well as
 

38:25.293 --> 38:27.124 align:start position:0%
containing lizards and snakes as well as
arosaurs.

38:27.124 --> 38:27.134 align:start position:0%
arosaurs.
 

38:27.134 --> 38:30.003 align:start position:0%
arosaurs.
Now,<00:39:31.520><c> you</c><00:39:31.760><c> may</c><00:39:32.000><c> not</c><00:39:32.240><c> know</c><00:39:32.560><c> that</c><00:39:32.880><c> name,</c><00:39:33.359><c> but</c><00:39:33.599><c> you</c>

38:30.003 --> 38:30.013 align:start position:0%
Now, you may not know that name, but you
 

38:30.013 --> 38:32.724 align:start position:0%
Now, you may not know that name, but you
certainly<00:39:34.320><c> know</c><00:39:34.560><c> what</c><00:39:34.800><c> this</c><00:39:35.040><c> group</c><00:39:35.359><c> contains.</c>

38:32.724 --> 38:32.734 align:start position:0%
certainly know what this group contains.
 

38:32.734 --> 38:36.484 align:start position:0%
certainly know what this group contains.
Crocodiles,<00:39:37.760><c> birds,</c><00:39:38.560><c> and</c><00:39:38.800><c> yes,</c><00:39:39.680><c> eventually</c>

38:36.484 --> 38:36.494 align:start position:0%
Crocodiles, birds, and yes, eventually
 

38:36.494 --> 38:39.044 align:start position:0%
Crocodiles, birds, and yes, eventually
dinosaurs.<00:39:41.760><c> But</c><00:39:41.920><c> we'll</c><00:39:42.240><c> come</c><00:39:42.320><c> back</c><00:39:42.480><c> to</c><00:39:42.640><c> those</c>

38:39.044 --> 38:39.054 align:start position:0%
dinosaurs. But we'll come back to those
 

38:39.054 --> 38:41.844 align:start position:0%
dinosaurs. But we'll come back to those
later.<00:39:44.160><c> For</c><00:39:44.400><c> now,</c><00:39:44.640><c> let's</c><00:39:44.960><c> remember</c><00:39:45.280><c> that</c><00:39:45.520><c> the</c>

38:41.844 --> 38:41.854 align:start position:0%
later. For now, let's remember that the
 

38:41.854 --> 38:44.243 align:start position:0%
later. For now, let's remember that the
Earth<00:39:46.000><c> back</c><00:39:46.240><c> then</c><00:39:46.560><c> was</c><00:39:46.800><c> a</c><00:39:46.960><c> tumultuous</c><00:39:47.680><c> and</c>

38:44.243 --> 38:44.253 align:start position:0%
Earth back then was a tumultuous and
 

38:44.253 --> 38:47.283 align:start position:0%
Earth back then was a tumultuous and
unforgiving<00:39:48.880><c> place</c><00:39:49.760><c> with</c><00:39:50.000><c> impending</c><00:39:50.640><c> threats</c>

38:47.283 --> 38:47.293 align:start position:0%
unforgiving place with impending threats
 

38:47.293 --> 38:50.324 align:start position:0%
unforgiving place with impending threats
left,<00:39:51.520><c> right,</c><00:39:51.680><c> and</c><00:39:52.000><c> center,</c><00:39:53.040><c> and</c><00:39:53.440><c> above</c><00:39:53.920><c> and</c>

38:50.324 --> 38:50.334 align:start position:0%
left, right, and center, and above and
 

38:50.334 --> 38:53.044 align:start position:0%
left, right, and center, and above and
below,<00:39:54.560><c> for</c><00:39:54.800><c> that</c><00:39:54.960><c> matter.</c><00:39:56.079><c> While</c><00:39:56.320><c> asteroids</c>

38:53.044 --> 38:53.054 align:start position:0%
below, for that matter. While asteroids
 

38:53.054 --> 38:55.204 align:start position:0%
below, for that matter. While asteroids
smashing<00:39:57.359><c> into</c><00:39:57.599><c> the</c><00:39:57.760><c> crust</c><00:39:58.240><c> better</c><00:39:58.560><c> grab</c><00:39:58.880><c> the</c>

38:55.204 --> 38:55.214 align:start position:0%
smashing into the crust better grab the
 

38:55.214 --> 38:57.523 align:start position:0%
smashing into the crust better grab the
attention<00:39:59.359><c> of</c><00:39:59.520><c> Hollywood,</c><00:40:00.480><c> it's</c><00:40:00.800><c> under</c><00:40:01.119><c> the</c>

38:57.523 --> 38:57.533 align:start position:0%
attention of Hollywood, it's under the
 

38:57.533 --> 38:59.763 align:start position:0%
attention of Hollywood, it's under the
crust<00:40:01.760><c> where</c><00:40:02.000><c> the</c><00:40:02.240><c> real</c><00:40:02.560><c> danger</c><00:40:02.960><c> has</c><00:40:03.280><c> always</c>

38:59.763 --> 38:59.773 align:start position:0%
crust where the real danger has always
 

38:59.773 --> 39:02.164 align:start position:0%
crust where the real danger has always
been.<00:40:04.400><c> And</c><00:40:04.560><c> it's</c><00:40:04.800><c> here</c><00:40:05.040><c> that</c><00:40:05.280><c> we</c><00:40:05.520><c> will</c><00:40:05.680><c> find</c>

39:02.164 --> 39:02.174 align:start position:0%
been. And it's here that we will find
 

39:02.174 --> 39:05.044 align:start position:0%
been. And it's here that we will find
answers<00:40:06.320><c> to</c><00:40:06.640><c> what</c><00:40:06.960><c> caused</c><00:40:07.359><c> a</c><00:40:07.760><c> millionyear</c>

39:05.044 --> 39:05.054 align:start position:0%
answers to what caused a millionyear
 

39:05.054 --> 39:06.804 align:start position:0%
answers to what caused a millionyear
storm.

39:06.804 --> 39:06.814 align:start position:0%
storm.
 

39:06.814 --> 39:10.164 align:start position:0%
storm.
We<00:40:10.960><c> live</c><00:40:11.280><c> on</c><00:40:11.599><c> a</c><00:40:11.920><c> vanishingly</c><00:40:12.720><c> thin</c><00:40:13.040><c> crust</c><00:40:13.680><c> that</c>

39:10.164 --> 39:10.174 align:start position:0%
We live on a vanishingly thin crust that
 

39:10.174 --> 39:12.564 align:start position:0%
We live on a vanishingly thin crust that
is<00:40:14.160><c> so</c><00:40:14.400><c> shallow</c><00:40:15.119><c> that</c><00:40:15.359><c> if</c><00:40:15.599><c> the</c><00:40:15.839><c> Earth</c><00:40:16.160><c> was</c>

39:12.564 --> 39:12.574 align:start position:0%
is so shallow that if the Earth was
 

39:12.574 --> 39:14.324 align:start position:0%
is so shallow that if the Earth was
represented<00:40:16.960><c> by</c><00:40:17.119><c> the</c><00:40:17.359><c> entire</c><00:40:17.680><c> Lord</c><00:40:17.920><c> of</c><00:40:18.079><c> the</c>

39:14.324 --> 39:14.334 align:start position:0%
represented by the entire Lord of the
 

39:14.334 --> 39:17.124 align:start position:0%
represented by the entire Lord of the
Rings<00:40:18.560><c> book</c><00:40:18.800><c> trilogy,</c><00:40:19.760><c> the</c><00:40:20.079><c> layer</c><00:40:20.320><c> harboring</c>

39:17.124 --> 39:17.134 align:start position:0%
Rings book trilogy, the layer harboring
 

39:17.134 --> 39:19.204 align:start position:0%
Rings book trilogy, the layer harboring
all<00:40:21.280><c> the</c><00:40:21.520><c> known</c><00:40:21.760><c> life</c><00:40:22.079><c> in</c><00:40:22.320><c> the</c><00:40:22.560><c> entire</c>

39:19.204 --> 39:19.214 align:start position:0%
all the known life in the entire
 

39:19.214 --> 39:22.243 align:start position:0%
all the known life in the entire
universe<00:40:23.920><c> would</c><00:40:24.240><c> be</c><00:40:24.400><c> confined</c><00:40:24.880><c> to</c><00:40:25.119><c> just</c><00:40:25.520><c> one</c>

39:22.243 --> 39:22.253 align:start position:0%
universe would be confined to just one
 

39:22.253 --> 39:24.324 align:start position:0%
universe would be confined to just one
single<00:40:26.560><c> page.</c>

39:24.324 --> 39:24.334 align:start position:0%
single page.
 

39:24.334 --> 39:27.044 align:start position:0%
single page.
Beneath<00:40:28.960><c> hot</c><00:40:29.359><c> plumes</c><00:40:30.000><c> rise</c><00:40:30.320><c> up</c><00:40:30.480><c> from</c><00:40:30.720><c> the</c>

39:27.044 --> 39:27.054 align:start position:0%
Beneath hot plumes rise up from the
 

39:27.054 --> 39:29.924 align:start position:0%
Beneath hot plumes rise up from the
core,<00:40:31.680><c> mushrooming</c><00:40:32.320><c> as</c><00:40:32.480><c> they</c><00:40:32.720><c> rise</c><00:40:33.359><c> and</c>

39:29.924 --> 39:29.934 align:start position:0%
core, mushrooming as they rise and
 

39:29.934 --> 39:32.804 align:start position:0%
core, mushrooming as they rise and
pushing<00:40:34.400><c> molten</c><00:40:35.040><c> magma</c><00:40:35.599><c> up</c><00:40:35.839><c> against</c><00:40:36.160><c> the</c><00:40:36.320><c> thin</c>

39:32.804 --> 39:32.814 align:start position:0%
pushing molten magma up against the thin
 

39:32.814 --> 39:36.324 align:start position:0%
pushing molten magma up against the thin
crust.<00:40:37.920><c> These</c><00:40:38.320><c> huge</c><00:40:38.880><c> plumes</c><00:40:39.520><c> punch</c><00:40:39.920><c> through</c>

39:36.324 --> 39:36.334 align:start position:0%
crust. These huge plumes punch through
 

39:36.334 --> 39:38.484 align:start position:0%
crust. These huge plumes punch through
the<00:40:40.400><c> crust</c><00:40:40.800><c> wherever</c><00:40:41.200><c> they</c><00:40:41.440><c> meet</c><00:40:41.680><c> it,</c>

39:38.484 --> 39:38.494 align:start position:0%
the crust wherever they meet it,
 

39:38.494 --> 39:40.644 align:start position:0%
the crust wherever they meet it,
completely<00:40:43.040><c> ignoring</c><00:40:43.599><c> continental</c><00:40:44.160><c> fault</c>

39:40.644 --> 39:40.654 align:start position:0%
completely ignoring continental fault
 

39:40.654 --> 39:42.724 align:start position:0%
completely ignoring continental fault
lines<00:40:44.960><c> where</c><00:40:45.359><c> Earth's</c><00:40:45.760><c> modern</c><00:40:46.079><c> volcanic</c>

39:42.724 --> 39:42.734 align:start position:0%
lines where Earth's modern volcanic
 

39:42.734 --> 39:44.724 align:start position:0%
lines where Earth's modern volcanic
activity<00:40:47.040><c> is</c><00:40:47.280><c> concentrated,</c><00:40:48.079><c> like</c><00:40:48.320><c> the</c>

39:44.724 --> 39:44.734 align:start position:0%
activity is concentrated, like the
 

39:44.734 --> 39:47.844 align:start position:0%
activity is concentrated, like the
Pacific<00:40:48.960><c> Ring</c><00:40:49.200><c> of</c><00:40:49.359><c> Fire.</c><00:40:50.640><c> These</c><00:40:50.960><c> plumes</c><00:40:51.440><c> can</c>

39:47.844 --> 39:47.854 align:start position:0%
Pacific Ring of Fire. These plumes can
 

39:47.854 --> 39:51.124 align:start position:0%
Pacific Ring of Fire. These plumes can
release<00:40:52.000><c> magma</c><00:40:52.480><c> at</c><00:40:52.720><c> the</c><00:40:52.960><c> surface</c><00:40:53.440><c> for</c><00:40:53.760><c> over</c><00:40:54.400><c> 1</c>

39:51.124 --> 39:51.134 align:start position:0%
release magma at the surface for over 1
 

39:51.134 --> 39:54.404 align:start position:0%
release magma at the surface for over 1
million<00:40:55.520><c> years</c><00:40:56.400><c> in</c><00:40:56.640><c> what</c><00:40:56.800><c> are</c><00:40:57.040><c> known</c><00:40:57.280><c> as</c><00:40:57.760><c> flood</c>

39:54.404 --> 39:54.414 align:start position:0%
million years in what are known as flood
 

39:54.414 --> 39:57.763 align:start position:0%
million years in what are known as flood
bassalt<00:40:58.960><c> eruptions.</c><00:41:00.319><c> It</c><00:41:00.560><c> is</c><00:41:00.720><c> these</c><00:41:01.200><c> eruptions</c>

39:57.763 --> 39:57.773 align:start position:0%
bassalt eruptions. It is these eruptions
 

39:57.773 --> 39:59.444 align:start position:0%
bassalt eruptions. It is these eruptions
that<00:41:01.839><c> are</c><00:41:02.000><c> linked</c><00:41:02.160><c> to</c><00:41:02.319><c> the</c><00:41:02.480><c> most</c><00:41:02.720><c> incredible</c>

39:59.444 --> 39:59.454 align:start position:0%
that are linked to the most incredible
 

39:59.454 --> 40:01.763 align:start position:0%
that are linked to the most incredible
extinction<00:41:03.839><c> events</c><00:41:04.240><c> during</c><00:41:04.560><c> Earth's</c><00:41:04.960><c> history</c>

40:01.763 --> 40:01.773 align:start position:0%
extinction events during Earth's history
 

40:01.773 --> 40:03.604 align:start position:0%
extinction events during Earth's history
and<00:41:05.839><c> are</c><00:41:06.079><c> probably</c><00:41:06.400><c> the</c><00:41:06.640><c> cause</c><00:41:06.880><c> of</c><00:41:07.119><c> the</c><00:41:07.280><c> most</c>

40:03.604 --> 40:03.614 align:start position:0%
and are probably the cause of the most
 

40:03.614 --> 40:06.003 align:start position:0%
and are probably the cause of the most
destructive<00:41:08.079><c> extinction</c><00:41:08.640><c> event</c><00:41:08.880><c> in</c><00:41:09.119><c> history,</c>

40:06.003 --> 40:06.013 align:start position:0%
destructive extinction event in history,
 

40:06.013 --> 40:08.003 align:start position:0%
destructive extinction event in history,
the<00:41:10.000><c> Great</c><00:41:10.319><c> Dying,</c><00:41:11.119><c> where</c><00:41:11.440><c> ocean</c>

40:08.003 --> 40:08.013 align:start position:0%
the Great Dying, where ocean
 

40:08.013 --> 40:12.724 align:start position:0%
the Great Dying, where ocean
temperatures<00:41:12.400><c> rose</c><00:41:12.800><c> to</c><00:41:13.280><c> 40°</c><00:41:14.400><c> C.</c>

40:12.724 --> 40:12.734 align:start position:0%
temperatures rose to 40° C.
 

40:12.734 --> 40:15.444 align:start position:0%
temperatures rose to 40° C.
Despite<00:41:17.119><c> life's</c><00:41:17.599><c> ability</c><00:41:17.920><c> to</c><00:41:18.160><c> evolve,</c><00:41:18.960><c> it</c><00:41:19.119><c> is</c>

40:15.444 --> 40:15.454 align:start position:0%
Despite life's ability to evolve, it is
 

40:15.454 --> 40:19.444 align:start position:0%
Despite life's ability to evolve, it is
estimated<00:41:19.839><c> that</c><00:41:20.079><c> over</c><00:41:20.640><c> 99%</c><00:41:21.920><c> of</c><00:41:22.240><c> every</c><00:41:22.800><c> species</c>

40:19.444 --> 40:19.454 align:start position:0%
estimated that over 99% of every species
 

40:19.454 --> 40:21.523 align:start position:0%
estimated that over 99% of every species
that<00:41:23.680><c> ever</c><00:41:24.000><c> lived</c><00:41:24.319><c> on</c><00:41:24.480><c> Earth</c><00:41:24.880><c> have</c><00:41:25.119><c> gone</c>

40:21.523 --> 40:21.533 align:start position:0%
that ever lived on Earth have gone
 

40:21.533 --> 40:24.644 align:start position:0%
that ever lived on Earth have gone
extinct.<00:41:26.640><c> Of</c><00:41:26.960><c> course,</c><00:41:27.520><c> you</c><00:41:27.760><c> can't</c><00:41:28.000><c> exactly</c>

40:24.644 --> 40:24.654 align:start position:0%
extinct. Of course, you can't exactly
 

40:24.654 --> 40:26.804 align:start position:0%
extinct. Of course, you can't exactly
evolve<00:41:28.960><c> out</c><00:41:29.200><c> of</c><00:41:29.280><c> the</c><00:41:29.440><c> way</c><00:41:29.599><c> of</c><00:41:29.760><c> a</c><00:41:29.920><c> Mount</c><00:41:30.160><c> Everest</c>

40:26.804 --> 40:26.814 align:start position:0%
evolve out of the way of a Mount Everest
 

40:26.814 --> 40:30.084 align:start position:0%
evolve out of the way of a Mount Everest
sized<00:41:30.880><c> asteroid</c><00:41:31.440><c> traveling</c><00:41:31.760><c> at</c><00:41:32.000><c> 20</c><00:41:32.240><c> km/s,</c>

40:30.084 --> 40:30.094 align:start position:0%
sized asteroid traveling at 20 km/s,
 

40:30.094 --> 40:32.724 align:start position:0%
sized asteroid traveling at 20 km/s,
but<00:41:34.160><c> these</c><00:41:34.480><c> volcanic</c><00:41:35.119><c> processes,</c><00:41:36.240><c> though</c>

40:32.724 --> 40:32.734 align:start position:0%
but these volcanic processes, though
 

40:32.734 --> 40:35.604 align:start position:0%
but these volcanic processes, though
slower<00:41:36.960><c> and</c><00:41:37.280><c> far</c><00:41:37.520><c> less</c><00:41:37.760><c> dramatic,</c><00:41:38.720><c> can</c><00:41:38.960><c> cause</c>

40:35.604 --> 40:35.614 align:start position:0%
slower and far less dramatic, can cause
 

40:35.614 --> 40:38.003 align:start position:0%
slower and far less dramatic, can cause
far<00:41:39.760><c> greater</c><00:41:40.160><c> devastation</c><00:41:40.880><c> over</c><00:41:41.200><c> a</c><00:41:41.440><c> longer</c>

40:38.003 --> 40:38.013 align:start position:0%
far greater devastation over a longer
 

40:38.013 --> 40:41.763 align:start position:0%
far greater devastation over a longer
period.<00:41:43.280><c> Evidence</c><00:41:43.760><c> of</c><00:41:44.000><c> flood</c><00:41:44.319><c> volcanism</c><00:41:45.280><c> is</c>

40:41.763 --> 40:41.773 align:start position:0%
period. Evidence of flood volcanism is
 

40:41.773 --> 40:44.084 align:start position:0%
period. Evidence of flood volcanism is
scattered<00:41:46.079><c> across</c><00:41:46.400><c> the</c><00:41:46.560><c> world</c><00:41:46.800><c> today.</c><00:41:47.520><c> The</c>

40:44.084 --> 40:44.094 align:start position:0%
scattered across the world today. The
 

40:44.094 --> 40:46.084 align:start position:0%
scattered across the world today. The
eruptions<00:41:48.240><c> of</c><00:41:48.400><c> these</c><00:41:48.640><c> flood</c><00:41:48.960><c> bassults</c><00:41:49.520><c> result</c>

40:46.084 --> 40:46.094 align:start position:0%
eruptions of these flood bassults result
 

40:46.094 --> 40:48.404 align:start position:0%
eruptions of these flood bassults result
in<00:41:50.079><c> the</c><00:41:50.240><c> creation</c><00:41:50.560><c> of</c><00:41:50.880><c> huge</c><00:41:51.440><c> unmistakable</c>

40:48.404 --> 40:48.414 align:start position:0%
in the creation of huge unmistakable
 

40:48.414 --> 40:50.964 align:start position:0%
in the creation of huge unmistakable
swaths<00:41:52.720><c> of</c><00:41:52.880><c> land</c><00:41:53.440><c> like</c><00:41:53.599><c> the</c><00:41:53.760><c> Siberian</c><00:41:54.400><c> traps</c>

40:50.964 --> 40:50.974 align:start position:0%
swaths of land like the Siberian traps
 

40:50.974 --> 40:53.523 align:start position:0%
swaths of land like the Siberian traps
in<00:41:54.960><c> northern</c><00:41:55.280><c> Russia,</c><00:41:56.079><c> the</c><00:41:56.240><c> Dean</c><00:41:56.800><c> traps</c><00:41:57.119><c> in</c>

40:53.523 --> 40:53.533 align:start position:0%
in northern Russia, the Dean traps in
 

40:53.533 --> 40:56.243 align:start position:0%
in northern Russia, the Dean traps in
western<00:41:57.760><c> India,</c><00:41:58.560><c> and</c><00:41:58.720><c> the</c><00:41:58.880><c> Reangalian</c><00:41:59.680><c> large</c>

40:56.243 --> 40:56.253 align:start position:0%
western India, and the Reangalian large
 

40:56.253 --> 40:58.084 align:start position:0%
western India, and the Reangalian large
ignous<00:42:00.560><c> province</c><00:42:00.960><c> across</c><00:42:01.280><c> Canada</c><00:42:01.599><c> and</c>

40:58.084 --> 40:58.094 align:start position:0%
ignous province across Canada and
 

40:58.094 --> 41:01.044 align:start position:0%
ignous province across Canada and
Alaska.<00:42:02.960><c> They</c><00:42:03.119><c> are</c><00:42:03.280><c> all</c><00:42:03.599><c> cooled</c><00:42:04.240><c> flows</c><00:42:04.720><c> of</c>

41:01.044 --> 41:01.054 align:start position:0%
Alaska. They are all cooled flows of
 

41:01.054 --> 41:04.644 align:start position:0%
Alaska. They are all cooled flows of
bass<00:42:05.440><c> rock</c><00:42:06.000><c> kilome</c><00:42:06.560><c> deep,</c><00:42:07.200><c> making</c><00:42:07.520><c> them</c><00:42:07.839><c> over</c>

41:04.644 --> 41:04.654 align:start position:0%
bass rock kilome deep, making them over
 

41:04.654 --> 41:08.483 align:start position:0%
bass rock kilome deep, making them over
100<00:42:09.200><c> times</c><00:42:09.599><c> larger</c><00:42:10.000><c> than</c><00:42:10.319><c> super</c><00:42:10.720><c> volcanoes.</c>

41:08.483 --> 41:08.493 align:start position:0%
100 times larger than super volcanoes.
 

41:08.493 --> 41:11.044 align:start position:0%
100 times larger than super volcanoes.
When<00:42:12.560><c> we</c><00:42:12.720><c> date</c><00:42:13.040><c> these</c><00:42:13.359><c> flood</c><00:42:13.760><c> bassolds,</c><00:42:14.560><c> we</c>

41:11.044 --> 41:11.054 align:start position:0%
When we date these flood bassolds, we
 

41:11.054 --> 41:13.124 align:start position:0%
When we date these flood bassolds, we
see<00:42:15.040><c> that</c><00:42:15.359><c> many</c><00:42:15.680><c> of</c><00:42:15.760><c> these</c><00:42:16.160><c> eruptions</c><00:42:16.560><c> align</c>

41:13.124 --> 41:13.134 align:start position:0%
see that many of these eruptions align
 

41:13.134 --> 41:16.084 align:start position:0%
see that many of these eruptions align
with<00:42:17.200><c> mass</c><00:42:17.520><c> extinction</c><00:42:18.079><c> events.</c>

41:16.084 --> 41:16.094 align:start position:0%
with mass extinction events.
 

41:16.094 --> 41:18.804 align:start position:0%
with mass extinction events.
There<00:42:20.160><c> is</c><00:42:20.319><c> one</c><00:42:20.640><c> though</c><00:42:20.880><c> that</c><00:42:21.280><c> doesn't.</c><00:42:22.400><c> That</c>

41:18.804 --> 41:18.814 align:start position:0%
There is one though that doesn't. That
 

41:18.814 --> 41:21.684 align:start position:0%
There is one though that doesn't. That
is<00:42:23.119><c> our</c><00:42:23.520><c> rain</c><00:42:23.920><c> maker</c><00:42:24.240><c> event</c><00:42:24.880><c> that</c><00:42:25.200><c> triggered</c>

41:21.684 --> 41:21.694 align:start position:0%
is our rain maker event that triggered
 

41:21.694 --> 41:24.804 align:start position:0%
is our rain maker event that triggered
the<00:42:25.760><c> so-called</c><00:42:26.400><c> Carnian</c><00:42:26.960><c> Puvial</c><00:42:27.599><c> episode</c><00:42:28.160><c> or</c>

41:24.804 --> 41:24.814 align:start position:0%
the so-called Carnian Puvial episode or
 

41:24.814 --> 41:27.044 align:start position:0%
the so-called Carnian Puvial episode or
the<00:42:28.960><c> time</c><00:42:29.119><c> that</c><00:42:29.359><c> it</c><00:42:29.520><c> rained</c><00:42:29.920><c> for</c><00:42:30.160><c> over</c><00:42:30.560><c> 1</c>

41:27.044 --> 41:27.054 align:start position:0%
the time that it rained for over 1
 

41:27.054 --> 41:29.684 align:start position:0%
the time that it rained for over 1
million<00:42:31.280><c> years.</c>

41:29.684 --> 41:29.694 align:start position:0%
million years.
 

41:29.694 --> 41:31.604 align:start position:0%
million years.
It's<00:42:33.839><c> believed</c><00:42:34.079><c> that</c><00:42:34.240><c> volcanic</c><00:42:34.800><c> activity</c><00:42:35.200><c> in</c>

41:31.604 --> 41:31.614 align:start position:0%
It's believed that volcanic activity in
 

41:31.614 --> 41:33.684 align:start position:0%
It's believed that volcanic activity in
the<00:42:35.520><c> Rangelian</c><00:42:36.160><c> province</c><00:42:36.640><c> is</c><00:42:36.960><c> responsible</c>

41:33.684 --> 41:33.694 align:start position:0%
the Rangelian province is responsible
 

41:33.694 --> 41:36.164 align:start position:0%
the Rangelian province is responsible
for<00:42:37.760><c> this</c><00:42:38.000><c> remarkable</c><00:42:38.720><c> transformation</c><00:42:39.599><c> of</c><00:42:39.760><c> an</c>

41:36.164 --> 41:36.174 align:start position:0%
for this remarkable transformation of an
 

41:36.174 --> 41:38.884 align:start position:0%
for this remarkable transformation of an
arid<00:42:40.480><c> desert</c><00:42:41.040><c> into</c><00:42:41.359><c> an</c><00:42:41.599><c> oasis</c><00:42:42.560><c> that</c>

41:38.884 --> 41:38.894 align:start position:0%
arid desert into an oasis that
 

41:38.894 --> 41:42.884 align:start position:0%
arid desert into an oasis that
jumpstarted<00:42:43.359><c> the</c><00:42:43.599><c> dinosaur's</c><00:42:44.160><c> explosion.</c>

41:42.884 --> 41:42.894 align:start position:0%
jumpstarted the dinosaur's explosion.
 

41:42.894 --> 41:45.523 align:start position:0%
jumpstarted the dinosaur's explosion.
So,<00:42:47.200><c> what</c><00:42:47.520><c> separated</c><00:42:48.079><c> Rangelia's</c><00:42:48.880><c> eruption</c>

41:45.523 --> 41:45.533 align:start position:0%
So, what separated Rangelia's eruption
 

41:45.533 --> 41:49.044 align:start position:0%
So, what separated Rangelia's eruption
from<00:42:49.599><c> the</c><00:42:49.760><c> rest?</c><00:42:50.800><c> What</c><00:42:51.040><c> made</c><00:42:51.280><c> it</c><00:42:51.599><c> different?</c>

41:49.044 --> 41:49.054 align:start position:0%
from the rest? What made it different?
 

41:49.054 --> 41:52.164 align:start position:0%
from the rest? What made it different?
Well,<00:42:53.440><c> I've</c><00:42:53.760><c> got</c><00:42:53.920><c> news</c><00:42:54.160><c> for</c><00:42:54.319><c> you.</c><00:42:55.119><c> Size</c><00:42:55.599><c> does</c>

41:52.164 --> 41:52.174 align:start position:0%
Well, I've got news for you. Size does
 

41:52.174 --> 41:54.884 align:start position:0%
Well, I've got news for you. Size does
matter.<00:42:57.119><c> Although</c><00:42:57.599><c> this</c><00:42:57.839><c> was</c><00:42:58.079><c> an</c><00:42:58.240><c> extinction</c>

41:54.884 --> 41:54.894 align:start position:0%
matter. Although this was an extinction
 

41:54.894 --> 41:57.204 align:start position:0%
matter. Although this was an extinction
event<00:42:59.040><c> with</c><00:42:59.280><c> around</c><00:42:59.680><c> 30%</c><00:43:00.240><c> of</c><00:43:00.400><c> the</c><00:43:00.560><c> ocean</c>

41:57.204 --> 41:57.214 align:start position:0%
event with around 30% of the ocean
 

41:57.214 --> 42:00.084 align:start position:0%
event with around 30% of the ocean
species<00:43:01.440><c> wiped</c><00:43:01.839><c> out</c><00:43:02.000><c> during</c><00:43:02.240><c> the</c><00:43:02.480><c> CPE,</c>

42:00.084 --> 42:00.094 align:start position:0%
species wiped out during the CPE,
 

42:00.094 --> 42:02.564 align:start position:0%
species wiped out during the CPE,
Reangelia's<00:43:04.720><c> eruption</c><00:43:05.200><c> was</c><00:43:05.599><c> just</c><00:43:05.920><c> the</c><00:43:06.160><c> right</c>

42:02.564 --> 42:02.574 align:start position:0%
Reangelia's eruption was just the right
 

42:02.574 --> 42:05.444 align:start position:0%
Reangelia's eruption was just the right
size<00:43:06.800><c> to</c><00:43:07.119><c> give</c><00:43:07.359><c> life</c><00:43:07.760><c> an</c><00:43:08.079><c> overall</c><00:43:08.560><c> boost</c><00:43:08.960><c> on</c>

42:05.444 --> 42:05.454 align:start position:0%
size to give life an overall boost on
 

42:05.454 --> 42:08.164 align:start position:0%
size to give life an overall boost on
Earth.<00:43:10.640><c> So</c><00:43:10.880><c> the</c><00:43:11.119><c> reason</c><00:43:11.280><c> that</c><00:43:11.440><c> the</c><00:43:11.680><c> overall</c>

42:08.164 --> 42:08.174 align:start position:0%
Earth. So the reason that the overall
 

42:08.174 --> 42:10.884 align:start position:0%
Earth. So the reason that the overall
biodiversity<00:43:12.960><c> was</c><00:43:13.200><c> unchanged</c><00:43:14.079><c> is</c><00:43:14.400><c> because</c>

42:10.884 --> 42:10.894 align:start position:0%
biodiversity was unchanged is because
 

42:10.894 --> 42:13.523 align:start position:0%
biodiversity was unchanged is because
the<00:43:15.119><c> level</c><00:43:15.359><c> of</c><00:43:15.599><c> extinction</c><00:43:16.160><c> was</c><00:43:16.560><c> matched</c><00:43:17.119><c> by</c>

42:13.523 --> 42:13.533 align:start position:0%
the level of extinction was matched by
 

42:13.533 --> 42:16.564 align:start position:0%
the level of extinction was matched by
the<00:43:17.599><c> emergence</c><00:43:18.160><c> of</c><00:43:18.480><c> new</c><00:43:19.040><c> exciting</c><00:43:19.599><c> species</c>

42:16.564 --> 42:16.574 align:start position:0%
the emergence of new exciting species
 

42:16.574 --> 42:19.204 align:start position:0%
the emergence of new exciting species
more<00:43:20.720><c> suited</c><00:43:21.040><c> to</c><00:43:21.200><c> this</c><00:43:21.440><c> wetter</c><00:43:21.920><c> world.</c><00:43:22.800><c> What</c>

42:19.204 --> 42:19.214 align:start position:0%
more suited to this wetter world. What
 

42:19.214 --> 42:21.523 align:start position:0%
more suited to this wetter world. What
our<00:43:23.359><c> aliens</c><00:43:23.839><c> witnessed</c><00:43:24.480><c> was</c><00:43:24.800><c> less</c><00:43:25.119><c> an</c>

42:21.523 --> 42:21.533 align:start position:0%
our aliens witnessed was less an
 

42:21.533 --> 42:24.483 align:start position:0%
our aliens witnessed was less an
extinction<00:43:25.839><c> event</c><00:43:26.560><c> and</c><00:43:26.800><c> more</c><00:43:27.119><c> a</c><00:43:27.440><c> reinvention</c>

42:24.483 --> 42:24.493 align:start position:0%
extinction event and more a reinvention
 

42:24.493 --> 42:26.164 align:start position:0%
extinction event and more a reinvention
period.

42:26.164 --> 42:26.174 align:start position:0%
period.
 

42:26.174 --> 42:29.444 align:start position:0%
period.
So,<00:43:30.480><c> how</c><00:43:30.720><c> can</c><00:43:31.280><c> slow</c><00:43:31.680><c> eruption</c><00:43:32.400><c> affect</c><00:43:32.800><c> such</c><00:43:33.119><c> an</c>

42:29.444 --> 42:29.454 align:start position:0%
So, how can slow eruption affect such an
 

42:29.454 --> 42:32.483 align:start position:0%
So, how can slow eruption affect such an
incredible<00:43:34.000><c> change</c><00:43:34.319><c> to</c><00:43:34.560><c> Earth's</c><00:43:34.960><c> climate?</c><00:43:36.000><c> To</c>

42:32.483 --> 42:32.493 align:start position:0%
incredible change to Earth's climate? To
 

42:32.493 --> 42:34.084 align:start position:0%
incredible change to Earth's climate? To
understand<00:43:36.640><c> how</c><00:43:36.880><c> this</c><00:43:37.200><c> transformational</c>

42:34.084 --> 42:34.094 align:start position:0%
understand how this transformational
 

42:34.094 --> 42:36.644 align:start position:0%
understand how this transformational
event<00:43:38.319><c> shuffled</c><00:43:38.800><c> the</c><00:43:38.960><c> deck</c><00:43:39.280><c> of</c><00:43:39.440><c> life</c><00:43:39.680><c> on</c><00:43:39.920><c> Earth</c>

42:36.644 --> 42:36.654 align:start position:0%
event shuffled the deck of life on Earth
 

42:36.654 --> 42:38.724 align:start position:0%
event shuffled the deck of life on Earth
is<00:43:40.720><c> to</c><00:43:40.960><c> understand</c><00:43:41.359><c> something</c><00:43:41.680><c> that</c><00:43:42.000><c> we</c><00:43:42.319><c> are</c>

42:38.724 --> 42:38.734 align:start position:0%
is to understand something that we are
 

42:38.734 --> 42:41.124 align:start position:0%
is to understand something that we are
living<00:43:42.880><c> through</c><00:43:43.359><c> right</c><00:43:43.680><c> now,</c><00:43:44.480><c> climate</c>

42:41.124 --> 42:41.134 align:start position:0%
living through right now, climate
 

42:41.134 --> 42:42.964 align:start position:0%
living through right now, climate
change.

42:42.964 --> 42:42.974 align:start position:0%
change.
 

42:42.974 --> 42:45.364 align:start position:0%
change.
specifically<00:43:47.680><c> the</c><00:43:48.000><c> release</c><00:43:48.400><c> and</c><00:43:48.720><c> production</c>

42:45.364 --> 42:45.374 align:start position:0%
specifically the release and production
 

42:45.374 --> 42:48.164 align:start position:0%
specifically the release and production
of<00:43:49.520><c> carbon</c><00:43:49.920><c> dioxide</c><00:43:50.800><c> and</c><00:43:51.040><c> the</c><00:43:51.280><c> release</c><00:43:51.680><c> of</c>

42:48.164 --> 42:48.174 align:start position:0%
of carbon dioxide and the release of
 

42:48.174 --> 42:51.124 align:start position:0%
of carbon dioxide and the release of
stored<00:43:52.400><c> methane.</c><00:43:53.599><c> Eruptions</c><00:43:54.240><c> like</c><00:43:54.400><c> these</c>

42:51.124 --> 42:51.134 align:start position:0%
stored methane. Eruptions like these
 

42:51.134 --> 42:53.684 align:start position:0%
stored methane. Eruptions like these
directly<00:43:55.520><c> release</c><00:43:55.920><c> carbon</c><00:43:56.240><c> dioxide</c><00:43:57.040><c> already</c>

42:53.684 --> 42:53.694 align:start position:0%
directly release carbon dioxide already
 

42:53.694 --> 42:55.684 align:start position:0%
directly release carbon dioxide already
contained<00:43:57.920><c> within</c><00:43:58.240><c> the</c><00:43:58.400><c> mantle,</c><00:43:59.200><c> but</c><00:43:59.359><c> they</c>

42:55.684 --> 42:55.694 align:start position:0%
contained within the mantle, but they
 

42:55.694 --> 42:57.523 align:start position:0%
contained within the mantle, but they
can<00:43:59.680><c> trigger</c><00:44:00.000><c> its</c><00:44:00.319><c> release</c><00:44:00.720><c> from</c><00:44:01.040><c> other</c>

42:57.523 --> 42:57.533 align:start position:0%
can trigger its release from other
 

42:57.533 --> 43:00.564 align:start position:0%
can trigger its release from other
stores<00:44:01.920><c> too</c><00:44:02.720><c> from</c><00:44:02.960><c> a</c><00:44:03.200><c> source</c><00:44:03.440><c> of</c><00:44:03.599><c> carbon</c><00:44:04.160><c> I</c>

43:00.564 --> 43:00.574 align:start position:0%
stores too from a source of carbon I
 

43:00.574 --> 43:03.204 align:start position:0%
stores too from a source of carbon I
thought<00:44:04.560><c> only</c><00:44:04.880><c> humans</c><00:44:05.280><c> had</c><00:44:05.520><c> used.</c><00:44:06.400><c> Huge</c>

43:03.204 --> 43:03.214 align:start position:0%
thought only humans had used. Huge
 

43:03.214 --> 43:06.804 align:start position:0%
thought only humans had used. Huge
reservoirs<00:44:07.839><c> of</c><00:44:08.079><c> fossil</c><00:44:08.560><c> fuels.</c><00:44:09.839><c> Now,</c><00:44:10.319><c> whether</c>

43:06.804 --> 43:06.814 align:start position:0%
reservoirs of fossil fuels. Now, whether
 

43:06.814 --> 43:08.644 align:start position:0%
reservoirs of fossil fuels. Now, whether
you<00:44:10.800><c> remember</c><00:44:11.119><c> the</c><00:44:11.440><c> fire</c><00:44:11.760><c> triangle</c><00:44:12.240><c> from</c>

43:08.644 --> 43:08.654 align:start position:0%
you remember the fire triangle from
 

43:08.654 --> 43:12.404 align:start position:0%
you remember the fire triangle from
school<00:44:12.800><c> or</c><00:44:13.040><c> not,</c><00:44:13.760><c> fuel,</c><00:44:14.319><c> heat,</c><00:44:14.640><c> and</c><00:44:14.960><c> oxygen,</c><00:44:16.000><c> I</c>

43:12.404 --> 43:12.414 align:start position:0%
school or not, fuel, heat, and oxygen, I
 

43:12.414 --> 43:14.084 align:start position:0%
school or not, fuel, heat, and oxygen, I
think<00:44:16.319><c> we</c><00:44:16.560><c> can</c><00:44:16.720><c> all</c><00:44:16.960><c> appreciate</c><00:44:17.599><c> that</c>

43:14.084 --> 43:14.094 align:start position:0%
think we can all appreciate that
 

43:14.094 --> 43:18.084 align:start position:0%
think we can all appreciate that
introducing<00:44:18.800><c> 1,600°</c><00:44:20.160><c> C</c><00:44:20.640><c> magma</c><00:44:21.200><c> to</c><00:44:21.440><c> the</c><00:44:21.599><c> base</c>

43:18.084 --> 43:18.094 align:start position:0%
introducing 1,600° C magma to the base
 

43:18.094 --> 43:21.124 align:start position:0%
introducing 1,600° C magma to the base
of<00:44:22.160><c> untapped</c><00:44:22.880><c> virgin</c><00:44:23.280><c> coal</c><00:44:23.599><c> beds</c><00:44:24.319><c> is</c><00:44:24.640><c> going</c><00:44:24.800><c> to</c>

43:21.124 --> 43:21.134 align:start position:0%
of untapped virgin coal beds is going to
 

43:21.134 --> 43:23.044 align:start position:0%
of untapped virgin coal beds is going to
get<00:44:25.119><c> spicy.</c>

43:23.044 --> 43:23.054 align:start position:0%
get spicy.
 

43:23.054 --> 43:25.684 align:start position:0%
get spicy.
Burning<00:44:27.359><c> these</c><00:44:27.920><c> crude</c><00:44:28.400><c> coal</c><00:44:28.720><c> beds</c><00:44:29.040><c> would</c><00:44:29.359><c> have</c>

43:25.684 --> 43:25.694 align:start position:0%
Burning these crude coal beds would have
 

43:25.694 --> 43:27.684 align:start position:0%
Burning these crude coal beds would have
released<00:44:30.079><c> incredible</c><00:44:30.880><c> amounts</c><00:44:31.280><c> of</c>

43:27.684 --> 43:27.694 align:start position:0%
released incredible amounts of
 

43:27.694 --> 43:30.724 align:start position:0%
released incredible amounts of
particullet<00:44:32.319><c> and</c><00:44:32.640><c> greenhouse</c><00:44:33.200><c> gases,</c><00:44:34.240><c> both</c>

43:30.724 --> 43:30.734 align:start position:0%
particullet and greenhouse gases, both
 

43:30.734 --> 43:33.283 align:start position:0%
particullet and greenhouse gases, both
important<00:44:35.119><c> for</c><00:44:35.440><c> driving</c><00:44:35.920><c> cloud</c><00:44:36.240><c> formation</c>

43:33.283 --> 43:33.293 align:start position:0%
important for driving cloud formation
 

43:33.293 --> 43:35.283 align:start position:0%
important for driving cloud formation
and<00:44:37.520><c> rainfall.</c>

43:35.283 --> 43:35.293 align:start position:0%
and rainfall.
 

43:35.293 --> 43:37.283 align:start position:0%
and rainfall.
Just<00:44:39.359><c> as</c><00:44:39.520><c> we</c><00:44:39.680><c> are</c><00:44:39.839><c> seeing</c><00:44:40.160><c> today,</c><00:44:40.880><c> the</c>

43:37.283 --> 43:37.293 align:start position:0%
Just as we are seeing today, the
 

43:37.293 --> 43:39.283 align:start position:0%
Just as we are seeing today, the
increasing<00:44:41.680><c> levels</c><00:44:42.000><c> of</c><00:44:42.240><c> those</c><00:44:42.480><c> greenhouse</c>

43:39.283 --> 43:39.293 align:start position:0%
increasing levels of those greenhouse
 

43:39.293 --> 43:42.324 align:start position:0%
increasing levels of those greenhouse
gases<00:44:43.920><c> trap</c><00:44:44.240><c> more</c><00:44:44.480><c> of</c><00:44:44.640><c> the</c><00:44:44.800><c> sun's</c><00:44:45.119><c> energy.</c><00:44:45.920><c> And</c>

43:42.324 --> 43:42.334 align:start position:0%
gases trap more of the sun's energy. And
 

43:42.334 --> 43:45.364 align:start position:0%
gases trap more of the sun's energy. And
that<00:44:46.400><c> energy</c><00:44:46.880><c> has</c><00:44:47.200><c> to</c><00:44:47.359><c> go</c><00:44:47.599><c> somewhere.</c>

43:45.364 --> 43:45.374 align:start position:0%
that energy has to go somewhere.
 

43:45.374 --> 43:48.084 align:start position:0%
that energy has to go somewhere.
So<00:44:49.520><c> where</c><00:44:49.760><c> does</c><00:44:49.920><c> it</c><00:44:50.160><c> go?</c>

43:48.084 --> 43:48.094 align:start position:0%
So where does it go?
 

43:48.094 --> 43:50.084 align:start position:0%
So where does it go?
Earth<00:44:52.319><c> systems</c><00:44:52.800><c> work</c><00:44:53.040><c> to</c><00:44:53.280><c> distribute</c><00:44:53.680><c> that</c>

43:50.084 --> 43:50.094 align:start position:0%
Earth systems work to distribute that
 

43:50.094 --> 43:52.483 align:start position:0%
Earth systems work to distribute that
energy.<00:44:54.560><c> And</c><00:44:54.720><c> the</c><00:44:54.880><c> one</c><00:44:55.200><c> best</c><00:44:55.440><c> place</c><00:44:55.760><c> to</c><00:44:55.920><c> absorb</c>

43:52.483 --> 43:52.493 align:start position:0%
energy. And the one best place to absorb
 

43:52.493 --> 43:55.604 align:start position:0%
energy. And the one best place to absorb
this<00:44:56.560><c> extra</c><00:44:56.880><c> energy</c><00:44:57.200><c> is</c><00:44:57.920><c> the</c><00:44:58.240><c> water</c><00:44:58.560><c> cycle,</c>

43:55.604 --> 43:55.614 align:start position:0%
this extra energy is the water cycle,
 

43:55.614 --> 43:59.044 align:start position:0%
this extra energy is the water cycle,
which<00:44:59.760><c> becomes</c><00:45:00.720><c> supercharged.</c>

43:59.044 --> 43:59.054 align:start position:0%
which becomes supercharged.
 

43:59.054 --> 44:01.364 align:start position:0%
which becomes supercharged.
The<00:45:03.119><c> sun's</c><00:45:03.520><c> energy</c><00:45:03.839><c> is</c><00:45:04.000><c> absorbed</c><00:45:04.480><c> by</c><00:45:04.640><c> the</c><00:45:04.880><c> land</c>

44:01.364 --> 44:01.374 align:start position:0%
The sun's energy is absorbed by the land
 

44:01.374 --> 44:04.003 align:start position:0%
The sun's energy is absorbed by the land
and<00:45:05.520><c> sea,</c><00:45:06.240><c> evaporating</c><00:45:07.119><c> water</c><00:45:07.440><c> from</c><00:45:07.680><c> the</c>

44:04.003 --> 44:04.013 align:start position:0%
and sea, evaporating water from the
 

44:04.013 --> 44:06.564 align:start position:0%
and sea, evaporating water from the
surface.<00:45:08.880><c> Once</c><00:45:09.119><c> in</c><00:45:09.280><c> the</c><00:45:09.440><c> atmosphere,</c><00:45:10.160><c> the</c>

44:06.564 --> 44:06.574 align:start position:0%
surface. Once in the atmosphere, the
 

44:06.574 --> 44:08.724 align:start position:0%
surface. Once in the atmosphere, the
water<00:45:10.640><c> can</c><00:45:10.880><c> be</c><00:45:11.119><c> carried</c><00:45:11.599><c> great</c><00:45:11.920><c> distances</c>

44:08.724 --> 44:08.734 align:start position:0%
water can be carried great distances
 

44:08.734 --> 44:11.204 align:start position:0%
water can be carried great distances
before<00:45:13.040><c> precipitating</c><00:45:13.839><c> onto</c><00:45:14.240><c> land</c><00:45:14.720><c> and</c>

44:11.204 --> 44:11.214 align:start position:0%
before precipitating onto land and
 

44:11.214 --> 44:13.604 align:start position:0%
before precipitating onto land and
returning<00:45:15.440><c> to</c><00:45:15.680><c> the</c><00:45:15.839><c> sea</c><00:45:16.160><c> along</c><00:45:16.480><c> a</c><00:45:16.720><c> meandering</c>

44:13.604 --> 44:13.614 align:start position:0%
returning to the sea along a meandering
 

44:13.614 --> 44:16.243 align:start position:0%
returning to the sea along a meandering
route.<00:45:18.560><c> The</c><00:45:18.800><c> more</c><00:45:19.040><c> energy</c><00:45:19.359><c> that</c><00:45:19.599><c> is</c><00:45:19.760><c> trapped</c>

44:16.243 --> 44:16.253 align:start position:0%
route. The more energy that is trapped
 

44:16.253 --> 44:18.483 align:start position:0%
route. The more energy that is trapped
by<00:45:20.240><c> greenhouse</c><00:45:20.720><c> gases,</c><00:45:21.520><c> the</c><00:45:21.680><c> faster</c><00:45:22.079><c> the</c>

44:18.483 --> 44:18.493 align:start position:0%
by greenhouse gases, the faster the
 

44:18.493 --> 44:22.003 align:start position:0%
by greenhouse gases, the faster the
water<00:45:22.640><c> cycle</c><00:45:23.040><c> turns</c><00:45:23.359><c> over.</c><00:45:24.800><c> In</c><00:45:25.040><c> these</c><00:45:25.440><c> flood</c>

44:22.003 --> 44:22.013 align:start position:0%
water cycle turns over. In these flood
 

44:22.013 --> 44:24.644 align:start position:0%
water cycle turns over. In these flood
bassalt<00:45:26.480><c> eruptions,</c><00:45:27.119><c> we</c><00:45:27.440><c> see</c><00:45:27.599><c> an</c><00:45:27.920><c> extreme</c>

44:24.644 --> 44:24.654 align:start position:0%
bassalt eruptions, we see an extreme
 

44:24.654 --> 44:26.884 align:start position:0%
bassalt eruptions, we see an extreme
example<00:45:29.040><c> of</c><00:45:29.200><c> the</c><00:45:29.520><c> complex</c><00:45:29.920><c> interplay</c><00:45:30.400><c> of</c><00:45:30.560><c> the</c>

44:26.884 --> 44:26.894 align:start position:0%
example of the complex interplay of the
 

44:26.894 --> 44:29.604 align:start position:0%
example of the complex interplay of the
three<00:45:31.040><c> major</c><00:45:31.440><c> cycles,</c><00:45:32.319><c> the</c><00:45:32.640><c> geological,</c>

44:29.604 --> 44:29.614 align:start position:0%
three major cycles, the geological,
 

44:29.614 --> 44:31.763 align:start position:0%
three major cycles, the geological,
carbon,<00:45:33.839><c> and</c><00:45:34.000><c> water</c><00:45:34.319><c> cycle.</c><00:45:35.119><c> The</c><00:45:35.280><c> formation</c>

44:31.763 --> 44:31.773 align:start position:0%
carbon, and water cycle. The formation
 

44:31.773 --> 44:34.324 align:start position:0%
carbon, and water cycle. The formation
of<00:45:35.760><c> the</c><00:45:35.920><c> Rangelian</c><00:45:36.640><c> large</c><00:45:37.040><c> ignous</c><00:45:37.520><c> province</c>

44:34.324 --> 44:34.334 align:start position:0%
of the Rangelian large ignous province
 

44:34.334 --> 44:37.124 align:start position:0%
of the Rangelian large ignous province
would<00:45:38.480><c> have</c><00:45:38.640><c> released</c><00:45:39.119><c> huge</c><00:45:39.520><c> amounts</c><00:45:39.839><c> of</c><00:45:40.000><c> CO2.</c>

44:37.124 --> 44:37.134 align:start position:0%
would have released huge amounts of CO2.
 

44:37.134 --> 44:39.924 align:start position:0%
would have released huge amounts of CO2.
Our<00:45:41.520><c> alien</c><00:45:41.920><c> ship</c><00:45:42.480><c> detected</c><00:45:43.040><c> atmospheric</c>

44:39.924 --> 44:39.934 align:start position:0%
Our alien ship detected atmospheric
 

44:39.934 --> 44:43.124 align:start position:0%
Our alien ship detected atmospheric
levels<00:45:44.319><c> exceeding</c><00:45:45.280><c> 1,000</c><00:45:46.240><c> parts</c><00:45:46.640><c> per</c>

44:43.124 --> 44:43.134 align:start position:0%
levels exceeding 1,000 parts per
 

44:43.134 --> 44:45.684 align:start position:0%
levels exceeding 1,000 parts per
million,<00:45:47.839><c> 2</c><00:45:48.079><c> and</c><00:45:48.160><c> a</c><00:45:48.240><c> half</c><00:45:48.720><c> times</c><00:45:49.040><c> what</c><00:45:49.280><c> they</c>

44:45.684 --> 44:45.694 align:start position:0%
million, 2 and a half times what they
 

44:45.694 --> 44:48.724 align:start position:0%
million, 2 and a half times what they
are<00:45:49.680><c> today,</c><00:45:50.640><c> increasing</c><00:45:51.280><c> temperatures</c><00:45:51.760><c> by</c><00:45:52.160><c> 3</c>

44:48.724 --> 44:48.734 align:start position:0%
are today, increasing temperatures by 3
 

44:48.734 --> 44:51.044 align:start position:0%
are today, increasing temperatures by 3
to<00:45:52.800><c> 4°.</c>

44:51.044 --> 44:51.054 align:start position:0%
to 4°.
 

44:51.054 --> 44:53.684 align:start position:0%
to 4°.
This<00:45:55.440><c> supercharged</c><00:45:56.079><c> the</c><00:45:56.319><c> water</c><00:45:56.560><c> cycle,</c>

44:53.684 --> 44:53.694 align:start position:0%
This supercharged the water cycle,
 

44:53.694 --> 44:55.924 align:start position:0%
This supercharged the water cycle,
greatly<00:45:58.160><c> increasing</c><00:45:58.640><c> evaporation</c><00:45:59.200><c> and</c><00:45:59.440><c> cloud</c>

44:55.924 --> 44:55.934 align:start position:0%
greatly increasing evaporation and cloud
 

44:55.934 --> 44:58.003 align:start position:0%
greatly increasing evaporation and cloud
formation.<00:46:00.560><c> And</c><00:46:00.720><c> these</c><00:46:01.040><c> clouds</c><00:46:01.520><c> were</c>

44:58.003 --> 44:58.013 align:start position:0%
formation. And these clouds were
 

44:58.013 --> 45:00.324 align:start position:0%
formation. And these clouds were
increasingly<00:46:02.640><c> able</c><00:46:02.880><c> to</c><00:46:03.119><c> deliver</c><00:46:03.599><c> rain</c>

45:00.324 --> 45:00.334 align:start position:0%
increasingly able to deliver rain
 

45:00.334 --> 45:02.404 align:start position:0%
increasingly able to deliver rain
further<00:46:04.640><c> and</c><00:46:05.040><c> further</c><00:46:05.440><c> into</c><00:46:05.680><c> the</c><00:46:05.839><c> center</c><00:46:06.079><c> of</c>

45:02.404 --> 45:02.414 align:start position:0%
further and further into the center of
 

45:02.414 --> 45:04.084 align:start position:0%
further and further into the center of
pangia.

45:04.084 --> 45:04.094 align:start position:0%
pangia.
 

45:04.094 --> 45:06.404 align:start position:0%
pangia.
Throughout<00:46:08.480><c> this</c><00:46:08.800><c> period,</c><00:46:09.280><c> the</c><00:46:09.520><c> Earth</c><00:46:09.760><c> became</c>

45:06.404 --> 45:06.414 align:start position:0%
Throughout this period, the Earth became
 

45:06.414 --> 45:09.523 align:start position:0%
Throughout this period, the Earth became
warmer<00:46:10.800><c> and</c><00:46:11.040><c> more</c><00:46:11.200><c> humid.</c><00:46:12.079><c> A</c><00:46:12.400><c> dramatic</c><00:46:13.040><c> change</c>

45:09.523 --> 45:09.533 align:start position:0%
warmer and more humid. A dramatic change
 

45:09.533 --> 45:12.404 align:start position:0%
warmer and more humid. A dramatic change
in<00:46:13.520><c> the</c><00:46:13.760><c> climate.</c>

45:12.404 --> 45:12.414 align:start position:0%
in the climate.
 

45:12.414 --> 45:15.044 align:start position:0%
in the climate.
Species<00:46:16.720><c> that</c><00:46:16.960><c> had</c><00:46:17.200><c> adapted</c><00:46:17.680><c> to</c><00:46:17.839><c> a</c><00:46:18.160><c> particular</c>

45:15.044 --> 45:15.054 align:start position:0%
Species that had adapted to a particular
 

45:15.054 --> 45:17.763 align:start position:0%
Species that had adapted to a particular
dry<00:46:19.280><c> climate</c><00:46:19.760><c> environment</c><00:46:20.319><c> or</c><00:46:20.640><c> niche</c><00:46:21.280><c> before</c>

45:17.763 --> 45:17.773 align:start position:0%
dry climate environment or niche before
 

45:17.773 --> 45:20.243 align:start position:0%
dry climate environment or niche before
the<00:46:21.839><c> rain</c><00:46:22.400><c> were</c><00:46:22.720><c> put</c><00:46:22.960><c> under</c><00:46:23.359><c> stress</c><00:46:23.760><c> from</c>

45:20.243 --> 45:20.253 align:start position:0%
the rain were put under stress from
 

45:20.253 --> 45:23.283 align:start position:0%
the rain were put under stress from
multiple<00:46:24.640><c> fronts.</c><00:46:26.000><c> During</c><00:46:26.319><c> this</c><00:46:26.560><c> turnover</c>

45:23.283 --> 45:23.293 align:start position:0%
multiple fronts. During this turnover
 

45:23.293 --> 45:25.684 align:start position:0%
multiple fronts. During this turnover
period<00:46:27.359><c> in</c><00:46:27.599><c> Earth's</c><00:46:27.920><c> history,</c><00:46:28.720><c> our</c><00:46:28.960><c> aliens</c>

45:25.684 --> 45:25.694 align:start position:0%
period in Earth's history, our aliens
 

45:25.694 --> 45:27.924 align:start position:0%
period in Earth's history, our aliens
watched<00:46:30.000><c> as</c><00:46:30.319><c> old</c><00:46:30.560><c> niches</c><00:46:31.040><c> were</c><00:46:31.200><c> seemingly</c>

45:27.924 --> 45:27.934 align:start position:0%
watched as old niches were seemingly
 

45:27.934 --> 45:30.084 align:start position:0%
watched as old niches were seemingly
destroyed<00:46:32.640><c> as</c><00:46:32.880><c> quickly</c><00:46:33.200><c> as</c><00:46:33.359><c> the</c><00:46:33.520><c> new</c><00:46:33.680><c> ones</c>

45:30.084 --> 45:30.094 align:start position:0%
destroyed as quickly as the new ones
 

45:30.094 --> 45:32.804 align:start position:0%
destroyed as quickly as the new ones
were<00:46:34.160><c> created.</c><00:46:35.119><c> The</c><00:46:35.440><c> status</c><00:46:35.760><c> quo</c><00:46:36.319><c> was</c>

45:32.804 --> 45:32.814 align:start position:0%
were created. The status quo was
 

45:32.814 --> 45:34.564 align:start position:0%
were created. The status quo was
changing.

45:34.564 --> 45:34.574 align:start position:0%
changing.
 

45:34.574 --> 45:36.724 align:start position:0%
changing.
Not<00:46:38.640><c> only</c><00:46:38.880><c> that,</c><00:46:39.359><c> but</c><00:46:39.680><c> species</c><00:46:40.079><c> had</c><00:46:40.240><c> to</c><00:46:40.400><c> cope</c>

45:36.724 --> 45:36.734 align:start position:0%
Not only that, but species had to cope
 

45:36.734 --> 45:39.684 align:start position:0%
Not only that, but species had to cope
with<00:46:40.720><c> a</c><00:46:40.960><c> pH</c><00:46:41.440><c> shift,</c><00:46:41.839><c> too.</c><00:46:42.640><c> Carbon</c><00:46:43.040><c> dioxide</c>

45:39.684 --> 45:39.694 align:start position:0%
with a pH shift, too. Carbon dioxide
 

45:39.694 --> 45:41.283 align:start position:0%
with a pH shift, too. Carbon dioxide
wasn't<00:46:43.839><c> the</c><00:46:44.000><c> only</c><00:46:44.240><c> gas</c><00:46:44.560><c> released</c><00:46:44.880><c> by</c><00:46:45.040><c> the</c>

45:41.283 --> 45:41.293 align:start position:0%
wasn't the only gas released by the
 

45:41.293 --> 45:44.404 align:start position:0%
wasn't the only gas released by the
Rangelian<00:46:45.839><c> eruption.</c><00:46:46.720><c> Hydrogen</c><00:46:47.280><c> sulfide</c><00:46:47.760><c> gas</c>

45:44.404 --> 45:44.414 align:start position:0%
Rangelian eruption. Hydrogen sulfide gas
 

45:44.414 --> 45:46.084 align:start position:0%
Rangelian eruption. Hydrogen sulfide gas
erupted<00:46:48.560><c> into</c><00:46:48.800><c> the</c><00:46:48.880><c> atmosphere</c><00:46:49.440><c> along</c><00:46:49.760><c> with</c>

45:46.084 --> 45:46.094 align:start position:0%
erupted into the atmosphere along with
 

45:46.094 --> 45:49.763 align:start position:0%
erupted into the atmosphere along with
it.<00:46:50.960><c> This</c><00:46:51.359><c> egg</c><00:46:51.760><c> smelling</c><00:46:52.240><c> gas</c><00:46:52.880><c> reacted</c><00:46:53.359><c> with</c>

45:49.763 --> 45:49.773 align:start position:0%
it. This egg smelling gas reacted with
 

45:49.773 --> 45:53.124 align:start position:0%
it. This egg smelling gas reacted with
oxygen<00:46:54.160><c> and</c><00:46:54.480><c> water</c><00:46:54.880><c> to</c><00:46:55.119><c> form</c><00:46:55.440><c> sulfuric</c><00:46:56.079><c> acid,</c>

45:53.124 --> 45:53.134 align:start position:0%
oxygen and water to form sulfuric acid,
 

45:53.134 --> 45:55.844 align:start position:0%
oxygen and water to form sulfuric acid,
which<00:46:57.280><c> in</c><00:46:57.520><c> this</c><00:46:57.680><c> form</c><00:46:58.240><c> is</c><00:46:58.560><c> more</c><00:46:58.800><c> well</c><00:46:59.040><c> known</c><00:46:59.359><c> as</c>

45:55.844 --> 45:55.854 align:start position:0%
which in this form is more well known as
 

45:55.854 --> 45:59.684 align:start position:0%
which in this form is more well known as
acid<00:47:00.160><c> rain.</c><00:47:01.440><c> As</c><00:47:01.760><c> the</c><00:47:01.920><c> rain</c><00:47:02.240><c> fell,</c><00:47:02.880><c> the</c><00:47:03.119><c> soils</c>

45:59.684 --> 45:59.694 align:start position:0%
acid rain. As the rain fell, the soils
 

45:59.694 --> 46:02.084 align:start position:0%
acid rain. As the rain fell, the soils
and<00:47:03.760><c> oceans</c><00:47:04.240><c> became</c><00:47:04.720><c> inundated</c><00:47:05.599><c> with</c>

46:02.084 --> 46:02.094 align:start position:0%
and oceans became inundated with
 

46:02.094 --> 46:04.644 align:start position:0%
and oceans became inundated with
acidified<00:47:06.640><c> water,</c><00:47:07.440><c> which</c><00:47:07.680><c> only</c><00:47:08.000><c> further</c>

46:04.644 --> 46:04.654 align:start position:0%
acidified water, which only further
 

46:04.654 --> 46:06.884 align:start position:0%
acidified water, which only further
contributed<00:47:09.040><c> to</c><00:47:09.200><c> the</c><00:47:09.359><c> environmental</c><00:47:10.160><c> stress</c>

46:06.884 --> 46:06.894 align:start position:0%
contributed to the environmental stress
 

46:06.894 --> 46:10.483 align:start position:0%
contributed to the environmental stress
some<00:47:11.119><c> species</c><00:47:11.599><c> were</c><00:47:11.839><c> facing.</c><00:47:13.280><c> Interestingly,</c>

46:10.483 --> 46:10.493 align:start position:0%
some species were facing. Interestingly,
 

46:10.493 --> 46:12.564 align:start position:0%
some species were facing. Interestingly,
a<00:47:14.640><c> large</c><00:47:14.880><c> amount</c><00:47:15.119><c> of</c><00:47:15.280><c> amber</c><00:47:15.760><c> can</c><00:47:15.920><c> be</c><00:47:16.079><c> found</c><00:47:16.160><c> in</c>

46:12.564 --> 46:12.574 align:start position:0%
a large amount of amber can be found in
 

46:12.574 --> 46:15.124 align:start position:0%
a large amount of amber can be found in
the<00:47:16.480><c> geological</c><00:47:17.119><c> record</c><00:47:17.520><c> from</c><00:47:17.680><c> the</c><00:47:17.839><c> Carnian.</c>

46:15.124 --> 46:15.134 align:start position:0%
the geological record from the Carnian.
 

46:15.134 --> 46:17.124 align:start position:0%
the geological record from the Carnian.
Amber<00:47:19.359><c> is</c><00:47:19.520><c> a</c><00:47:19.680><c> protective</c><00:47:20.160><c> mechanism</c><00:47:20.640><c> for</c>

46:17.124 --> 46:17.134 align:start position:0%
Amber is a protective mechanism for
 

46:17.134 --> 46:19.604 align:start position:0%
Amber is a protective mechanism for
trees<00:47:21.280><c> that</c><00:47:21.520><c> they</c><00:47:21.760><c> release</c><00:47:22.160><c> when</c><00:47:22.400><c> in</c><00:47:22.560><c> peril,</c>

46:19.604 --> 46:19.614 align:start position:0%
trees that they release when in peril,
 

46:19.614 --> 46:21.604 align:start position:0%
trees that they release when in peril,
suggesting<00:47:23.920><c> that</c><00:47:24.240><c> plant</c><00:47:24.560><c> life</c><00:47:24.800><c> came</c><00:47:25.119><c> under</c>

46:21.604 --> 46:21.614 align:start position:0%
suggesting that plant life came under
 

46:21.614 --> 46:23.684 align:start position:0%
suggesting that plant life came under
significant<00:47:26.079><c> stress</c><00:47:26.480><c> during</c><00:47:26.880><c> this</c><00:47:27.119><c> period,</c>

46:23.684 --> 46:23.694 align:start position:0%
significant stress during this period,
 

46:23.694 --> 46:25.124 align:start position:0%
significant stress during this period,
too.

46:25.124 --> 46:25.134 align:start position:0%
too.
 

46:25.134 --> 46:27.924 align:start position:0%
too.
The<00:47:29.440><c> incredible</c><00:47:30.240><c> volume</c><00:47:30.640><c> of</c><00:47:30.880><c> rain</c><00:47:31.280><c> across</c><00:47:31.520><c> the</c>

46:27.924 --> 46:27.934 align:start position:0%
The incredible volume of rain across the
 

46:27.934 --> 46:30.483 align:start position:0%
The incredible volume of rain across the
superc<00:47:32.079><c> continent</c><00:47:32.800><c> resulted</c><00:47:33.200><c> in</c><00:47:33.520><c> delusions</c>

46:30.483 --> 46:30.493 align:start position:0%
superc continent resulted in delusions
 

46:30.493 --> 46:33.283 align:start position:0%
superc continent resulted in delusions
of<00:47:34.560><c> surface</c><00:47:35.040><c> runoff.</c><00:47:36.000><c> Accelerating</c><00:47:36.720><c> across</c>

46:33.283 --> 46:33.293 align:start position:0%
of surface runoff. Accelerating across
 

46:33.293 --> 46:35.444 align:start position:0%
of surface runoff. Accelerating across
and<00:47:37.440><c> through</c><00:47:37.680><c> the</c><00:47:37.839><c> arid</c><00:47:38.240><c> terrain,</c><00:47:38.960><c> these</c>

46:35.444 --> 46:35.454 align:start position:0%
and through the arid terrain, these
 

46:35.454 --> 46:38.084 align:start position:0%
and through the arid terrain, these
slightly<00:47:39.760><c> acidic</c><00:47:40.240><c> flows</c><00:47:41.040><c> eroded</c><00:47:41.359><c> the</c><00:47:41.599><c> land</c><00:47:41.760><c> as</c>

46:38.084 --> 46:38.094 align:start position:0%
slightly acidic flows eroded the land as
 

46:38.094 --> 46:40.564 align:start position:0%
slightly acidic flows eroded the land as
it<00:47:42.079><c> went.</c><00:47:43.119><c> Some</c><00:47:43.280><c> of</c><00:47:43.440><c> this</c><00:47:43.599><c> acidic</c><00:47:44.079><c> water</c>

46:40.564 --> 46:40.574 align:start position:0%
it went. Some of this acidic water
 

46:40.574 --> 46:42.964 align:start position:0%
it went. Some of this acidic water
seeped<00:47:44.800><c> into</c><00:47:45.200><c> and</c><00:47:45.520><c> eroded</c><00:47:45.920><c> small</c><00:47:46.160><c> fishes</c><00:47:46.560><c> in</c>

46:42.964 --> 46:42.974 align:start position:0%
seeped into and eroded small fishes in
 

46:42.974 --> 46:46.164 align:start position:0%
seeped into and eroded small fishes in
limestone<00:47:47.359><c> and</c><00:47:47.599><c> dolomite</c><00:47:48.160><c> rocks.</c><00:47:49.200><c> Our</c><00:47:49.520><c> aliens</c>

46:46.164 --> 46:46.174 align:start position:0%
limestone and dolomite rocks. Our aliens
 

46:46.174 --> 46:48.084 align:start position:0%
limestone and dolomite rocks. Our aliens
watched<00:47:50.480><c> as</c><00:47:50.880><c> rocks</c><00:47:51.200><c> were</c><00:47:51.440><c> literally</c>

46:48.084 --> 46:48.094 align:start position:0%
watched as rocks were literally
 

46:48.094 --> 46:50.964 align:start position:0%
watched as rocks were literally
dissolved<00:47:52.480><c> in</c><00:47:52.640><c> front</c><00:47:52.800><c> of</c><00:47:52.960><c> their</c><00:47:53.200><c> eyes.</c><00:47:54.400><c> Over</c>

46:50.964 --> 46:50.974 align:start position:0%
dissolved in front of their eyes. Over
 

46:50.974 --> 46:53.283 align:start position:0%
dissolved in front of their eyes. Over
time,<00:47:55.440><c> elaborate</c><00:47:56.000><c> new</c><00:47:56.240><c> cave</c><00:47:56.560><c> systems</c><00:47:56.960><c> were</c>

46:53.283 --> 46:53.293 align:start position:0%
time, elaborate new cave systems were
 

46:53.293 --> 46:56.003 align:start position:0%
time, elaborate new cave systems were
formed,<00:47:57.760><c> like</c><00:47:58.079><c> Britain's</c><00:47:58.640><c> Jurassic</c><00:47:59.200><c> caves</c>

46:56.003 --> 46:56.013 align:start position:0%
formed, like Britain's Jurassic caves
 

46:56.013 --> 46:58.644 align:start position:0%
formed, like Britain's Jurassic caves
carved<00:48:00.240><c> from</c><00:48:00.480><c> carboniferous</c><00:48:01.280><c> limestone,</c>

46:58.644 --> 46:58.654 align:start position:0%
carved from carboniferous limestone,
 

46:58.654 --> 47:01.204 align:start position:0%
carved from carboniferous limestone,
which<00:48:02.800><c> provided</c><00:48:03.359><c> yet</c><00:48:03.760><c> more</c><00:48:04.079><c> unique</c><00:48:04.480><c> habitats</c>

47:01.204 --> 47:01.214 align:start position:0%
which provided yet more unique habitats
 

47:01.214 --> 47:03.763 align:start position:0%
which provided yet more unique habitats
for<00:48:05.200><c> life</c><00:48:05.440><c> to</c><00:48:05.599><c> exploit.</c>

47:03.763 --> 47:03.773 align:start position:0%
for life to exploit.
 

47:03.773 --> 47:06.084 align:start position:0%
for life to exploit.
Eventually,<00:48:08.240><c> the</c><00:48:08.400><c> flow</c><00:48:08.720><c> reached</c><00:48:09.040><c> the</c><00:48:09.200><c> sea,</c>

47:06.084 --> 47:06.094 align:start position:0%
Eventually, the flow reached the sea,
 

47:06.094 --> 47:08.084 align:start position:0%
Eventually, the flow reached the sea,
carrying<00:48:10.319><c> the</c><00:48:10.560><c> eroded</c><00:48:10.960><c> rocks</c><00:48:11.280><c> and</c><00:48:11.520><c> minerals</c>

47:08.084 --> 47:08.094 align:start position:0%
carrying the eroded rocks and minerals
 

47:08.094 --> 47:10.564 align:start position:0%
carrying the eroded rocks and minerals
into<00:48:12.240><c> the</c><00:48:12.400><c> ocean,</c><00:48:13.359><c> further</c><00:48:13.760><c> nudging</c><00:48:14.160><c> the</c>

47:10.564 --> 47:10.574 align:start position:0%
into the ocean, further nudging the
 

47:10.574 --> 47:14.324 align:start position:0%
into the ocean, further nudging the
coastal<00:48:14.800><c> ecosystems</c><00:48:15.520><c> into</c><00:48:15.839><c> new</c><00:48:16.079><c> territory.</c>

47:14.324 --> 47:14.334 align:start position:0%
coastal ecosystems into new territory.
 

47:14.334 --> 47:16.564 align:start position:0%
coastal ecosystems into new territory.
The<00:48:18.480><c> ocean</c><00:48:18.800><c> species</c><00:48:19.359><c> were</c><00:48:19.760><c> particularly</c>

47:16.564 --> 47:16.574 align:start position:0%
The ocean species were particularly
 

47:16.574 --> 47:20.243 align:start position:0%
The ocean species were particularly
hard-hit<00:48:21.280><c> and</c><00:48:21.520><c> large</c><00:48:21.839><c> areas</c><00:48:22.319><c> became</c><00:48:22.880><c> anoxic,</c>

47:20.243 --> 47:20.253 align:start position:0%
hard-hit and large areas became anoxic,
 

47:20.253 --> 47:23.044 align:start position:0%
hard-hit and large areas became anoxic,
meaning<00:48:24.400><c> they</c><00:48:24.640><c> lacked</c><00:48:24.960><c> oxygen</c><00:48:26.000><c> and</c><00:48:26.480><c> highly</c>

47:23.044 --> 47:23.054 align:start position:0%
meaning they lacked oxygen and highly
 

47:23.054 --> 47:25.523 align:start position:0%
meaning they lacked oxygen and highly
acidified,<00:48:28.000><c> which</c><00:48:28.319><c> was</c><00:48:28.480><c> not</c><00:48:28.800><c> suitable</c><00:48:29.119><c> for</c>

47:25.523 --> 47:25.533 align:start position:0%
acidified, which was not suitable for
 

47:25.533 --> 47:27.444 align:start position:0%
acidified, which was not suitable for
the<00:48:29.520><c> existing</c><00:48:29.920><c> ecosystems</c><00:48:30.559><c> that</c><00:48:30.800><c> inhabit</c>

47:27.444 --> 47:27.454 align:start position:0%
the existing ecosystems that inhabit
 

47:27.454 --> 47:30.804 align:start position:0%
the existing ecosystems that inhabit
those<00:48:31.520><c> areas.</c><00:48:32.640><c> Species</c><00:48:33.119><c> like</c><00:48:33.440><c> konodons,</c>

47:30.804 --> 47:30.814 align:start position:0%
those areas. Species like konodons,
 

47:30.814 --> 47:34.084 align:start position:0%
those areas. Species like konodons,
ammonoids,<00:48:35.839><c> kryinoids,</c><00:48:36.880><c> and</c><00:48:37.119><c> green</c><00:48:37.440><c> algae</c>

47:34.084 --> 47:34.094 align:start position:0%
ammonoids, kryinoids, and green algae
 

47:34.094 --> 47:36.243 align:start position:0%
ammonoids, kryinoids, and green algae
suffered<00:48:38.480><c> particularly</c><00:48:39.200><c> high</c><00:48:39.520><c> extinction</c>

47:36.243 --> 47:36.253 align:start position:0%
suffered particularly high extinction
 

47:36.253 --> 47:39.283 align:start position:0%
suffered particularly high extinction
rates<00:48:40.400><c> during</c><00:48:40.720><c> the</c><00:48:40.960><c> CPE,</c><00:48:42.160><c> as</c><00:48:42.400><c> did</c><00:48:42.720><c> reef</c>

47:39.283 --> 47:39.293 align:start position:0%
rates during the CPE, as did reef
 

47:39.293 --> 47:42.324 align:start position:0%
rates during the CPE, as did reef
builders.<00:48:44.079><c> While</c><00:48:44.400><c> dinoflagillates,</c><00:48:45.760><c> a</c>

47:42.324 --> 47:42.334 align:start position:0%
builders. While dinoflagillates, a
 

47:42.334 --> 47:45.044 align:start position:0%
builders. While dinoflagillates, a
constituent<00:48:46.880><c> of</c><00:48:47.119><c> today's</c><00:48:47.520><c> ocean</c><00:48:47.839><c> plankton,</c>

47:45.044 --> 47:45.054 align:start position:0%
constituent of today's ocean plankton,
 

47:45.054 --> 47:47.844 align:start position:0%
constituent of today's ocean plankton,
thrived.

47:47.844 --> 47:47.854 align:start position:0%
thrived.
 

47:47.854 --> 47:49.924 align:start position:0%
thrived.
On<00:48:51.920><c> their</c><00:48:52.160><c> ship,</c><00:48:52.480><c> the</c><00:48:52.720><c> aliens</c><00:48:53.119><c> moan</c><00:48:53.520><c> in</c>

47:49.924 --> 47:49.934 align:start position:0%
On their ship, the aliens moan in
 

47:49.934 --> 47:52.404 align:start position:0%
On their ship, the aliens moan in
disbelief<00:48:54.400><c> every</c><00:48:54.720><c> time</c><00:48:54.960><c> the</c><00:48:55.200><c> ship's</c><00:48:55.599><c> computer</c>

47:52.404 --> 47:52.414 align:start position:0%
disbelief every time the ship's computer
 

47:52.414 --> 47:55.684 align:start position:0%
disbelief every time the ship's computer
forecasts<00:48:56.960><c> ongoing</c><00:48:57.599><c> miserable</c><00:48:58.160><c> weather.</c><00:48:59.200><c> But</c>

47:55.684 --> 47:55.694 align:start position:0%
forecasts ongoing miserable weather. But
 

47:55.694 --> 47:57.924 align:start position:0%
forecasts ongoing miserable weather. But
back<00:48:59.760><c> on</c><00:49:00.000><c> land,</c><00:49:00.640><c> one</c><00:49:00.800><c> of</c><00:49:00.880><c> the</c><00:49:01.119><c> oldest</c><00:49:01.520><c> known</c>

47:57.924 --> 47:57.934 align:start position:0%
back on land, one of the oldest known
 

47:57.934 --> 48:01.204 align:start position:0%
back on land, one of the oldest known
dinosaurs,<00:49:02.960><c> Herrerasaurus,</c><00:49:04.400><c> was</c><00:49:04.640><c> braving</c>

48:01.204 --> 48:01.214 align:start position:0%
dinosaurs, Herrerasaurus, was braving
 

48:01.214 --> 48:04.644 align:start position:0%
dinosaurs, Herrerasaurus, was braving
the<00:49:05.280><c> elements</c><00:49:05.839><c> and</c><00:49:06.079><c> roaming</c><00:49:06.559><c> the</c><00:49:06.800><c> earth.</c><00:49:08.079><c> Some</c>

48:04.644 --> 48:04.654 align:start position:0%
the elements and roaming the earth. Some
 

48:04.654 --> 48:07.364 align:start position:0%
the elements and roaming the earth. Some
6<00:49:08.800><c> m</c><00:49:09.119><c> in</c><00:49:09.280><c> length</c><00:49:09.599><c> and</c><00:49:09.839><c> weighing</c><00:49:10.160><c> more</c><00:49:10.319><c> than</c><00:49:10.640><c> 300</c>

48:07.364 --> 48:07.374 align:start position:0%
6 m in length and weighing more than 300
 

48:07.374 --> 48:10.324 align:start position:0%
6 m in length and weighing more than 300
kg,<00:49:12.240><c> it</c><00:49:12.480><c> was</c><00:49:12.640><c> an</c><00:49:12.880><c> outlier.</c><00:49:13.520><c> Prior</c><00:49:13.839><c> to</c><00:49:13.920><c> the</c>

48:10.324 --> 48:10.334 align:start position:0%
kg, it was an outlier. Prior to the
 

48:10.334 --> 48:12.564 align:start position:0%
kg, it was an outlier. Prior to the
Carnean<00:49:14.640><c> Pluvial</c><00:49:15.200><c> episode,</c><00:49:15.680><c> when</c><00:49:16.000><c> smaller</c>

48:12.564 --> 48:12.574 align:start position:0%
Carnean Pluvial episode, when smaller
 

48:12.574 --> 48:14.324 align:start position:0%
Carnean Pluvial episode, when smaller
reptiles<00:49:16.880><c> and</c><00:49:17.040><c> mammals</c><00:49:17.440><c> were</c><00:49:17.680><c> far</c><00:49:17.920><c> more</c>

48:14.324 --> 48:14.334 align:start position:0%
reptiles and mammals were far more
 

48:14.334 --> 48:17.604 align:start position:0%
reptiles and mammals were far more
numerous,<00:49:19.200><c> its</c><00:49:19.520><c> home</c><00:49:19.839><c> was</c><00:49:20.079><c> the</c><00:49:20.400><c> Ishiasto</c>

48:17.604 --> 48:17.614 align:start position:0%
numerous, its home was the Ishiasto
 

48:17.614 --> 48:20.003 align:start position:0%
numerous, its home was the Ishiasto
Formation,<00:49:22.400><c> a</c><00:49:22.640><c> volcanic</c><00:49:23.119><c> flood</c><00:49:23.440><c> plane</c>

48:20.003 --> 48:20.013 align:start position:0%
Formation, a volcanic flood plane
 

48:20.013 --> 48:22.483 align:start position:0%
Formation, a volcanic flood plane
defined<00:49:24.240><c> by</c><00:49:24.480><c> its</c><00:49:24.720><c> dense</c><00:49:25.040><c> jungle</c><00:49:25.520><c> in</c><00:49:25.760><c> what</c><00:49:26.000><c> is</c>

48:22.483 --> 48:22.493 align:start position:0%
defined by its dense jungle in what is
 

48:22.493 --> 48:25.444 align:start position:0%
defined by its dense jungle in what is
South<00:49:26.640><c> America</c><00:49:27.040><c> today,</c><00:49:27.920><c> a</c><00:49:28.240><c> warm</c><00:49:28.559><c> and</c><00:49:28.800><c> humid</c>

48:25.444 --> 48:25.454 align:start position:0%
South America today, a warm and humid
 

48:25.454 --> 48:28.084 align:start position:0%
South America today, a warm and humid
environment,<00:49:30.000><c> which</c><00:49:30.240><c> the</c><00:49:30.559><c> Herrerasaurus</c><00:49:31.599><c> was</c>

48:28.084 --> 48:28.094 align:start position:0%
environment, which the Herrerasaurus was
 

48:28.094 --> 48:30.723 align:start position:0%
environment, which the Herrerasaurus was
well<00:49:32.240><c> adapted</c><00:49:32.720><c> to.</c>

48:30.723 --> 48:30.733 align:start position:0%
well adapted to.
 

48:30.733 --> 48:33.763 align:start position:0%
well adapted to.
So<00:49:34.960><c> when</c><00:49:35.200><c> the</c><00:49:35.359><c> rains</c><00:49:35.760><c> began</c><00:49:36.000><c> to</c><00:49:36.240><c> fall,</c><00:49:36.960><c> it</c><00:49:37.280><c> won</c>

48:33.763 --> 48:33.773 align:start position:0%
So when the rains began to fall, it won
 

48:33.773 --> 48:36.804 align:start position:0%
So when the rains began to fall, it won
the<00:49:37.920><c> geological</c><00:49:38.800><c> lottery</c><00:49:39.520><c> as</c><00:49:39.760><c> its</c><00:49:40.000><c> habitat</c>

48:36.804 --> 48:36.814 align:start position:0%
the geological lottery as its habitat
 

48:36.814 --> 48:40.003 align:start position:0%
the geological lottery as its habitat
spread<00:49:41.119><c> across</c><00:49:41.599><c> Pangia.</c><00:49:42.960><c> Advancing</c><00:49:43.440><c> deeper</c>

48:40.003 --> 48:40.013 align:start position:0%
spread across Pangia. Advancing deeper
 

48:40.013 --> 48:42.164 align:start position:0%
spread across Pangia. Advancing deeper
into<00:49:44.079><c> the</c><00:49:44.240><c> continent,</c><00:49:44.880><c> Herrerasaurus</c><00:49:45.760><c> was</c>

48:42.164 --> 48:42.174 align:start position:0%
into the continent, Herrerasaurus was
 

48:42.174 --> 48:45.523 align:start position:0%
into the continent, Herrerasaurus was
greeted<00:49:46.480><c> with</c><00:49:47.040><c> literal</c><00:49:47.599><c> oases,</c>

48:45.523 --> 48:45.533 align:start position:0%
greeted with literal oases,
 

48:45.533 --> 48:47.684 align:start position:0%
greeted with literal oases,
untouched<00:49:50.079><c> habitat</c><00:49:50.880><c> that</c><00:49:51.119><c> with</c><00:49:51.359><c> the</c>

48:47.684 --> 48:47.694 align:start position:0%
untouched habitat that with the
 

48:47.694 --> 48:49.364 align:start position:0%
untouched habitat that with the
extinction<00:49:51.920><c> of</c><00:49:52.079><c> herbivores</c><00:49:52.800><c> and</c><00:49:52.960><c> other</c>

48:49.364 --> 48:49.374 align:start position:0%
extinction of herbivores and other
 

48:49.374 --> 48:52.084 align:start position:0%
extinction of herbivores and other
competition<00:49:54.160><c> meant</c><00:49:54.480><c> it</c><00:49:54.720><c> was</c><00:49:54.960><c> to</c><00:49:55.119><c> be</c><00:49:55.280><c> a</c><00:49:55.520><c> boom</c>

48:52.084 --> 48:52.094 align:start position:0%
competition meant it was to be a boom
 

48:52.094 --> 48:54.243 align:start position:0%
competition meant it was to be a boom
time<00:49:56.160><c> for</c><00:49:56.319><c> the</c><00:49:56.559><c> Herrerasaurus</c><00:49:57.440><c> and</c><00:49:57.680><c> similar</c>

48:54.243 --> 48:54.253 align:start position:0%
time for the Herrerasaurus and similar
 

48:54.253 --> 48:57.124 align:start position:0%
time for the Herrerasaurus and similar
dinosaurs.<00:49:59.520><c> We</c><00:49:59.760><c> can</c><00:49:59.920><c> only</c><00:50:00.240><c> imagine</c><00:50:00.720><c> the</c>

48:57.124 --> 48:57.134 align:start position:0%
dinosaurs. We can only imagine the
 

48:57.134 --> 48:58.964 align:start position:0%
dinosaurs. We can only imagine the
variety<00:50:01.359><c> and</c><00:50:01.599><c> richness</c><00:50:02.079><c> of</c><00:50:02.240><c> habitat</c>

48:58.964 --> 48:58.974 align:start position:0%
variety and richness of habitat
 

48:58.974 --> 49:00.804 align:start position:0%
variety and richness of habitat
available<00:50:03.280><c> for</c><00:50:03.599><c> all</c><00:50:03.839><c> these</c><00:50:04.160><c> wandering</c>

49:00.804 --> 49:00.814 align:start position:0%
available for all these wandering
 

49:00.814 --> 49:03.124 align:start position:0%
available for all these wandering
species<00:50:05.280><c> to</c><00:50:05.440><c> find</c><00:50:05.760><c> and</c><00:50:06.000><c> exploit</c><00:50:06.640><c> and</c>

49:03.124 --> 49:03.134 align:start position:0%
species to find and exploit and
 

49:03.134 --> 49:06.243 align:start position:0%
species to find and exploit and
co-evolve<00:50:07.520><c> with</c><00:50:07.839><c> over</c><00:50:08.160><c> time.</c>

49:06.243 --> 49:06.253 align:start position:0%
co-evolve with over time.
 

49:06.253 --> 49:08.324 align:start position:0%
co-evolve with over time.
Further<00:50:10.480><c> away</c><00:50:10.800><c> in</c><00:50:10.960><c> the</c><00:50:11.119><c> Doommites,</c><00:50:12.000><c> the</c>

49:08.324 --> 49:08.334 align:start position:0%
Further away in the Doommites, the
 

49:08.334 --> 49:10.644 align:start position:0%
Further away in the Doommites, the
aliens<00:50:12.640><c> see</c><00:50:12.960><c> herds</c><00:50:13.280><c> of</c><00:50:13.520><c> large</c><00:50:13.839><c> dinosaur</c>

49:10.644 --> 49:10.654 align:start position:0%
aliens see herds of large dinosaur
 

49:10.654 --> 49:12.964 align:start position:0%
aliens see herds of large dinosaur
creatures<00:50:14.960><c> roaming</c><00:50:15.359><c> the</c><00:50:15.520><c> plains,</c><00:50:16.400><c> and</c><00:50:16.559><c> their</c>

49:12.964 --> 49:12.974 align:start position:0%
creatures roaming the plains, and their
 

49:12.974 --> 49:15.204 align:start position:0%
creatures roaming the plains, and their
wandering<00:50:17.280><c> footsteps</c><00:50:18.000><c> have</c><00:50:18.240><c> been</c><00:50:18.480><c> recorded</c>

49:15.204 --> 49:15.214 align:start position:0%
wandering footsteps have been recorded
 

49:15.214 --> 49:18.483 align:start position:0%
wandering footsteps have been recorded
deep<00:50:19.359><c> in</c><00:50:19.599><c> the</c><00:50:19.760><c> rock.</c><00:50:20.800><c> Across</c><00:50:21.200><c> a</c><00:50:21.520><c> 3</c><00:50:21.839><c> to</c><00:50:22.079><c> 4</c>

49:18.483 --> 49:18.493 align:start position:0%
deep in the rock. Across a 3 to 4
 

49:18.493 --> 49:20.483 align:start position:0%
deep in the rock. Across a 3 to 4
million-year<00:50:22.960><c> period,</c><00:50:23.680><c> spanning</c><00:50:24.079><c> the</c>

49:20.483 --> 49:20.493 align:start position:0%
million-year period, spanning the
 

49:20.493 --> 49:23.444 align:start position:0%
million-year period, spanning the
Carnean<00:50:24.800><c> Pluvial</c><00:50:25.359><c> episode,</c><00:50:26.400><c> dinosaurs</c><00:50:27.040><c> went</c>

49:23.444 --> 49:23.454 align:start position:0%
Carnean Pluvial episode, dinosaurs went
 

49:23.454 --> 49:25.124 align:start position:0%
Carnean Pluvial episode, dinosaurs went
from<00:50:27.520><c> not</c><00:50:27.760><c> featuring</c><00:50:28.240><c> at</c><00:50:28.400><c> all</c><00:50:28.640><c> in</c><00:50:28.800><c> the</c>

49:25.124 --> 49:25.134 align:start position:0%
from not featuring at all in the
 

49:25.134 --> 49:27.844 align:start position:0%
from not featuring at all in the
fossilized<00:50:29.520><c> footprints</c><00:50:30.400><c> to</c><00:50:30.720><c> ecological</c>

49:27.844 --> 49:27.854 align:start position:0%
fossilized footprints to ecological
 

49:27.854 --> 49:30.964 align:start position:0%
fossilized footprints to ecological
dominance,<00:50:32.800><c> making</c><00:50:33.119><c> up</c><00:50:33.359><c> over</c><00:50:33.760><c> 90%</c><00:50:34.559><c> of</c>

49:30.964 --> 49:30.974 align:start position:0%
dominance, making up over 90% of
 

49:30.974 --> 49:33.844 align:start position:0%
dominance, making up over 90% of
fossilized<00:50:35.440><c> imprints.</c><00:50:36.720><c> A</c><00:50:37.040><c> remarkable</c>

49:33.844 --> 49:33.854 align:start position:0%
fossilized imprints. A remarkable
 

49:33.854 --> 49:35.844 align:start position:0%
fossilized imprints. A remarkable
takeover<00:50:38.319><c> that</c><00:50:38.559><c> agrees</c><00:50:38.960><c> with</c><00:50:39.119><c> other</c><00:50:39.359><c> records</c>

49:35.844 --> 49:35.854 align:start position:0%
takeover that agrees with other records
 

49:35.854 --> 49:37.604 align:start position:0%
takeover that agrees with other records
in<00:50:39.920><c> other</c><00:50:40.079><c> parts</c><00:50:40.240><c> of</c><00:50:40.400><c> Pangia</c><00:50:40.960><c> during</c><00:50:41.280><c> this</c>

49:37.604 --> 49:37.614 align:start position:0%
in other parts of Pangia during this
 

49:37.614 --> 49:39.924 align:start position:0%
in other parts of Pangia during this
time<00:50:41.680><c> period,</c><00:50:42.480><c> notably</c><00:50:43.119><c> the</c><00:50:43.359><c> central</c>

49:39.924 --> 49:39.934 align:start position:0%
time period, notably the central
 

49:39.934 --> 49:42.564 align:start position:0%
time period, notably the central
European<00:50:44.319><c> formation</c><00:50:45.119><c> and</c><00:50:45.359><c> the</c><00:50:45.599><c> Chiguasto</c>

49:42.564 --> 49:42.574 align:start position:0%
European formation and the Chiguasto
 

49:42.574 --> 49:46.404 align:start position:0%
European formation and the Chiguasto
basin<00:50:46.800><c> in</c><00:50:46.960><c> Argentina.</c>

49:46.404 --> 49:46.414 align:start position:0%
 
 

49:46.414 --> 49:49.204 align:start position:0%
 
The<00:50:50.559><c> 2</c><00:50:51.119><c> millionyear</c><00:50:51.920><c> period</c><00:50:52.400><c> spanning</c><00:50:52.800><c> the</c>

49:49.204 --> 49:49.214 align:start position:0%
The 2 millionyear period spanning the
 

49:49.214 --> 49:52.084 align:start position:0%
The 2 millionyear period spanning the
Carnean<00:50:53.520><c> Pluvial</c><00:50:54.000><c> event</c><00:50:54.720><c> left</c><00:50:54.960><c> its</c><00:50:55.200><c> mark</c><00:50:55.599><c> in</c>

49:52.084 --> 49:52.094 align:start position:0%
Carnean Pluvial event left its mark in
 

49:52.094 --> 49:54.804 align:start position:0%
Carnean Pluvial event left its mark in
indelible<00:50:56.640><c> ways,</c><00:50:57.440><c> forever</c><00:50:57.920><c> changing</c><00:50:58.400><c> the</c>

49:54.804 --> 49:54.814 align:start position:0%
indelible ways, forever changing the
 

49:54.814 --> 49:57.204 align:start position:0%
indelible ways, forever changing the
trajectory<00:50:59.119><c> of</c><00:50:59.359><c> life</c><00:50:59.680><c> on</c><00:50:59.920><c> Earth,</c><00:51:00.559><c> as</c><00:51:00.800><c> well</c><00:51:00.880><c> as</c>

49:57.204 --> 49:57.214 align:start position:0%
trajectory of life on Earth, as well as
 

49:57.214 --> 49:59.204 align:start position:0%
trajectory of life on Earth, as well as
the<00:51:01.280><c> passage</c><00:51:01.599><c> of</c><00:51:01.839><c> water</c><00:51:02.160><c> across</c><00:51:02.559><c> and</c><00:51:02.800><c> through</c>

49:59.204 --> 49:59.214 align:start position:0%
the passage of water across and through
 

49:59.214 --> 50:02.884 align:start position:0%
the passage of water across and through
its<00:51:03.280><c> surface.</c><00:51:04.559><c> The</c><00:51:04.800><c> mega</c><00:51:05.359><c> monsunal</c><00:51:06.079><c> climate</c>

50:02.884 --> 50:02.894 align:start position:0%
its surface. The mega monsunal climate
 

50:02.894 --> 50:05.684 align:start position:0%
its surface. The mega monsunal climate
featured<00:51:07.200><c> four</c><00:51:07.520><c> distinct</c><00:51:08.000><c> downpours,</c><00:51:09.119><c> each</c>

50:05.684 --> 50:05.694 align:start position:0%
featured four distinct downpours, each
 

50:05.694 --> 50:08.003 align:start position:0%
featured four distinct downpours, each
carving<00:51:09.920><c> a</c><00:51:10.079><c> trace</c><00:51:10.480><c> through</c><00:51:10.720><c> the</c><00:51:10.880><c> landscape,</c>

50:08.003 --> 50:08.013 align:start position:0%
carving a trace through the landscape,
 

50:08.013 --> 50:10.003 align:start position:0%
carving a trace through the landscape,
making<00:51:12.160><c> the</c><00:51:12.480><c> biblical</c><00:51:12.960><c> storm</c><00:51:13.200><c> that</c><00:51:13.440><c> remade</c>

50:10.003 --> 50:10.013 align:start position:0%
making the biblical storm that remade
 

50:10.013 --> 50:12.324 align:start position:0%
making the biblical storm that remade
the<00:51:14.000><c> earth</c><00:51:14.240><c> in</c><00:51:14.480><c> 40</c><00:51:14.800><c> days</c><00:51:15.040><c> and</c><00:51:15.200><c> nights</c><00:51:15.920><c> look</c>

50:12.324 --> 50:12.334 align:start position:0%
the earth in 40 days and nights look
 

50:12.334 --> 50:14.404 align:start position:0%
the earth in 40 days and nights look
more<00:51:16.400><c> like</c><00:51:16.559><c> a</c><00:51:16.800><c> typical</c><00:51:17.200><c> British</c><00:51:17.599><c> summer</c><00:51:18.000><c> in</c>

50:14.404 --> 50:14.414 align:start position:0%
more like a typical British summer in
 

50:14.414 --> 50:17.604 align:start position:0%
more like a typical British summer in
comparison.<00:51:19.440><c> But</c><00:51:19.680><c> the</c><00:51:19.920><c> fifth</c><00:51:20.319><c> period</c><00:51:20.640><c> of</c><00:51:20.800><c> rain</c>

50:17.604 --> 50:17.614 align:start position:0%
comparison. But the fifth period of rain
 

50:17.614 --> 50:20.564 align:start position:0%
comparison. But the fifth period of rain
never<00:51:21.760><c> came.</c><00:51:22.720><c> Once</c><00:51:23.040><c> the</c><00:51:23.200><c> Rangelian</c><00:51:23.920><c> eruption</c>

50:20.564 --> 50:20.574 align:start position:0%
never came. Once the Rangelian eruption
 

50:20.574 --> 50:22.964 align:start position:0%
never came. Once the Rangelian eruption
finally<00:51:24.960><c> slowed,</c><00:51:25.920><c> the</c><00:51:26.160><c> emission</c><00:51:26.559><c> of</c>

50:22.964 --> 50:22.974 align:start position:0%
finally slowed, the emission of
 

50:22.974 --> 50:25.604 align:start position:0%
finally slowed, the emission of
greenhouse<00:51:27.359><c> and</c><00:51:27.680><c> acid</c><00:51:28.079><c> forming</c><00:51:28.400><c> gases</c><00:51:28.800><c> slowed</c>

50:25.604 --> 50:25.614 align:start position:0%
greenhouse and acid forming gases slowed
 

50:25.614 --> 50:27.523 align:start position:0%
greenhouse and acid forming gases slowed
and<00:51:29.680><c> it</c><00:51:29.839><c> is</c><00:51:30.000><c> likely</c><00:51:30.319><c> that</c><00:51:30.559><c> levels</c><00:51:30.880><c> of</c><00:51:31.040><c> carbon</c>

50:27.523 --> 50:27.533 align:start position:0%
and it is likely that levels of carbon
 

50:27.533 --> 50:30.084 align:start position:0%
and it is likely that levels of carbon
dioxide<00:51:32.000><c> fell</c><00:51:32.480><c> as</c><00:51:32.720><c> it</c><00:51:32.960><c> was</c><00:51:33.119><c> consumed</c><00:51:33.520><c> by</c><00:51:33.680><c> the</c>

50:30.084 --> 50:30.094 align:start position:0%
dioxide fell as it was consumed by the
 

50:30.094 --> 50:32.723 align:start position:0%
dioxide fell as it was consumed by the
rich<00:51:34.240><c> flora</c><00:51:34.720><c> that</c><00:51:34.880><c> covered</c><00:51:35.200><c> Pangia.</c><00:51:36.240><c> Some</c><00:51:36.400><c> of</c>

50:32.723 --> 50:32.733 align:start position:0%
rich flora that covered Pangia. Some of
 

50:32.733 --> 50:35.283 align:start position:0%
rich flora that covered Pangia. Some of
which<00:51:36.880><c> would</c><00:51:37.119><c> again</c><00:51:37.520><c> become</c><00:51:37.920><c> buried</c><00:51:38.480><c> and</c><00:51:38.800><c> form</c>

50:35.283 --> 50:35.293 align:start position:0%
which would again become buried and form
 

50:35.293 --> 50:37.523 align:start position:0%
which would again become buried and form
coal<00:51:39.440><c> fossil</c><00:51:39.839><c> fuel</c><00:51:40.160><c> deposits</c><00:51:40.640><c> for</c><00:51:40.800><c> us</c><00:51:40.960><c> to</c><00:51:41.200><c> use</c>

50:37.523 --> 50:37.533 align:start position:0%
coal fossil fuel deposits for us to use
 

50:37.533 --> 50:41.124 align:start position:0%
coal fossil fuel deposits for us to use
today,<00:51:42.240><c> continuing</c><00:51:42.720><c> the</c><00:51:42.960><c> carbon</c><00:51:43.359><c> cycle.</c><00:51:44.640><c> Now</c>

50:41.124 --> 50:41.134 align:start position:0%
today, continuing the carbon cycle. Now
 

50:41.134 --> 50:43.844 align:start position:0%
today, continuing the carbon cycle. Now
the<00:51:45.200><c> storm</c><00:51:45.440><c> has</c><00:51:45.680><c> passed,</c><00:51:46.480><c> we</c><00:51:46.720><c> can</c><00:51:46.880><c> answer</c><00:51:47.280><c> our</c>

50:43.844 --> 50:43.854 align:start position:0%
the storm has passed, we can answer our
 

50:43.854 --> 50:46.483 align:start position:0%
the storm has passed, we can answer our
question.<00:51:48.880><c> If</c><00:51:49.040><c> a</c><00:51:49.280><c> butterfly</c><00:51:49.680><c> flapping</c><00:51:50.160><c> its</c>

50:46.483 --> 50:46.493 align:start position:0%
question. If a butterfly flapping its
 

50:46.493 --> 50:48.884 align:start position:0%
question. If a butterfly flapping its
wings<00:51:50.640><c> can</c><00:51:50.800><c> cause</c><00:51:51.040><c> a</c><00:51:51.200><c> tornado</c><00:51:51.760><c> 1,000</c><00:51:52.400><c> miles</c>

50:48.884 --> 50:48.894 align:start position:0%
wings can cause a tornado 1,000 miles
 

50:48.894 --> 50:52.404 align:start position:0%
wings can cause a tornado 1,000 miles
away,<00:51:53.599><c> what</c><00:51:53.920><c> does</c><00:51:54.079><c> an</c><00:51:54.480><c> eruption</c><00:51:55.359><c> 100</c><00:51:55.920><c> times</c>

50:52.404 --> 50:52.414 align:start position:0%
away, what does an eruption 100 times
 

50:52.414 --> 50:55.763 align:start position:0%
away, what does an eruption 100 times
larger<00:51:56.559><c> than</c><00:51:56.720><c> a</c><00:51:56.960><c> super</c><00:51:57.200><c> volcano</c><00:51:57.839><c> cause?</c><00:51:58.960><c> Well,</c>

50:55.763 --> 50:55.773 align:start position:0%
larger than a super volcano cause? Well,
 

50:55.773 --> 50:59.444 align:start position:0%
larger than a super volcano cause? Well,
a<00:52:00.000><c> complete</c><00:52:00.720><c> terraforming</c><00:52:01.440><c> of</c><00:52:01.760><c> land,</c><00:52:02.640><c> sea,</c>

50:59.444 --> 50:59.454 align:start position:0%
a complete terraforming of land, sea,
 

50:59.454 --> 51:03.044 align:start position:0%
a complete terraforming of land, sea,
and<00:52:03.599><c> air.</c><00:52:04.880><c> And</c><00:52:05.040><c> with</c><00:52:05.359><c> such</c><00:52:05.680><c> vast</c><00:52:06.160><c> alterations</c>

51:03.044 --> 51:03.054 align:start position:0%
and air. And with such vast alterations
 

51:03.054 --> 51:05.684 align:start position:0%
and air. And with such vast alterations
to<00:52:07.119><c> the</c><00:52:07.359><c> Earth,</c><00:52:08.079><c> vastly</c><00:52:08.559><c> new</c><00:52:08.880><c> species</c><00:52:09.359><c> would</c>

51:05.684 --> 51:05.694 align:start position:0%
to the Earth, vastly new species would
 

51:05.694 --> 51:08.243 align:start position:0%
to the Earth, vastly new species would
rise<00:52:09.839><c> to</c><00:52:10.000><c> dominate</c><00:52:10.400><c> it.</c><00:52:11.119><c> Chief</c><00:52:11.520><c> among</c><00:52:11.920><c> the</c>

51:08.243 --> 51:08.253 align:start position:0%
rise to dominate it. Chief among the
 

51:08.253 --> 51:10.243 align:start position:0%
rise to dominate it. Chief among the
beneficiaries<00:52:12.720><c> is</c><00:52:13.040><c> a</c><00:52:13.280><c> group</c><00:52:13.440><c> of</c><00:52:13.599><c> reptiles</c>

51:10.243 --> 51:10.253 align:start position:0%
beneficiaries is a group of reptiles
 

51:10.253 --> 51:12.644 align:start position:0%
beneficiaries is a group of reptiles
that<00:52:14.319><c> would</c><00:52:14.559><c> one</c><00:52:14.720><c> day</c><00:52:14.960><c> rule</c><00:52:15.280><c> the</c><00:52:15.520><c> planet,</c>

51:12.644 --> 51:12.654 align:start position:0%
that would one day rule the planet,
 

51:12.654 --> 51:16.804 align:start position:0%
that would one day rule the planet,
dinosaurs.<00:52:17.839><c> Our</c>

51:16.804 --> 51:16.814 align:start position:0%
dinosaurs. Our
 

51:16.814 --> 51:19.124 align:start position:0%
dinosaurs. Our
alien<00:52:21.040><c> scientists</c><00:52:21.839><c> next</c><00:52:22.160><c> returned</c><00:52:22.480><c> to</c><00:52:22.640><c> Earth</c>

51:19.124 --> 51:19.134 align:start position:0%
alien scientists next returned to Earth
 

51:19.134 --> 51:22.084 align:start position:0%
alien scientists next returned to Earth
during<00:52:23.280><c> the</c><00:52:23.520><c> late</c><00:52:23.839><c> Jurassic</c><00:52:24.400><c> period</c>

51:22.084 --> 51:22.094 align:start position:0%
during the late Jurassic period
 

51:22.094 --> 51:25.044 align:start position:0%
during the late Jurassic period
150<00:52:26.480><c> million</c><00:52:26.880><c> years</c><00:52:27.119><c> ago.</c><00:52:28.000><c> Although</c><00:52:28.319><c> Pangia</c>

51:25.044 --> 51:25.054 align:start position:0%
150 million years ago. Although Pangia
 

51:25.054 --> 51:26.723 align:start position:0%
150 million years ago. Although Pangia
managed<00:52:29.119><c> to</c><00:52:29.280><c> hang</c><00:52:29.520><c> around</c><00:52:29.760><c> until</c><00:52:30.079><c> the</c><00:52:30.319><c> early</c>

51:26.723 --> 51:26.733 align:start position:0%
managed to hang around until the early
 

51:26.733 --> 51:29.844 align:start position:0%
managed to hang around until the early
Jurassic,<00:52:31.440><c> by</c><00:52:31.760><c> now</c><00:52:32.480><c> it</c><00:52:32.720><c> is</c><00:52:32.960><c> starting</c><00:52:33.200><c> to</c><00:52:33.359><c> drift</c>

51:29.844 --> 51:29.854 align:start position:0%
Jurassic, by now it is starting to drift
 

51:29.854 --> 51:32.243 align:start position:0%
Jurassic, by now it is starting to drift
apart<00:52:34.319><c> due</c><00:52:34.559><c> to</c><00:52:34.800><c> tectonic</c><00:52:35.359><c> movements</c><00:52:35.760><c> in</c><00:52:35.920><c> the</c>

51:32.243 --> 51:32.253 align:start position:0%
apart due to tectonic movements in the
 

51:32.253 --> 51:34.644 align:start position:0%
apart due to tectonic movements in the
planet's<00:52:36.400><c> lithosphere.</c>

51:34.644 --> 51:34.654 align:start position:0%
planet's lithosphere.
 

51:34.654 --> 51:37.444 align:start position:0%
planet's lithosphere.
The<00:52:38.720><c> Earth</c><00:52:38.960><c> is</c><00:52:39.119><c> made</c><00:52:39.359><c> up</c><00:52:39.520><c> of</c><00:52:39.680><c> about</c><00:52:40.240><c> 15</c><00:52:40.640><c> to</c><00:52:40.960><c> 20</c>

51:37.444 --> 51:37.454 align:start position:0%
The Earth is made up of about 15 to 20
 

51:37.454 --> 51:39.924 align:start position:0%
The Earth is made up of about 15 to 20
tectonic<00:52:41.839><c> plates</c><00:52:42.480><c> which</c><00:52:42.720><c> are</c><00:52:42.960><c> always</c><00:52:43.359><c> moving</c>

51:39.924 --> 51:39.934 align:start position:0%
tectonic plates which are always moving
 

51:39.934 --> 51:42.243 align:start position:0%
tectonic plates which are always moving
toward<00:52:44.319><c> or</c><00:52:44.559><c> away</c><00:52:44.880><c> from</c><00:52:45.119><c> each</c><00:52:45.359><c> other</c><00:52:45.520><c> at</c><00:52:45.760><c> a</c><00:52:45.920><c> rate</c>

51:42.243 --> 51:42.253 align:start position:0%
toward or away from each other at a rate
 

51:42.253 --> 51:45.684 align:start position:0%
toward or away from each other at a rate
of<00:52:46.319><c> around</c><00:52:46.800><c> 1.5</c><00:52:47.520><c> cm</c><00:52:48.079><c> a</c><00:52:48.240><c> year,</c><00:52:49.119><c> which</c>

51:45.684 --> 51:45.694 align:start position:0%
of around 1.5 cm a year, which
 

51:45.694 --> 51:47.684 align:start position:0%
of around 1.5 cm a year, which
interestingly<00:52:50.160><c> enough</c><00:52:50.640><c> is</c><00:52:50.960><c> pretty</c><00:52:51.119><c> much</c><00:52:51.280><c> the</c>

51:47.684 --> 51:47.694 align:start position:0%
interestingly enough is pretty much the
 

51:47.694 --> 51:50.884 align:start position:0%
interestingly enough is pretty much the
same<00:52:51.760><c> rate</c><00:52:52.000><c> as</c><00:52:52.240><c> our</c><00:52:52.400><c> toenails</c><00:52:53.040><c> grow.</c><00:52:54.480><c> As</c>

51:50.884 --> 51:50.894 align:start position:0%
same rate as our toenails grow. As
 

51:50.894 --> 51:53.044 align:start position:0%
same rate as our toenails grow. As
plates<00:52:55.200><c> move</c><00:52:55.440><c> away</c><00:52:55.680><c> from</c><00:52:55.839><c> each</c><00:52:56.079><c> other,</c><00:52:56.559><c> they</c>

51:53.044 --> 51:53.054 align:start position:0%
plates move away from each other, they
 

51:53.054 --> 51:55.283 align:start position:0%
plates move away from each other, they
open<00:52:57.119><c> a</c><00:52:57.359><c> rift</c><00:52:57.839><c> marked</c><00:52:58.240><c> by</c><00:52:58.480><c> outpouring</c>

51:55.283 --> 51:55.293 align:start position:0%
open a rift marked by outpouring
 

51:55.293 --> 51:58.884 align:start position:0%
open a rift marked by outpouring
basaltic<00:52:59.760><c> lava.</c><00:53:01.119><c> So,</c><00:53:01.520><c> beginning</c><00:53:01.920><c> around</c><00:53:02.319><c> 200</c>

51:58.884 --> 51:58.894 align:start position:0%
basaltic lava. So, beginning around 200
 

51:58.894 --> 52:01.283 align:start position:0%
basaltic lava. So, beginning around 200
million<00:53:03.040><c> years</c><00:53:03.280><c> ago,</c><00:53:03.839><c> Norasia</c><00:53:04.559><c> breaks</c><00:53:04.880><c> away</c>

52:01.283 --> 52:01.293 align:start position:0%
million years ago, Norasia breaks away
 

52:01.293 --> 52:03.763 align:start position:0%
million years ago, Norasia breaks away
from<00:53:05.359><c> Godwana,</c><00:53:06.400><c> creating</c><00:53:06.800><c> two</c><00:53:07.119><c> smaller</c>

52:03.763 --> 52:03.773 align:start position:0%
from Godwana, creating two smaller
 

52:03.773 --> 52:06.644 align:start position:0%
from Godwana, creating two smaller
superc<00:53:07.920><c> continents.</c><00:53:08.960><c> In</c><00:53:09.200><c> the</c><00:53:09.359><c> north,</c><00:53:09.920><c> Norasia</c>

52:06.644 --> 52:06.654 align:start position:0%
superc continents. In the north, Norasia
 

52:06.654 --> 52:08.564 align:start position:0%
superc continents. In the north, Norasia
contains<00:53:10.960><c> modern-day</c><00:53:11.440><c> North</c><00:53:11.760><c> America</c><00:53:12.160><c> and</c>

52:08.564 --> 52:08.574 align:start position:0%
contains modern-day North America and
 

52:08.574 --> 52:12.084 align:start position:0%
contains modern-day North America and
Eurasia.<00:53:13.760><c> To</c><00:53:14.000><c> the</c><00:53:14.160><c> south,</c><00:53:14.720><c> Gondwana</c><00:53:15.520><c> includes</c>

52:12.084 --> 52:12.094 align:start position:0%
Eurasia. To the south, Gondwana includes
 

52:12.094 --> 52:14.804 align:start position:0%
Eurasia. To the south, Gondwana includes
modern-day<00:53:16.559><c> South</c><00:53:16.880><c> America,</c><00:53:17.680><c> Africa,</c>

52:14.804 --> 52:14.814 align:start position:0%
modern-day South America, Africa,
 

52:14.814 --> 52:18.404 align:start position:0%
modern-day South America, Africa,
Australia,<00:53:19.599><c> India,</c><00:53:20.240><c> and</c><00:53:20.480><c> Antarctica.</c>

52:18.404 --> 52:18.414 align:start position:0%
Australia, India, and Antarctica.
 

52:18.414 --> 52:20.644 align:start position:0%
Australia, India, and Antarctica.
A<00:53:22.480><c> narrow</c><00:53:22.800><c> body</c><00:53:22.960><c> of</c><00:53:23.200><c> water</c><00:53:23.520><c> called</c><00:53:23.760><c> the</c><00:53:23.920><c> Tetis</c>

52:20.644 --> 52:20.654 align:start position:0%
A narrow body of water called the Tetis
 

52:20.654 --> 52:23.844 align:start position:0%
A narrow body of water called the Tetis
Sea<00:53:24.880><c> is</c><00:53:25.200><c> also</c><00:53:25.520><c> opening</c><00:53:25.920><c> up.</c><00:53:26.800><c> It</c><00:53:27.040><c> will</c><00:53:27.280><c> one</c><00:53:27.440><c> day</c>

52:23.844 --> 52:23.854 align:start position:0%
Sea is also opening up. It will one day
 

52:23.854 --> 52:26.324 align:start position:0%
Sea is also opening up. It will one day
grow<00:53:28.000><c> into</c><00:53:28.240><c> the</c><00:53:28.400><c> North</c><00:53:28.640><c> Atlantic</c><00:53:29.200><c> Ocean</c><00:53:29.839><c> as</c>

52:26.324 --> 52:26.334 align:start position:0%
grow into the North Atlantic Ocean as
 

52:26.334 --> 52:28.483 align:start position:0%
grow into the North Atlantic Ocean as
outpouring<00:53:30.800><c> basaltic</c><00:53:31.440><c> lavas</c><00:53:32.000><c> at</c><00:53:32.240><c> the</c>

52:28.483 --> 52:28.493 align:start position:0%
outpouring basaltic lavas at the
 

52:28.493 --> 52:30.804 align:start position:0%
outpouring basaltic lavas at the
mid-Atlantic<00:53:33.119><c> ridge</c><00:53:33.599><c> continue</c><00:53:34.000><c> to</c><00:53:34.160><c> push</c><00:53:34.400><c> the</c>

52:30.804 --> 52:30.814 align:start position:0%
mid-Atlantic ridge continue to push the
 

52:30.814 --> 52:33.364 align:start position:0%
mid-Atlantic ridge continue to push the
land<00:53:34.800><c> masses</c><00:53:35.280><c> farther</c><00:53:35.680><c> apart.</c>

52:33.364 --> 52:33.374 align:start position:0%
land masses farther apart.
 

52:33.374 --> 52:36.084 align:start position:0%
land masses farther apart.
Meanwhile,<00:53:37.760><c> in</c><00:53:38.000><c> the</c><00:53:38.160><c> south,</c><00:53:38.880><c> Antarctica</c><00:53:39.599><c> and</c>

52:36.084 --> 52:36.094 align:start position:0%
Meanwhile, in the south, Antarctica and
 

52:36.094 --> 52:38.084 align:start position:0%
Meanwhile, in the south, Antarctica and
Madagascar<00:53:40.720><c> have</c><00:53:40.960><c> begun</c><00:53:41.200><c> to</c><00:53:41.359><c> separate</c><00:53:41.760><c> from</c>

52:38.084 --> 52:38.094 align:start position:0%
Madagascar have begun to separate from
 

52:38.094 --> 52:40.884 align:start position:0%
Madagascar have begun to separate from
Africa,<00:53:42.800><c> opening</c><00:53:43.280><c> up</c><00:53:43.520><c> the</c><00:53:43.839><c> protoindian</c>

52:40.884 --> 52:40.894 align:start position:0%
Africa, opening up the protoindian
 

52:40.894 --> 52:44.084 align:start position:0%
Africa, opening up the protoindian
Ocean.<00:53:46.160><c> While</c><00:53:46.480><c> the</c><00:53:46.640><c> continental</c><00:53:47.200><c> land</c><00:53:47.440><c> masses</c>

52:44.084 --> 52:44.094 align:start position:0%
Ocean. While the continental land masses
 

52:44.094 --> 52:45.684 align:start position:0%
Ocean. While the continental land masses
still<00:53:48.079><c> look</c><00:53:48.319><c> quite</c><00:53:48.640><c> different</c><00:53:48.880><c> from</c><00:53:49.119><c> how</c><00:53:49.359><c> they</c>

52:45.684 --> 52:45.694 align:start position:0%
still look quite different from how they
 

52:45.694 --> 52:48.324 align:start position:0%
still look quite different from how they
look<00:53:49.760><c> today,</c><00:53:50.400><c> our</c><00:53:50.640><c> alien</c><00:53:51.040><c> visitors</c><00:53:51.680><c> already</c>

52:48.324 --> 52:48.334 align:start position:0%
look today, our alien visitors already
 

52:48.334 --> 52:50.084 align:start position:0%
look today, our alien visitors already
have<00:53:52.319><c> an</c><00:53:52.480><c> inkling</c><00:53:52.960><c> of</c><00:53:53.200><c> where</c><00:53:53.520><c> Earth's</c>

52:50.084 --> 52:50.094 align:start position:0%
have an inkling of where Earth's
 

52:50.094 --> 52:53.684 align:start position:0%
have an inkling of where Earth's
continental<00:53:54.480><c> configuration</c><00:53:55.280><c> is</c><00:53:55.520><c> heading.</c>

52:53.684 --> 52:53.694 align:start position:0%
continental configuration is heading.
 

52:53.694 --> 52:56.324 align:start position:0%
continental configuration is heading.
The<00:53:57.760><c> climate</c><00:53:58.079><c> of</c><00:53:58.319><c> the</c><00:53:58.480><c> period</c><00:53:59.040><c> is</c><00:53:59.599><c> scorching</c>

52:56.324 --> 52:56.334 align:start position:0%
The climate of the period is scorching
 

52:56.334 --> 53:00.243 align:start position:0%
The climate of the period is scorching
hot.<00:54:01.200><c> Global</c><00:54:01.760><c> temperatures</c><00:54:02.240><c> are</c><00:54:02.640><c> 5</c><00:54:03.040><c> to</c><00:54:03.280><c> 10°</c>

53:00.243 --> 53:00.253 align:start position:0%
hot. Global temperatures are 5 to 10°
 

53:00.253 --> 53:02.084 align:start position:0%
hot. Global temperatures are 5 to 10°
warmer<00:54:04.480><c> than</c><00:54:04.640><c> they</c><00:54:04.880><c> are</c><00:54:05.040><c> today</c><00:54:05.680><c> with</c>

53:02.084 --> 53:02.094 align:start position:0%
warmer than they are today with
 

53:02.094 --> 53:04.483 align:start position:0%
warmer than they are today with
atmospheric<00:54:06.559><c> CO2</c><00:54:07.040><c> levels</c><00:54:07.440><c> approximately</c>

53:04.483 --> 53:04.493 align:start position:0%
atmospheric CO2 levels approximately
 

53:04.493 --> 53:07.604 align:start position:0%
atmospheric CO2 levels approximately
four<00:54:08.640><c> times</c><00:54:09.119><c> greater.</c><00:54:10.480><c> What</c><00:54:10.800><c> contributed</c><00:54:11.280><c> to</c>

53:07.604 --> 53:07.614 align:start position:0%
four times greater. What contributed to
 

53:07.614 --> 53:11.124 align:start position:0%
four times greater. What contributed to
all<00:54:11.680><c> this</c><00:54:11.920><c> CO2?</c><00:54:13.280><c> Very</c><00:54:13.760><c> likely</c><00:54:14.480><c> the</c><00:54:14.720><c> mass</c>

53:11.124 --> 53:11.134 align:start position:0%
all this CO2? Very likely the mass
 

53:11.134 --> 53:13.044 align:start position:0%
all this CO2? Very likely the mass
extinction<00:54:15.440><c> of</c><00:54:15.599><c> plants</c><00:54:16.160><c> during</c><00:54:16.480><c> both</c><00:54:16.720><c> the</c>

53:13.044 --> 53:13.054 align:start position:0%
extinction of plants during both the
 

53:13.054 --> 53:15.523 align:start position:0%
extinction of plants during both the
Perian<00:54:17.440><c> Turacic</c><00:54:17.920><c> extinction</c><00:54:18.480><c> event</c><00:54:18.880><c> and</c><00:54:19.119><c> a</c>

53:15.523 --> 53:15.533 align:start position:0%
Perian Turacic extinction event and a
 

53:15.533 --> 53:17.844 align:start position:0%
Perian Turacic extinction event and a
subsequent<00:54:19.839><c> die-off</c><00:54:20.400><c> called</c><00:54:20.640><c> the</c><00:54:20.880><c> Nurassic</c>

53:17.844 --> 53:17.854 align:start position:0%
subsequent die-off called the Nurassic
 

53:17.854 --> 53:20.964 align:start position:0%
subsequent die-off called the Nurassic
extinction<00:54:22.400><c> played</c><00:54:22.800><c> hefty</c><00:54:23.280><c> roles.</c><00:54:24.319><c> Global</c>

53:20.964 --> 53:20.974 align:start position:0%
extinction played hefty roles. Global
 

53:20.974 --> 53:23.283 align:start position:0%
extinction played hefty roles. Global
temperatures<00:54:25.200><c> are</c><00:54:25.440><c> so</c><00:54:25.680><c> warm</c><00:54:26.240><c> that</c><00:54:26.559><c> ice</c><00:54:26.800><c> sheets</c>

53:23.283 --> 53:23.293 align:start position:0%
temperatures are so warm that ice sheets
 

53:23.293 --> 53:25.523 align:start position:0%
temperatures are so warm that ice sheets
are<00:54:27.280><c> unable</c><00:54:27.680><c> to</c><00:54:27.760><c> form</c><00:54:28.079><c> at</c><00:54:28.240><c> the</c><00:54:28.319><c> poles.</c>

53:25.523 --> 53:25.533 align:start position:0%
are unable to form at the poles.
 

53:25.533 --> 53:27.604 align:start position:0%
are unable to form at the poles.
Instead,<00:54:30.000><c> the</c><00:54:30.240><c> poles</c><00:54:30.640><c> are</c><00:54:30.800><c> covered</c><00:54:31.119><c> in</c>

53:27.604 --> 53:27.614 align:start position:0%
Instead, the poles are covered in
 

53:27.614 --> 53:30.243 align:start position:0%
Instead, the poles are covered in
forests<00:54:32.400><c> which</c><00:54:32.720><c> likely</c><00:54:33.200><c> experience</c><00:54:33.680><c> warm</c>

53:30.243 --> 53:30.253 align:start position:0%
forests which likely experience warm
 

53:30.253 --> 53:33.604 align:start position:0%
forests which likely experience warm
summers<00:54:34.640><c> and</c><00:54:34.960><c> cool</c><00:54:35.359><c> snowy</c><00:54:35.760><c> winters.</c><00:54:36.960><c> With</c><00:54:37.200><c> so</c>

53:33.604 --> 53:33.614 align:start position:0%
summers and cool snowy winters. With so
 

53:33.614 --> 53:35.924 align:start position:0%
summers and cool snowy winters. With so
little<00:54:37.760><c> water</c><00:54:38.079><c> locked</c><00:54:38.400><c> up</c><00:54:38.480><c> in</c><00:54:38.720><c> glacial</c><00:54:39.119><c> ice,</c>

53:35.924 --> 53:35.934 align:start position:0%
little water locked up in glacial ice,
 

53:35.934 --> 53:38.164 align:start position:0%
little water locked up in glacial ice,
sea<00:54:40.079><c> levels</c><00:54:40.400><c> are</c><00:54:40.720><c> significantly</c><00:54:41.520><c> higher</c><00:54:41.839><c> than</c>

53:38.164 --> 53:38.174 align:start position:0%
sea levels are significantly higher than
 

53:38.174 --> 53:40.324 align:start position:0%
sea levels are significantly higher than
they<00:54:42.160><c> are</c><00:54:42.400><c> today</c><00:54:43.040><c> with</c><00:54:43.200><c> the</c><00:54:43.440><c> peak</c><00:54:43.760><c> happening</c>

53:40.324 --> 53:40.334 align:start position:0%
they are today with the peak happening
 

53:40.334 --> 53:44.243 align:start position:0%
they are today with the peak happening
right<00:54:44.400><c> around</c><00:54:44.720><c> this</c><00:54:45.040><c> time,</c><00:54:45.760><c> about</c><00:54:47.200><c> 140</c><00:54:47.599><c> m</c>

53:44.243 --> 53:44.253 align:start position:0%
right around this time, about 140 m
 

53:44.253 --> 53:45.924 align:start position:0%
right around this time, about 140 m
higher.

53:45.924 --> 53:45.934 align:start position:0%
higher.
 

53:45.934 --> 53:48.564 align:start position:0%
higher.
In<00:54:50.000><c> terms</c><00:54:50.160><c> of</c><00:54:50.319><c> flora,</c><00:54:51.119><c> gymnosperms,</c><00:54:52.079><c> such</c><00:54:52.160><c> as</c>

53:48.564 --> 53:48.574 align:start position:0%
In terms of flora, gymnosperms, such as
 

53:48.574 --> 53:50.723 align:start position:0%
In terms of flora, gymnosperms, such as
conifers,<00:54:53.200><c> have</c><00:54:53.359><c> become</c><00:54:53.760><c> one</c><00:54:54.000><c> of</c><00:54:54.160><c> the</c><00:54:54.319><c> most</c>

53:50.723 --> 53:50.733 align:start position:0%
conifers, have become one of the most
 

53:50.733 --> 53:54.003 align:start position:0%
conifers, have become one of the most
successful<00:54:55.119><c> plant</c><00:54:55.440><c> types.</c><00:54:56.559><c> Some</c><00:54:56.880><c> trees</c><00:54:57.599><c> like</c>

53:54.003 --> 53:54.013 align:start position:0%
successful plant types. Some trees like
 

53:54.013 --> 53:56.804 align:start position:0%
successful plant types. Some trees like
the<00:54:58.079><c> extinct</c><00:54:58.559><c> arocaria</c><00:54:59.440><c> nurabilis</c>

53:56.804 --> 53:56.814 align:start position:0%
the extinct arocaria nurabilis
 

53:56.814 --> 53:58.964 align:start position:0%
the extinct arocaria nurabilis
represented<00:55:01.200><c> by</c><00:55:01.440><c> this</c><00:55:01.760><c> extraordinarily</c>

53:58.964 --> 53:58.974 align:start position:0%
represented by this extraordinarily
 

53:58.974 --> 54:01.763 align:start position:0%
represented by this extraordinarily
wellpreserved<00:55:03.520><c> cone</c><00:55:04.480><c> look</c><00:55:04.800><c> eerily</c><00:55:05.359><c> similar</c>

54:01.763 --> 54:01.773 align:start position:0%
wellpreserved cone look eerily similar
 

54:01.773 --> 54:04.404 align:start position:0%
wellpreserved cone look eerily similar
to<00:55:05.760><c> what</c><00:55:06.000><c> you</c><00:55:06.160><c> might</c><00:55:06.319><c> find</c><00:55:06.559><c> today.</c><00:55:07.920><c> This</c><00:55:08.079><c> is</c>

54:04.404 --> 54:04.414 align:start position:0%
to what you might find today. This is
 

54:04.414 --> 54:07.124 align:start position:0%
to what you might find today. This is
also<00:55:08.559><c> a</c><00:55:08.800><c> golden</c><00:55:09.119><c> age</c><00:55:09.359><c> for</c><00:55:09.599><c> psychicads.</c>

54:07.124 --> 54:07.134 align:start position:0%
also a golden age for psychicads.
 

54:07.134 --> 54:09.204 align:start position:0%
also a golden age for psychicads.
Palmlike<00:55:11.599><c> vegetation</c><00:55:12.240><c> with</c><00:55:12.559><c> woody</c>

54:09.204 --> 54:09.214 align:start position:0%
Palmlike vegetation with woody
 

54:09.214 --> 54:11.604 align:start position:0%
Palmlike vegetation with woody
cylindrical<00:55:13.760><c> trunks</c><00:55:14.240><c> and</c><00:55:14.480><c> stiff</c><00:55:14.880><c> pinate</c>

54:11.604 --> 54:11.614 align:start position:0%
cylindrical trunks and stiff pinate
 

54:11.614 --> 54:14.723 align:start position:0%
cylindrical trunks and stiff pinate
leaves.<00:55:16.640><c> These</c><00:55:16.960><c> plants</c><00:55:17.440><c> grow</c><00:55:17.839><c> heartily</c><00:55:18.400><c> in</c>

54:14.723 --> 54:14.733 align:start position:0%
leaves. These plants grow heartily in
 

54:14.733 --> 54:17.124 align:start position:0%
leaves. These plants grow heartily in
the<00:55:18.720><c> late</c><00:55:18.960><c> Jurassic's</c><00:55:19.680><c> expansive</c><00:55:20.400><c> tropical</c>

54:17.124 --> 54:17.134 align:start position:0%
the late Jurassic's expansive tropical
 

54:17.134 --> 54:22.243 align:start position:0%
the late Jurassic's expansive tropical
and<00:55:21.280><c> subtropical</c><00:55:22.079><c> climate</c><00:55:22.480><c> zones.</c>

54:22.243 --> 54:22.253 align:start position:0%
 
 

54:22.253 --> 54:24.404 align:start position:0%
 
As<00:55:26.319><c> our</c><00:55:26.640><c> alien</c><00:55:27.040><c> scientists</c><00:55:27.599><c> step</c><00:55:27.839><c> out</c><00:55:28.079><c> of</c>

54:24.404 --> 54:24.414 align:start position:0%
As our alien scientists step out of
 

54:24.414 --> 54:26.404 align:start position:0%
As our alien scientists step out of
their<00:55:28.400><c> ship,</c><00:55:28.960><c> they</c><00:55:29.280><c> hear</c><00:55:29.520><c> an</c><00:55:29.839><c> ominous</c>

54:26.404 --> 54:26.414 align:start position:0%
their ship, they hear an ominous
 

54:26.414 --> 54:29.523 align:start position:0%
their ship, they hear an ominous
rumbling.<00:55:31.359><c> Looking</c><00:55:31.680><c> over,</c><00:55:32.319><c> they</c><00:55:32.640><c> spot</c><00:55:32.880><c> a</c><00:55:33.119><c> pack</c>

54:29.523 --> 54:29.533 align:start position:0%
rumbling. Looking over, they spot a pack
 

54:29.533 --> 54:32.644 align:start position:0%
rumbling. Looking over, they spot a pack
of<00:55:33.680><c> towering</c><00:55:34.400><c> soropods.</c><00:55:35.760><c> Not</c><00:55:36.000><c> just</c><00:55:36.160><c> any</c>

54:32.644 --> 54:32.654 align:start position:0%
of towering soropods. Not just any
 

54:32.654 --> 54:36.243 align:start position:0%
of towering soropods. Not just any
sorapods,<00:55:37.200><c> either.</c><00:55:38.240><c> Supaurus,</c><00:55:39.599><c> one</c><00:55:39.760><c> of</c><00:55:39.839><c> the</c>

54:36.243 --> 54:36.253 align:start position:0%
sorapods, either. Supaurus, one of the
 

54:36.253 --> 54:38.483 align:start position:0%
sorapods, either. Supaurus, one of the
most<00:55:40.400><c> massive</c><00:55:40.960><c> terrestrial</c><00:55:41.680><c> animals</c><00:55:42.079><c> in</c>

54:38.483 --> 54:38.493 align:start position:0%
most massive terrestrial animals in
 

54:38.493 --> 54:41.684 align:start position:0%
most massive terrestrial animals in
Earth's<00:55:42.800><c> history,</c><00:55:43.599><c> measuring</c><00:55:44.160><c> up</c><00:55:44.319><c> to</c><00:55:44.559><c> 35</c><00:55:45.119><c> m</c>

54:41.684 --> 54:41.694 align:start position:0%
Earth's history, measuring up to 35 m
 

54:41.694 --> 54:45.204 align:start position:0%
Earth's history, measuring up to 35 m
long<00:55:45.920><c> and</c><00:55:46.240><c> weighing</c><00:55:46.880><c> 40</c><00:55:47.359><c> metric</c><00:55:47.839><c> tons.</c>

54:45.204 --> 54:45.214 align:start position:0%
long and weighing 40 metric tons.
 

54:45.214 --> 54:47.444 align:start position:0%
long and weighing 40 metric tons.
Getting<00:55:49.599><c> over</c><00:55:49.839><c> their</c><00:55:50.079><c> initial</c><00:55:50.400><c> fright,</c><00:55:51.040><c> our</c>

54:47.444 --> 54:47.454 align:start position:0%
Getting over their initial fright, our
 

54:47.454 --> 54:49.124 align:start position:0%
Getting over their initial fright, our
alien<00:55:51.680><c> visitors</c><00:55:52.160><c> realize</c><00:55:52.559><c> that</c><00:55:52.720><c> these</c>

54:49.124 --> 54:49.134 align:start position:0%
alien visitors realize that these
 

54:49.134 --> 54:51.044 align:start position:0%
alien visitors realize that these
Goliaths<00:55:53.599><c> are</c><00:55:53.760><c> in</c><00:55:53.920><c> fact</c><00:55:54.240><c> herbivorous</c>

54:51.044 --> 54:51.054 align:start position:0%
Goliaths are in fact herbivorous
 

54:51.054 --> 54:53.604 align:start position:0%
Goliaths are in fact herbivorous
grazers,<00:55:55.760><c> well</c><00:55:56.000><c> adapted</c><00:55:56.480><c> for</c><00:55:56.720><c> reaching</c><00:55:57.119><c> high</c>

54:53.604 --> 54:53.614 align:start position:0%
grazers, well adapted for reaching high
 

54:53.614 --> 54:55.924 align:start position:0%
grazers, well adapted for reaching high
vegetation.<00:55:58.880><c> But</c><00:55:59.040><c> their</c><00:55:59.200><c> relief</c><00:55:59.599><c> is</c>

54:55.924 --> 54:55.934 align:start position:0%
vegetation. But their relief is
 

54:55.934 --> 54:58.164 align:start position:0%
vegetation. But their relief is
short-lived.<00:56:01.040><c> Stalking</c><00:56:01.520><c> some</c><00:56:01.760><c> of</c><00:56:01.839><c> the</c>

54:58.164 --> 54:58.174 align:start position:0%
short-lived. Stalking some of the
 

54:58.174 --> 55:02.084 align:start position:0%
short-lived. Stalking some of the
smaller<00:56:02.400><c> soraods</c><00:56:03.200><c> is</c><00:56:03.520><c> a</c><00:56:03.760><c> rangy</c><00:56:04.319><c> allosaurus.</c>

55:02.084 --> 55:02.094 align:start position:0%
smaller soraods is a rangy allosaurus.
 

55:02.094 --> 55:04.644 align:start position:0%
smaller soraods is a rangy allosaurus.
A<00:56:06.160><c> formidable</c><00:56:06.880><c> species</c><00:56:07.280><c> of</c><00:56:07.440><c> carnivore</c><00:56:08.079><c> nearly</c>

55:04.644 --> 55:04.654 align:start position:0%
A formidable species of carnivore nearly
 

55:04.654 --> 55:07.604 align:start position:0%
A formidable species of carnivore nearly
10<00:56:08.720><c> m</c><00:56:09.119><c> long</c><00:56:09.680><c> with</c><00:56:10.000><c> dozens</c><00:56:10.400><c> of</c><00:56:10.559><c> needle-sharp</c>

55:07.604 --> 55:07.614 align:start position:0%
10 m long with dozens of needle-sharp
 

55:07.614 --> 55:10.884 align:start position:0%
10 m long with dozens of needle-sharp
serrated<00:56:12.000><c> teeth.</c><00:56:13.359><c> Luckily,</c><00:56:14.000><c> our</c><00:56:14.319><c> alien</c>

55:10.884 --> 55:10.894 align:start position:0%
serrated teeth. Luckily, our alien
 

55:10.894 --> 55:12.483 align:start position:0%
serrated teeth. Luckily, our alien
visitors<00:56:15.119><c> escape</c><00:56:15.440><c> their</c><00:56:15.680><c> brush</c><00:56:16.000><c> with</c><00:56:16.160><c> the</c>

55:12.483 --> 55:12.493 align:start position:0%
visitors escape their brush with the
 

55:12.493 --> 55:14.804 align:start position:0%
visitors escape their brush with the
hungry<00:56:16.720><c> carnosur</c><00:56:17.520><c> and</c><00:56:17.760><c> decide</c><00:56:18.079><c> to</c><00:56:18.240><c> finish</c><00:56:18.480><c> the</c>

55:14.804 --> 55:14.814 align:start position:0%
hungry carnosur and decide to finish the
 

55:14.814 --> 55:16.324 align:start position:0%
hungry carnosur and decide to finish the
rest<00:56:18.799><c> of</c><00:56:18.880><c> their</c><00:56:19.119><c> tour</c><00:56:19.359><c> from</c><00:56:19.520><c> the</c><00:56:19.680><c> safety</c><00:56:20.000><c> of</c>

55:16.324 --> 55:16.334 align:start position:0%
rest of their tour from the safety of
 

55:16.334 --> 55:18.884 align:start position:0%
rest of their tour from the safety of
their<00:56:20.319><c> ship.</c><00:56:21.359><c> Once</c><00:56:21.680><c> they're</c><00:56:21.920><c> in</c><00:56:22.160><c> the</c><00:56:22.319><c> air,</c>

55:18.884 --> 55:18.894 align:start position:0%
their ship. Once they're in the air,
 

55:18.894 --> 55:21.844 align:start position:0%
their ship. Once they're in the air,
they<00:56:22.960><c> encounter</c><00:56:23.440><c> a</c><00:56:23.680><c> feathered</c><00:56:24.240><c> Archopterix,</c>

55:21.844 --> 55:21.854 align:start position:0%
they encounter a feathered Archopterix,
 

55:21.854 --> 55:24.723 align:start position:0%
they encounter a feathered Archopterix,
an<00:56:25.920><c> aven</c><00:56:26.480><c> dinosaur</c><00:56:27.280><c> considered</c><00:56:27.760><c> to</c><00:56:27.920><c> be</c><00:56:28.160><c> one</c><00:56:28.400><c> of</c>

55:24.723 --> 55:24.733 align:start position:0%
an aven dinosaur considered to be one of
 

55:24.733 --> 55:26.884 align:start position:0%
an aven dinosaur considered to be one of
the<00:56:28.720><c> first</c><00:56:29.119><c> birds.</c>

55:26.884 --> 55:26.894 align:start position:0%
the first birds.
 

55:26.894 --> 55:29.204 align:start position:0%
the first birds.
Archopterics<00:56:31.680><c> is</c><00:56:31.920><c> also</c><00:56:32.240><c> sharing</c><00:56:32.559><c> the</c><00:56:32.720><c> skies</c>

55:29.204 --> 55:29.214 align:start position:0%
Archopterics is also sharing the skies
 

55:29.214 --> 55:32.243 align:start position:0%
Archopterics is also sharing the skies
with<00:56:33.280><c> large</c><00:56:33.599><c> flocks</c><00:56:34.000><c> of</c><00:56:34.160><c> non-avian</c><00:56:34.960><c> terasaurs</c>

55:32.243 --> 55:32.253 align:start position:0%
with large flocks of non-avian terasaurs
 

55:32.253 --> 55:35.124 align:start position:0%
with large flocks of non-avian terasaurs
such<00:56:36.319><c> as</c><00:56:36.720><c> Dorphodon</c><00:56:37.920><c> and</c><00:56:38.160><c> the</c><00:56:38.319><c> crested</c>

55:35.124 --> 55:35.134 align:start position:0%
such as Dorphodon and the crested
 

55:35.134 --> 55:36.884 align:start position:0%
such as Dorphodon and the crested
pterodactylus.

55:36.884 --> 55:36.894 align:start position:0%
pterodactylus.
 

55:36.894 --> 55:39.044 align:start position:0%
pterodactylus.
These<00:56:41.119><c> winged</c><00:56:41.520><c> predators</c><00:56:42.000><c> are</c><00:56:42.160><c> well</c><00:56:42.400><c> adapted</c>

55:39.044 --> 55:39.054 align:start position:0%
These winged predators are well adapted
 

55:39.054 --> 55:40.644 align:start position:0%
These winged predators are well adapted
for<00:56:43.119><c> catching</c><00:56:43.520><c> smaller</c><00:56:43.920><c> animals</c><00:56:44.240><c> and</c>

55:40.644 --> 55:40.654 align:start position:0%
for catching smaller animals and
 

55:40.654 --> 55:42.884 align:start position:0%
for catching smaller animals and
invertebrates<00:56:45.119><c> in</c><00:56:45.359><c> their</c><00:56:45.520><c> toothy</c><00:56:46.160><c> beak-like</c>

55:42.884 --> 55:42.894 align:start position:0%
invertebrates in their toothy beak-like
 

55:42.894 --> 55:44.723 align:start position:0%
invertebrates in their toothy beak-like
jaws.

55:44.723 --> 55:44.733 align:start position:0%
jaws.
 

55:44.733 --> 55:46.884 align:start position:0%
jaws.
But<00:56:48.880><c> as</c><00:56:49.200><c> our</c><00:56:49.440><c> alien</c><00:56:49.839><c> scientists</c><00:56:50.240><c> stop</c><00:56:50.559><c> their</c>

55:46.884 --> 55:46.894 align:start position:0%
But as our alien scientists stop their
 

55:46.894 --> 55:48.483 align:start position:0%
But as our alien scientists stop their
expedition<00:56:51.200><c> for</c><00:56:51.359><c> lunch</c><00:56:51.599><c> in</c><00:56:51.760><c> one</c><00:56:51.920><c> of</c><00:56:52.000><c> the</c><00:56:52.079><c> more</c>

55:48.483 --> 55:48.493 align:start position:0%
expedition for lunch in one of the more
 

55:48.493 --> 55:51.204 align:start position:0%
expedition for lunch in one of the more
sheltered<00:56:52.720><c> forest</c><00:56:53.119><c> glades,</c><00:56:54.079><c> something</c><00:56:54.559><c> small</c>

55:51.204 --> 55:51.214 align:start position:0%
sheltered forest glades, something small
 

55:51.214 --> 55:53.523 align:start position:0%
sheltered forest glades, something small
and<00:56:55.280><c> unassuming</c><00:56:56.079><c> emerging</c><00:56:56.559><c> from</c><00:56:56.720><c> a</c><00:56:56.880><c> burrow</c>

55:53.523 --> 55:53.533 align:start position:0%
and unassuming emerging from a burrow
 

55:53.533 --> 55:55.763 align:start position:0%
and unassuming emerging from a burrow
that<00:56:57.599><c> catches</c><00:56:57.920><c> the</c><00:56:58.160><c> xenozist's</c><00:56:59.200><c> interest</c>

55:55.763 --> 55:55.773 align:start position:0%
that catches the xenozist's interest
 

55:55.773 --> 55:58.404 align:start position:0%
that catches the xenozist's interest
again.<00:57:00.400><c> A</c><00:57:00.720><c> small</c><00:57:01.040><c> furry</c><00:57:01.440><c> creature</c><00:57:02.079><c> called</c>

55:58.404 --> 55:58.414 align:start position:0%
again. A small furry creature called
 

55:58.414 --> 56:00.483 align:start position:0%
again. A small furry creature called
tenolabis.

56:00.483 --> 56:00.493 align:start position:0%
tenolabis.
 

56:00.493 --> 56:02.963 align:start position:0%
tenolabis.
Tenolabis<00:57:05.280><c> are</c><00:57:05.520><c> some</c><00:57:05.839><c> of</c><00:57:06.079><c> the</c><00:57:06.240><c> earliest</c>

56:02.963 --> 56:02.973 align:start position:0%
Tenolabis are some of the earliest
 

56:02.973 --> 56:05.523 align:start position:0%
Tenolabis are some of the earliest
mammals.<00:57:08.160><c> And</c><00:57:08.400><c> while</c><00:57:08.640><c> they</c><00:57:08.880><c> may</c><00:57:09.040><c> look</c>

56:05.523 --> 56:05.533 align:start position:0%
mammals. And while they may look
 

56:05.533 --> 56:08.324 align:start position:0%
mammals. And while they may look
unassuming,<00:57:10.480><c> the</c><00:57:10.799><c> great</c><00:57:11.280><c> great</c><00:57:11.839><c> great</c>

56:08.324 --> 56:08.334 align:start position:0%
unassuming, the great great great
 

56:08.334 --> 56:10.404 align:start position:0%
unassuming, the great great great
descendants<00:57:12.640><c> of</c><00:57:12.880><c> these</c><00:57:13.119><c> humble</c><00:57:13.680><c> scurrying</c>

56:10.404 --> 56:10.414 align:start position:0%
descendants of these humble scurrying
 

56:10.414 --> 56:12.483 align:start position:0%
descendants of these humble scurrying
creatures<00:57:14.960><c> will</c><00:57:15.200><c> one</c><00:57:15.359><c> day</c><00:57:15.599><c> outlive</c><00:57:16.079><c> the</c>

56:12.483 --> 56:12.493 align:start position:0%
creatures will one day outlive the
 

56:12.493 --> 56:15.444 align:start position:0%
creatures will one day outlive the
dinosaurs<00:57:17.040><c> and</c><00:57:17.359><c> dominate</c><00:57:17.760><c> the</c><00:57:18.000><c> Earth.</c><00:57:19.119><c> But</c>

56:15.444 --> 56:15.454 align:start position:0%
dinosaurs and dominate the Earth. But
 

56:15.454 --> 56:17.283 align:start position:0%
dinosaurs and dominate the Earth. But
there<00:57:19.520><c> is</c><00:57:19.680><c> a</c><00:57:19.920><c> deadly</c><00:57:20.240><c> hurdle</c><00:57:20.559><c> they</c><00:57:20.799><c> will</c><00:57:20.960><c> have</c>

56:17.283 --> 56:17.293 align:start position:0%
there is a deadly hurdle they will have
 

56:17.293 --> 56:21.604 align:start position:0%
there is a deadly hurdle they will have
to<00:57:21.200><c> overcome</c><00:57:21.680><c> first.</c><00:57:22.640><c> One</c><00:57:22.960><c> that</c><00:57:23.599><c> 75%</c><00:57:25.040><c> of</c><00:57:25.200><c> the</c>

56:21.604 --> 56:21.614 align:start position:0%
to overcome first. One that 75% of the
 

56:21.614 --> 56:24.243 align:start position:0%
to overcome first. One that 75% of the
planet's<00:57:25.920><c> other</c><00:57:26.160><c> species</c><00:57:27.119><c> will</c><00:57:27.359><c> not</c><00:57:27.680><c> make</c><00:57:27.839><c> it</c>

56:24.243 --> 56:24.253 align:start position:0%
planet's other species will not make it
 

56:24.253 --> 56:28.404 align:start position:0%
planet's other species will not make it
past.

56:28.404 --> 56:28.414 align:start position:0%
 
 

56:28.414 --> 56:30.804 align:start position:0%
 
Our<00:57:32.720><c> aliens</c><00:57:33.200><c> need</c><00:57:33.440><c> to</c><00:57:33.599><c> leave,</c><00:57:34.160><c> but</c><00:57:34.400><c> they</c>

56:30.804 --> 56:30.814 align:start position:0%
Our aliens need to leave, but they
 

56:30.814 --> 56:33.763 align:start position:0%
Our aliens need to leave, but they
return<00:57:35.040><c> once</c><00:57:35.359><c> again</c><00:57:35.760><c> roughly</c><00:57:36.319><c> 84</c><00:57:37.200><c> million</c>

56:33.763 --> 56:33.773 align:start position:0%
return once again roughly 84 million
 

56:33.773 --> 56:36.804 align:start position:0%
return once again roughly 84 million
years<00:57:37.920><c> later.</c><00:57:39.119><c> Let's</c><00:57:39.440><c> imagine</c><00:57:39.839><c> our</c><00:57:40.160><c> alien</c>

56:36.804 --> 56:36.814 align:start position:0%
years later. Let's imagine our alien
 

56:36.814 --> 56:39.204 align:start position:0%
years later. Let's imagine our alien
explorers<00:57:41.359><c> decide</c><00:57:41.760><c> to</c><00:57:42.000><c> descend</c><00:57:42.400><c> and</c><00:57:42.720><c> collect</c>

56:39.204 --> 56:39.214 align:start position:0%
explorers decide to descend and collect
 

56:39.214 --> 56:42.164 align:start position:0%
explorers decide to descend and collect
samples<00:57:43.440><c> on</c><00:57:43.599><c> a</c><00:57:43.760><c> certain</c><00:57:44.160><c> day</c><00:57:44.799><c> 66</c><00:57:45.680><c> million</c>

56:42.164 --> 56:42.174 align:start position:0%
samples on a certain day 66 million
 

56:42.174 --> 56:44.884 align:start position:0%
samples on a certain day 66 million
years<00:57:46.240><c> ago.</c><00:57:47.440><c> But</c><00:57:47.599><c> first,</c><00:57:48.000><c> they</c><00:57:48.240><c> need</c><00:57:48.400><c> to</c><00:57:48.559><c> make</c>

56:44.884 --> 56:44.894 align:start position:0%
years ago. But first, they need to make
 

56:44.894 --> 56:47.044 align:start position:0%
years ago. But first, they need to make
a<00:57:48.960><c> pit</c><00:57:49.200><c> stop.</c><00:57:49.839><c> They</c><00:57:50.079><c> are</c><00:57:50.240><c> running</c><00:57:50.480><c> low</c><00:57:50.720><c> on</c>

56:47.044 --> 56:47.054 align:start position:0%
a pit stop. They are running low on
 

56:47.054 --> 56:50.003 align:start position:0%
a pit stop. They are running low on
helium<00:57:51.440><c> 3</c><00:57:52.000><c> and</c><00:57:52.240><c> swing</c><00:57:52.559><c> by</c><00:57:52.880><c> Jupiter</c><00:57:53.280><c> to</c><00:57:53.520><c> fuel</c>

56:50.003 --> 56:50.013 align:start position:0%
helium 3 and swing by Jupiter to fuel
 

56:50.013 --> 56:52.483 align:start position:0%
helium 3 and swing by Jupiter to fuel
up.<00:57:54.559><c> Without</c><00:57:54.960><c> this</c><00:57:55.200><c> source</c><00:57:55.440><c> of</c><00:57:55.599><c> power,</c><00:57:56.079><c> their</c>

56:52.483 --> 56:52.493 align:start position:0%
up. Without this source of power, their
 

56:52.493 --> 56:53.924 align:start position:0%
up. Without this source of power, their
ship<00:57:56.559><c> won't</c><00:57:56.720><c> be</c><00:57:56.799><c> able</c><00:57:56.960><c> to</c><00:57:57.119><c> take</c><00:57:57.280><c> off</c><00:57:57.520><c> again</c>

56:53.924 --> 56:53.934 align:start position:0%
ship won't be able to take off again
 

56:53.934 --> 56:56.483 align:start position:0%
ship won't be able to take off again
once<00:57:58.000><c> they</c><00:57:58.160><c> land</c><00:57:58.400><c> on</c><00:57:58.559><c> Earth.</c><00:57:59.520><c> Tomorrow,</c><00:58:00.079><c> they</c>

56:56.483 --> 56:56.493 align:start position:0%
once they land on Earth. Tomorrow, they
 

56:56.493 --> 56:59.283 align:start position:0%
once they land on Earth. Tomorrow, they
agree.<00:58:00.880><c> They'll</c><00:58:01.200><c> come</c><00:58:01.359><c> back.</c><00:58:02.640><c> When</c><00:58:02.880><c> they</c>

56:59.283 --> 56:59.293 align:start position:0%
agree. They'll come back. When they
 

56:59.293 --> 57:01.604 align:start position:0%
agree. They'll come back. When they
return<00:58:03.599><c> the</c><00:58:03.920><c> next</c><00:58:04.079><c> day,</c><00:58:04.640><c> they</c><00:58:04.880><c> double</c><00:58:05.200><c> check</c>

57:01.604 --> 57:01.614 align:start position:0%
return the next day, they double check
 

57:01.614 --> 57:04.324 align:start position:0%
return the next day, they double check
their<00:58:05.760><c> GPS</c><00:58:06.640><c> or</c><00:58:07.040><c> galactic</c><00:58:07.680><c> positioning</c>

57:04.324 --> 57:04.334 align:start position:0%
their GPS or galactic positioning
 

57:04.334 --> 57:07.283 align:start position:0%
their GPS or galactic positioning
system.<00:58:09.280><c> They</c><00:58:09.520><c> must</c><00:58:09.680><c> have</c><00:58:09.839><c> made</c><00:58:10.000><c> a</c><00:58:10.240><c> mistake.</c>

57:07.283 --> 57:07.293 align:start position:0%
system. They must have made a mistake.
 

57:07.293 --> 57:09.604 align:start position:0%
system. They must have made a mistake.
There<00:58:11.280><c> is</c><00:58:11.520><c> no</c><00:58:11.760><c> way</c><00:58:12.000><c> the</c><00:58:12.400><c> fireball</c><00:58:12.960><c> covered</c><00:58:13.280><c> in</c>

57:09.604 --> 57:09.614 align:start position:0%
There is no way the fireball covered in
 

57:09.614 --> 57:11.924 align:start position:0%
There is no way the fireball covered in
soot<00:58:13.839><c> they</c><00:58:14.000><c> are</c><00:58:14.160><c> looking</c><00:58:14.400><c> at</c><00:58:14.799><c> is</c><00:58:15.119><c> the</c><00:58:15.359><c> same</c>

57:11.924 --> 57:11.934 align:start position:0%
soot they are looking at is the same
 

57:11.934 --> 57:13.523 align:start position:0%
soot they are looking at is the same
thriving<00:58:16.319><c> planet</c><00:58:16.640><c> they</c><00:58:16.880><c> flew</c><00:58:17.119><c> over</c>

57:13.523 --> 57:13.533 align:start position:0%
thriving planet they flew over
 

57:13.533 --> 57:16.243 align:start position:0%
thriving planet they flew over
yesterday.<00:58:18.640><c> Our</c><00:58:18.880><c> alien</c><00:58:19.359><c> friends</c><00:58:19.680><c> are</c>

57:16.243 --> 57:16.253 align:start position:0%
yesterday. Our alien friends are
 

57:16.253 --> 57:18.404 align:start position:0%
yesterday. Our alien friends are
flabbergasted.<00:58:21.440><c> What</c><00:58:21.680><c> could</c><00:58:21.839><c> have</c><00:58:22.000><c> happened</c>

57:18.404 --> 57:18.414 align:start position:0%
flabbergasted. What could have happened
 

57:18.414 --> 57:21.444 align:start position:0%
flabbergasted. What could have happened
to<00:58:22.480><c> cause</c><00:58:22.799><c> such</c><00:58:23.280><c> utter</c><00:58:23.599><c> devastation?</c>

57:21.444 --> 57:21.454 align:start position:0%
to cause such utter devastation?
 

57:21.454 --> 57:23.604 align:start position:0%
to cause such utter devastation?
The<00:58:25.520><c> Earth</c><00:58:25.760><c> they</c><00:58:26.000><c> came</c><00:58:26.160><c> back</c><00:58:26.319><c> to</c><00:58:26.720><c> is</c><00:58:27.040><c> covered</c>

57:23.604 --> 57:23.614 align:start position:0%
The Earth they came back to is covered
 

57:23.614 --> 57:27.444 align:start position:0%
The Earth they came back to is covered
in<00:58:27.760><c> raging</c><00:58:28.319><c> wildfires.</c><00:58:29.440><c> Tsunamis</c><00:58:30.160><c> up</c><00:58:30.319><c> to</c><00:58:30.480><c> 1</c><00:58:30.799><c> km</c>

57:27.444 --> 57:27.454 align:start position:0%
in raging wildfires. Tsunamis up to 1 km
 

57:27.454 --> 57:31.684 align:start position:0%
in raging wildfires. Tsunamis up to 1 km
high.<00:58:32.000><c> An</c><00:58:32.240><c> immense</c><00:58:33.040><c> inescapable</c><00:58:33.920><c> death.</c><00:58:35.280><c> A</c>

57:31.684 --> 57:31.694 align:start position:0%
high. An immense inescapable death. A
 

57:31.694 --> 57:34.804 align:start position:0%
high. An immense inescapable death. A
new<00:58:35.760><c> reality</c><00:58:36.319><c> has</c><00:58:36.559><c> set</c><00:58:36.799><c> in.</c><00:58:37.760><c> One</c><00:58:38.079><c> that</c><00:58:38.319><c> would</c>

57:34.804 --> 57:34.814 align:start position:0%
new reality has set in. One that would
 

57:34.814 --> 57:36.963 align:start position:0%
new reality has set in. One that would
consume<00:58:39.040><c> the</c><00:58:39.280><c> planet</c><00:58:39.599><c> for</c><00:58:39.920><c> the</c><00:58:40.079><c> next</c><00:58:40.480><c> couple</c>

57:36.963 --> 57:36.973 align:start position:0%
consume the planet for the next couple
 

57:36.973 --> 57:40.164 align:start position:0%
consume the planet for the next couple
of<00:58:41.040><c> decades.</c><00:58:42.480><c> To</c><00:58:42.799><c> find</c><00:58:42.960><c> out</c><00:58:43.119><c> what</c><00:58:43.359><c> happened,</c>

57:40.164 --> 57:40.174 align:start position:0%
of decades. To find out what happened,
 

57:40.174 --> 57:42.324 align:start position:0%
of decades. To find out what happened,
let's<00:58:44.319><c> jump</c><00:58:44.559><c> forward</c><00:58:44.880><c> in</c><00:58:45.119><c> time</c><00:58:45.520><c> to</c><00:58:45.760><c> see</c><00:58:45.920><c> what</c>

57:42.324 --> 57:42.334 align:start position:0%
let's jump forward in time to see what
 

57:42.334 --> 57:44.483 align:start position:0%
let's jump forward in time to see what
our<00:58:46.480><c> human</c><00:58:46.880><c> scientists</c><00:58:47.440><c> have</c><00:58:47.599><c> to</c><00:58:47.760><c> say</c><00:58:48.000><c> on</c><00:58:48.160><c> the</c>

57:44.483 --> 57:44.493 align:start position:0%
our human scientists have to say on the
 

57:44.493 --> 57:49.124 align:start position:0%
our human scientists have to say on the
matter.

57:49.124 --> 57:49.134 align:start position:0%
 
 

57:49.134 --> 57:52.164 align:start position:0%
 
In<00:58:53.200><c> the</c><00:58:53.440><c> 1980s,</c><00:58:54.319><c> two</c><00:58:54.720><c> human</c><00:58:55.040><c> scientists</c><00:58:55.680><c> made</c>

57:52.164 --> 57:52.174 align:start position:0%
In the 1980s, two human scientists made
 

57:52.174 --> 57:54.884 align:start position:0%
In the 1980s, two human scientists made
a<00:58:56.240><c> huge</c><00:58:56.640><c> discovery.</c><00:58:57.760><c> They</c><00:58:58.079><c> detected</c><00:58:58.480><c> the</c>

57:54.884 --> 57:54.894 align:start position:0%
a huge discovery. They detected the
 

57:54.894 --> 57:56.723 align:start position:0%
a huge discovery. They detected the
presence<00:58:58.960><c> of</c><00:58:59.119><c> a</c><00:58:59.280><c> chemical</c><00:58:59.760><c> element</c><00:59:00.160><c> called</c>

57:56.723 --> 57:56.733 align:start position:0%
presence of a chemical element called
 

57:56.733 --> 57:59.604 align:start position:0%
presence of a chemical element called
iridium<00:59:01.200><c> in</c><00:59:01.359><c> the</c><00:59:01.520><c> geological</c><00:59:02.160><c> record</c><00:59:02.960><c> exactly</c>

57:59.604 --> 57:59.614 align:start position:0%
iridium in the geological record exactly
 

57:59.614 --> 58:01.523 align:start position:0%
iridium in the geological record exactly
at<00:59:03.599><c> the</c><00:59:03.839><c> point</c><00:59:04.000><c> in</c><00:59:04.240><c> time</c><00:59:04.640><c> dinosaurs</c>

58:01.523 --> 58:01.533 align:start position:0%
at the point in time dinosaurs
 

58:01.533 --> 58:03.924 align:start position:0%
at the point in time dinosaurs
disappeared<00:59:05.920><c> from</c><00:59:06.079><c> the</c><00:59:06.240><c> fossil</c><00:59:06.640><c> record,</c><00:59:07.440><c> also</c>

58:03.924 --> 58:03.934 align:start position:0%
disappeared from the fossil record, also
 

58:03.934 --> 58:07.844 align:start position:0%
disappeared from the fossil record, also
known<00:59:08.079><c> as</c><00:59:08.240><c> the</c><00:59:08.480><c> Cretaceous</c><00:59:09.119><c> Paleogene</c><00:59:10.000><c> or</c><00:59:10.559><c> KPG</c>

58:07.844 --> 58:07.854 align:start position:0%
known as the Cretaceous Paleogene or KPG
 

58:07.854 --> 58:09.444 align:start position:0%
known as the Cretaceous Paleogene or KPG
boundary.

58:09.444 --> 58:09.454 align:start position:0%
boundary.
 

58:09.454 --> 58:12.164 align:start position:0%
boundary.
Not<00:59:13.520><c> only</c><00:59:13.760><c> that,</c><00:59:14.240><c> but</c><00:59:14.559><c> this</c><00:59:14.880><c> specific</c><00:59:15.440><c> iridium</c>

58:12.164 --> 58:12.174 align:start position:0%
Not only that, but this specific iridium
 

58:12.174 --> 58:14.483 align:start position:0%
Not only that, but this specific iridium
ring<00:59:16.319><c> has</c><00:59:16.640><c> consistently</c><00:59:17.359><c> been</c><00:59:17.599><c> found</c><00:59:17.920><c> at</c><00:59:18.079><c> the</c>

58:14.483 --> 58:14.493 align:start position:0%
ring has consistently been found at the
 

58:14.493 --> 58:17.044 align:start position:0%
ring has consistently been found at the
KPG<00:59:18.960><c> boundary</c><00:59:19.440><c> in</c><00:59:19.760><c> samples</c><00:59:20.319><c> taken</c><00:59:20.640><c> from</c>

58:17.044 --> 58:17.054 align:start position:0%
KPG boundary in samples taken from
 

58:17.054 --> 58:19.523 align:start position:0%
KPG boundary in samples taken from
around<00:59:21.200><c> the</c><00:59:21.440><c> world.</c><00:59:22.480><c> It</c><00:59:22.799><c> seemed</c><00:59:23.119><c> like</c>

58:19.523 --> 58:19.533 align:start position:0%
around the world. It seemed like
 

58:19.533 --> 58:22.003 align:start position:0%
around the world. It seemed like
something<00:59:23.839><c> deposited</c><00:59:24.480><c> an</c><00:59:24.799><c> immense</c><00:59:25.280><c> amount</c><00:59:25.599><c> of</c>

58:22.003 --> 58:22.013 align:start position:0%
something deposited an immense amount of
 

58:22.013 --> 58:24.483 align:start position:0%
something deposited an immense amount of
aridium<00:59:26.559><c> all</c><00:59:26.880><c> over</c><00:59:27.119><c> the</c><00:59:27.359><c> Earth's</c><00:59:27.760><c> crust</c><00:59:28.079><c> at</c>

58:24.483 --> 58:24.493 align:start position:0%
aridium all over the Earth's crust at
 

58:24.493 --> 58:26.723 align:start position:0%
aridium all over the Earth's crust at
the<00:59:28.559><c> same</c><00:59:28.799><c> time</c><00:59:29.359><c> that</c><00:59:29.599><c> dinosaurs</c><00:59:30.240><c> went</c>

58:26.723 --> 58:26.733 align:start position:0%
the same time that dinosaurs went
 

58:26.733 --> 58:28.324 align:start position:0%
the same time that dinosaurs went
extinct.

58:28.324 --> 58:28.334 align:start position:0%
extinct.
 

58:28.334 --> 58:30.963 align:start position:0%
extinct.
The<00:59:32.400><c> curious</c><00:59:32.799><c> thing</c><00:59:33.040><c> is</c><00:59:33.440><c> that</c><00:59:33.839><c> iridium</c><00:59:34.480><c> is</c>

58:30.963 --> 58:30.973 align:start position:0%
The curious thing is that iridium is
 

58:30.973 --> 58:33.684 align:start position:0%
The curious thing is that iridium is
usually<00:59:35.440><c> pretty</c><00:59:35.839><c> hard</c><00:59:36.079><c> to</c><00:59:36.240><c> come</c><00:59:36.400><c> by</c><00:59:36.640><c> on</c><00:59:36.799><c> Earth.</c>

58:33.684 --> 58:33.694 align:start position:0%
usually pretty hard to come by on Earth.
 

58:33.694 --> 58:36.003 align:start position:0%
usually pretty hard to come by on Earth.
And<00:59:37.680><c> these</c><00:59:38.079><c> rock</c><00:59:38.480><c> layers</c><00:59:38.720><c> at</c><00:59:38.880><c> the</c><00:59:39.040><c> KPG</c>

58:36.003 --> 58:36.013 align:start position:0%
And these rock layers at the KPG
 

58:36.013 --> 58:39.124 align:start position:0%
And these rock layers at the KPG
boundary<00:59:40.559><c> contained</c><00:59:41.440><c> 200</c><00:59:42.240><c> times</c><00:59:42.559><c> the</c><00:59:42.799><c> amount</c>

58:39.124 --> 58:39.134 align:start position:0%
boundary contained 200 times the amount
 

58:39.134 --> 58:41.283 align:start position:0%
boundary contained 200 times the amount
of<00:59:43.119><c> iridium</c><00:59:43.760><c> we</c><00:59:44.000><c> would</c><00:59:44.160><c> normally</c><00:59:44.559><c> expect</c><00:59:44.880><c> to</c>

58:41.283 --> 58:41.293 align:start position:0%
of iridium we would normally expect to
 

58:41.293 --> 58:44.644 align:start position:0%
of iridium we would normally expect to
find.<00:59:46.319><c> Can</c><00:59:46.559><c> you</c><00:59:46.880><c> guess</c><00:59:47.280><c> where</c><00:59:47.599><c> iridium</c><00:59:48.240><c> is</c>

58:44.644 --> 58:44.654 align:start position:0%
find. Can you guess where iridium is
 

58:44.654 --> 58:48.003 align:start position:0%
find. Can you guess where iridium is
abundant?<00:59:49.839><c> Asteroids.</c>

58:48.003 --> 58:48.013 align:start position:0%
abundant? Asteroids.
 

58:48.013 --> 58:51.283 align:start position:0%
abundant? Asteroids.
But<00:59:52.160><c> if</c><00:59:52.640><c> such</c><00:59:53.119><c> a</c><00:59:53.520><c> catastrophically</c><00:59:54.799><c> large</c>

58:51.283 --> 58:51.293 align:start position:0%
But if such a catastrophically large
 

58:51.293 --> 58:54.164 align:start position:0%
But if such a catastrophically large
asteroid<00:59:55.839><c> did</c><00:59:56.240><c> crash</c><00:59:56.640><c> down</c><00:59:56.880><c> to</c><00:59:57.040><c> Earth,</c><00:59:57.760><c> it</c>

58:54.164 --> 58:54.174 align:start position:0%
asteroid did crash down to Earth, it
 

58:54.174 --> 58:55.924 align:start position:0%
asteroid did crash down to Earth, it
would<00:59:58.160><c> leave</c><00:59:58.400><c> behind</c><00:59:58.720><c> a</c><00:59:58.880><c> crater</c><00:59:59.280><c> that</c><00:59:59.520><c> would</c>

58:55.924 --> 58:55.934 align:start position:0%
would leave behind a crater that would
 

58:55.934 --> 58:59.604 align:start position:0%
would leave behind a crater that would
be<00:59:59.920><c> pretty</c><01:00:00.319><c> hard</c><01:00:00.480><c> to</c><01:00:00.720><c> miss.</c><01:00:01.920><c> Well,</c><01:00:02.640><c> just</c><01:00:02.960><c> a</c><01:00:03.200><c> few</c>

58:59.604 --> 58:59.614 align:start position:0%
be pretty hard to miss. Well, just a few
 

58:59.614 --> 59:02.084 align:start position:0%
be pretty hard to miss. Well, just a few
years<01:00:03.680><c> later,</c><01:00:04.400><c> the</c><01:00:04.640><c> human</c><01:00:04.960><c> scientists</c><01:00:05.520><c> found</c>

59:02.084 --> 59:02.094 align:start position:0%
years later, the human scientists found
 

59:02.094 --> 59:05.684 align:start position:0%
years later, the human scientists found
that,<01:00:06.400><c> too.</c><01:00:07.839><c> Known</c><01:00:08.160><c> today</c><01:00:08.480><c> as</c><01:00:08.720><c> the</c><01:00:08.880><c> Chickixel</c>

59:05.684 --> 59:05.694 align:start position:0%
that, too. Known today as the Chickixel
 

59:05.694 --> 59:07.844 align:start position:0%
that, too. Known today as the Chickixel
Crater,<01:00:10.160><c> it</c><01:00:10.400><c> lies</c><01:00:10.720><c> off</c><01:00:10.880><c> the</c><01:00:11.119><c> coast</c><01:00:11.359><c> of</c><01:00:11.520><c> the</c>

59:07.844 --> 59:07.854 align:start position:0%
Crater, it lies off the coast of the
 

59:07.854 --> 59:11.124 align:start position:0%
Crater, it lies off the coast of the
Yucatan<01:00:12.400><c> Peninsula</c><01:00:12.960><c> in</c><01:00:13.280><c> Mexico</c><01:00:14.079><c> and</c><01:00:14.400><c> spans</c><01:00:14.799><c> a</c>

59:11.124 --> 59:11.134 align:start position:0%
Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico and spans a
 

59:11.134 --> 59:14.084 align:start position:0%
Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico and spans a
whopping<01:00:15.760><c> 200</c><01:00:16.400><c> km.</c>

59:14.084 --> 59:14.094 align:start position:0%
whopping 200 km.
 

59:14.094 --> 59:16.404 align:start position:0%
whopping 200 km.
After<01:00:18.319><c> some</c><01:00:18.559><c> testing,</c><01:00:19.280><c> researchers</c><01:00:19.839><c> confirm</c>

59:16.404 --> 59:16.414 align:start position:0%
After some testing, researchers confirm
 

59:16.414 --> 59:19.283 align:start position:0%
After some testing, researchers confirm
the<01:00:20.480><c> age</c><01:00:20.720><c> of</c><01:00:20.799><c> the</c><01:00:20.960><c> crater</c><01:00:21.359><c> as</c><01:00:21.680><c> being</c><01:00:21.920><c> about</c><01:00:22.400><c> 66</c>

59:19.283 --> 59:19.293 align:start position:0%
the age of the crater as being about 66
 

59:19.293 --> 59:22.324 align:start position:0%
the age of the crater as being about 66
million<01:00:23.520><c> years</c><01:00:23.760><c> old,</c><01:00:24.640><c> lining</c><01:00:25.040><c> it</c><01:00:25.280><c> up</c><01:00:25.599><c> exactly</c>

59:22.324 --> 59:22.334 align:start position:0%
million years old, lining it up exactly
 

59:22.334 --> 59:25.124 align:start position:0%
million years old, lining it up exactly
with<01:00:26.400><c> the</c><01:00:26.559><c> aridium</c><01:00:27.040><c> in</c><01:00:27.200><c> the</c><01:00:27.359><c> KPG</c><01:00:28.000><c> boundary</c><01:00:28.720><c> and</c>

59:25.124 --> 59:25.134 align:start position:0%
with the aridium in the KPG boundary and
 

59:25.134 --> 59:27.124 align:start position:0%
with the aridium in the KPG boundary and
the<01:00:29.200><c> disappearance</c><01:00:29.760><c> of</c><01:00:30.000><c> dinosaurs</c><01:00:30.640><c> from</c><01:00:30.799><c> the</c>

59:27.124 --> 59:27.134 align:start position:0%
the disappearance of dinosaurs from the
 

59:27.134 --> 59:29.124 align:start position:0%
the disappearance of dinosaurs from the
fossil<01:00:31.359><c> record.</c>

59:29.124 --> 59:29.134 align:start position:0%
fossil record.
 

59:29.134 --> 59:30.723 align:start position:0%
fossil record.
Another<01:00:33.359><c> core</c><01:00:33.680><c> piece</c><01:00:33.839><c> of</c><01:00:34.000><c> evidence</c><01:00:34.319><c> that</c>

59:30.723 --> 59:30.733 align:start position:0%
Another core piece of evidence that
 

59:30.733 --> 59:32.644 align:start position:0%
Another core piece of evidence that
supports<01:00:34.960><c> the</c><01:00:35.119><c> asteroid</c><01:00:35.599><c> theory</c><01:00:36.160><c> is</c>

59:32.644 --> 59:32.654 align:start position:0%
supports the asteroid theory is
 

59:32.654 --> 59:35.444 align:start position:0%
supports the asteroid theory is
something<01:00:36.880><c> called</c><01:00:37.280><c> tectites.</c><01:00:38.720><c> They've</c><01:00:39.119><c> been</c>

59:35.444 --> 59:35.454 align:start position:0%
something called tectites. They've been
 

59:35.454 --> 59:38.243 align:start position:0%
something called tectites. They've been
found<01:00:39.599><c> in</c><01:00:39.839><c> abundance</c><01:00:40.400><c> in</c><01:00:40.720><c> several</c><01:00:41.119><c> places</c>

59:38.243 --> 59:38.253 align:start position:0%
found in abundance in several places
 

59:38.253 --> 59:40.324 align:start position:0%
found in abundance in several places
with<01:00:42.480><c> one</c><01:00:42.720><c> of</c><01:00:42.880><c> the</c><01:00:43.119><c> most</c><01:00:43.440><c> astounding</c>

59:40.324 --> 59:40.334 align:start position:0%
with one of the most astounding
 

59:40.334 --> 59:42.884 align:start position:0%
with one of the most astounding
discoveries<01:00:44.880><c> coming</c><01:00:45.200><c> from</c><01:00:45.520><c> North</c><01:00:45.839><c> Dakota,</c>

59:42.884 --> 59:42.894 align:start position:0%
discoveries coming from North Dakota,
 

59:42.894 --> 59:46.243 align:start position:0%
discoveries coming from North Dakota,
USA.<01:00:48.160><c> The</c><01:00:48.400><c> leading</c><01:00:48.720><c> theory</c><01:00:49.200><c> is</c><01:00:49.440><c> that</c><01:00:49.599><c> they</c><01:00:49.839><c> are</c>

59:46.243 --> 59:46.253 align:start position:0%
USA. The leading theory is that they are
 

59:46.253 --> 59:48.804 align:start position:0%
USA. The leading theory is that they are
actually<01:00:50.480><c> pieces</c><01:00:50.880><c> of</c><01:00:51.119><c> molten</c><01:00:51.680><c> earth</c><01:00:52.079><c> crust</c>

59:48.804 --> 59:48.814 align:start position:0%
actually pieces of molten earth crust
 

59:48.814 --> 59:50.804 align:start position:0%
actually pieces of molten earth crust
that<01:00:52.960><c> were</c><01:00:53.119><c> shot</c><01:00:53.440><c> up</c><01:00:53.680><c> into</c><01:00:53.920><c> the</c><01:00:54.079><c> sky</c><01:00:54.319><c> on</c>

59:50.804 --> 59:50.814 align:start position:0%
that were shot up into the sky on
 

59:50.814 --> 59:53.204 align:start position:0%
that were shot up into the sky on
impact.<01:00:55.680><c> High</c><01:00:56.000><c> in</c><01:00:56.160><c> the</c><01:00:56.240><c> atmosphere,</c><01:00:56.880><c> they</c>

59:53.204 --> 59:53.214 align:start position:0%
impact. High in the atmosphere, they
 

59:53.214 --> 59:55.604 align:start position:0%
impact. High in the atmosphere, they
cooled<01:00:57.440><c> into</c><01:00:57.760><c> natural</c><01:00:58.160><c> glass</c><01:00:58.799><c> and</c><01:00:59.040><c> then</c>

59:55.604 --> 59:55.614 align:start position:0%
cooled into natural glass and then
 

59:55.614 --> 59:58.003 align:start position:0%
cooled into natural glass and then
rained<01:00:59.920><c> back</c><01:01:00.160><c> down</c><01:01:00.640><c> onto</c><01:01:01.040><c> the</c><01:01:01.200><c> Earth</c><01:01:01.440><c> in</c><01:01:01.680><c> a</c>

59:58.003 --> 59:58.013 align:start position:0%
rained back down onto the Earth in a
 

59:58.013 --> 01:00:02.483 align:start position:0%
rained back down onto the Earth in a
glass<01:01:02.160><c> shower</c><01:01:02.799><c> at</c><01:01:03.200><c> speeds</c><01:01:03.599><c> of</c><01:01:04.240><c> 160</c><01:01:05.200><c> to</c><01:01:05.680><c> 300</c>

01:00:02.483 --> 01:00:02.493 align:start position:0%
glass shower at speeds of 160 to 300
 

01:00:02.493 --> 01:00:04.164 align:start position:0%
glass shower at speeds of 160 to 300
kmh.

01:00:04.164 --> 01:00:04.174 align:start position:0%
kmh.
 

01:00:04.174 --> 01:00:08.723 align:start position:0%
kmh.
And<01:01:08.319><c> remember,</c><01:01:09.280><c> North</c><01:01:09.599><c> Dakota</c><01:01:10.319><c> is</c><01:01:10.880><c> 3,000</c><01:01:12.000><c> km</c>

01:00:08.723 --> 01:00:08.733 align:start position:0%
And remember, North Dakota is 3,000 km
 

01:00:08.733 --> 01:00:15.124 align:start position:0%
And remember, North Dakota is 3,000 km
away<01:01:12.799><c> from</c><01:01:13.040><c> the</c><01:01:13.200><c> impact.</c>

01:00:15.124 --> 01:00:15.134 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:00:15.134 --> 01:00:17.604 align:start position:0%
 
So,<01:01:19.520><c> let's</c><01:01:19.920><c> gather</c><01:01:20.240><c> this</c><01:01:20.480><c> evidence</c><01:01:20.880><c> together</c>

01:00:17.604 --> 01:00:17.614 align:start position:0%
So, let's gather this evidence together
 

01:00:17.614 --> 01:00:19.604 align:start position:0%
So, let's gather this evidence together
and<01:01:21.760><c> paint</c><01:01:22.000><c> a</c><01:01:22.240><c> picture</c><01:01:22.480><c> for</c><01:01:22.799><c> our</c><01:01:23.040><c> alien</c>

01:00:19.604 --> 01:00:19.614 align:start position:0%
and paint a picture for our alien
 

01:00:19.614 --> 01:00:21.364 align:start position:0%
and paint a picture for our alien
travelers<01:01:24.000><c> of</c><01:01:24.319><c> what</c><01:01:24.480><c> could</c><01:01:24.640><c> have</c><01:01:24.799><c> happened</c><01:01:25.040><c> to</c>

01:00:21.364 --> 01:00:21.374 align:start position:0%
travelers of what could have happened to
 

01:00:21.374 --> 01:00:24.644 align:start position:0%
travelers of what could have happened to
Earth<01:01:25.520><c> while</c><01:01:25.839><c> they</c><01:01:26.079><c> were</c><01:01:26.240><c> filling</c><01:01:26.559><c> up</c><01:01:26.799><c> on</c><01:01:27.040><c> gas.</c>

01:00:24.644 --> 01:00:24.654 align:start position:0%
Earth while they were filling up on gas.
 

01:00:24.654 --> 01:00:26.884 align:start position:0%
Earth while they were filling up on gas.
As<01:01:28.720><c> our</c><01:01:28.960><c> extraterrestrial</c><01:01:29.920><c> explorers</c><01:01:30.480><c> turned</c>

01:00:26.884 --> 01:00:26.894 align:start position:0%
As our extraterrestrial explorers turned
 

01:00:26.894 --> 01:00:28.564 align:start position:0%
As our extraterrestrial explorers turned
their<01:01:30.960><c> back</c><01:01:31.200><c> to</c><01:01:31.359><c> Earth,</c><01:01:31.839><c> they</c><01:01:32.079><c> might</c><01:01:32.240><c> have</c>

01:00:28.564 --> 01:00:28.574 align:start position:0%
their back to Earth, they might have
 

01:00:28.574 --> 01:00:31.044 align:start position:0%
their back to Earth, they might have
noticed<01:01:32.799><c> an</c><01:01:33.040><c> asteroid</c><01:01:33.680><c> accelerating</c><01:01:34.480><c> towards</c>

01:00:31.044 --> 01:00:31.054 align:start position:0%
noticed an asteroid accelerating towards
 

01:00:31.054 --> 01:00:33.444 align:start position:0%
noticed an asteroid accelerating towards
the<01:01:35.040><c> planet,</c><01:01:35.760><c> getting</c><01:01:36.160><c> brighter</c><01:01:36.640><c> and</c><01:01:36.880><c> bigger</c>

01:00:33.444 --> 01:00:33.454 align:start position:0%
the planet, getting brighter and bigger
 

01:00:33.454 --> 01:00:36.243 align:start position:0%
the planet, getting brighter and bigger
against<01:01:37.599><c> the</c><01:01:37.760><c> blackness</c><01:01:38.240><c> of</c><01:01:38.400><c> space.</c><01:01:39.359><c> About</c><01:01:39.680><c> 10</c>

01:00:36.243 --> 01:00:36.253 align:start position:0%
against the blackness of space. About 10
 

01:00:36.253 --> 01:00:41.444 align:start position:0%
against the blackness of space. About 10
to<01:01:40.400><c> 15</c><01:01:40.799><c> km</c><01:01:41.280><c> wide</c><01:01:41.839><c> and</c><01:01:42.079><c> traveling</c><01:01:42.480><c> at</c><01:01:43.040><c> 72,000</c><01:01:44.480><c> km</c>

01:00:41.444 --> 01:00:41.454 align:start position:0%
to 15 km wide and traveling at 72,000 km
 

01:00:41.454 --> 01:00:44.003 align:start position:0%
to 15 km wide and traveling at 72,000 km
hour,<01:01:46.000><c> it</c><01:01:46.240><c> makes</c><01:01:46.559><c> contact</c><01:01:47.119><c> just</c><01:01:47.440><c> off</c><01:01:47.599><c> the</c>

01:00:44.003 --> 01:00:44.013 align:start position:0%
hour, it makes contact just off the
 

01:00:44.013 --> 01:00:45.924 align:start position:0%
hour, it makes contact just off the
shore<01:01:48.079><c> of</c><01:01:48.240><c> the</c><01:01:48.319><c> Yucatan</c><01:01:48.960><c> Peninsula</c><01:01:49.520><c> of</c>

01:00:45.924 --> 01:00:45.934 align:start position:0%
shore of the Yucatan Peninsula of
 

01:00:45.934 --> 01:00:48.243 align:start position:0%
shore of the Yucatan Peninsula of
modern-day<01:01:50.400><c> Mexico.</c>

01:00:48.243 --> 01:00:48.253 align:start position:0%
modern-day Mexico.
 

01:00:48.253 --> 01:00:51.684 align:start position:0%
modern-day Mexico.
This<01:01:52.480><c> releases</c><01:01:53.200><c> an</c><01:01:53.520><c> insane</c><01:01:54.240><c> amount</c><01:01:54.559><c> of</c><01:01:54.799><c> energy</c>

01:00:51.684 --> 01:00:51.694 align:start position:0%
This releases an insane amount of energy
 

01:00:51.694 --> 01:00:54.164 align:start position:0%
This releases an insane amount of energy
all<01:01:55.839><c> at</c><01:01:56.160><c> one</c><01:01:56.400><c> go.</c><01:01:57.119><c> the</c><01:01:57.359><c> equivalent</c><01:01:57.839><c> of</c>

01:00:54.164 --> 01:00:54.174 align:start position:0%
all at one go. the equivalent of
 

01:00:54.174 --> 01:00:56.804 align:start position:0%
all at one go. the equivalent of
detonating<01:01:58.880><c> billions</c><01:01:59.440><c> of</c><01:01:59.760><c> nuclear</c><01:02:00.160><c> weapons</c>

01:00:56.804 --> 01:00:56.814 align:start position:0%
detonating billions of nuclear weapons
 

01:00:56.814 --> 01:00:59.924 align:start position:0%
detonating billions of nuclear weapons
at<01:02:00.880><c> the</c><01:02:01.040><c> same</c><01:02:01.280><c> time.</c><01:02:02.480><c> This</c><01:02:02.720><c> was</c><01:02:02.960><c> an</c><01:02:03.200><c> earthquake</c>

01:00:59.924 --> 01:00:59.934 align:start position:0%
at the same time. This was an earthquake
 

01:00:59.934 --> 01:01:03.283 align:start position:0%
at the same time. This was an earthquake
felt<01:02:04.240><c> around</c><01:02:04.640><c> the</c><01:02:04.880><c> globe.</c><01:02:06.079><c> There's</c><01:02:06.400><c> no</c><01:02:06.559><c> way</c><01:02:06.799><c> it</c>

01:01:03.283 --> 01:01:03.293 align:start position:0%
felt around the globe. There's no way it
 

01:01:03.293 --> 01:01:05.684 align:start position:0%
felt around the globe. There's no way it
went<01:02:07.280><c> unnoticed,</c><01:02:08.160><c> even</c><01:02:08.400><c> by</c><01:02:08.720><c> animals</c><01:02:09.119><c> on</c><01:02:09.359><c> the</c>

01:01:05.684 --> 01:01:05.694 align:start position:0%
went unnoticed, even by animals on the
 

01:01:05.694 --> 01:01:07.763 align:start position:0%
went unnoticed, even by animals on the
other<01:02:09.839><c> side</c><01:02:10.079><c> of</c><01:02:10.240><c> the</c><01:02:10.480><c> planet</c><01:02:10.880><c> in</c><01:02:11.119><c> modern-day</c>

01:01:07.763 --> 01:01:07.773 align:start position:0%
other side of the planet in modern-day
 

01:01:07.773 --> 01:01:10.884 align:start position:0%
other side of the planet in modern-day
Indonesia.<01:02:13.040><c> At</c><01:02:13.359><c> the</c><01:02:13.520><c> impact</c><01:02:13.920><c> site,</c><01:02:14.480><c> the</c>

01:01:10.884 --> 01:01:10.894 align:start position:0%
Indonesia. At the impact site, the
 

01:01:10.894 --> 01:01:12.884 align:start position:0%
Indonesia. At the impact site, the
thermal<01:02:15.119><c> radiation</c><01:02:15.760><c> burns</c><01:02:16.240><c> everything</c>

01:01:12.884 --> 01:01:12.894 align:start position:0%
thermal radiation burns everything
 

01:01:12.894 --> 01:01:17.044 align:start position:0%
thermal radiation burns everything
within<01:02:17.119><c> a</c><01:02:17.359><c> 1,500</c><01:02:18.559><c> km</c><01:02:19.040><c> radius.</c><01:02:20.160><c> The</c><01:02:20.480><c> force</c><01:02:20.720><c> of</c>

01:01:17.044 --> 01:01:17.054 align:start position:0%
within a 1,500 km radius. The force of
 

01:01:17.054 --> 01:01:18.884 align:start position:0%
within a 1,500 km radius. The force of
the<01:02:21.040><c> impact</c><01:02:21.359><c> from</c><01:02:21.520><c> the</c><01:02:21.680><c> asteroid</c><01:02:22.240><c> makes</c><01:02:22.559><c> the</c>

01:01:18.884 --> 01:01:18.894 align:start position:0%
the impact from the asteroid makes the
 

01:01:18.894 --> 01:01:22.084 align:start position:0%
the impact from the asteroid makes the
Earth's<01:02:23.119><c> crust</c><01:02:23.520><c> go</c><01:02:23.760><c> molten</c><01:02:24.480><c> and</c><01:02:24.880><c> splash</c><01:02:25.359><c> up</c>

01:01:22.084 --> 01:01:22.094 align:start position:0%
Earth's crust go molten and splash up
 

01:01:22.094 --> 01:01:24.084 align:start position:0%
Earth's crust go molten and splash up
like<01:02:26.319><c> water</c><01:02:26.720><c> after</c><01:02:27.040><c> a</c><01:02:27.200><c> pebble</c><01:02:27.599><c> has</c><01:02:27.839><c> been</c>

01:01:24.084 --> 01:01:24.094 align:start position:0%
like water after a pebble has been
 

01:01:24.094 --> 01:01:26.644 align:start position:0%
like water after a pebble has been
dropped<01:02:28.240><c> in,</c><01:02:29.040><c> leaving</c><01:02:29.359><c> behind</c><01:02:29.760><c> a</c><01:02:30.000><c> monstrous</c>

01:01:26.644 --> 01:01:26.654 align:start position:0%
dropped in, leaving behind a monstrous
 

01:01:26.654 --> 01:01:32.483 align:start position:0%
dropped in, leaving behind a monstrous
crater<01:02:31.280><c> 25</c><01:02:31.920><c> km</c><01:02:32.480><c> deep</c><01:02:33.200><c> and</c><01:02:33.760><c> 100</c><01:02:34.240><c> km</c><01:02:34.799><c> wide.</c>

01:01:32.483 --> 01:01:32.493 align:start position:0%
crater 25 km deep and 100 km wide.
 

01:01:32.493 --> 01:01:34.884 align:start position:0%
crater 25 km deep and 100 km wide.
This<01:02:36.559><c> causes</c><01:02:36.880><c> a</c><01:02:37.119><c> chain</c><01:02:37.440><c> reaction</c><01:02:37.920><c> of</c><01:02:38.160><c> enormous</c>

01:01:34.884 --> 01:01:34.894 align:start position:0%
This causes a chain reaction of enormous
 

01:01:34.894 --> 01:01:37.844 align:start position:0%
This causes a chain reaction of enormous
tidal<01:02:39.119><c> waves</c><01:02:39.839><c> hundreds</c><01:02:40.240><c> of</c><01:02:40.400><c> meters</c><01:02:40.799><c> high</c><01:02:41.440><c> as</c>

01:01:37.844 --> 01:01:37.854 align:start position:0%
tidal waves hundreds of meters high as
 

01:01:37.854 --> 01:01:39.684 align:start position:0%
tidal waves hundreds of meters high as
the<01:02:41.839><c> ocean</c><01:02:42.160><c> is</c><01:02:42.400><c> pushed</c><01:02:42.799><c> back</c><01:02:43.040><c> from</c><01:02:43.280><c> the</c>

01:01:39.684 --> 01:01:39.694 align:start position:0%
the ocean is pushed back from the
 

01:01:39.694 --> 01:01:42.084 align:start position:0%
the ocean is pushed back from the
immense<01:02:44.079><c> force.</c>

01:01:42.084 --> 01:01:42.094 align:start position:0%
immense force.
 

01:01:42.094 --> 01:01:44.644 align:start position:0%
immense force.
Meanwhile,<01:02:46.960><c> trillions</c><01:02:47.440><c> of</c><01:02:47.599><c> metric</c><01:02:48.000><c> tons</c><01:02:48.319><c> of</c>

01:01:44.644 --> 01:01:44.654 align:start position:0%
Meanwhile, trillions of metric tons of
 

01:01:44.654 --> 01:01:47.444 align:start position:0%
Meanwhile, trillions of metric tons of
debris,<01:02:49.200><c> about</c><01:02:49.760><c> 60</c><01:02:50.160><c> times</c><01:02:50.480><c> the</c><01:02:50.720><c> mass</c><01:02:50.960><c> of</c><01:02:51.119><c> the</c>

01:01:47.444 --> 01:01:47.454 align:start position:0%
debris, about 60 times the mass of the
 

01:01:47.454 --> 01:01:49.924 align:start position:0%
debris, about 60 times the mass of the
asteroid,<01:02:52.319><c> explodes</c><01:02:53.040><c> up</c><01:02:53.280><c> into</c><01:02:53.599><c> the</c>

01:01:49.924 --> 01:01:49.934 align:start position:0%
asteroid, explodes up into the
 

01:01:49.934 --> 01:01:52.644 align:start position:0%
asteroid, explodes up into the
atmosphere.<01:02:55.200><c> Some</c><01:02:55.440><c> of</c><01:02:55.520><c> this</c><01:02:55.760><c> debris</c><01:02:56.240><c> are</c>

01:01:52.644 --> 01:01:52.654 align:start position:0%
atmosphere. Some of this debris are
 

01:01:52.654 --> 01:01:55.763 align:start position:0%
atmosphere. Some of this debris are
chunks<01:02:56.880><c> of</c><01:02:57.119><c> molten</c><01:02:57.599><c> earth</c><01:02:58.000><c> crust,</c><01:02:58.720><c> which</c><01:02:59.359><c> high</c>

01:01:55.763 --> 01:01:55.773 align:start position:0%
chunks of molten earth crust, which high
 

01:01:55.773 --> 01:01:59.763 align:start position:0%
chunks of molten earth crust, which high
in<01:02:59.760><c> the</c><01:02:59.839><c> atmosphere</c><01:03:00.720><c> coales</c><01:03:01.520><c> into</c><01:03:01.839><c> tectites.</c>

01:01:59.763 --> 01:01:59.773 align:start position:0%
in the atmosphere coales into tectites.
 

01:01:59.773 --> 01:02:03.204 align:start position:0%
in the atmosphere coales into tectites.
And<01:03:04.000><c> inevitably,</c><01:03:05.119><c> what</c><01:03:05.359><c> goes</c><01:03:05.599><c> up</c><01:03:06.319><c> must</c><01:03:06.799><c> come</c>

01:02:03.204 --> 01:02:03.214 align:start position:0%
And inevitably, what goes up must come
 

01:02:03.214 --> 01:02:05.604 align:start position:0%
And inevitably, what goes up must come
down.

01:02:05.604 --> 01:02:05.614 align:start position:0%
down.
 

01:02:05.614 --> 01:02:08.084 align:start position:0%
down.
For<01:03:09.680><c> about</c><01:03:10.160><c> 15</c><01:03:10.799><c> minutes</c><01:03:11.280><c> following</c><01:03:11.680><c> the</c>

01:02:08.084 --> 01:02:08.094 align:start position:0%
For about 15 minutes following the
 

01:02:08.094 --> 01:02:10.404 align:start position:0%
For about 15 minutes following the
initial<01:03:12.240><c> impact,</c><01:03:12.960><c> Earth</c><01:03:13.280><c> is</c><01:03:13.520><c> covered</c><01:03:13.839><c> in</c><01:03:14.079><c> a</c>

01:02:10.404 --> 01:02:10.414 align:start position:0%
initial impact, Earth is covered in a
 

01:02:10.414 --> 01:02:13.523 align:start position:0%
initial impact, Earth is covered in a
torrential<01:03:14.799><c> storm</c><01:03:15.200><c> of</c><01:03:15.520><c> fire</c><01:03:15.839><c> rain.</c>

01:02:13.523 --> 01:02:13.533 align:start position:0%
torrential storm of fire rain.
 

01:02:13.533 --> 01:02:15.924 align:start position:0%
torrential storm of fire rain.
Falling<01:03:17.760><c> debris</c><01:03:18.319><c> heats</c><01:03:18.640><c> up</c><01:03:18.880><c> to</c><01:03:19.119><c> hundreds</c><01:03:19.520><c> of</c>

01:02:15.924 --> 01:02:15.934 align:start position:0%
Falling debris heats up to hundreds of
 

01:02:15.934 --> 01:02:18.324 align:start position:0%
Falling debris heats up to hundreds of
degrees<01:03:20.079><c> C</c><01:03:20.640><c> as</c><01:03:20.880><c> it</c><01:03:21.039><c> passes</c><01:03:21.440><c> through</c><01:03:21.760><c> Earth's</c>

01:02:18.324 --> 01:02:18.334 align:start position:0%
degrees C as it passes through Earth's
 

01:02:18.334 --> 01:02:21.763 align:start position:0%
degrees C as it passes through Earth's
atmosphere.<01:03:23.359><c> This</c><01:03:23.680><c> sets</c><01:03:24.000><c> the</c><01:03:24.240><c> world</c><01:03:24.480><c> on</c><01:03:24.720><c> fire,</c>

01:02:21.763 --> 01:02:21.773 align:start position:0%
atmosphere. This sets the world on fire,
 

01:02:21.773 --> 01:02:26.243 align:start position:0%
atmosphere. This sets the world on fire,
burning<01:03:26.000><c> down</c><01:03:26.799><c> 70%</c><01:03:27.760><c> of</c><01:03:28.000><c> its</c><01:03:28.319><c> forests.</c>

01:02:26.243 --> 01:02:26.253 align:start position:0%
burning down 70% of its forests.
 

01:02:26.253 --> 01:02:28.084 align:start position:0%
burning down 70% of its forests.
Vaporized<01:03:30.799><c> material</c><01:03:31.119><c> that</c><01:03:31.440><c> doesn't</c><01:03:31.680><c> rain</c>

01:02:28.084 --> 01:02:28.094 align:start position:0%
Vaporized material that doesn't rain
 

01:02:28.094 --> 01:02:30.723 align:start position:0%
Vaporized material that doesn't rain
down<01:03:32.160><c> as</c><01:03:32.400><c> debris,</c><01:03:32.960><c> such</c><01:03:33.200><c> as</c><01:03:33.520><c> silica</c><01:03:34.000><c> dust</c><01:03:34.319><c> from</c>

01:02:30.723 --> 01:02:30.733 align:start position:0%
down as debris, such as silica dust from
 

01:02:30.733 --> 01:02:32.723 align:start position:0%
down as debris, such as silica dust from
rocks,<01:03:35.280><c> stays</c><01:03:35.680><c> suspended</c><01:03:36.240><c> in</c><01:03:36.480><c> the</c>

01:02:32.723 --> 01:02:32.733 align:start position:0%
rocks, stays suspended in the
 

01:02:32.733 --> 01:02:35.283 align:start position:0%
rocks, stays suspended in the
atmosphere,<01:03:37.520><c> along</c><01:03:37.920><c> with</c><01:03:38.240><c> unbelievable</c>

01:02:35.283 --> 01:02:35.293 align:start position:0%
atmosphere, along with unbelievable
 

01:02:35.293 --> 01:02:37.523 align:start position:0%
atmosphere, along with unbelievable
amounts<01:03:39.440><c> of</c><01:03:39.599><c> soot</c><01:03:40.000><c> and</c><01:03:40.319><c> carbon</c><01:03:40.640><c> dioxide</c>

01:02:37.523 --> 01:02:37.533 align:start position:0%
amounts of soot and carbon dioxide
 

01:02:37.533 --> 01:02:40.804 align:start position:0%
amounts of soot and carbon dioxide
rising<01:03:41.760><c> from</c><01:03:42.000><c> the</c><01:03:42.160><c> wildfires.</c>

01:02:40.804 --> 01:02:40.814 align:start position:0%
rising from the wildfires.
 

01:02:40.814 --> 01:02:42.963 align:start position:0%
rising from the wildfires.
If<01:03:44.880><c> you're</c><01:03:45.119><c> breathing</c><01:03:45.520><c> a</c><01:03:45.680><c> sigh</c><01:03:45.920><c> of</c><01:03:46.079><c> relief</c><01:03:46.480><c> for</c>

01:02:42.963 --> 01:02:42.973 align:start position:0%
If you're breathing a sigh of relief for
 

01:02:42.973 --> 01:02:45.364 align:start position:0%
If you're breathing a sigh of relief for
our<01:03:47.200><c> Indonesian</c><01:03:48.000><c> dinosaur</c><01:03:48.559><c> friends</c><01:03:48.880><c> on</c><01:03:49.039><c> the</c>

01:02:45.364 --> 01:02:45.374 align:start position:0%
our Indonesian dinosaur friends on the
 

01:02:45.374 --> 01:02:48.404 align:start position:0%
our Indonesian dinosaur friends on the
other<01:03:49.440><c> side</c><01:03:49.599><c> of</c><01:03:49.760><c> the</c><01:03:49.920><c> planet,</c><01:03:50.880><c> don't.</c><01:03:52.000><c> Like</c>

01:02:48.404 --> 01:02:48.414 align:start position:0%
other side of the planet, don't. Like
 

01:02:48.414 --> 01:02:50.644 align:start position:0%
other side of the planet, don't. Like
with<01:03:52.480><c> most</c><01:03:52.720><c> things,</c><01:03:53.280><c> it's</c><01:03:53.599><c> never</c><01:03:53.839><c> the</c><01:03:54.079><c> actual</c>

01:02:50.644 --> 01:02:50.654 align:start position:0%
with most things, it's never the actual
 

01:02:50.654 --> 01:02:52.164 align:start position:0%
with most things, it's never the actual
impact<01:03:54.799><c> that</c><01:03:55.039><c> leads</c><01:03:55.280><c> to</c><01:03:55.440><c> the</c><01:03:55.680><c> most</c>

01:02:52.164 --> 01:02:52.174 align:start position:0%
impact that leads to the most
 

01:02:52.174 --> 01:02:55.523 align:start position:0%
impact that leads to the most
devastation.<01:03:57.200><c> It's</c><01:03:57.440><c> the</c><01:03:57.680><c> aftermath.</c><01:03:59.119><c> The</c>

01:02:55.523 --> 01:02:55.533 align:start position:0%
devastation. It's the aftermath. The
 

01:02:55.533 --> 01:02:57.604 align:start position:0%
devastation. It's the aftermath. The
buildup<01:03:59.760><c> of</c><01:03:59.920><c> gases</c><01:04:00.319><c> and</c><01:04:00.480><c> particle</c><01:04:00.880><c> debris</c><01:04:01.280><c> in</c>

01:02:57.604 --> 01:02:57.614 align:start position:0%
buildup of gases and particle debris in
 

01:02:57.614 --> 01:02:59.924 align:start position:0%
buildup of gases and particle debris in
the<01:04:01.520><c> atmosphere</c><01:04:02.160><c> blocks</c><01:04:02.640><c> out</c><01:04:02.799><c> the</c><01:04:03.039><c> sun,</c>

01:02:59.924 --> 01:02:59.934 align:start position:0%
the atmosphere blocks out the sun,
 

01:02:59.934 --> 01:03:01.763 align:start position:0%
the atmosphere blocks out the sun,
plunging<01:04:04.240><c> the</c><01:04:04.400><c> planet</c><01:04:04.720><c> into</c><01:04:04.960><c> an</c><01:04:05.200><c> impact</c>

01:03:01.763 --> 01:03:01.773 align:start position:0%
plunging the planet into an impact
 

01:03:01.773 --> 01:03:05.684 align:start position:0%
plunging the planet into an impact
winter<01:04:06.160><c> that</c><01:04:06.400><c> will</c><01:04:06.640><c> last</c><01:04:06.960><c> at</c><01:04:07.039><c> least</c><01:04:07.760><c> 15</c><01:04:08.160><c> years.</c>

01:03:05.684 --> 01:03:05.694 align:start position:0%
winter that will last at least 15 years.
 

01:03:05.694 --> 01:03:08.003 align:start position:0%
winter that will last at least 15 years.
With<01:04:09.839><c> no</c><01:04:10.079><c> sun,</c><01:04:10.720><c> plants</c><01:04:11.039><c> are</c><01:04:11.280><c> unable</c><01:04:11.680><c> to</c>

01:03:08.003 --> 01:03:08.013 align:start position:0%
With no sun, plants are unable to
 

01:03:08.013 --> 01:03:10.564 align:start position:0%
With no sun, plants are unable to
photosynthesize,<01:04:13.119><c> and</c><01:04:13.359><c> both</c><01:04:13.680><c> terrestrial</c>

01:03:10.564 --> 01:03:10.574 align:start position:0%
photosynthesize, and both terrestrial
 

01:03:10.574 --> 01:03:13.844 align:start position:0%
photosynthesize, and both terrestrial
and<01:04:14.799><c> marine</c><01:04:15.200><c> food</c><01:04:15.440><c> chains</c><01:04:16.000><c> collapse.</c>

01:03:13.844 --> 01:03:13.854 align:start position:0%
and marine food chains collapse.
 

01:03:13.854 --> 01:03:16.804 align:start position:0%
and marine food chains collapse.
Earth<01:04:18.160><c> is</c><01:04:18.400><c> a</c><01:04:18.720><c> totally</c><01:04:19.440><c> apocalyptic</c><01:04:20.319><c> version</c>

01:03:16.804 --> 01:03:16.814 align:start position:0%
Earth is a totally apocalyptic version
 

01:03:16.814 --> 01:03:19.924 align:start position:0%
Earth is a totally apocalyptic version
of<01:04:20.880><c> its</c><01:04:21.119><c> former</c><01:04:21.520><c> glory.</c><01:04:22.480><c> No</c><01:04:22.720><c> wonder</c><01:04:23.039><c> our</c><01:04:23.280><c> alien</c>

01:03:19.924 --> 01:03:19.934 align:start position:0%
of its former glory. No wonder our alien
 

01:03:19.934 --> 01:03:27.444 align:start position:0%
of its former glory. No wonder our alien
travelers<01:04:24.240><c> had</c><01:04:24.400><c> to</c><01:04:24.559><c> check</c><01:04:24.799><c> their</c><01:04:25.039><c> GPS.</c>

01:03:27.444 --> 01:03:27.454 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:03:27.454 --> 01:03:29.124 align:start position:0%
 
The<01:04:31.599><c> impact</c><01:04:31.920><c> this</c><01:04:32.160><c> would</c><01:04:32.319><c> have</c><01:04:32.480><c> had</c><01:04:32.720><c> on</c>

01:03:29.124 --> 01:03:29.134 align:start position:0%
The impact this would have had on
 

01:03:29.134 --> 01:03:32.324 align:start position:0%
The impact this would have had on
animals<01:04:33.520><c> would</c><01:04:33.760><c> have</c><01:04:34.000><c> been</c><01:04:34.319><c> devastating.</c>

01:03:32.324 --> 01:03:32.334 align:start position:0%
animals would have been devastating.
 

01:03:32.334 --> 01:03:35.763 align:start position:0%
animals would have been devastating.
75%<01:04:37.359><c> of</c><01:04:37.680><c> all</c><01:04:38.160><c> species</c><01:04:38.880><c> are</c><01:04:39.119><c> wiped</c><01:04:39.440><c> out</c>

01:03:35.763 --> 01:03:35.773 align:start position:0%
75% of all species are wiped out
 

01:03:35.773 --> 01:03:38.324 align:start position:0%
75% of all species are wiped out
forever,<01:04:40.559><c> making</c><01:04:40.880><c> this</c><01:04:41.119><c> one</c><01:04:41.359><c> of</c><01:04:41.520><c> the</c><01:04:41.760><c> largest</c>

01:03:38.324 --> 01:03:38.334 align:start position:0%
forever, making this one of the largest
 

01:03:38.334 --> 01:03:40.243 align:start position:0%
forever, making this one of the largest
mass<01:04:42.559><c> extinction</c><01:04:43.039><c> events</c><01:04:43.359><c> in</c><01:04:43.680><c> Earth's</c>

01:03:40.243 --> 01:03:40.253 align:start position:0%
mass extinction events in Earth's
 

01:03:40.253 --> 01:03:43.124 align:start position:0%
mass extinction events in Earth's
history,<01:04:45.119><c> second</c><01:04:45.520><c> only</c><01:04:45.920><c> to</c><01:04:46.160><c> the</c><01:04:46.400><c> perant</c>

01:03:43.124 --> 01:03:43.134 align:start position:0%
history, second only to the perant
 

01:03:43.134 --> 01:03:45.044 align:start position:0%
history, second only to the perant
extinction<01:04:47.520><c> we</c><01:04:47.760><c> covered</c><01:04:48.079><c> earlier</c><01:04:48.400><c> in</c><01:04:48.640><c> this</c>

01:03:45.044 --> 01:03:45.054 align:start position:0%
extinction we covered earlier in this
 

01:03:45.054 --> 01:03:47.924 align:start position:0%
extinction we covered earlier in this
video.<01:04:50.240><c> All</c><01:04:50.400><c> the</c><01:04:50.559><c> animals</c><01:04:50.960><c> that</c><01:04:51.200><c> exist</c><01:04:51.520><c> on</c>

01:03:47.924 --> 01:03:47.934 align:start position:0%
video. All the animals that exist on
 

01:03:47.934 --> 01:03:50.164 align:start position:0%
video. All the animals that exist on
Earth<01:04:52.079><c> today</c><01:04:52.559><c> are</c><01:04:52.799><c> descendants</c><01:04:53.440><c> of</c><01:04:53.680><c> the</c>

01:03:50.164 --> 01:03:50.174 align:start position:0%
Earth today are descendants of the
 

01:03:50.174 --> 01:03:53.364 align:start position:0%
Earth today are descendants of the
survivors<01:04:54.640><c> of</c><01:04:54.880><c> this</c><01:04:55.119><c> apocalypse.</c><01:04:56.559><c> Others</c>

01:03:53.364 --> 01:03:53.374 align:start position:0%
survivors of this apocalypse. Others
 

01:03:53.374 --> 01:03:56.243 align:start position:0%
survivors of this apocalypse. Others
were<01:04:57.440><c> not</c><01:04:57.680><c> so</c><01:04:57.839><c> lucky.</c><01:04:58.880><c> Being</c><01:04:59.200><c> large</c><01:04:59.520><c> is</c><01:04:59.839><c> a</c>

01:03:56.243 --> 01:03:56.253 align:start position:0%
were not so lucky. Being large is a
 

01:03:56.253 --> 01:03:58.804 align:start position:0%
were not so lucky. Being large is a
disadvantage<01:05:00.720><c> in</c><01:05:00.960><c> an</c><01:05:01.200><c> apocalypse.</c><01:05:02.160><c> You</c><01:05:02.400><c> need</c>

01:03:58.804 --> 01:03:58.814 align:start position:0%
disadvantage in an apocalypse. You need
 

01:03:58.814 --> 01:04:01.684 align:start position:0%
disadvantage in an apocalypse. You need
lots<01:05:02.960><c> of</c><01:05:03.119><c> food,</c><01:05:03.680><c> lots</c><01:05:04.000><c> of</c><01:05:04.240><c> space,</c><01:05:04.720><c> and</c><01:05:05.039><c> lots</c><01:05:05.359><c> of</c>

01:04:01.684 --> 01:04:01.694 align:start position:0%
lots of food, lots of space, and lots of
 

01:04:01.694 --> 01:04:04.564 align:start position:0%
lots of food, lots of space, and lots of
resources.<01:05:06.799><c> All</c><01:05:07.119><c> terrestrial</c><01:05:07.760><c> and</c><01:05:08.079><c> marine</c>

01:04:04.564 --> 01:04:04.574 align:start position:0%
resources. All terrestrial and marine
 

01:04:04.574 --> 01:04:06.804 align:start position:0%
resources. All terrestrial and marine
dinosaurs<01:05:09.119><c> suffered</c><01:05:09.680><c> greatly</c><01:05:10.319><c> and</c>

01:04:06.804 --> 01:04:06.814 align:start position:0%
dinosaurs suffered greatly and
 

01:04:06.814 --> 01:04:09.763 align:start position:0%
dinosaurs suffered greatly and
eventually<01:05:11.119><c> died</c><01:05:11.440><c> out</c><01:05:11.680><c> as</c><01:05:11.839><c> a</c><01:05:12.079><c> result.</c>

01:04:09.763 --> 01:04:09.773 align:start position:0%
eventually died out as a result.
 

01:04:09.773 --> 01:04:12.804 align:start position:0%
eventually died out as a result.
A<01:05:13.920><c> small</c><01:05:14.319><c> slither</c><01:05:14.799><c> of</c><01:05:15.119><c> aven</c><01:05:15.599><c> dinosaurs</c><01:05:16.319><c> had</c>

01:04:12.804 --> 01:04:12.814 align:start position:0%
A small slither of aven dinosaurs had
 

01:04:12.814 --> 01:04:15.203 align:start position:0%
A small slither of aven dinosaurs had
better<01:05:16.960><c> luck</c><01:05:17.440><c> and</c><01:05:17.760><c> managed</c><01:05:18.079><c> to</c><01:05:18.319><c> slink</c><01:05:18.720><c> through</c>

01:04:15.203 --> 01:04:15.213 align:start position:0%
better luck and managed to slink through
 

01:04:15.213 --> 01:04:17.283 align:start position:0%
better luck and managed to slink through
the<01:05:19.280><c> evolutionary</c><01:05:20.079><c> bottleneck</c><01:05:20.720><c> into</c><01:05:21.039><c> the</c>

01:04:17.283 --> 01:04:17.293 align:start position:0%
the evolutionary bottleneck into the
 

01:04:17.293 --> 01:04:20.243 align:start position:0%
the evolutionary bottleneck into the
Paleogene<01:05:21.839><c> period.</c><01:05:22.960><c> They</c><01:05:23.280><c> still</c><01:05:23.520><c> roam</c><01:05:23.839><c> the</c>

01:04:20.243 --> 01:04:20.253 align:start position:0%
Paleogene period. They still roam the
 

01:04:20.253 --> 01:04:21.844 align:start position:0%
Paleogene period. They still roam the
earth<01:05:24.319><c> today</c><01:05:24.720><c> through</c><01:05:25.039><c> their</c><01:05:25.280><c> direct</c>

01:04:21.844 --> 01:04:21.854 align:start position:0%
earth today through their direct
 

01:04:21.854 --> 01:04:24.644 align:start position:0%
earth today through their direct
descendants,<01:05:26.799><c> birds.</c>

01:04:24.644 --> 01:04:24.654 align:start position:0%
descendants, birds.
 

01:04:24.654 --> 01:04:28.003 align:start position:0%
descendants, birds.
When<01:05:28.720><c> we</c><01:05:28.960><c> think</c><01:05:29.119><c> of</c><01:05:29.359><c> birds,</c><01:05:30.000><c> we</c><01:05:30.240><c> think</c><01:05:30.559><c> beaks.</c>

01:04:28.003 --> 01:04:28.013 align:start position:0%
When we think of birds, we think beaks.
 

01:04:28.013 --> 01:04:30.804 align:start position:0%
When we think of birds, we think beaks.
But<01:05:32.079><c> back</c><01:05:32.319><c> in</c><01:05:32.480><c> the</c><01:05:32.640><c> Cretaceous</c><01:05:33.280><c> days,</c><01:05:34.240><c> birds</c>

01:04:30.804 --> 01:04:30.814 align:start position:0%
But back in the Cretaceous days, birds
 

01:04:30.814 --> 01:04:33.844 align:start position:0%
But back in the Cretaceous days, birds
came<01:05:34.880><c> in</c><01:05:35.200><c> all</c><01:05:35.520><c> kinds</c><01:05:35.839><c> of</c><01:05:36.240><c> different</c><01:05:37.039><c> wonderful</c>

01:04:33.844 --> 01:04:33.854 align:start position:0%
came in all kinds of different wonderful
 

01:04:33.854 --> 01:04:35.924 align:start position:0%
came in all kinds of different wonderful
variations<01:05:38.400><c> that</c><01:05:38.640><c> we've</c><01:05:38.960><c> never</c><01:05:39.280><c> seen</c><01:05:39.520><c> with</c>

01:04:35.924 --> 01:04:35.934 align:start position:0%
variations that we've never seen with
 

01:04:35.934 --> 01:04:39.283 align:start position:0%
variations that we've never seen with
our<01:05:40.000><c> own</c><01:05:40.240><c> eyes.</c><01:05:41.200><c> Some</c><01:05:41.520><c> had</c><01:05:41.760><c> beaks,</c><01:05:42.640><c> some</c>

01:04:39.283 --> 01:04:39.293 align:start position:0%
our own eyes. Some had beaks, some
 

01:04:39.293 --> 01:04:43.924 align:start position:0%
our own eyes. Some had beaks, some
didn't.<01:05:44.319><c> Some</c><01:05:44.720><c> had</c><01:05:45.039><c> teeth,</c><01:05:46.079><c> some</c><01:05:46.400><c> didn't.</c>

01:04:43.924 --> 01:04:43.934 align:start position:0%
didn't. Some had teeth, some didn't.
 

01:04:43.934 --> 01:04:46.003 align:start position:0%
didn't. Some had teeth, some didn't.
While<01:05:48.079><c> it</c><01:05:48.240><c> would</c><01:05:48.400><c> be</c><01:05:48.559><c> foolish</c><01:05:48.960><c> to</c><01:05:49.200><c> credit</c><01:05:49.520><c> a</c>

01:04:46.003 --> 01:04:46.013 align:start position:0%
While it would be foolish to credit a
 

01:04:46.013 --> 01:04:48.003 align:start position:0%
While it would be foolish to credit a
single<01:05:50.240><c> trait</c><01:05:50.640><c> for</c><01:05:50.880><c> the</c><01:05:51.119><c> survival</c><01:05:51.440><c> of</c><01:05:51.599><c> an</c>

01:04:48.003 --> 01:04:48.013 align:start position:0%
single trait for the survival of an
 

01:04:48.013 --> 01:04:50.564 align:start position:0%
single trait for the survival of an
entire<01:05:52.319><c> family</c><01:05:52.640><c> line,</c><01:05:53.440><c> it</c><01:05:53.680><c> sure</c><01:05:53.920><c> seems</c><01:05:54.240><c> that</c>

01:04:50.564 --> 01:04:50.574 align:start position:0%
entire family line, it sure seems that
 

01:04:50.574 --> 01:04:53.684 align:start position:0%
entire family line, it sure seems that
if<01:05:54.640><c> you</c><01:05:54.799><c> were</c><01:05:54.960><c> a</c><01:05:55.119><c> bird</c><01:05:55.599><c> 66</c><01:05:56.240><c> million</c><01:05:56.559><c> years</c><01:05:56.799><c> ago,</c>

01:04:53.684 --> 01:04:53.694 align:start position:0%
if you were a bird 66 million years ago,
 

01:04:53.694 --> 01:04:55.844 align:start position:0%
if you were a bird 66 million years ago,
having<01:05:57.839><c> a</c><01:05:58.079><c> beak</c><01:05:58.480><c> stacked</c><01:05:58.880><c> the</c><01:05:59.039><c> odds</c><01:05:59.359><c> in</c><01:05:59.520><c> your</c>

01:04:55.844 --> 01:04:55.854 align:start position:0%
having a beak stacked the odds in your
 

01:04:55.854 --> 01:04:59.044 align:start position:0%
having a beak stacked the odds in your
favor.<01:06:00.799><c> We</c><01:06:01.119><c> think</c><01:06:01.280><c> that</c><01:06:01.680><c> beaked</c><01:06:02.160><c> birds</c><01:06:02.480><c> had</c><01:06:02.640><c> an</c>

01:04:59.044 --> 01:04:59.054 align:start position:0%
favor. We think that beaked birds had an
 

01:04:59.054 --> 01:05:01.124 align:start position:0%
favor. We think that beaked birds had an
advantage<01:06:03.520><c> as</c><01:06:03.760><c> they</c><01:06:04.000><c> could</c><01:06:04.160><c> dig</c><01:06:04.319><c> out</c><01:06:04.559><c> seeds</c>

01:05:01.124 --> 01:05:01.134 align:start position:0%
advantage as they could dig out seeds
 

01:05:01.134 --> 01:05:03.044 align:start position:0%
advantage as they could dig out seeds
from<01:06:05.200><c> the</c><01:06:05.440><c> ground</c><01:06:05.760><c> when</c><01:06:06.079><c> no</c><01:06:06.400><c> other</c><01:06:06.640><c> food</c>

01:05:03.044 --> 01:05:03.054 align:start position:0%
from the ground when no other food
 

01:05:03.054 --> 01:05:05.684 align:start position:0%
from the ground when no other food
source<01:06:07.200><c> was</c><01:06:07.440><c> available.</c><01:06:08.640><c> Toward</c><01:06:09.039><c> the</c><01:06:09.280><c> end</c><01:06:09.359><c> of</c>

01:05:05.684 --> 01:05:05.694 align:start position:0%
source was available. Toward the end of
 

01:05:05.694 --> 01:05:07.763 align:start position:0%
source was available. Toward the end of
the<01:06:09.680><c> Cretaceous,</c><01:06:10.640><c> beaked</c><01:06:11.119><c> birds</c><01:06:11.440><c> were</c>

01:05:07.763 --> 01:05:07.773 align:start position:0%
the Cretaceous, beaked birds were
 

01:05:07.773 --> 01:05:09.844 align:start position:0%
the Cretaceous, beaked birds were
already<01:06:12.000><c> eating</c><01:06:12.319><c> a</c><01:06:12.559><c> more</c><01:06:12.720><c> varied</c><01:06:13.119><c> diet</c><01:06:13.520><c> than</c>

01:05:09.844 --> 01:05:09.854 align:start position:0%
already eating a more varied diet than
 

01:05:09.854 --> 01:05:12.564 align:start position:0%
already eating a more varied diet than
their<01:06:13.920><c> non-beaked</c><01:06:14.559><c> cousins.</c>

01:05:12.564 --> 01:05:12.574 align:start position:0%
their non-beaked cousins.
 

01:05:12.574 --> 01:05:14.404 align:start position:0%
their non-beaked cousins.
This<01:06:16.640><c> would</c><01:06:16.799><c> have</c><01:06:16.960><c> been</c><01:06:17.200><c> a</c><01:06:17.440><c> huge</c><01:06:17.760><c> advantage</c>

01:05:14.404 --> 01:05:14.414 align:start position:0%
This would have been a huge advantage
 

01:05:14.414 --> 01:05:17.364 align:start position:0%
This would have been a huge advantage
when<01:06:18.559><c> rations</c><01:06:19.119><c> were</c><01:06:19.280><c> scarce.</c><01:06:20.400><c> After</c><01:06:20.640><c> all,</c>

01:05:17.364 --> 01:05:17.374 align:start position:0%
when rations were scarce. After all,
 

01:05:17.374 --> 01:05:19.684 align:start position:0%
when rations were scarce. After all,
being<01:06:21.440><c> a</c><01:06:21.599><c> picky</c><01:06:22.000><c> eater</c><01:06:22.319><c> in</c><01:06:22.480><c> an</c><01:06:22.640><c> apocalypse</c>

01:05:19.684 --> 01:05:19.694 align:start position:0%
being a picky eater in an apocalypse
 

01:05:19.694 --> 01:05:22.324 align:start position:0%
being a picky eater in an apocalypse
isn't<01:06:24.000><c> really</c><01:06:24.240><c> a</c><01:06:24.480><c> good</c><01:06:24.640><c> idea.</c>

01:05:22.324 --> 01:05:22.334 align:start position:0%
isn't really a good idea.
 

01:05:22.334 --> 01:05:24.243 align:start position:0%
isn't really a good idea.
Having<01:06:26.559><c> enough</c><01:06:26.799><c> force</c><01:06:27.119><c> in</c><01:06:27.280><c> the</c><01:06:27.440><c> gizzard</c><01:06:27.920><c> to</c>

01:05:24.243 --> 01:05:24.253 align:start position:0%
Having enough force in the gizzard to
 

01:05:24.253 --> 01:05:26.804 align:start position:0%
Having enough force in the gizzard to
crush<01:06:28.480><c> tough</c><01:06:28.799><c> fruits</c><01:06:29.119><c> and</c><01:06:29.359><c> seeds</c><01:06:30.079><c> and</c><01:06:30.319><c> enough</c>

01:05:26.804 --> 01:05:26.814 align:start position:0%
crush tough fruits and seeds and enough
 

01:05:26.814 --> 01:05:29.044 align:start position:0%
crush tough fruits and seeds and enough
flight<01:06:31.039><c> stamina</c><01:06:31.440><c> to</c><01:06:31.680><c> gather</c><01:06:32.000><c> food</c><01:06:32.240><c> over</c><01:06:32.559><c> large</c>

01:05:29.044 --> 01:05:29.054 align:start position:0%
flight stamina to gather food over large
 

01:05:29.054 --> 01:05:32.564 align:start position:0%
flight stamina to gather food over large
distances<01:06:33.920><c> also</c><01:06:34.319><c> helped</c><01:06:34.640><c> with</c><01:06:34.960><c> survival.</c>

01:05:32.564 --> 01:05:32.574 align:start position:0%
distances also helped with survival.
 

01:05:32.574 --> 01:05:34.804 align:start position:0%
distances also helped with survival.
Some<01:06:36.640><c> species</c><01:06:37.119><c> of</c><01:06:37.280><c> mammal</c><01:06:37.760><c> also</c><01:06:38.160><c> managed</c><01:06:38.480><c> to</c>

01:05:34.804 --> 01:05:34.814 align:start position:0%
Some species of mammal also managed to
 

01:05:34.814 --> 01:05:37.444 align:start position:0%
Some species of mammal also managed to
push<01:06:38.880><c> through.</c><01:06:39.680><c> It</c><01:06:39.920><c> is</c><01:06:40.079><c> thought</c><01:06:40.480><c> that</c><01:06:40.880><c> only</c>

01:05:37.444 --> 01:05:37.454 align:start position:0%
push through. It is thought that only
 

01:05:37.454 --> 01:05:40.963 align:start position:0%
push through. It is thought that only
mammals<01:06:41.839><c> smaller</c><01:06:42.319><c> than</c><01:06:42.640><c> 10</c><01:06:43.119><c> cm</c><01:06:43.760><c> survived</c><01:06:44.559><c> as</c>

01:05:40.963 --> 01:05:40.973 align:start position:0%
mammals smaller than 10 cm survived as
 

01:05:40.973 --> 01:05:42.804 align:start position:0%
mammals smaller than 10 cm survived as
they<01:06:45.039><c> could</c><01:06:45.200><c> hide</c><01:06:45.440><c> underground</c><01:06:46.160><c> where</c><01:06:46.400><c> they</c>

01:05:42.804 --> 01:05:42.814 align:start position:0%
they could hide underground where they
 

01:05:42.814 --> 01:05:44.884 align:start position:0%
they could hide underground where they
were<01:06:46.880><c> somewhat</c><01:06:47.280><c> insulated</c><01:06:47.920><c> from</c><01:06:48.079><c> the</c><01:06:48.319><c> lower</c>

01:05:44.884 --> 01:05:44.894 align:start position:0%
were somewhat insulated from the lower
 

01:05:44.894 --> 01:05:47.924 align:start position:0%
were somewhat insulated from the lower
global<01:06:49.200><c> temperatures.</c><01:06:50.480><c> Being</c><01:06:50.880><c> small</c><01:06:51.440><c> also</c>

01:05:47.924 --> 01:05:47.934 align:start position:0%
global temperatures. Being small also
 

01:05:47.934 --> 01:05:50.564 align:start position:0%
global temperatures. Being small also
meant<01:06:52.000><c> they</c><01:06:52.240><c> needed</c><01:06:52.480><c> less</c><01:06:52.799><c> food</c><01:06:53.039><c> to</c><01:06:53.200><c> survive.</c>

01:05:50.564 --> 01:05:50.574 align:start position:0%
meant they needed less food to survive.
 

01:05:50.574 --> 01:05:52.963 align:start position:0%
meant they needed less food to survive.
The<01:06:54.640><c> platypus</c><01:06:55.280><c> is</c><01:06:55.440><c> an</c><01:06:55.599><c> example</c><01:06:56.000><c> of</c><01:06:56.240><c> a</c><01:06:56.400><c> mammal</c>

01:05:52.963 --> 01:05:52.973 align:start position:0%
The platypus is an example of a mammal
 

01:05:52.973 --> 01:05:55.924 align:start position:0%
The platypus is an example of a mammal
that<01:06:57.200><c> coexisted</c><01:06:57.920><c> with</c><01:06:58.160><c> dinosaurs,</c><01:06:59.280><c> survived</c>

01:05:55.924 --> 01:05:55.934 align:start position:0%
that coexisted with dinosaurs, survived
 

01:05:55.934 --> 01:05:59.124 align:start position:0%
that coexisted with dinosaurs, survived
the<01:07:00.079><c> KPG</c><01:07:00.880><c> extinction,</c><01:07:01.760><c> and</c><01:07:02.000><c> is</c><01:07:02.240><c> still</c><01:07:02.480><c> around</c>

01:05:59.124 --> 01:05:59.134 align:start position:0%
the KPG extinction, and is still around
 

01:05:59.134 --> 01:06:01.203 align:start position:0%
the KPG extinction, and is still around
to<01:07:03.280><c> this</c><01:07:03.520><c> day.</c>

01:06:01.203 --> 01:06:01.213 align:start position:0%
to this day.
 

01:06:01.213 --> 01:06:03.844 align:start position:0%
to this day.
Turtles<01:07:05.599><c> also</c><01:07:05.920><c> fared</c><01:07:06.319><c> surprisingly</c><01:07:06.960><c> well,</c>

01:06:03.844 --> 01:06:03.854 align:start position:0%
Turtles also fared surprisingly well,
 

01:06:03.854 --> 01:06:06.644 align:start position:0%
Turtles also fared surprisingly well,
although<01:07:08.000><c> it</c><01:07:08.240><c> isn't</c><01:07:08.559><c> understood</c><01:07:09.039><c> why.</c><01:07:10.079><c> About</c>

01:06:06.644 --> 01:06:06.654 align:start position:0%
although it isn't understood why. About
 

01:06:06.654 --> 01:06:09.203 align:start position:0%
although it isn't understood why. About
80%<01:07:11.039><c> of</c><01:07:11.200><c> the</c><01:07:11.359><c> known</c><01:07:11.680><c> turtle</c><01:07:12.000><c> species</c><01:07:12.640><c> made</c><01:07:12.880><c> it</c>

01:06:09.203 --> 01:06:09.213 align:start position:0%
80% of the known turtle species made it
 

01:06:09.213 --> 01:06:12.324 align:start position:0%
80% of the known turtle species made it
through<01:07:13.280><c> the</c><01:07:13.599><c> KPG</c><01:07:14.400><c> extinction,</c><01:07:15.520><c> as</c><01:07:15.839><c> did</c>

01:06:12.324 --> 01:06:12.334 align:start position:0%
through the KPG extinction, as did
 

01:06:12.334 --> 01:06:13.924 align:start position:0%
through the KPG extinction, as did
crocodiles.

01:06:13.924 --> 01:06:13.934 align:start position:0%
crocodiles.
 

01:06:13.934 --> 01:06:17.124 align:start position:0%
crocodiles.
While<01:07:18.000><c> we</c><01:07:18.240><c> can't</c><01:07:18.400><c> be</c><01:07:18.880><c> 100%</c><01:07:19.599><c> sure</c><01:07:19.920><c> why,</c><01:07:20.640><c> some</c>

01:06:17.124 --> 01:06:17.134 align:start position:0%
While we can't be 100% sure why, some
 

01:06:17.134 --> 01:06:19.844 align:start position:0%
While we can't be 100% sure why, some
ideas<01:07:21.440><c> are</c><01:07:21.680><c> that</c><01:07:22.000><c> crocodiles,</c><01:07:22.960><c> like</c><01:07:23.359><c> beak</c>

01:06:19.844 --> 01:06:19.854 align:start position:0%
ideas are that crocodiles, like beak
 

01:06:19.854 --> 01:06:22.483 align:start position:0%
ideas are that crocodiles, like beak
birds,<01:07:24.240><c> have</c><01:07:24.480><c> highly</c><01:07:24.880><c> diverse</c><01:07:25.359><c> diets</c><01:07:26.079><c> and</c>

01:06:22.483 --> 01:06:22.493 align:start position:0%
birds, have highly diverse diets and
 

01:06:22.493 --> 01:06:24.243 align:start position:0%
birds, have highly diverse diets and
they<01:07:26.559><c> can</c><01:07:26.720><c> survive</c><01:07:27.119><c> without</c><01:07:27.440><c> food</c><01:07:27.680><c> for</c><01:07:27.920><c> more</c>

01:06:24.243 --> 01:06:24.253 align:start position:0%
they can survive without food for more
 

01:06:24.253 --> 01:06:26.483 align:start position:0%
they can survive without food for more
than<01:07:28.240><c> a</c><01:07:28.480><c> year</c><01:07:28.960><c> thanks</c><01:07:29.280><c> to</c><01:07:29.440><c> their</c><01:07:29.760><c> excellent</c>

01:06:26.483 --> 01:06:26.493 align:start position:0%
than a year thanks to their excellent
 

01:06:26.493 --> 01:06:29.044 align:start position:0%
than a year thanks to their excellent
energy<01:07:30.720><c> conservation</c><01:07:31.359><c> abilities.</c>

01:06:29.044 --> 01:06:29.054 align:start position:0%
energy conservation abilities.
 

01:06:29.054 --> 01:06:31.763 align:start position:0%
energy conservation abilities.
Following<01:07:33.280><c> the</c><01:07:33.440><c> catastrophe,</c><01:07:34.640><c> repopulation</c>

01:06:31.763 --> 01:06:31.773 align:start position:0%
Following the catastrophe, repopulation
 

01:06:31.773 --> 01:06:34.963 align:start position:0%
Following the catastrophe, repopulation
seems<01:07:35.920><c> to</c><01:07:36.079><c> have</c><01:07:36.319><c> happened</c><01:07:36.799><c> very</c><01:07:37.280><c> fast.</c><01:07:38.319><c> If</c><01:07:38.559><c> our</c>

01:06:34.963 --> 01:06:34.973 align:start position:0%
seems to have happened very fast. If our
 

01:06:34.973 --> 01:06:37.283 align:start position:0%
seems to have happened very fast. If our
alien<01:07:39.280><c> scientists</c><01:07:39.760><c> were</c><01:07:39.920><c> to</c><01:07:40.079><c> fly</c><01:07:40.400><c> over</c><01:07:40.720><c> Earth</c>

01:06:37.283 --> 01:06:37.293 align:start position:0%
alien scientists were to fly over Earth
 

01:06:37.293 --> 01:06:40.723 align:start position:0%
alien scientists were to fly over Earth
just<01:07:41.599><c> 30,000</c><01:07:42.480><c> years</c><01:07:42.799><c> later,</c><01:07:43.599><c> they'd</c><01:07:44.079><c> already</c>

01:06:40.723 --> 01:06:40.733 align:start position:0%
just 30,000 years later, they'd already
 

01:06:40.733 --> 01:06:43.844 align:start position:0%
just 30,000 years later, they'd already
see<01:07:45.119><c> flourishing</c><01:07:45.920><c> new</c><01:07:46.240><c> ecosystems</c><01:07:47.200><c> rising</c>

01:06:43.844 --> 01:06:43.854 align:start position:0%
see flourishing new ecosystems rising
 

01:06:43.854 --> 01:06:45.844 align:start position:0%
see flourishing new ecosystems rising
from<01:07:47.839><c> the</c><01:07:48.000><c> ashes</c><01:07:48.559><c> in</c><01:07:48.880><c> some</c><01:07:49.119><c> parts</c><01:07:49.359><c> of</c><01:07:49.520><c> the</c>

01:06:45.844 --> 01:06:45.854 align:start position:0%
from the ashes in some parts of the
 

01:06:45.854 --> 01:06:48.324 align:start position:0%
from the ashes in some parts of the
planet.<01:07:50.880><c> Maybe</c><01:07:51.200><c> it</c><01:07:51.359><c> was</c><01:07:51.440><c> for</c><01:07:51.599><c> the</c><01:07:51.760><c> best</c><01:07:51.920><c> that</c>

01:06:48.324 --> 01:06:48.334 align:start position:0%
planet. Maybe it was for the best that
 

01:06:48.334 --> 01:06:51.044 align:start position:0%
planet. Maybe it was for the best that
our<01:07:52.400><c> alien</c><01:07:52.799><c> crew</c><01:07:53.119><c> was</c><01:07:53.280><c> low</c><01:07:53.440><c> on</c><01:07:53.599><c> helium</c><01:07:54.079><c> 3</c><01:07:54.559><c> and</c>

01:06:51.044 --> 01:06:51.054 align:start position:0%
our alien crew was low on helium 3 and
 

01:06:51.054 --> 01:06:52.804 align:start position:0%
our alien crew was low on helium 3 and
didn't<01:07:55.200><c> have</c><01:07:55.359><c> to</c><01:07:55.520><c> witness</c><01:07:55.839><c> the</c><01:07:56.000><c> apocalypse</c>

01:06:52.804 --> 01:06:52.814 align:start position:0%
didn't have to witness the apocalypse
 

01:06:52.814 --> 01:06:57.844 align:start position:0%
didn't have to witness the apocalypse
firsthand.

01:06:57.844 --> 01:06:57.854 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:06:57.854 --> 01:07:00.003 align:start position:0%
 
Revising<01:08:02.240><c> our</c><01:08:02.480><c> version</c><01:08:02.720><c> of</c><01:08:02.960><c> events,</c><01:08:03.599><c> our</c>

01:07:00.003 --> 01:07:00.013 align:start position:0%
Revising our version of events, our
 

01:07:00.013 --> 01:07:02.483 align:start position:0%
Revising our version of events, our
alien<01:08:04.319><c> friends</c><01:08:04.720><c> are</c><01:08:05.039><c> not</c><01:08:05.440><c> convinced</c><01:08:06.000><c> this</c><01:08:06.240><c> is</c>

01:07:02.483 --> 01:07:02.493 align:start position:0%
alien friends are not convinced this is
 

01:07:02.493 --> 01:07:05.283 align:start position:0%
alien friends are not convinced this is
the<01:08:06.559><c> full</c><01:08:06.799><c> story.</c><01:08:07.760><c> They</c><01:08:08.000><c> are</c><01:08:08.160><c> good</c><01:08:08.400><c> scientists</c>

01:07:05.283 --> 01:07:05.293 align:start position:0%
the full story. They are good scientists
 

01:07:05.293 --> 01:07:08.324 align:start position:0%
the full story. They are good scientists
and<01:08:09.520><c> better</c><01:08:09.839><c> skeptics.</c><01:08:11.200><c> Just</c><01:08:11.440><c> because</c><01:08:11.839><c> the</c>

01:07:08.324 --> 01:07:08.334 align:start position:0%
and better skeptics. Just because the
 

01:07:08.334 --> 01:07:11.044 align:start position:0%
and better skeptics. Just because the
evidence<01:08:12.640><c> paints</c><01:08:13.039><c> one</c><01:08:13.359><c> picture</c><01:08:14.079><c> doesn't</c><01:08:14.480><c> mean</c>

01:07:11.044 --> 01:07:11.054 align:start position:0%
evidence paints one picture doesn't mean
 

01:07:11.054 --> 01:07:14.003 align:start position:0%
evidence paints one picture doesn't mean
it<01:08:15.200><c> can't</c><01:08:15.440><c> also</c><01:08:15.839><c> paint</c><01:08:16.159><c> another.</c>

01:07:14.003 --> 01:07:14.013 align:start position:0%
it can't also paint another.
 

01:07:14.013 --> 01:07:17.204 align:start position:0%
it can't also paint another.
Indeed,<01:08:18.480><c> that</c><01:08:18.880><c> is</c><01:08:19.040><c> the</c><01:08:19.359><c> exact</c><01:08:19.839><c> conundrum</c><01:08:20.480><c> we</c>

01:07:17.204 --> 01:07:17.214 align:start position:0%
Indeed, that is the exact conundrum we
 

01:07:17.214 --> 01:07:20.564 align:start position:0%
Indeed, that is the exact conundrum we
homo<01:08:21.520><c> sapiens</c><01:08:22.080><c> find</c><01:08:22.480><c> ourselves</c><01:08:22.960><c> in.</c><01:08:23.279><c> Now,</c>

01:07:20.564 --> 01:07:20.574 align:start position:0%
homo sapiens find ourselves in. Now,
 

01:07:20.574 --> 01:07:22.724 align:start position:0%
homo sapiens find ourselves in. Now,
while<01:08:24.640><c> many</c><01:08:24.960><c> human</c><01:08:25.279><c> scientists</c><01:08:25.839><c> hold</c><01:08:26.159><c> firmly</c>

01:07:22.724 --> 01:07:22.734 align:start position:0%
while many human scientists hold firmly
 

01:07:22.734 --> 01:07:24.963 align:start position:0%
while many human scientists hold firmly
to<01:08:26.719><c> the</c><01:08:26.880><c> asteroid</c><01:08:27.359><c> theory,</c><01:08:28.159><c> others</c><01:08:28.560><c> think</c>

01:07:24.963 --> 01:07:24.973 align:start position:0%
to the asteroid theory, others think
 

01:07:24.973 --> 01:07:26.644 align:start position:0%
to the asteroid theory, others think
differently.

01:07:26.644 --> 01:07:26.654 align:start position:0%
differently.
 

01:07:26.654 --> 01:07:29.124 align:start position:0%
differently.
Let's<01:08:30.799><c> rewind</c><01:08:31.199><c> the</c><01:08:31.359><c> tape</c><01:08:31.759><c> and</c><01:08:32.080><c> re-examine</c><01:08:32.719><c> the</c>

01:07:29.124 --> 01:07:29.134 align:start position:0%
Let's rewind the tape and re-examine the
 

01:07:29.134 --> 01:07:32.164 align:start position:0%
Let's rewind the tape and re-examine the
evidence.<01:08:34.239><c> The</c><01:08:34.560><c> initial</c><01:08:34.880><c> clue</c><01:08:35.199><c> that</c><01:08:35.520><c> started</c>

01:07:32.164 --> 01:07:32.174 align:start position:0%
evidence. The initial clue that started
 

01:07:32.174 --> 01:07:35.204 align:start position:0%
evidence. The initial clue that started
all<01:08:36.239><c> this</c><01:08:36.560><c> asteroid</c><01:08:37.120><c> business</c><01:08:37.759><c> is</c><01:08:38.000><c> that</c><01:08:38.400><c> pesky</c>

01:07:35.204 --> 01:07:35.214 align:start position:0%
all this asteroid business is that pesky
 

01:07:35.214 --> 01:07:37.204 align:start position:0%
all this asteroid business is that pesky
element<01:08:39.520><c> iridium.</c>

01:07:37.204 --> 01:07:37.214 align:start position:0%
element iridium.
 

01:07:37.214 --> 01:07:39.923 align:start position:0%
element iridium.
While<01:08:41.359><c> it</c><01:08:41.600><c> is</c><01:08:41.839><c> present</c><01:08:42.159><c> in</c><01:08:42.319><c> asteroids,</c><01:08:43.359><c> it</c><01:08:43.600><c> is</c>

01:07:39.923 --> 01:07:39.933 align:start position:0%
While it is present in asteroids, it is
 

01:07:39.933 --> 01:07:43.044 align:start position:0%
While it is present in asteroids, it is
also<01:08:44.080><c> present</c><01:08:44.400><c> in</c><01:08:44.719><c> another</c><01:08:45.120><c> key</c><01:08:45.600><c> place,</c><01:08:46.560><c> the</c>

01:07:43.044 --> 01:07:43.054 align:start position:0%
also present in another key place, the
 

01:07:43.054 --> 01:07:45.124 align:start position:0%
also present in another key place, the
Earth's<01:08:47.359><c> core.</c>

01:07:45.124 --> 01:07:45.134 align:start position:0%
Earth's core.
 

01:07:45.134 --> 01:07:47.204 align:start position:0%
Earth's core.
This<01:08:49.199><c> gives</c><01:08:49.440><c> weight</c><01:08:49.759><c> to</c><01:08:50.000><c> another</c><01:08:50.560><c> popular</c>

01:07:47.204 --> 01:07:47.214 align:start position:0%
This gives weight to another popular
 

01:07:47.214 --> 01:07:50.483 align:start position:0%
This gives weight to another popular
theory<01:08:51.920><c> that</c><01:08:52.480><c> crazy</c><01:08:53.120><c> strong</c><01:08:53.679><c> volcanic</c>

01:07:50.483 --> 01:07:50.493 align:start position:0%
theory that crazy strong volcanic
 

01:07:50.493 --> 01:07:52.724 align:start position:0%
theory that crazy strong volcanic
eruptions<01:08:55.120><c> could</c><01:08:55.440><c> be</c><01:08:55.600><c> the</c><01:08:55.759><c> culprit</c><01:08:56.239><c> behind</c>

01:07:52.724 --> 01:07:52.734 align:start position:0%
eruptions could be the culprit behind
 

01:07:52.734 --> 01:07:55.523 align:start position:0%
eruptions could be the culprit behind
the<01:08:56.719><c> mass</c><01:08:57.120><c> extinction</c><01:08:57.679><c> instead.</c><01:08:58.880><c> In</c><01:08:59.199><c> this</c>

01:07:55.523 --> 01:07:55.533 align:start position:0%
the mass extinction instead. In this
 

01:07:55.533 --> 01:07:57.523 align:start position:0%
the mass extinction instead. In this
scenario,<01:09:00.080><c> the</c><01:09:00.400><c> world</c><01:09:00.640><c> would</c><01:09:00.960><c> still</c><01:09:01.199><c> be</c>

01:07:57.523 --> 01:07:57.533 align:start position:0%
scenario, the world would still be
 

01:07:57.533 --> 01:08:00.003 align:start position:0%
scenario, the world would still be
covered<01:09:01.679><c> by</c><01:09:01.839><c> a</c><01:09:02.000><c> blanket</c><01:09:02.400><c> of</c><01:09:02.640><c> smoke,</c><01:09:03.199><c> soot,</c><01:09:03.600><c> and</c>

01:08:00.003 --> 01:08:00.013 align:start position:0%
covered by a blanket of smoke, soot, and
 

01:08:00.013 --> 01:08:02.724 align:start position:0%
covered by a blanket of smoke, soot, and
debris.<01:09:04.560><c> Tectites</c><01:09:05.279><c> would</c><01:09:05.440><c> rain</c><01:09:05.759><c> down,</c><01:09:06.319><c> and</c>

01:08:02.724 --> 01:08:02.734 align:start position:0%
debris. Tectites would rain down, and
 

01:08:02.734 --> 01:08:05.044 align:start position:0%
debris. Tectites would rain down, and
the<01:09:06.719><c> sun</c><01:09:07.040><c> would</c><01:09:07.279><c> be</c><01:09:07.440><c> blocked</c><01:09:07.759><c> out</c><01:09:07.920><c> for</c><01:09:08.080><c> years,</c>

01:08:05.044 --> 01:08:05.054 align:start position:0%
the sun would be blocked out for years,
 

01:08:05.054 --> 01:08:07.684 align:start position:0%
the sun would be blocked out for years,
causing<01:09:09.359><c> a</c><01:09:09.600><c> super</c><01:09:10.000><c> long</c><01:09:10.239><c> winter</c><01:09:10.719><c> and</c><01:09:11.040><c> total</c>

01:08:07.684 --> 01:08:07.694 align:start position:0%
causing a super long winter and total
 

01:08:07.694 --> 01:08:10.804 align:start position:0%
causing a super long winter and total
ecosystem<01:09:12.159><c> collapse,</c><01:09:13.199><c> and</c><01:09:13.520><c> our</c><01:09:13.839><c> aridium</c>

01:08:10.804 --> 01:08:10.814 align:start position:0%
ecosystem collapse, and our aridium
 

01:08:10.814 --> 01:08:12.724 align:start position:0%
ecosystem collapse, and our aridium
would<01:09:14.880><c> still</c><01:09:15.120><c> make</c><01:09:15.359><c> it</c><01:09:15.520><c> into</c><01:09:15.759><c> the</c><01:09:15.920><c> geological</c>

01:08:12.724 --> 01:08:12.734 align:start position:0%
would still make it into the geological
 

01:08:12.734 --> 01:08:15.764 align:start position:0%
would still make it into the geological
record.<01:09:17.600><c> The</c><01:09:17.839><c> effects</c><01:09:18.400><c> are</c><01:09:18.880><c> largely</c><01:09:19.359><c> the</c>

01:08:15.764 --> 01:08:15.774 align:start position:0%
record. The effects are largely the
 

01:08:15.774 --> 01:08:18.084 align:start position:0%
record. The effects are largely the
same.<01:09:20.480><c> The</c><01:09:20.719><c> only</c><01:09:20.960><c> difference</c><01:09:21.279><c> is</c><01:09:21.520><c> the</c><01:09:21.679><c> root</c>

01:08:18.084 --> 01:08:18.094 align:start position:0%
same. The only difference is the root
 

01:08:18.094 --> 01:08:22.323 align:start position:0%
same. The only difference is the root
cause.<01:09:23.040><c> So,</c><01:09:23.759><c> is</c><01:09:24.000><c> an</c><01:09:24.159><c> asteroid</c><01:09:24.960><c> or</c><01:09:25.359><c> volcanoes</c>

01:08:22.323 --> 01:08:22.333 align:start position:0%
cause. So, is an asteroid or volcanoes
 

01:08:22.333 --> 01:08:24.164 align:start position:0%
cause. So, is an asteroid or volcanoes
to<01:09:26.319><c> blame?</c>

01:08:24.164 --> 01:08:24.174 align:start position:0%
to blame?
 

01:08:24.174 --> 01:08:25.923 align:start position:0%
to blame?
There<01:09:28.319><c> is</c><01:09:28.560><c> evidence</c><01:09:28.960><c> showing</c><01:09:29.359><c> massive</c>

01:08:25.923 --> 01:08:25.933 align:start position:0%
There is evidence showing massive
 

01:08:25.933 --> 01:08:27.604 align:start position:0%
There is evidence showing massive
volcanic<01:09:30.239><c> activity</c><01:09:30.719><c> during</c><01:09:30.960><c> the</c><01:09:31.199><c> lake</c>

01:08:27.604 --> 01:08:27.614 align:start position:0%
volcanic activity during the lake
 

01:08:27.614 --> 01:08:30.323 align:start position:0%
volcanic activity during the lake
Cretaceous<01:09:32.560><c> before</c><01:09:32.880><c> the</c><01:09:33.120><c> supposed</c><01:09:33.600><c> asteroid</c>

01:08:30.323 --> 01:08:30.333 align:start position:0%
Cretaceous before the supposed asteroid
 

01:08:30.333 --> 01:08:32.883 align:start position:0%
Cretaceous before the supposed asteroid
hit.<01:09:35.199><c> Researchers</c><01:09:35.839><c> say</c><01:09:36.000><c> that</c><01:09:36.159><c> the</c><01:09:36.400><c> presence</c>

01:08:32.883 --> 01:08:32.893 align:start position:0%
hit. Researchers say that the presence
 

01:08:32.893 --> 01:08:35.443 align:start position:0%
hit. Researchers say that the presence
of<01:09:36.880><c> flood</c><01:09:37.279><c> bassalt</c><01:09:37.839><c> corresponds</c><01:09:38.480><c> with</c><01:09:38.799><c> three</c>

01:08:35.443 --> 01:08:35.453 align:start position:0%
of flood bassalt corresponds with three
 

01:08:35.453 --> 01:08:37.764 align:start position:0%
of flood bassalt corresponds with three
out<01:09:39.520><c> of</c><01:09:39.600><c> the</c><01:09:39.839><c> five</c><01:09:40.159><c> mass</c><01:09:40.480><c> extinctions,</c>

01:08:37.764 --> 01:08:37.774 align:start position:0%
out of the five mass extinctions,
 

01:08:37.774 --> 01:08:39.204 align:start position:0%
out of the five mass extinctions,
including<01:09:41.920><c> the</c><01:09:42.159><c> one</c><01:09:42.400><c> that</c><01:09:42.560><c> killed</c><01:09:42.799><c> the</c>

01:08:39.204 --> 01:08:39.214 align:start position:0%
including the one that killed the
 

01:08:39.214 --> 01:08:41.044 align:start position:0%
including the one that killed the
dinosaurs.

01:08:41.044 --> 01:08:41.054 align:start position:0%
dinosaurs.
 

01:08:41.054 --> 01:08:43.044 align:start position:0%
dinosaurs.
Flood<01:09:45.199><c> bassalts</c><01:09:45.839><c> are</c><01:09:46.000><c> left</c><01:09:46.239><c> behind</c><01:09:46.560><c> when</c>

01:08:43.044 --> 01:08:43.054 align:start position:0%
Flood bassalts are left behind when
 

01:08:43.054 --> 01:08:45.284 align:start position:0%
Flood bassalts are left behind when
massive<01:09:47.359><c> areas</c><01:09:47.759><c> of</c><01:09:47.920><c> land</c><01:09:48.239><c> are</c><01:09:48.560><c> rapidly</c>

01:08:45.284 --> 01:08:45.294 align:start position:0%
massive areas of land are rapidly
 

01:08:45.294 --> 01:08:48.164 align:start position:0%
massive areas of land are rapidly
flooded<01:09:49.600><c> with</c><01:09:49.839><c> lava.</c><01:09:50.799><c> They</c><01:09:51.040><c> leave</c><01:09:51.279><c> behind</c><01:09:51.679><c> the</c>

01:08:48.164 --> 01:08:48.174 align:start position:0%
flooded with lava. They leave behind the
 

01:08:48.174 --> 01:08:50.883 align:start position:0%
flooded with lava. They leave behind the
stepshaped<01:09:52.960><c> ignous</c><01:09:53.359><c> rock</c><01:09:53.600><c> formations</c><01:09:54.239><c> called</c>

01:08:50.883 --> 01:08:50.893 align:start position:0%
stepshaped ignous rock formations called
 

01:08:50.893 --> 01:08:53.843 align:start position:0%
stepshaped ignous rock formations called
traps.<01:09:55.760><c> The</c><01:09:56.000><c> great</c><01:09:56.320><c> Perian</c><01:09:56.880><c> extinction</c><01:09:57.440><c> our</c>

01:08:53.843 --> 01:08:53.853 align:start position:0%
traps. The great Perian extinction our
 

01:08:53.853 --> 01:08:56.244 align:start position:0%
traps. The great Perian extinction our
alien<01:09:58.159><c> friends</c><01:09:58.560><c> witnessed</c><01:09:59.199><c> was</c><01:09:59.440><c> triggered</c><01:09:59.840><c> by</c>

01:08:56.244 --> 01:08:56.254 align:start position:0%
alien friends witnessed was triggered by
 

01:08:56.254 --> 01:08:58.244 align:start position:0%
alien friends witnessed was triggered by
volcanic<01:10:00.640><c> eruptions</c><01:10:01.040><c> that</c><01:10:01.199><c> would</c><01:10:01.440><c> later</c><01:10:01.760><c> form</c>

01:08:58.244 --> 01:08:58.254 align:start position:0%
volcanic eruptions that would later form
 

01:08:58.254 --> 01:09:01.444 align:start position:0%
volcanic eruptions that would later form
the<01:10:02.239><c> Siberian</c><01:10:02.880><c> trap.</c><01:10:04.239><c> Some</c><01:10:04.560><c> scientists</c><01:10:05.040><c> think</c>

01:09:01.444 --> 01:09:01.454 align:start position:0%
the Siberian trap. Some scientists think
 

01:09:01.454 --> 01:09:03.843 align:start position:0%
the Siberian trap. Some scientists think
the<01:10:05.520><c> same</c><01:10:05.760><c> thing</c><01:10:06.000><c> happened</c><01:10:06.320><c> to</c><01:10:06.560><c> the</c><01:10:06.719><c> dinosaurs</c>

01:09:03.843 --> 01:09:03.853 align:start position:0%
the same thing happened to the dinosaurs
 

01:09:03.853 --> 01:09:05.684 align:start position:0%
the same thing happened to the dinosaurs
and<01:10:08.000><c> left</c><01:10:08.239><c> its</c><01:10:08.480><c> fingerprints</c><01:10:08.960><c> in</c><01:10:09.199><c> the</c><01:10:09.360><c> deck</c>

01:09:05.684 --> 01:09:05.694 align:start position:0%
and left its fingerprints in the deck
 

01:09:05.694 --> 01:09:09.124 align:start position:0%
and left its fingerprints in the deck
and<01:10:09.760><c> traps</c><01:10:10.159><c> in</c><01:10:10.400><c> modern-day</c><01:10:11.040><c> West</c><01:10:11.360><c> India.</c><01:10:12.560><c> Data</c>

01:09:09.124 --> 01:09:09.134 align:start position:0%
and traps in modern-day West India. Data
 

01:09:09.134 --> 01:09:11.363 align:start position:0%
and traps in modern-day West India. Data
shows<01:10:13.360><c> this</c><01:10:13.600><c> region</c><01:10:14.000><c> was</c><01:10:14.239><c> highly</c><01:10:14.719><c> active</c><01:10:15.040><c> at</c>

01:09:11.363 --> 01:09:11.373 align:start position:0%
shows this region was highly active at
 

01:09:11.373 --> 01:09:14.084 align:start position:0%
shows this region was highly active at
the<01:10:15.360><c> time</c><01:10:15.520><c> of</c><01:10:15.679><c> the</c><01:10:15.840><c> dinosaur</c><01:10:16.320><c> extinction.</c><01:10:17.600><c> A</c>

01:09:14.084 --> 01:09:14.094 align:start position:0%
the time of the dinosaur extinction. A
 

01:09:14.094 --> 01:09:15.843 align:start position:0%
the time of the dinosaur extinction. A
violent<01:10:18.480><c> eruption</c><01:10:18.880><c> would</c><01:10:19.120><c> have</c><01:10:19.280><c> had</c>

01:09:15.843 --> 01:09:15.853 align:start position:0%
violent eruption would have had
 

01:09:15.853 --> 01:09:18.484 align:start position:0%
violent eruption would have had
farreaching<01:10:20.640><c> global</c><01:10:21.040><c> effects,</c><01:10:21.840><c> filling</c><01:10:22.159><c> the</c>

01:09:18.484 --> 01:09:18.494 align:start position:0%
farreaching global effects, filling the
 

01:09:18.494 --> 01:09:21.124 align:start position:0%
farreaching global effects, filling the
atmosphere<01:10:22.800><c> with</c><01:10:23.040><c> dust,</c><01:10:23.760><c> toxic</c><01:10:24.239><c> sulfur,</c><01:10:24.719><c> and</c>

01:09:21.124 --> 01:09:21.134 align:start position:0%
atmosphere with dust, toxic sulfur, and
 

01:09:21.134 --> 01:09:24.484 align:start position:0%
atmosphere with dust, toxic sulfur, and
carbon<01:10:25.280><c> dioxide</c><01:10:25.840><c> gases,</c><01:10:26.880><c> causing</c><01:10:27.360><c> a</c><01:10:27.600><c> wipeout</c>

01:09:24.484 --> 01:09:24.494 align:start position:0%
carbon dioxide gases, causing a wipeout
 

01:09:24.494 --> 01:09:27.843 align:start position:0%
carbon dioxide gases, causing a wipeout
in<01:10:28.560><c> a</c><01:10:28.719><c> similar</c><01:10:29.040><c> way</c><01:10:29.199><c> to</c><01:10:29.440><c> the</c><01:10:29.600><c> asteroid</c><01:10:30.080><c> theory.</c>

01:09:27.843 --> 01:09:27.853 align:start position:0%
in a similar way to the asteroid theory.
 

01:09:27.853 --> 01:09:30.004 align:start position:0%
in a similar way to the asteroid theory.
Indeed,<01:10:32.239><c> supercomput</c><01:10:33.040><c> simulations</c><01:10:33.600><c> have</c>

01:09:30.004 --> 01:09:30.014 align:start position:0%
Indeed, supercomput simulations have
 

01:09:30.014 --> 01:09:32.244 align:start position:0%
Indeed, supercomput simulations have
shown<01:10:34.080><c> that</c><01:10:34.239><c> there</c><01:10:34.480><c> is</c><01:10:34.719><c> an</c><01:10:34.960><c> incredibly</c><01:10:35.679><c> strong</c>

01:09:32.244 --> 01:09:32.254 align:start position:0%
shown that there is an incredibly strong
 

01:09:32.254 --> 01:09:34.484 align:start position:0%
shown that there is an incredibly strong
correlation<01:10:36.719><c> between</c><01:10:37.120><c> flood</c><01:10:37.440><c> bassalt</c><01:10:37.920><c> events</c>

01:09:34.484 --> 01:09:34.494 align:start position:0%
correlation between flood bassalt events
 

01:09:34.494 --> 01:09:37.124 align:start position:0%
correlation between flood bassalt events
and<01:10:38.560><c> mass</c><01:10:38.880><c> extinction</c><01:10:39.360><c> events,</c><01:10:40.320><c> much</c><01:10:40.640><c> higher</c>

01:09:37.124 --> 01:09:37.134 align:start position:0%
and mass extinction events, much higher
 

01:09:37.134 --> 01:09:39.204 align:start position:0%
and mass extinction events, much higher
than<01:10:41.120><c> pure</c><01:10:41.520><c> chance.</c>

01:09:39.204 --> 01:09:39.214 align:start position:0%
than pure chance.
 

01:09:39.214 --> 01:09:41.524 align:start position:0%
than pure chance.
However,<01:10:43.600><c> some</c><01:10:43.840><c> scientists</c><01:10:44.480><c> don't</c><01:10:44.800><c> think</c><01:10:45.040><c> it</c>

01:09:41.524 --> 01:09:41.534 align:start position:0%
However, some scientists don't think it
 

01:09:41.534 --> 01:09:45.044 align:start position:0%
However, some scientists don't think it
is<01:10:45.520><c> an</c><01:10:45.760><c> eitheror</c><01:10:46.640><c> situation.</c><01:10:48.000><c> A</c><01:10:48.239><c> growing</c><01:10:48.560><c> body</c>

01:09:45.044 --> 01:09:45.054 align:start position:0%
is an eitheror situation. A growing body
 

01:09:45.054 --> 01:09:47.684 align:start position:0%
is an eitheror situation. A growing body
of<01:10:49.040><c> research</c><01:10:49.440><c> is</c><01:10:49.760><c> trying</c><01:10:50.000><c> to</c><01:10:50.239><c> reconcile</c><01:10:51.120><c> a</c>

01:09:47.684 --> 01:09:47.694 align:start position:0%
of research is trying to reconcile a
 

01:09:47.694 --> 01:09:50.403 align:start position:0%
of research is trying to reconcile a
both<01:10:52.000><c> and</c><01:10:52.480><c> version</c><01:10:52.800><c> of</c><01:10:52.960><c> events,</c><01:10:53.760><c> suggesting</c>

01:09:50.403 --> 01:09:50.413 align:start position:0%
both and version of events, suggesting
 

01:09:50.413 --> 01:09:52.564 align:start position:0%
both and version of events, suggesting
that<01:10:54.480><c> the</c><01:10:54.719><c> impact</c><01:10:55.040><c> of</c><01:10:55.199><c> the</c><01:10:55.360><c> asteroid</c><01:10:56.000><c> and</c><01:10:56.239><c> the</c>

01:09:52.564 --> 01:09:52.574 align:start position:0%
that the impact of the asteroid and the
 

01:09:52.574 --> 01:09:55.044 align:start position:0%
that the impact of the asteroid and the
subsequent<01:10:56.960><c> earthquakes</c><01:10:57.920><c> potentiated</c><01:10:58.640><c> the</c>

01:09:55.044 --> 01:09:55.054 align:start position:0%
subsequent earthquakes potentiated the
 

01:09:55.054 --> 01:09:57.684 align:start position:0%
subsequent earthquakes potentiated the
ongoing<01:10:59.440><c> volcanic</c><01:11:00.000><c> activity,</c><01:11:00.960><c> taking</c><01:11:01.280><c> it</c>

01:09:57.684 --> 01:09:57.694 align:start position:0%
ongoing volcanic activity, taking it
 

01:09:57.694 --> 01:10:00.564 align:start position:0%
ongoing volcanic activity, taking it
over<01:11:01.760><c> the</c><01:11:02.000><c> lethal</c><01:11:02.480><c> threshold</c><01:11:03.280><c> and</c><01:11:03.600><c> into</c><01:11:04.000><c> mass</c>

01:10:00.564 --> 01:10:00.574 align:start position:0%
over the lethal threshold and into mass
 

01:10:00.574 --> 01:10:02.804 align:start position:0%
over the lethal threshold and into mass
extinction<01:11:04.960><c> territory.</c>

01:10:02.804 --> 01:10:02.814 align:start position:0%
extinction territory.
 

01:10:02.814 --> 01:10:04.644 align:start position:0%
extinction territory.
But<01:11:06.800><c> the</c><01:11:07.040><c> extent</c><01:11:07.280><c> to</c><01:11:07.600><c> which</c><01:11:07.840><c> each</c><01:11:08.159><c> event</c>

01:10:04.644 --> 01:10:04.654 align:start position:0%
But the extent to which each event
 

01:10:04.654 --> 01:10:12.403 align:start position:0%
But the extent to which each event
played<01:11:08.800><c> a</c><01:11:08.960><c> role</c><01:11:09.440><c> is</c><01:11:09.679><c> still</c><01:11:09.920><c> up</c><01:11:10.159><c> for</c><01:11:10.320><c> debate.</c>

01:10:12.403 --> 01:10:12.413 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:10:12.413 --> 01:10:14.644 align:start position:0%
 
I<01:11:16.719><c> hope</c><01:11:16.960><c> this</c><01:11:17.280><c> exploration</c><01:11:17.920><c> of</c><01:11:18.159><c> possible</c>

01:10:14.644 --> 01:10:14.654 align:start position:0%
I hope this exploration of possible
 

01:10:14.654 --> 01:10:17.124 align:start position:0%
I hope this exploration of possible
theories<01:11:18.880><c> is</c><01:11:19.120><c> enough</c><01:11:19.440><c> to</c><01:11:19.679><c> satisfy</c><01:11:20.239><c> our</c><01:11:20.480><c> alien</c>

01:10:17.124 --> 01:10:17.134 align:start position:0%
theories is enough to satisfy our alien
 

01:10:17.134 --> 01:10:20.004 align:start position:0%
theories is enough to satisfy our alien
scientists.<01:11:22.159><c> By</c><01:11:22.480><c> now,</c><01:11:22.880><c> they've</c><01:11:23.199><c> seen</c><01:11:23.520><c> Earth</c>

01:10:20.004 --> 01:10:20.014 align:start position:0%
scientists. By now, they've seen Earth
 

01:10:20.014 --> 01:10:22.484 align:start position:0%
scientists. By now, they've seen Earth
in<01:11:24.080><c> enough</c><01:11:24.400><c> of</c><01:11:24.560><c> its</c><01:11:24.719><c> forms</c><01:11:25.120><c> to</c><01:11:25.280><c> know</c><01:11:25.760><c> that</c><01:11:26.080><c> if</c>

01:10:22.484 --> 01:10:22.494 align:start position:0%
in enough of its forms to know that if
 

01:10:22.494 --> 01:10:24.804 align:start position:0%
in enough of its forms to know that if
there<01:11:26.480><c> is</c><01:11:26.719><c> one</c><01:11:26.960><c> thing</c><01:11:27.199><c> they</c><01:11:27.520><c> can</c><01:11:27.679><c> rely</c><01:11:28.000><c> on,</c>

01:10:24.804 --> 01:10:24.814 align:start position:0%
there is one thing they can rely on,
 

01:10:24.814 --> 01:10:26.804 align:start position:0%
there is one thing they can rely on,
it's<01:11:29.040><c> transients.</c>

01:10:26.804 --> 01:10:26.814 align:start position:0%
it's transients.
 

01:10:26.814 --> 01:10:29.444 align:start position:0%
it's transients.
Earth<01:11:31.040><c> won't</c><01:11:31.360><c> be</c><01:11:31.520><c> a</c><01:11:31.760><c> ball</c><01:11:32.000><c> of</c><01:11:32.159><c> fiery</c><01:11:32.640><c> rain</c><01:11:32.960><c> and</c>

01:10:29.444 --> 01:10:29.454 align:start position:0%
Earth won't be a ball of fiery rain and
 

01:10:29.454 --> 01:10:31.843 align:start position:0%
Earth won't be a ball of fiery rain and
eternal<01:11:33.600><c> winter</c><01:11:33.920><c> forever.</c><01:11:34.960><c> It's</c><01:11:35.280><c> just</c><01:11:35.440><c> a</c>

01:10:31.843 --> 01:10:31.853 align:start position:0%
eternal winter forever. It's just a
 

01:10:31.853 --> 01:10:33.843 align:start position:0%
eternal winter forever. It's just a
matter<01:11:35.920><c> of</c><01:11:36.080><c> time</c><01:11:36.400><c> before</c><01:11:36.800><c> life</c><01:11:37.120><c> springs</c><01:11:37.520><c> up</c>

01:10:33.843 --> 01:10:33.853 align:start position:0%
matter of time before life springs up
 

01:10:33.853 --> 01:10:36.724 align:start position:0%
matter of time before life springs up
again.<01:11:38.880><c> So</c><01:11:39.199><c> they</c><01:11:39.520><c> jump</c><01:11:39.840><c> forward</c><01:11:40.239><c> through</c>

01:10:36.724 --> 01:10:36.734 align:start position:0%
again. So they jump forward through
 

01:10:36.734 --> 01:10:39.764 align:start position:0%
again. So they jump forward through
time.<01:11:41.600><c> And</c><01:11:41.840><c> over</c><01:11:42.239><c> 60</c><01:11:42.640><c> million</c><01:11:43.040><c> years</c><01:11:43.280><c> after</c>

01:10:39.764 --> 01:10:39.774 align:start position:0%
time. And over 60 million years after
 

01:10:39.774 --> 01:10:42.244 align:start position:0%
time. And over 60 million years after
their<01:11:43.920><c> previous</c><01:11:44.320><c> visit,</c><01:11:44.960><c> our</c><01:11:45.360><c> timetraveling</c>

01:10:42.244 --> 01:10:42.254 align:start position:0%
their previous visit, our timetraveling
 

01:10:42.254 --> 01:10:44.724 align:start position:0%
their previous visit, our timetraveling
aliens<01:11:46.560><c> have</c><01:11:46.800><c> returned</c><01:11:47.120><c> to</c><01:11:47.360><c> witness</c><01:11:47.760><c> a</c><01:11:48.080><c> truly</c>

01:10:44.724 --> 01:10:44.734 align:start position:0%
aliens have returned to witness a truly
 

01:10:44.734 --> 01:10:47.044 align:start position:0%
aliens have returned to witness a truly
magnificent<01:11:49.280><c> and</c><01:11:49.679><c> defining</c><01:11:50.320><c> period</c><01:11:50.640><c> in</c>

01:10:47.044 --> 01:10:47.054 align:start position:0%
magnificent and defining period in
 

01:10:47.054 --> 01:10:49.124 align:start position:0%
magnificent and defining period in
Earth's<01:11:51.280><c> history.</c><01:11:52.080><c> One</c><01:11:52.320><c> which</c><01:11:52.480><c> will</c><01:11:52.719><c> shape</c>

01:10:49.124 --> 01:10:49.134 align:start position:0%
Earth's history. One which will shape
 

01:10:49.134 --> 01:10:51.444 align:start position:0%
Earth's history. One which will shape
the<01:11:53.120><c> future</c><01:11:53.360><c> of</c><01:11:53.679><c> life</c><01:11:53.920><c> on</c><01:11:54.239><c> this</c><01:11:54.400><c> planet</c><01:11:54.960><c> and</c>

01:10:51.444 --> 01:10:51.454 align:start position:0%
the future of life on this planet and
 

01:10:51.454 --> 01:10:53.524 align:start position:0%
the future of life on this planet and
leave<01:11:55.520><c> behind</c><01:11:55.920><c> some</c><01:11:56.159><c> of</c><01:11:56.239><c> the</c><01:11:56.480><c> most</c><01:11:56.719><c> exciting</c>

01:10:53.524 --> 01:10:53.534 align:start position:0%
leave behind some of the most exciting
 

01:10:53.534 --> 01:10:56.804 align:start position:0%
leave behind some of the most exciting
paleontological<01:11:58.400><c> relics</c><01:11:59.040><c> ever</c><01:11:59.360><c> discovered.</c>

01:10:56.804 --> 01:10:56.814 align:start position:0%
paleontological relics ever discovered.
 

01:10:56.814 --> 01:11:02.164 align:start position:0%
paleontological relics ever discovered.
The<01:12:00.880><c> last</c><01:12:01.520><c> ice</c><01:12:01.840><c> age.</c>

01:11:02.164 --> 01:11:02.174 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:11:02.174 --> 01:11:04.964 align:start position:0%
 
Of<01:12:06.400><c> course,</c><01:12:06.960><c> these</c><01:12:07.360><c> aliens</c><01:12:07.920><c> are</c><01:12:08.080><c> no</c><01:12:08.400><c> strangers</c>

01:11:04.964 --> 01:11:04.974 align:start position:0%
Of course, these aliens are no strangers
 

01:11:04.974 --> 01:11:06.804 align:start position:0%
Of course, these aliens are no strangers
to<01:12:09.040><c> Earth's</c><01:12:09.440><c> dynamic</c><01:12:09.920><c> changes</c><01:12:10.239><c> throughout</c>

01:11:06.804 --> 01:11:06.814 align:start position:0%
to Earth's dynamic changes throughout
 

01:11:06.814 --> 01:11:09.604 align:start position:0%
to Earth's dynamic changes throughout
history.<01:12:11.600><c> They've</c><01:12:12.000><c> already</c><01:12:12.400><c> witnessed</c><01:12:13.040><c> great</c>

01:11:09.604 --> 01:11:09.614 align:start position:0%
history. They've already witnessed great
 

01:11:09.614 --> 01:11:12.164 align:start position:0%
history. They've already witnessed great
extinction<01:12:14.000><c> events,</c><01:12:14.880><c> extreme</c><01:12:15.520><c> weather</c>

01:11:12.164 --> 01:11:12.174 align:start position:0%
extinction events, extreme weather
 

01:11:12.174 --> 01:11:15.284 align:start position:0%
extinction events, extreme weather
lasting<01:12:16.400><c> for</c><01:12:16.640><c> millennia,</c><01:12:17.760><c> and</c><01:12:18.080><c> the</c><01:12:18.400><c> evolution</c>

01:11:15.284 --> 01:11:15.294 align:start position:0%
lasting for millennia, and the evolution
 

01:11:15.294 --> 01:11:18.804 align:start position:0%
lasting for millennia, and the evolution
of<01:12:19.440><c> increasingly</c><01:12:20.320><c> complex</c><01:12:20.800><c> life</c><01:12:21.120><c> forms.</c><01:12:22.400><c> But</c>

01:11:18.804 --> 01:11:18.814 align:start position:0%
of increasingly complex life forms. But
 

01:11:18.814 --> 01:11:21.363 align:start position:0%
of increasingly complex life forms. But
this<01:12:22.880><c> visit</c><01:12:23.280><c> is</c><01:12:23.520><c> about</c><01:12:23.760><c> to</c><01:12:23.920><c> give</c><01:12:24.080><c> our</c><01:12:24.320><c> aliens</c><01:12:24.880><c> a</c>

01:11:21.363 --> 01:11:21.373 align:start position:0%
this visit is about to give our aliens a
 

01:11:21.373 --> 01:11:23.764 align:start position:0%
this visit is about to give our aliens a
lesson<01:12:25.600><c> in</c><01:12:25.840><c> the</c><01:12:26.080><c> extremes</c><01:12:26.880><c> that</c><01:12:27.120><c> life</c><01:12:27.440><c> on</c>

01:11:23.764 --> 01:11:23.774 align:start position:0%
lesson in the extremes that life on
 

01:11:23.774 --> 01:11:27.204 align:start position:0%
lesson in the extremes that life on
Earth<01:12:27.920><c> can</c><01:12:28.080><c> endure.</c>

01:11:27.204 --> 01:11:27.214 align:start position:0%
Earth can endure.
 

01:11:27.214 --> 01:11:30.564 align:start position:0%
Earth can endure.
Over<01:12:31.679><c> 100,000</c><01:12:32.719><c> years</c><01:12:32.960><c> ago,</c><01:12:33.679><c> many</c><01:12:33.920><c> of</c><01:12:34.159><c> our</c>

01:11:30.564 --> 01:11:30.574 align:start position:0%
Over 100,000 years ago, many of our
 

01:11:30.574 --> 01:11:33.284 align:start position:0%
Over 100,000 years ago, many of our
planet's<01:12:34.880><c> ecosystems</c><01:12:35.600><c> were</c><01:12:35.920><c> reshaped</c><01:12:36.560><c> by</c>

01:11:33.284 --> 01:11:33.294 align:start position:0%
planet's ecosystems were reshaped by
 

01:11:33.294 --> 01:11:35.924 align:start position:0%
planet's ecosystems were reshaped by
colossal<01:12:37.679><c> ice</c><01:12:37.920><c> sheets,</c><01:12:38.719><c> piercing</c><01:12:39.360><c> polar</c>

01:11:35.924 --> 01:11:35.934 align:start position:0%
colossal ice sheets, piercing polar
 

01:11:35.934 --> 01:11:39.604 align:start position:0%
colossal ice sheets, piercing polar
winds,<01:12:40.480><c> and</c><01:12:40.960><c> barren</c><01:12:41.440><c> landscapes.</c><01:12:42.640><c> A</c><01:12:42.880><c> glacial</c>

01:11:39.604 --> 01:11:39.614 align:start position:0%
winds, and barren landscapes. A glacial
 

01:11:39.614 --> 01:11:42.883 align:start position:0%
winds, and barren landscapes. A glacial
age<01:12:43.840><c> where</c><01:12:44.239><c> frigid</c><01:12:44.800><c> temperatures</c><01:12:45.679><c> lasted</c><01:12:46.239><c> for</c>

01:11:42.883 --> 01:11:42.893 align:start position:0%
age where frigid temperatures lasted for
 

01:11:42.893 --> 01:11:45.604 align:start position:0%
age where frigid temperatures lasted for
millennia.<01:12:48.159><c> And</c><01:12:48.400><c> with</c><01:12:48.640><c> the</c><01:12:48.800><c> end</c><01:12:49.040><c> of</c><01:12:49.199><c> this</c>

01:11:45.604 --> 01:11:45.614 align:start position:0%
millennia. And with the end of this
 

01:11:45.614 --> 01:11:47.843 align:start position:0%
millennia. And with the end of this
period,<01:12:50.159><c> we'll</c><01:12:50.400><c> cover</c><01:12:50.719><c> the</c><01:12:50.960><c> mysterious</c>

01:11:47.843 --> 01:11:47.853 align:start position:0%
period, we'll cover the mysterious
 

01:11:47.853 --> 01:11:50.323 align:start position:0%
period, we'll cover the mysterious
disappearance<01:12:52.320><c> of</c><01:12:52.560><c> many</c><01:12:52.960><c> of</c><01:12:53.120><c> its</c><01:12:53.360><c> most</c><01:12:53.760><c> iconic</c>

01:11:50.323 --> 01:11:50.333 align:start position:0%
disappearance of many of its most iconic
 

01:11:50.333 --> 01:11:53.124 align:start position:0%
disappearance of many of its most iconic
species<01:12:55.040><c> for</c><01:12:55.360><c> reasons</c><01:12:56.080><c> we</c><01:12:56.320><c> are</c><01:12:56.560><c> still</c>

01:11:53.124 --> 01:11:53.134 align:start position:0%
species for reasons we are still
 

01:11:53.134 --> 01:11:57.604 align:start position:0%
species for reasons we are still
struggling<01:12:57.440><c> to</c><01:12:57.679><c> comprehend</c><01:12:58.239><c> to</c><01:12:58.480><c> this</c><01:12:58.719><c> day.</c>

01:11:57.604 --> 01:11:57.614 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:11:57.614 --> 01:11:59.764 align:start position:0%
 
If<01:13:01.760><c> they</c><01:13:02.000><c> were</c><01:13:02.159><c> being</c><01:13:02.400><c> thorough,</c><01:13:03.040><c> this</c><01:13:03.280><c> ice</c>

01:11:59.764 --> 01:11:59.774 align:start position:0%
If they were being thorough, this ice
 

01:11:59.774 --> 01:12:02.164 align:start position:0%
If they were being thorough, this ice
age<01:13:04.000><c> would</c><01:13:04.320><c> not</c><01:13:04.719><c> be</c><01:13:04.880><c> the</c><01:13:05.040><c> first</c><01:13:05.280><c> our</c><01:13:05.600><c> aliens</c>

01:12:02.164 --> 01:12:02.174 align:start position:0%
age would not be the first our aliens
 

01:12:02.174 --> 01:12:03.444 align:start position:0%
age would not be the first our aliens
have<01:13:06.239><c> witnessed</c><01:13:06.560><c> throughout</c><01:13:06.880><c> Earth's</c>

01:12:03.444 --> 01:12:03.454 align:start position:0%
have witnessed throughout Earth's
 

01:12:03.454 --> 01:12:06.004 align:start position:0%
have witnessed throughout Earth's
history.<01:13:08.000><c> We've</c><01:13:08.320><c> actually</c><01:13:08.640><c> had</c><01:13:09.120><c> five</c><01:13:09.520><c> major</c>

01:12:06.004 --> 01:12:06.014 align:start position:0%
history. We've actually had five major
 

01:12:06.014 --> 01:12:09.524 align:start position:0%
history. We've actually had five major
ones<01:13:10.080><c> in</c><01:13:10.320><c> total.</c><01:13:11.440><c> So,</c><01:13:11.920><c> what</c><01:13:12.320><c> do</c><01:13:12.560><c> they</c><01:13:12.800><c> have</c><01:13:13.040><c> in</c>

01:12:09.524 --> 01:12:09.534 align:start position:0%
ones in total. So, what do they have in
 

01:12:09.534 --> 01:12:12.644 align:start position:0%
ones in total. So, what do they have in
common?<01:13:14.480><c> An</c><01:13:14.719><c> ice</c><01:13:14.960><c> age</c><01:13:15.199><c> occurs</c><01:13:15.679><c> when</c><01:13:15.920><c> the</c><01:13:16.159><c> Earth</c>

01:12:12.644 --> 01:12:12.654 align:start position:0%
common? An ice age occurs when the Earth
 

01:12:12.654 --> 01:12:14.804 align:start position:0%
common? An ice age occurs when the Earth
experiences<01:13:17.199><c> cold</c><01:13:17.600><c> temperatures</c><01:13:18.159><c> for</c><01:13:18.400><c> an</c>

01:12:14.804 --> 01:12:14.814 align:start position:0%
experiences cold temperatures for an
 

01:12:14.814 --> 01:12:17.604 align:start position:0%
experiences cold temperatures for an
extended<01:13:19.120><c> period</c><01:13:19.360><c> of</c><01:13:19.600><c> time,</c><01:13:20.320><c> millions</c><01:13:20.880><c> to</c>

01:12:17.604 --> 01:12:17.614 align:start position:0%
extended period of time, millions to
 

01:12:17.614 --> 01:12:20.403 align:start position:0%
extended period of time, millions to
tens<01:13:21.760><c> of</c><01:13:22.000><c> millions</c><01:13:22.320><c> of</c><01:13:22.480><c> years.</c><01:13:22.880><c> That</c><01:13:23.120><c> is</c><01:13:23.920><c> this</c>

01:12:20.403 --> 01:12:20.413 align:start position:0%
tens of millions of years. That is this
 

01:12:20.413 --> 01:12:22.403 align:start position:0%
tens of millions of years. That is this
causes<01:13:24.640><c> the</c><01:13:24.800><c> Earth's</c><01:13:25.120><c> surface</c><01:13:25.520><c> to</c><01:13:25.760><c> be</c><01:13:25.920><c> taken</c>

01:12:22.403 --> 01:12:22.413 align:start position:0%
causes the Earth's surface to be taken
 

01:12:22.413 --> 01:12:25.604 align:start position:0%
causes the Earth's surface to be taken
over<01:13:26.560><c> by</c><01:13:26.880><c> large</c><01:13:27.280><c> ice</c><01:13:27.520><c> sheets</c><01:13:27.840><c> and</c><01:13:28.000><c> glacias.</c>

01:12:25.604 --> 01:12:25.614 align:start position:0%
over by large ice sheets and glacias.
 

01:12:25.614 --> 01:12:28.244 align:start position:0%
over by large ice sheets and glacias.
The<01:13:29.679><c> ice</c><01:13:29.920><c> age</c><01:13:30.239><c> we're</c><01:13:30.719><c> talking</c><01:13:30.960><c> about</c><01:13:31.600><c> started</c>

01:12:28.244 --> 01:12:28.254 align:start position:0%
The ice age we're talking about started
 

01:12:28.254 --> 01:12:30.883 align:start position:0%
The ice age we're talking about started
around<01:13:32.480><c> 2.6</c><01:13:33.199><c> million</c><01:13:33.600><c> years</c><01:13:33.760><c> ago</c><01:13:34.320><c> with</c><01:13:34.560><c> the</c>

01:12:30.883 --> 01:12:30.893 align:start position:0%
around 2.6 million years ago with the
 

01:12:30.893 --> 01:12:34.403 align:start position:0%
around 2.6 million years ago with the
dawn<01:13:35.120><c> of</c><01:13:35.360><c> the</c><01:13:35.600><c> pletos</c><01:13:36.159><c> scene.</c><01:13:37.440><c> And</c><01:13:37.600><c> you</c><01:13:37.840><c> may</c><01:13:38.080><c> be</c>

01:12:34.403 --> 01:12:34.413 align:start position:0%
dawn of the pletos scene. And you may be
 

01:12:34.413 --> 01:12:36.644 align:start position:0%
dawn of the pletos scene. And you may be
surprised<01:13:38.560><c> to</c><01:13:38.719><c> learn</c><01:13:39.040><c> that</c><01:13:39.520><c> we</c><01:13:39.840><c> are</c><01:13:40.000><c> still</c><01:13:40.239><c> in</c>

01:12:36.644 --> 01:12:36.654 align:start position:0%
surprised to learn that we are still in
 

01:12:36.654 --> 01:12:40.724 align:start position:0%
surprised to learn that we are still in
it.<01:13:41.920><c> Any</c><01:13:42.239><c> ice</c><01:13:42.480><c> age</c><01:13:42.800><c> can</c><01:13:43.040><c> feature</c><01:13:43.440><c> both</c><01:13:43.920><c> frozen</c>

01:12:40.724 --> 01:12:40.734 align:start position:0%
it. Any ice age can feature both frozen
 

01:12:40.734 --> 01:12:43.764 align:start position:0%
it. Any ice age can feature both frozen
glacial<01:13:45.120><c> periods</c><01:13:45.840><c> and</c><01:13:46.320><c> warmer</c><01:13:46.800><c> interglacial</c>

01:12:43.764 --> 01:12:43.774 align:start position:0%
glacial periods and warmer interglacial
 

01:12:43.774 --> 01:12:47.124 align:start position:0%
glacial periods and warmer interglacial
periods.<01:13:48.560><c> And</c><01:13:48.800><c> it</c><01:13:49.040><c> is</c><01:13:49.440><c> in</c><01:13:49.679><c> fact</c><01:13:50.159><c> the</c><01:13:50.480><c> latest</c>

01:12:47.124 --> 01:12:47.134 align:start position:0%
periods. And it is in fact the latest
 

01:12:47.134 --> 01:12:49.124 align:start position:0%
periods. And it is in fact the latest
interglacial<01:13:51.679><c> period</c><01:13:52.080><c> that</c><01:13:52.400><c> we've</c><01:13:52.719><c> been</c>

01:12:49.124 --> 01:12:49.134 align:start position:0%
interglacial period that we've been
 

01:12:49.134 --> 01:12:52.564 align:start position:0%
interglacial period that we've been
experiencing<01:13:53.600><c> for</c><01:13:53.840><c> the</c><01:13:54.000><c> past</c><01:13:54.480><c> 11,000</c><01:13:55.360><c> years.</c>

01:12:52.564 --> 01:12:52.574 align:start position:0%
experiencing for the past 11,000 years.
 

01:12:52.574 --> 01:12:54.804 align:start position:0%
experiencing for the past 11,000 years.
So<01:13:56.560><c> when</c><01:13:56.880><c> people</c><01:13:57.120><c> refer</c><01:13:57.440><c> to</c><01:13:57.600><c> the</c><01:13:57.840><c> last</c><01:13:58.080><c> ice</c><01:13:58.400><c> age</c>

01:12:54.804 --> 01:12:54.814 align:start position:0%
So when people refer to the last ice age
 

01:12:54.814 --> 01:12:57.764 align:start position:0%
So when people refer to the last ice age
in<01:13:58.960><c> popular</c><01:13:59.360><c> culture,</c><01:14:00.400><c> they</c><01:14:00.640><c> often</c><01:14:01.040><c> mean</c><01:14:01.360><c> the</c>

01:12:57.764 --> 01:12:57.774 align:start position:0%
in popular culture, they often mean the
 

01:12:57.774 --> 01:13:00.724 align:start position:0%
in popular culture, they often mean the
last<01:14:02.080><c> glacial</c><01:14:02.640><c> period</c><01:14:03.520><c> which</c><01:14:03.840><c> came</c><01:14:04.239><c> right</c>

01:13:00.724 --> 01:13:00.734 align:start position:0%
last glacial period which came right
 

01:13:00.734 --> 01:13:04.244 align:start position:0%
last glacial period which came right
before<01:14:05.120><c> and</c><01:14:05.440><c> lasted</c><01:14:05.920><c> from</c><01:14:06.560><c> 115,000</c>

01:13:04.244 --> 01:13:04.254 align:start position:0%
before and lasted from 115,000
 

01:13:04.254 --> 01:13:06.164 align:start position:0%
before and lasted from 115,000
to<01:14:08.400><c> 11,700</c>

01:13:06.164 --> 01:13:06.174 align:start position:0%
to 11,700
 

01:13:06.174 --> 01:13:08.004 align:start position:0%
to 11,700
years<01:14:10.239><c> ago.</c>

01:13:08.004 --> 01:13:08.014 align:start position:0%
years ago.
 

01:13:08.014 --> 01:13:10.244 align:start position:0%
years ago.
It<01:14:12.159><c> may</c><01:14:12.400><c> also</c><01:14:12.719><c> be</c><01:14:12.960><c> surprising</c><01:14:13.600><c> that</c><01:14:13.840><c> the</c>

01:13:10.244 --> 01:13:10.254 align:start position:0%
It may also be surprising that the
 

01:13:10.254 --> 01:13:11.924 align:start position:0%
It may also be surprising that the
average<01:14:14.480><c> temperature</c><01:14:14.960><c> during</c><01:14:15.280><c> the</c><01:14:15.440><c> last</c>

01:13:11.924 --> 01:13:11.934 align:start position:0%
average temperature during the last
 

01:13:11.934 --> 01:13:15.363 align:start position:0%
average temperature during the last
glacial<01:14:16.239><c> period</c><01:14:16.880><c> was</c><01:14:17.280><c> only</c><01:14:17.520><c> about</c><01:14:18.000><c> 6°</c><01:14:18.719><c> colder</c>

01:13:15.363 --> 01:13:15.373 align:start position:0%
glacial period was only about 6° colder
 

01:13:15.373 --> 01:13:18.724 align:start position:0%
glacial period was only about 6° colder
than<01:14:19.440><c> today's</c><01:14:19.920><c> global</c><01:14:20.400><c> average.</c><01:14:21.520><c> However,</c><01:14:22.239><c> a</c>

01:13:18.724 --> 01:13:18.734 align:start position:0%
than today's global average. However, a
 

01:13:18.734 --> 01:13:21.124 align:start position:0%
than today's global average. However, a
global<01:14:23.040><c> change</c><01:14:23.280><c> in</c><01:14:23.600><c> temperature</c><01:14:24.239><c> can</c><01:14:24.640><c> have</c>

01:13:21.124 --> 01:13:21.134 align:start position:0%
global change in temperature can have
 

01:13:21.134 --> 01:13:23.444 align:start position:0%
global change in temperature can have
profound<01:14:25.520><c> effects,</c><01:14:26.400><c> even</c><01:14:26.719><c> when</c><01:14:27.040><c> the</c>

01:13:23.444 --> 01:13:23.454 align:start position:0%
profound effects, even when the
 

01:13:23.454 --> 01:13:25.764 align:start position:0%
profound effects, even when the
difference<01:14:27.520><c> is</c><01:14:27.679><c> in</c><01:14:27.840><c> the</c><01:14:28.000><c> single</c><01:14:28.320><c> digits.</c><01:14:29.360><c> When</c>

01:13:25.764 --> 01:13:25.774 align:start position:0%
difference is in the single digits. When
 

01:13:25.774 --> 01:13:28.644 align:start position:0%
difference is in the single digits. When
we<01:14:29.760><c> think</c><01:14:30.000><c> about</c><01:14:30.239><c> a</c><01:14:30.719><c> 6°</c><01:14:31.600><c> global</c><01:14:32.000><c> drop</c><01:14:32.239><c> in</c>

01:13:28.644 --> 01:13:28.654 align:start position:0%
we think about a 6° global drop in
 

01:13:28.654 --> 01:13:32.323 align:start position:0%
we think about a 6° global drop in
temperature,<01:14:33.520><c> we</c><01:14:33.840><c> mean</c><01:14:34.239><c> 6°</c><01:14:34.960><c> worth</c><01:14:35.280><c> of</c><01:14:35.679><c> thermal</c>

01:13:32.323 --> 01:13:32.333 align:start position:0%
temperature, we mean 6° worth of thermal
 

01:13:32.333 --> 01:13:35.684 align:start position:0%
temperature, we mean 6° worth of thermal
energy<01:14:36.640><c> being</c><01:14:36.960><c> lost</c><01:14:37.280><c> from</c><01:14:37.679><c> all</c><01:14:38.080><c> our</c><01:14:38.480><c> oceans,</c>

01:13:35.684 --> 01:13:35.694 align:start position:0%
energy being lost from all our oceans,
 

01:13:35.694 --> 01:13:38.164 align:start position:0%
energy being lost from all our oceans,
land<01:14:39.840><c> masses,</c><01:14:40.800><c> and</c><01:14:41.120><c> the</c><01:14:41.280><c> atmosphere</c>

01:13:38.164 --> 01:13:38.174 align:start position:0%
land masses, and the atmosphere
 

01:13:38.174 --> 01:13:40.644 align:start position:0%
land masses, and the atmosphere
combined.

01:13:40.644 --> 01:13:40.654 align:start position:0%
combined.
 

01:13:40.654 --> 01:13:43.124 align:start position:0%
combined.
During<01:14:44.800><c> our</c><01:14:45.040><c> last</c><01:14:45.280><c> glacial</c><01:14:45.840><c> period,</c><01:14:46.480><c> much</c><01:14:46.719><c> of</c>

01:13:43.124 --> 01:13:43.134 align:start position:0%
During our last glacial period, much of
 

01:13:43.134 --> 01:13:45.524 align:start position:0%
During our last glacial period, much of
Europe<01:14:47.280><c> and</c><01:14:47.520><c> North</c><01:14:47.760><c> America</c><01:14:48.480><c> was</c><01:14:48.800><c> dominated</c>

01:13:45.524 --> 01:13:45.534 align:start position:0%
Europe and North America was dominated
 

01:13:45.534 --> 01:13:48.644 align:start position:0%
Europe and North America was dominated
by<01:14:49.760><c> two</c><01:14:50.320><c> major</c><01:14:50.800><c> expanses</c><01:14:51.280><c> of</c><01:14:51.440><c> ice,</c><01:14:52.239><c> the</c>

01:13:48.644 --> 01:13:48.654 align:start position:0%
by two major expanses of ice, the
 

01:13:48.654 --> 01:13:50.564 align:start position:0%
by two major expanses of ice, the
Laurentide<01:14:53.199><c> ice</c><01:14:53.440><c> sheet</c><01:14:53.920><c> and</c><01:14:54.159><c> the</c>

01:13:50.564 --> 01:13:50.574 align:start position:0%
Laurentide ice sheet and the
 

01:13:50.574 --> 01:13:53.604 align:start position:0%
Laurentide ice sheet and the
Fenoscandian<01:14:55.360><c> ice</c><01:14:55.600><c> sheet.</c>

01:13:53.604 --> 01:13:53.614 align:start position:0%
Fenoscandian ice sheet.
 

01:13:53.614 --> 01:13:56.164 align:start position:0%
Fenoscandian ice sheet.
Because<01:14:57.920><c> so</c><01:14:58.239><c> much</c><01:14:58.480><c> of</c><01:14:58.719><c> Earth's</c><01:14:59.199><c> limited</c><01:14:59.679><c> water</c>

01:13:56.164 --> 01:13:56.174 align:start position:0%
Because so much of Earth's limited water
 

01:13:56.174 --> 01:13:58.004 align:start position:0%
Because so much of Earth's limited water
supply<01:15:00.400><c> was</c><01:15:00.719><c> locked</c><01:15:01.040><c> away</c><01:15:01.280><c> in</c><01:15:01.440><c> these</c><01:15:01.600><c> ice</c>

01:13:58.004 --> 01:13:58.014 align:start position:0%
supply was locked away in these ice
 

01:13:58.014 --> 01:14:00.484 align:start position:0%
supply was locked away in these ice
sheets,<01:15:02.480><c> the</c><01:15:02.719><c> average</c><01:15:03.040><c> sea</c><01:15:03.280><c> level</c><01:15:03.600><c> was</c><01:15:04.000><c> much</c>

01:14:00.484 --> 01:14:00.494 align:start position:0%
sheets, the average sea level was much
 

01:14:00.494 --> 01:14:03.124 align:start position:0%
sheets, the average sea level was much
lower<01:15:04.960><c> and</c><01:15:05.199><c> the</c><01:15:05.360><c> land</c><01:15:05.679><c> mostly</c><01:15:06.080><c> consisted</c><01:15:06.640><c> of</c>

01:14:03.124 --> 01:14:03.134 align:start position:0%
lower and the land mostly consisted of
 

01:14:03.134 --> 01:14:06.804 align:start position:0%
lower and the land mostly consisted of
tundra-like<01:15:07.760><c> vegetation</c><01:15:08.800><c> spread</c><01:15:09.120><c> across</c><01:15:09.840><c> dry</c>

01:14:06.804 --> 01:14:06.814 align:start position:0%
tundra-like vegetation spread across dry
 

01:14:06.814 --> 01:14:10.004 align:start position:0%
tundra-like vegetation spread across dry
grassy<01:15:11.120><c> plains.</c>

01:14:10.004 --> 01:14:10.014 align:start position:0%
grassy plains.
 

01:14:10.014 --> 01:14:12.403 align:start position:0%
grassy plains.
There<01:15:14.000><c> is</c><01:15:14.239><c> no</c><01:15:14.560><c> single</c><01:15:15.040><c> factor</c><01:15:15.440><c> that</c><01:15:15.679><c> explains</c>

01:14:12.403 --> 01:14:12.413 align:start position:0%
There is no single factor that explains
 

01:14:12.413 --> 01:14:14.403 align:start position:0%
There is no single factor that explains
why<01:15:16.480><c> the</c><01:15:16.719><c> Earth</c><01:15:17.040><c> was</c><01:15:17.199><c> plunged</c><01:15:17.600><c> into</c><01:15:17.920><c> these</c>

01:14:14.403 --> 01:14:14.413 align:start position:0%
why the Earth was plunged into these
 

01:14:14.413 --> 01:14:17.204 align:start position:0%
why the Earth was plunged into these
frigid<01:15:18.719><c> conditions,</c><01:15:20.000><c> but</c><01:15:20.239><c> a</c><01:15:20.480><c> lot</c><01:15:20.640><c> can</c><01:15:20.880><c> be</c>

01:14:17.204 --> 01:14:17.214 align:start position:0%
frigid conditions, but a lot can be
 

01:14:17.214 --> 01:14:19.124 align:start position:0%
frigid conditions, but a lot can be
resolved<01:15:21.440><c> by</c><01:15:21.679><c> looking</c><01:15:21.920><c> at</c><01:15:22.080><c> its</c><01:15:22.239><c> orbit</c><01:15:22.560><c> at</c><01:15:22.719><c> the</c>

01:14:19.124 --> 01:14:19.134 align:start position:0%
resolved by looking at its orbit at the
 

01:14:19.134 --> 01:14:21.604 align:start position:0%
resolved by looking at its orbit at the
time.<01:15:23.760><c> Last</c><01:15:24.000><c> century,</c><01:15:24.640><c> the</c><01:15:24.880><c> Serbian</c>

01:14:21.604 --> 01:14:21.614 align:start position:0%
time. Last century, the Serbian
 

01:14:21.614 --> 01:14:23.764 align:start position:0%
time. Last century, the Serbian
scientist<01:15:26.000><c> Malutin</c><01:15:26.640><c> Mealankovich</c>

01:14:23.764 --> 01:14:23.774 align:start position:0%
scientist Malutin Mealankovich
 

01:14:23.774 --> 01:14:26.724 align:start position:0%
scientist Malutin Mealankovich
hypothesized<01:15:28.400><c> that</c><01:15:29.199><c> long-term</c><01:15:30.080><c> collective</c>

01:14:26.724 --> 01:14:26.734 align:start position:0%
hypothesized that long-term collective
 

01:14:26.734 --> 01:14:28.564 align:start position:0%
hypothesized that long-term collective
changes<01:15:30.960><c> in</c><01:15:31.120><c> the</c><01:15:31.280><c> Earth's</c><01:15:31.600><c> position</c><01:15:32.000><c> relative</c>

01:14:28.564 --> 01:14:28.574 align:start position:0%
changes in the Earth's position relative
 

01:14:28.574 --> 01:14:30.883 align:start position:0%
changes in the Earth's position relative
to<01:15:32.560><c> the</c><01:15:32.719><c> sun</c><01:15:33.199><c> are</c><01:15:33.440><c> a</c><01:15:33.679><c> strong</c><01:15:34.080><c> driver</c><01:15:34.480><c> of</c>

01:14:30.883 --> 01:14:30.893 align:start position:0%
to the sun are a strong driver of
 

01:14:30.893 --> 01:14:33.764 align:start position:0%
to the sun are a strong driver of
Earth's<01:15:35.360><c> long-term</c><01:15:36.080><c> climate</c><01:15:36.960><c> and</c><01:15:37.199><c> could</c><01:15:37.440><c> be</c>

01:14:33.764 --> 01:14:33.774 align:start position:0%
Earth's long-term climate and could be
 

01:14:33.774 --> 01:14:36.084 align:start position:0%
Earth's long-term climate and could be
used<01:15:37.760><c> to</c><01:15:38.000><c> explain</c><01:15:38.400><c> how</c><01:15:38.800><c> glaciation</c><01:15:39.440><c> periods</c>

01:14:36.084 --> 01:14:36.094 align:start position:0%
used to explain how glaciation periods
 

01:14:36.094 --> 01:14:39.284 align:start position:0%
used to explain how glaciation periods
or<01:15:40.400><c> ice</c><01:15:40.640><c> ages</c><01:15:41.040><c> are</c><01:15:41.199><c> triggered.</c><01:15:42.320><c> Meanovich</c>

01:14:39.284 --> 01:14:39.294 align:start position:0%
or ice ages are triggered. Meanovich
 

01:14:39.294 --> 01:14:41.044 align:start position:0%
or ice ages are triggered. Meanovich
studied<01:15:43.440><c> these</c><01:15:43.760><c> three</c><01:15:44.000><c> types</c><01:15:44.320><c> of</c><01:15:44.560><c> Earth</c>

01:14:41.044 --> 01:14:41.054 align:start position:0%
studied these three types of Earth
 

01:14:41.054 --> 01:14:43.524 align:start position:0%
studied these three types of Earth
orbital<01:15:45.440><c> movements</c><01:15:46.080><c> and</c><01:15:46.400><c> how</c><01:15:46.640><c> variations</c><01:15:47.199><c> in</c>

01:14:43.524 --> 01:14:43.534 align:start position:0%
orbital movements and how variations in
 

01:14:43.534 --> 01:14:45.284 align:start position:0%
orbital movements and how variations in
these<01:15:47.600><c> movements</c><01:15:48.000><c> can</c><01:15:48.320><c> change</c><01:15:48.560><c> the</c><01:15:48.719><c> amount</c><01:15:48.960><c> of</c>

01:14:45.284 --> 01:14:45.294 align:start position:0%
these movements can change the amount of
 

01:14:45.294 --> 01:14:47.044 align:start position:0%
these movements can change the amount of
solar<01:15:49.440><c> radiation</c><01:15:49.840><c> that</c><01:15:50.080><c> reaches</c><01:15:50.480><c> Earth's</c>

01:14:47.044 --> 01:14:47.054 align:start position:0%
solar radiation that reaches Earth's
 

01:14:47.054 --> 01:14:49.843 align:start position:0%
solar radiation that reaches Earth's
surface.<01:15:52.000><c> We</c><01:15:52.320><c> mentioned</c><01:15:52.719><c> those</c><01:15:53.120><c> earlier</c><01:15:53.440><c> in</c>

01:14:49.843 --> 01:14:49.853 align:start position:0%
surface. We mentioned those earlier in
 

01:14:49.853 --> 01:14:52.564 align:start position:0%
surface. We mentioned those earlier in
the<01:15:53.840><c> video.</c><01:15:54.560><c> They</c><01:15:54.800><c> are</c><01:15:55.280><c> the</c><01:15:55.520><c> eccentric</c><01:15:56.080><c> nature</c>

01:14:52.564 --> 01:14:52.574 align:start position:0%
the video. They are the eccentric nature
 

01:14:52.574 --> 01:14:55.363 align:start position:0%
the video. They are the eccentric nature
of<01:15:56.719><c> Earth's</c><01:15:57.120><c> orbit,</c><01:15:57.600><c> or</c><01:15:57.920><c> how</c><01:15:58.320><c> close</c><01:15:58.560><c> or</c><01:15:58.880><c> far</c>

01:14:55.363 --> 01:14:55.373 align:start position:0%
of Earth's orbit, or how close or far
 

01:14:55.373 --> 01:14:57.363 align:start position:0%
of Earth's orbit, or how close or far
the<01:15:59.440><c> planet</c><01:15:59.679><c> is</c><01:15:59.840><c> from</c><01:16:00.080><c> the</c><01:16:00.159><c> sun,</c><01:16:00.480><c> which</c><01:16:00.800><c> cycles</c>

01:14:57.363 --> 01:14:57.373 align:start position:0%
the planet is from the sun, which cycles
 

01:14:57.373 --> 01:15:00.724 align:start position:0%
the planet is from the sun, which cycles
every<01:16:01.600><c> 100,000</c><01:16:02.320><c> years.</c><01:16:03.280><c> The</c><01:16:03.520><c> planet's</c><01:16:03.920><c> axis</c>

01:15:00.724 --> 01:15:00.734 align:start position:0%
every 100,000 years. The planet's axis
 

01:15:00.734 --> 01:15:03.284 align:start position:0%
every 100,000 years. The planet's axis
varying<01:16:05.040><c> degree</c><01:16:05.280><c> of</c><01:16:05.440><c> tilt,</c><01:16:06.159><c> which</c><01:16:06.560><c> rocks</c><01:16:06.960><c> back</c>

01:15:03.284 --> 01:15:03.294 align:start position:0%
varying degree of tilt, which rocks back
 

01:15:03.294 --> 01:15:07.124 align:start position:0%
varying degree of tilt, which rocks back
and<01:16:07.360><c> forth</c><01:16:07.679><c> over</c><01:16:07.920><c> a</c><01:16:08.400><c> 41,000year</c><01:16:09.760><c> period,</c><01:16:10.719><c> and</c>

01:15:07.124 --> 01:15:07.134 align:start position:0%
and forth over a 41,000year period, and
 

01:15:07.134 --> 01:15:09.924 align:start position:0%
and forth over a 41,000year period, and
the<01:16:11.199><c> Earth's</c><01:16:11.679><c> axial</c><01:16:12.239><c> procession,</c><01:16:13.280><c> how</c><01:16:13.600><c> much</c>

01:15:09.924 --> 01:15:09.934 align:start position:0%
the Earth's axial procession, how much
 

01:15:09.934 --> 01:15:13.604 align:start position:0%
the Earth's axial procession, how much
that<01:16:14.159><c> axis</c><01:16:14.640><c> wobbles,</c><01:16:15.520><c> a</c><01:16:16.000><c> 26,000-year</c>

01:15:13.604 --> 01:15:13.614 align:start position:0%
that axis wobbles, a 26,000-year
 

01:15:13.614 --> 01:15:15.843 align:start position:0%
that axis wobbles, a 26,000-year
cyclical<01:16:18.000><c> shift.</c>

01:15:15.843 --> 01:15:15.853 align:start position:0%
cyclical shift.
 

01:15:15.853 --> 01:15:17.924 align:start position:0%
cyclical shift.
The<01:16:19.920><c> combination</c><01:16:20.320><c> of</c><01:16:20.560><c> all</c><01:16:20.800><c> three</c><01:16:21.120><c> cycles</c>

01:15:17.924 --> 01:15:17.934 align:start position:0%
The combination of all three cycles
 

01:15:17.934 --> 01:15:20.644 align:start position:0%
The combination of all three cycles
works<01:16:22.239><c> to</c><01:16:22.480><c> influence</c><01:16:22.960><c> the</c><01:16:23.199><c> Earth's</c><01:16:23.840><c> long-term</c>

01:15:20.644 --> 01:15:20.654 align:start position:0%
works to influence the Earth's long-term
 

01:15:20.654 --> 01:15:22.564 align:start position:0%
works to influence the Earth's long-term
climate,<01:16:25.280><c> and</c><01:16:25.520><c> they</c><01:16:25.679><c> have</c><01:16:25.840><c> been</c><01:16:26.080><c> pretty</c>

01:15:22.564 --> 01:15:22.574 align:start position:0%
climate, and they have been pretty
 

01:15:22.574 --> 01:15:25.204 align:start position:0%
climate, and they have been pretty
reliable<01:16:26.960><c> factors</c><01:16:27.360><c> in</c><01:16:27.679><c> predicting</c><01:16:28.239><c> the</c><01:16:28.560><c> major</c>

01:15:25.204 --> 01:15:25.214 align:start position:0%
reliable factors in predicting the major
 

01:15:25.214 --> 01:15:28.883 align:start position:0%
reliable factors in predicting the major
ice<01:16:29.280><c> ages</c><01:16:29.760><c> so</c><01:16:30.000><c> far.</c><01:16:31.040><c> However,</c><01:16:32.000><c> shorter</c><01:16:32.480><c> term</c>

01:15:28.883 --> 01:15:28.893 align:start position:0%
ice ages so far. However, shorter term
 

01:15:28.893 --> 01:15:31.764 align:start position:0%
ice ages so far. However, shorter term
cycles<01:16:33.360><c> are</c><01:16:33.679><c> also</c><01:16:34.159><c> important</c><01:16:34.960><c> and</c><01:16:35.280><c> can</c>

01:15:31.764 --> 01:15:31.774 align:start position:0%
cycles are also important and can
 

01:15:31.774 --> 01:15:33.843 align:start position:0%
cycles are also important and can
enhance<01:16:36.080><c> or</c><01:16:36.400><c> weaken</c><01:16:36.719><c> these</c><01:16:37.120><c> large-scale</c>

01:15:33.843 --> 01:15:33.853 align:start position:0%
enhance or weaken these large-scale
 

01:15:33.853 --> 01:15:36.644 align:start position:0%
enhance or weaken these large-scale
effects.<01:16:38.800><c> Two</c><01:16:39.280><c> major</c><01:16:39.679><c> ones</c><01:16:39.920><c> that</c><01:16:40.159><c> occurred</c>

01:15:36.644 --> 01:15:36.654 align:start position:0%
effects. Two major ones that occurred
 

01:15:36.654 --> 01:15:38.564 align:start position:0%
effects. Two major ones that occurred
throughout<01:16:40.800><c> the</c><01:16:41.040><c> last</c><01:16:41.360><c> ice</c><01:16:41.600><c> age</c><01:16:42.000><c> were</c><01:16:42.159><c> the</c>

01:15:38.564 --> 01:15:38.574 align:start position:0%
throughout the last ice age were the
 

01:15:38.574 --> 01:15:41.444 align:start position:0%
throughout the last ice age were the
Dansgard<01:16:42.960><c> Ushkar</c><01:16:43.520><c> events</c><01:16:44.159><c> associated</c><01:16:44.880><c> with</c>

01:15:41.444 --> 01:15:41.454 align:start position:0%
Dansgard Ushkar events associated with
 

01:15:41.454 --> 01:15:44.644 align:start position:0%
Dansgard Ushkar events associated with
sudden<01:16:45.760><c> warming</c><01:16:46.560><c> and</c><01:16:46.960><c> Heinrich</c><01:16:47.520><c> events</c>

01:15:44.644 --> 01:15:44.654 align:start position:0%
sudden warming and Heinrich events
 

01:15:44.654 --> 01:15:47.444 align:start position:0%
sudden warming and Heinrich events
causing<01:16:49.120><c> rapid</c><01:16:49.679><c> cooling.</c>

01:15:47.444 --> 01:15:47.454 align:start position:0%
causing rapid cooling.
 

01:15:47.454 --> 01:15:50.804 align:start position:0%
causing rapid cooling.
So<01:16:51.760><c> here</c><01:16:52.000><c> comes</c><01:16:52.320><c> the</c><01:16:52.560><c> big</c><01:16:52.800><c> question</c><01:16:53.520><c> and</c><01:16:54.000><c> it</c><01:16:54.320><c> is</c>

01:15:50.804 --> 01:15:50.814 align:start position:0%
So here comes the big question and it is
 

01:15:50.814 --> 01:15:54.164 align:start position:0%
So here comes the big question and it is
indeed<01:16:55.360><c> big</c><01:16:55.920><c> as</c><01:16:56.159><c> you'll</c><01:16:56.400><c> see</c><01:16:56.480><c> in</c><01:16:56.719><c> a</c><01:16:56.880><c> moment.</c>

01:15:54.164 --> 01:15:54.174 align:start position:0%
indeed big as you'll see in a moment.
 

01:15:54.174 --> 01:15:56.724 align:start position:0%
indeed big as you'll see in a moment.
How<01:16:58.320><c> did</c><01:16:58.719><c> the</c><01:16:58.960><c> creatures</c><01:16:59.600><c> roaming</c><01:17:00.080><c> on</c><01:17:00.239><c> our</c>

01:15:56.724 --> 01:15:56.734 align:start position:0%
How did the creatures roaming on our
 

01:15:56.734 --> 01:15:59.843 align:start position:0%
How did the creatures roaming on our
planet<01:17:01.120><c> adapt</c><01:17:01.679><c> to</c><01:17:01.920><c> these</c><01:17:02.239><c> changes?</c><01:17:03.280><c> What</c><01:17:03.520><c> did</c>

01:15:59.843 --> 01:15:59.853 align:start position:0%
planet adapt to these changes? What did
 

01:15:59.853 --> 01:16:07.924 align:start position:0%
planet adapt to these changes? What did
they<01:17:03.840><c> look</c><01:17:04.080><c> like?</c><01:17:04.800><c> How</c><01:17:05.120><c> did</c><01:17:05.360><c> they</c><01:17:05.600><c> live?</c>

01:16:07.924 --> 01:16:07.934 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:16:07.934 --> 01:16:10.004 align:start position:0%
 
We<01:17:12.080><c> mentioned</c><01:17:12.400><c> that</c><01:17:12.800><c> much</c><01:17:13.040><c> of</c><01:17:13.199><c> the</c><01:17:13.360><c> last</c><01:17:13.520><c> ice</c>

01:16:10.004 --> 01:16:10.014 align:start position:0%
We mentioned that much of the last ice
 

01:16:10.014 --> 01:16:12.804 align:start position:0%
We mentioned that much of the last ice
age<01:17:14.080><c> occurred</c><01:17:14.400><c> during</c><01:17:14.640><c> the</c><01:17:14.880><c> pleaene</c><01:17:15.679><c> epoch</c>

01:16:12.804 --> 01:16:12.814 align:start position:0%
age occurred during the pleaene epoch
 

01:16:12.814 --> 01:16:16.564 align:start position:0%
age occurred during the pleaene epoch
which<01:17:16.880><c> spanned</c><01:17:17.440><c> from</c><01:17:18.000><c> 2.6</c><01:17:18.960><c> million</c><01:17:19.520><c> to</c><01:17:19.760><c> around</c>

01:16:16.564 --> 01:16:16.574 align:start position:0%
which spanned from 2.6 million to around
 

01:16:16.574 --> 01:16:18.244 align:start position:0%
which spanned from 2.6 million to around
11,700

01:16:18.244 --> 01:16:18.254 align:start position:0%
11,700
 

01:16:18.254 --> 01:16:19.924 align:start position:0%
11,700
years<01:17:22.239><c> ago.</c>

01:16:19.924 --> 01:16:19.934 align:start position:0%
years ago.
 

01:16:19.934 --> 01:16:23.204 align:start position:0%
years ago.
The<01:17:24.000><c> ice</c><01:17:24.239><c> age</c><01:17:24.560><c> was</c><01:17:24.800><c> a</c><01:17:25.040><c> time</c><01:17:25.440><c> when</c><01:17:26.000><c> megaporna</c>

01:16:23.204 --> 01:16:23.214 align:start position:0%
The ice age was a time when megaporna
 

01:16:23.214 --> 01:16:26.084 align:start position:0%
The ice age was a time when megaporna
walked<01:17:27.360><c> the</c><01:17:27.600><c> earth.</c><01:17:28.400><c> And</c><01:17:28.560><c> the</c><01:17:28.800><c> word</c><01:17:29.040><c> mega</c><01:17:29.600><c> is</c>

01:16:26.084 --> 01:16:26.094 align:start position:0%
walked the earth. And the word mega is
 

01:16:26.094 --> 01:16:28.883 align:start position:0%
walked the earth. And the word mega is
no<01:17:30.320><c> overstatement.</c><01:17:31.600><c> Some</c><01:17:31.840><c> of</c><01:17:32.000><c> the</c><01:17:32.159><c> largest</c><01:17:32.560><c> of</c>

01:16:28.883 --> 01:16:28.893 align:start position:0%
no overstatement. Some of the largest of
 

01:16:28.893 --> 01:16:32.244 align:start position:0%
no overstatement. Some of the largest of
these<01:17:32.960><c> creatures</c><01:17:33.520><c> weighed</c><01:17:34.159><c> 4,500</c>

01:16:32.244 --> 01:16:32.254 align:start position:0%
these creatures weighed 4,500
 

01:16:32.254 --> 01:16:34.644 align:start position:0%
these creatures weighed 4,500
kg.

01:16:34.644 --> 01:16:34.654 align:start position:0%
kg.
 

01:16:34.654 --> 01:16:36.644 align:start position:0%
kg.
There<01:17:38.800><c> are</c><01:17:39.040><c> a</c><01:17:39.280><c> few</c><01:17:39.440><c> theories</c><01:17:39.840><c> as</c><01:17:40.080><c> to</c><01:17:40.159><c> why</c>

01:16:36.644 --> 01:16:36.654 align:start position:0%
There are a few theories as to why
 

01:16:36.654 --> 01:16:38.644 align:start position:0%
There are a few theories as to why
everything<01:17:40.880><c> tended</c><01:17:41.360><c> towards</c><01:17:41.760><c> the</c><01:17:41.920><c> gigantic</c>

01:16:38.644 --> 01:16:38.654 align:start position:0%
everything tended towards the gigantic
 

01:16:38.654 --> 01:16:40.484 align:start position:0%
everything tended towards the gigantic
during<01:17:42.719><c> the</c><01:17:42.880><c> ice</c><01:17:43.120><c> age,</c><01:17:43.600><c> which</c><01:17:43.840><c> involve</c>

01:16:40.484 --> 01:16:40.494 align:start position:0%
during the ice age, which involve
 

01:16:40.494 --> 01:16:42.244 align:start position:0%
during the ice age, which involve
different<01:17:44.640><c> animals</c><01:17:45.199><c> strategies</c><01:17:45.840><c> for</c>

01:16:42.244 --> 01:16:42.254 align:start position:0%
different animals strategies for
 

01:16:42.254 --> 01:16:44.724 align:start position:0%
different animals strategies for
conserving<01:17:46.640><c> energy.</c><01:17:47.600><c> For</c><01:17:47.679><c> example,</c>

01:16:44.724 --> 01:16:44.734 align:start position:0%
conserving energy. For example,
 

01:16:44.734 --> 01:16:47.284 align:start position:0%
conserving energy. For example,
Bergman's<01:17:49.120><c> rule</c><01:17:49.520><c> describes</c><01:17:50.080><c> how</c><01:17:50.480><c> for</c><01:17:50.800><c> animals</c>

01:16:47.284 --> 01:16:47.294 align:start position:0%
Bergman's rule describes how for animals
 

01:16:47.294 --> 01:16:49.363 align:start position:0%
Bergman's rule describes how for animals
that<01:17:51.360><c> produce</c><01:17:51.600><c> their</c><01:17:51.840><c> own</c><01:17:52.080><c> body</c><01:17:52.320><c> heat,</c><01:17:52.880><c> like</c>

01:16:49.363 --> 01:16:49.373 align:start position:0%
that produce their own body heat, like
 

01:16:49.373 --> 01:16:52.403 align:start position:0%
that produce their own body heat, like
mammals,<01:17:54.239><c> the</c><01:17:54.400><c> colder</c><01:17:54.800><c> the</c><01:17:54.960><c> environment,</c><01:17:56.000><c> the</c>

01:16:52.403 --> 01:16:52.413 align:start position:0%
mammals, the colder the environment, the
 

01:16:52.413 --> 01:16:55.284 align:start position:0%
mammals, the colder the environment, the
larger<01:17:56.640><c> their</c><01:17:56.880><c> body</c><01:17:57.199><c> size.</c><01:17:58.080><c> This</c><01:17:58.320><c> is</c><01:17:58.560><c> because</c>

01:16:55.284 --> 01:16:55.294 align:start position:0%
larger their body size. This is because
 

01:16:55.294 --> 01:16:57.363 align:start position:0%
larger their body size. This is because
largerbodied<01:17:59.840><c> mammals</c><01:18:00.320><c> have</c><01:18:00.560><c> a</c><01:18:00.800><c> lower</c>

01:16:57.363 --> 01:16:57.373 align:start position:0%
largerbodied mammals have a lower
 

01:16:57.373 --> 01:16:59.924 align:start position:0%
largerbodied mammals have a lower
surface<01:18:01.679><c> area</c><01:18:02.080><c> to</c><01:18:02.320><c> volume</c><01:18:02.640><c> ratio</c><01:18:03.520><c> which</c>

01:16:59.924 --> 01:16:59.934 align:start position:0%
surface area to volume ratio which
 

01:16:59.934 --> 01:17:02.244 align:start position:0%
surface area to volume ratio which
prevents<01:18:04.159><c> them</c><01:18:04.400><c> from</c><01:18:04.640><c> losing</c><01:18:05.120><c> heat</c><01:18:05.440><c> easily</c><01:18:05.840><c> to</c>

01:17:02.244 --> 01:17:02.254 align:start position:0%
prevents them from losing heat easily to
 

01:17:02.254 --> 01:17:04.883 align:start position:0%
prevents them from losing heat easily to
the<01:18:06.239><c> surroundings.</c><01:18:07.440><c> So</c><01:18:07.679><c> this</c><01:18:07.920><c> might</c><01:18:08.239><c> partly</c>

01:17:04.883 --> 01:17:04.893 align:start position:0%
the surroundings. So this might partly
 

01:17:04.893 --> 01:17:07.684 align:start position:0%
the surroundings. So this might partly
explain<01:18:09.120><c> why</c><01:18:09.440><c> so</c><01:18:09.760><c> many</c><01:18:10.080><c> large</c><01:18:10.640><c> and</c><01:18:10.880><c> imposing</c>

01:17:07.684 --> 01:17:07.694 align:start position:0%
explain why so many large and imposing
 

01:17:07.694 --> 01:17:10.164 align:start position:0%
explain why so many large and imposing
species<01:18:12.159><c> evolved</c><01:18:12.640><c> during</c><01:18:12.880><c> the</c><01:18:13.120><c> ice</c><01:18:13.360><c> age.</c>

01:17:10.164 --> 01:17:10.174 align:start position:0%
species evolved during the ice age.
 

01:17:10.174 --> 01:17:12.564 align:start position:0%
species evolved during the ice age.
Colder<01:18:14.480><c> temperatures</c><01:18:15.280><c> meant</c><01:18:15.760><c> more</c><01:18:16.080><c> pressure</c>

01:17:12.564 --> 01:17:12.574 align:start position:0%
Colder temperatures meant more pressure
 

01:17:12.574 --> 01:17:15.444 align:start position:0%
Colder temperatures meant more pressure
on<01:18:16.719><c> animals</c><01:18:17.360><c> to</c><01:18:17.679><c> minimize</c><01:18:18.080><c> heat</c><01:18:18.400><c> loss</c><01:18:18.719><c> if</c><01:18:19.040><c> they</c>

01:17:15.444 --> 01:17:15.454 align:start position:0%
on animals to minimize heat loss if they
 

01:17:15.454 --> 01:17:18.004 align:start position:0%
on animals to minimize heat loss if they
wanted<01:18:19.520><c> to</c><01:18:19.760><c> survive.</c><01:18:20.960><c> Although</c><01:18:21.280><c> the</c><01:18:21.520><c> general</c>

01:17:18.004 --> 01:17:18.014 align:start position:0%
wanted to survive. Although the general
 

01:17:18.014 --> 01:17:20.004 align:start position:0%
wanted to survive. Although the general
strategy<01:18:22.320><c> was</c><01:18:22.560><c> to</c><01:18:22.800><c> be</c><01:18:22.960><c> big</c><01:18:23.199><c> during</c><01:18:23.440><c> the</c><01:18:23.600><c> ice</c>

01:17:20.004 --> 01:17:20.014 align:start position:0%
strategy was to be big during the ice
 

01:17:20.014 --> 01:17:22.323 align:start position:0%
strategy was to be big during the ice
age,<01:18:24.480><c> the</c><01:18:24.719><c> diversity</c><01:18:25.120><c> of</c><01:18:25.440><c> species</c><01:18:25.840><c> at</c><01:18:26.000><c> the</c>

01:17:22.323 --> 01:17:22.333 align:start position:0%
age, the diversity of species at the
 

01:17:22.333 --> 01:17:24.323 align:start position:0%
age, the diversity of species at the
time<01:18:26.480><c> proves</c><01:18:26.800><c> that</c><01:18:27.040><c> there</c><01:18:27.360><c> were</c><01:18:27.600><c> lots</c><01:18:27.920><c> of</c>

01:17:24.323 --> 01:17:24.333 align:start position:0%
time proves that there were lots of
 

01:17:24.333 --> 01:17:27.363 align:start position:0%
time proves that there were lots of
different<01:18:28.400><c> ways</c><01:18:28.640><c> to</c><01:18:28.880><c> do</c><01:18:29.040><c> it.</c><01:18:30.480><c> Let's</c><01:18:30.800><c> start</c>

01:17:27.363 --> 01:17:27.373 align:start position:0%
different ways to do it. Let's start
 

01:17:27.373 --> 01:17:29.924 align:start position:0%
different ways to do it. Let's start
with<01:18:31.440><c> the</c><01:18:31.679><c> most</c><01:18:32.080><c> famous</c><01:18:32.560><c> one.</c><01:18:33.280><c> Woolly</c>

01:17:29.924 --> 01:17:29.934 align:start position:0%
with the most famous one. Woolly
 

01:17:29.934 --> 01:17:32.323 align:start position:0%
with the most famous one. Woolly
mammoths<01:18:34.320><c> are</c><01:18:34.560><c> a</c><01:18:34.960><c> picture</c><01:18:35.360><c> of</c><01:18:35.520><c> the</c><01:18:35.679><c> ice</c><01:18:35.920><c> age</c>

01:17:32.323 --> 01:17:32.333 align:start position:0%
mammoths are a picture of the ice age
 

01:17:32.333 --> 01:17:35.284 align:start position:0%
mammoths are a picture of the ice age
itself<01:18:36.560><c> for</c><01:18:36.719><c> most</c><01:18:36.960><c> of</c><01:18:37.120><c> us.</c><01:18:37.840><c> A</c><01:18:38.080><c> towering</c>

01:17:35.284 --> 01:17:35.294 align:start position:0%
itself for most of us. A towering
 

01:17:35.294 --> 01:17:37.764 align:start position:0%
itself for most of us. A towering
dominating<01:18:39.840><c> presence</c><01:18:40.640><c> marching</c><01:18:41.120><c> through</c>

01:17:37.764 --> 01:17:37.774 align:start position:0%
dominating presence marching through
 

01:17:37.774 --> 01:17:40.484 align:start position:0%
dominating presence marching through
great<01:18:41.920><c> snow</c><01:18:42.239><c> drifts</c><01:18:43.040><c> seemingly</c><01:18:43.679><c> impervious</c>

01:17:40.484 --> 01:17:40.494 align:start position:0%
great snow drifts seemingly impervious
 

01:17:40.494 --> 01:17:43.444 align:start position:0%
great snow drifts seemingly impervious
to<01:18:44.480><c> the</c><01:18:44.640><c> cold.</c><01:18:45.840><c> But</c><01:18:46.000><c> the</c><01:18:46.239><c> reality</c><01:18:46.640><c> was</c><01:18:46.880><c> perhaps</c>

01:17:43.444 --> 01:17:43.454 align:start position:0%
to the cold. But the reality was perhaps
 

01:17:43.454 --> 01:17:46.164 align:start position:0%
to the cold. But the reality was perhaps
slightly<01:18:47.840><c> different</c><01:18:48.159><c> from</c><01:18:48.480><c> what</c><01:18:48.640><c> we</c><01:18:48.880><c> imagine.</c>

01:17:46.164 --> 01:17:46.174 align:start position:0%
slightly different from what we imagine.
 

01:17:46.174 --> 01:17:48.323 align:start position:0%
slightly different from what we imagine.
Woolly<01:18:50.400><c> mammoths</c><01:18:50.960><c> weren't</c><01:18:51.440><c> actually</c><01:18:51.840><c> much</c>

01:17:48.323 --> 01:17:48.333 align:start position:0%
Woolly mammoths weren't actually much
 

01:17:48.333 --> 01:17:50.403 align:start position:0%
Woolly mammoths weren't actually much
bigger<01:18:52.400><c> than</c><01:18:52.640><c> modern-day</c><01:18:53.120><c> elephants.</c>

01:17:50.403 --> 01:17:50.413 align:start position:0%
bigger than modern-day elephants.
 

01:17:50.413 --> 01:17:52.484 align:start position:0%
bigger than modern-day elephants.
Measurements<01:18:54.800><c> made</c><01:18:55.120><c> from</c><01:18:55.360><c> their</c><01:18:55.600><c> skeletons</c>

01:17:52.484 --> 01:17:52.494 align:start position:0%
Measurements made from their skeletons
 

01:17:52.494 --> 01:17:54.323 align:start position:0%
Measurements made from their skeletons
tell<01:18:56.560><c> us</c><01:18:56.719><c> that</c><01:18:56.880><c> their</c><01:18:57.120><c> shoulder</c><01:18:57.520><c> height</c><01:18:57.840><c> was</c>

01:17:54.323 --> 01:17:54.333 align:start position:0%
tell us that their shoulder height was
 

01:17:54.333 --> 01:17:57.684 align:start position:0%
tell us that their shoulder height was
3.5<01:18:58.960><c> m,</c><01:18:59.760><c> whereas</c><01:19:00.159><c> some</c><01:19:00.400><c> of</c><01:19:00.480><c> the</c><01:19:00.719><c> larger</c><01:19:01.120><c> male</c>

01:17:57.684 --> 01:17:57.694 align:start position:0%
3.5 m, whereas some of the larger male
 

01:17:57.694 --> 01:17:59.924 align:start position:0%
3.5 m, whereas some of the larger male
African<01:19:02.080><c> elephants</c><01:19:02.560><c> today</c><01:19:03.199><c> can</c><01:19:03.440><c> reach</c>

01:17:59.924 --> 01:17:59.934 align:start position:0%
African elephants today can reach
 

01:17:59.934 --> 01:18:02.883 align:start position:0%
African elephants today can reach
heights<01:19:04.080><c> of</c><01:19:04.400><c> 4</c><01:19:04.640><c> m.</c><01:19:05.760><c> Although</c><01:19:06.080><c> they</c><01:19:06.320><c> may</c><01:19:06.480><c> have</c>

01:18:02.883 --> 01:18:02.893 align:start position:0%
heights of 4 m. Although they may have
 

01:18:02.893 --> 01:18:04.403 align:start position:0%
heights of 4 m. Although they may have
been<01:19:06.880><c> a</c><01:19:07.120><c> similar</c><01:19:07.360><c> height</c><01:19:07.520><c> to</c><01:19:07.679><c> the</c><01:19:07.840><c> elephants</c>

01:18:04.403 --> 01:18:04.413 align:start position:0%
been a similar height to the elephants
 

01:18:04.413 --> 01:18:06.964 align:start position:0%
been a similar height to the elephants
we<01:19:08.480><c> know,</c><01:19:09.040><c> they</c><01:19:09.280><c> did</c><01:19:09.520><c> have</c><01:19:09.679><c> some</c><01:19:10.000><c> key</c><01:19:10.320><c> physical</c>

01:18:06.964 --> 01:18:06.974 align:start position:0%
we know, they did have some key physical
 

01:18:06.974 --> 01:18:10.084 align:start position:0%
we know, they did have some key physical
differences.<01:19:11.920><c> Woolly</c><01:19:12.400><c> mammoths</c><01:19:12.960><c> aptly</c><01:19:13.440><c> had</c>

01:18:10.084 --> 01:18:10.094 align:start position:0%
differences. Woolly mammoths aptly had
 

01:18:10.094 --> 01:18:13.684 align:start position:0%
differences. Woolly mammoths aptly had
warm<01:19:14.719><c> doublecoated</c><01:19:15.600><c> fur</c><01:19:16.320><c> separated</c><01:19:16.880><c> into</c><01:19:17.199><c> a</c>

01:18:13.684 --> 01:18:13.694 align:start position:0%
warm doublecoated fur separated into a
 

01:18:13.694 --> 01:18:16.484 align:start position:0%
warm doublecoated fur separated into a
thick<01:19:17.840><c> underwall</c><01:19:18.640><c> and</c><01:19:18.880><c> a</c><01:19:19.199><c> layer</c><01:19:19.360><c> of</c><01:19:19.760><c> longer</c>

01:18:16.484 --> 01:18:16.494 align:start position:0%
thick underwall and a layer of longer
 

01:18:16.494 --> 01:18:19.444 align:start position:0%
thick underwall and a layer of longer
outer<01:19:20.719><c> hairs.</c><01:19:21.760><c> They</c><01:19:22.000><c> also</c><01:19:22.400><c> differed</c><01:19:22.800><c> in</c><01:19:23.040><c> their</c>

01:18:19.444 --> 01:18:19.454 align:start position:0%
outer hairs. They also differed in their
 

01:18:19.454 --> 01:18:21.764 align:start position:0%
outer hairs. They also differed in their
proportions<01:19:24.239><c> with</c><01:19:24.480><c> longer</c><01:19:24.880><c> bodies</c><01:19:25.280><c> and</c>

01:18:21.764 --> 01:18:21.774 align:start position:0%
proportions with longer bodies and
 

01:18:21.774 --> 01:18:24.084 align:start position:0%
proportions with longer bodies and
shorter<01:19:25.920><c> legs</c><01:19:26.239><c> than</c><01:19:26.480><c> modern</c><01:19:26.800><c> elephants.</c>

01:18:24.084 --> 01:18:24.094 align:start position:0%
shorter legs than modern elephants.
 

01:18:24.094 --> 01:18:26.403 align:start position:0%
shorter legs than modern elephants.
Paleontologists<01:19:28.960><c> think</c><01:19:29.280><c> this</c><01:19:29.520><c> was</c><01:19:29.760><c> so</c><01:19:30.000><c> they</c>

01:18:26.403 --> 01:18:26.413 align:start position:0%
Paleontologists think this was so they
 

01:18:26.413 --> 01:18:28.724 align:start position:0%
Paleontologists think this was so they
didn't<01:19:30.480><c> have</c><01:19:30.640><c> to</c><01:19:30.800><c> stoop</c><01:19:31.199><c> so</c><01:19:31.440><c> much</c><01:19:31.600><c> to</c><01:19:31.920><c> graze</c><01:19:32.320><c> on</c>

01:18:28.724 --> 01:18:28.734 align:start position:0%
didn't have to stoop so much to graze on
 

01:18:28.734 --> 01:18:30.724 align:start position:0%
didn't have to stoop so much to graze on
tundra-like<01:19:33.199><c> vegetation</c><01:19:34.239><c> which</c><01:19:34.400><c> is</c>

01:18:30.724 --> 01:18:30.734 align:start position:0%
tundra-like vegetation which is
 

01:18:30.734 --> 01:18:32.564 align:start position:0%
tundra-like vegetation which is
typically<01:19:35.040><c> shorter</c><01:19:35.440><c> than</c><01:19:35.679><c> the</c><01:19:35.840><c> trees</c><01:19:36.159><c> and</c>

01:18:32.564 --> 01:18:32.574 align:start position:0%
typically shorter than the trees and
 

01:18:32.574 --> 01:18:36.403 align:start position:0%
typically shorter than the trees and
bushes<01:19:36.719><c> of</c><01:19:36.880><c> the</c><01:19:37.040><c> savannah</c><01:19:37.920><c> or</c><01:19:38.239><c> rainforest.</c>

01:18:36.403 --> 01:18:36.413 align:start position:0%
bushes of the savannah or rainforest.
 

01:18:36.413 --> 01:18:38.724 align:start position:0%
bushes of the savannah or rainforest.
Further<01:19:40.640><c> aiding</c><01:19:41.040><c> their</c><01:19:41.199><c> insulation</c><01:19:41.840><c> was</c><01:19:42.159><c> a</c>

01:18:38.724 --> 01:18:38.734 align:start position:0%
Further aiding their insulation was a
 

01:18:38.734 --> 01:18:43.284 align:start position:0%
Further aiding their insulation was a
layer<01:19:42.719><c> of</c><01:19:42.880><c> fat</c><01:19:43.600><c> up</c><01:19:43.840><c> to</c><01:19:44.080><c> 9</c><01:19:44.480><c> cm</c><01:19:45.120><c> thick</c><01:19:45.920><c> and</c><01:19:46.320><c> small</c>

01:18:43.284 --> 01:18:43.294 align:start position:0%
layer of fat up to 9 cm thick and small
 

01:18:43.294 --> 01:18:46.403 align:start position:0%
layer of fat up to 9 cm thick and small
haircovered<01:19:47.920><c> ears</c><01:19:48.320><c> to</c><01:19:48.560><c> prevent</c><01:19:48.880><c> heat</c><01:19:49.120><c> loss.</c>

01:18:46.403 --> 01:18:46.413 align:start position:0%
haircovered ears to prevent heat loss.
 

01:18:46.413 --> 01:18:50.004 align:start position:0%
haircovered ears to prevent heat loss.
Finally,<01:19:51.199><c> they</c><01:19:51.520><c> had</c><01:19:52.000><c> a</c><01:19:52.480><c> raised</c><01:19:53.120><c> bump</c><01:19:53.520><c> on</c><01:19:53.679><c> the</c>

01:18:50.004 --> 01:18:50.014 align:start position:0%
Finally, they had a raised bump on the
 

01:18:50.014 --> 01:18:53.124 align:start position:0%
Finally, they had a raised bump on the
top<01:19:54.000><c> of</c><01:19:54.159><c> their</c><01:19:54.400><c> heads</c><01:19:55.120><c> which</c><01:19:55.360><c> contained</c><01:19:56.400><c> large</c>

01:18:53.124 --> 01:18:53.134 align:start position:0%
top of their heads which contained large
 

01:18:53.134 --> 01:18:55.843 align:start position:0%
top of their heads which contained large
sinuses.<01:19:58.320><c> This</c><01:19:58.560><c> may</c><01:19:58.719><c> have</c><01:19:58.880><c> helped</c><01:19:59.199><c> them</c><01:19:59.360><c> to</c>

01:18:55.843 --> 01:18:55.853 align:start position:0%
sinuses. This may have helped them to
 

01:18:55.853 --> 01:18:58.323 align:start position:0%
sinuses. This may have helped them to
humidify<01:20:00.480><c> and</c><01:20:00.800><c> warm</c><01:20:01.120><c> the</c><01:20:01.360><c> air</c><01:20:01.600><c> as</c><01:20:01.840><c> they</c><01:20:02.000><c> were</c>

01:18:58.323 --> 01:18:58.333 align:start position:0%
humidify and warm the air as they were
 

01:18:58.333 --> 01:19:00.724 align:start position:0%
humidify and warm the air as they were
breathing.<01:20:03.040><c> A</c><01:20:03.199><c> useful</c><01:20:03.520><c> skill</c><01:20:03.840><c> for</c><01:20:04.080><c> Arctic</c>

01:19:00.724 --> 01:19:00.734 align:start position:0%
breathing. A useful skill for Arctic
 

01:19:00.734 --> 01:19:03.604 align:start position:0%
breathing. A useful skill for Arctic
conditions.<01:20:06.000><c> Despite</c><01:20:06.480><c> our</c><01:20:06.719><c> best</c><01:20:06.960><c> efforts</c><01:20:07.280><c> to</c>

01:19:03.604 --> 01:19:03.614 align:start position:0%
conditions. Despite our best efforts to
 

01:19:03.614 --> 01:19:06.004 align:start position:0%
conditions. Despite our best efforts to
resurrect<01:20:07.840><c> them,</c><01:20:08.400><c> woolly</c><01:20:08.800><c> mammoths</c><01:20:09.360><c> are</c>

01:19:06.004 --> 01:19:06.014 align:start position:0%
resurrect them, woolly mammoths are
 

01:19:06.014 --> 01:19:08.883 align:start position:0%
resurrect them, woolly mammoths are
sadly<01:20:10.320><c> extinct.</c><01:20:11.280><c> Though,</c><01:20:11.840><c> watch</c><01:20:12.159><c> this</c><01:20:12.400><c> space</c>

01:19:08.883 --> 01:19:08.893 align:start position:0%
sadly extinct. Though, watch this space
 

01:19:08.893 --> 01:19:12.004 align:start position:0%
sadly extinct. Though, watch this space
as<01:20:13.040><c> a</c><01:20:13.440><c> Texas</c><01:20:14.000><c> biotech</c><01:20:14.640><c> company,</c><01:20:15.280><c> Colossal</c>

01:19:12.004 --> 01:19:12.014 align:start position:0%
as a Texas biotech company, Colossal
 

01:19:12.014 --> 01:19:14.964 align:start position:0%
as a Texas biotech company, Colossal
Biosciences,<01:20:17.120><c> is</c><01:20:17.440><c> attempting</c><01:20:18.000><c> to</c><01:20:18.239><c> create</c><01:20:18.480><c> a</c>

01:19:14.964 --> 01:19:14.974 align:start position:0%
Biosciences, is attempting to create a
 

01:19:14.974 --> 01:19:16.883 align:start position:0%
Biosciences, is attempting to create a
live<01:20:19.199><c> woolly</c><01:20:19.600><c> mammoth,</c><01:20:20.239><c> or</c><01:20:20.480><c> more</c>

01:19:16.883 --> 01:19:16.893 align:start position:0%
live woolly mammoth, or more
 

01:19:16.893 --> 01:19:19.524 align:start position:0%
live woolly mammoth, or more
specifically,<01:20:21.600><c> a</c><01:20:21.920><c> coldresistant</c><01:20:22.880><c> elephant</c>

01:19:19.524 --> 01:19:19.534 align:start position:0%
specifically, a coldresistant elephant
 

01:19:19.534 --> 01:19:21.524 align:start position:0%
specifically, a coldresistant elephant
with<01:20:23.520><c> the</c><01:20:23.760><c> traits</c><01:20:24.080><c> of</c><01:20:24.239><c> the</c><01:20:24.400><c> woolly</c><01:20:24.719><c> mammoth,</c>

01:19:21.524 --> 01:19:21.534 align:start position:0%
with the traits of the woolly mammoth,
 

01:19:21.534 --> 01:19:24.403 align:start position:0%
with the traits of the woolly mammoth,
perhaps<01:20:25.679><c> as</c><01:20:25.920><c> soon</c><01:20:26.000><c> as</c><01:20:26.320><c> 2028.</c>

01:19:24.403 --> 01:19:24.413 align:start position:0%
perhaps as soon as 2028.
 

01:19:24.413 --> 01:19:26.644 align:start position:0%
perhaps as soon as 2028.
But<01:20:28.480><c> woolly</c><01:20:28.880><c> mammoths</c><01:20:29.440><c> didn't</c><01:20:29.840><c> all</c><01:20:30.239><c> go</c>

01:19:26.644 --> 01:19:26.654 align:start position:0%
But woolly mammoths didn't all go
 

01:19:26.654 --> 01:19:29.684 align:start position:0%
But woolly mammoths didn't all go
extinct<01:20:30.960><c> at</c><01:20:31.199><c> once.</c><01:20:32.239><c> In</c><01:20:32.480><c> fact,</c><01:20:32.880><c> it's</c><01:20:33.280><c> now</c>

01:19:29.684 --> 01:19:29.694 align:start position:0%
extinct at once. In fact, it's now
 

01:19:29.694 --> 01:19:32.804 align:start position:0%
extinct at once. In fact, it's now
accepted<01:20:34.000><c> that</c><01:20:34.239><c> a</c><01:20:34.560><c> population</c><01:20:35.120><c> of</c><01:20:35.520><c> 500</c><01:20:36.159><c> to</c>

01:19:32.804 --> 01:19:32.814 align:start position:0%
accepted that a population of 500 to
 

01:19:32.814 --> 01:19:35.044 align:start position:0%
accepted that a population of 500 to
1,000<01:20:37.440><c> woolly</c><01:20:37.840><c> mammoths</c><01:20:38.239><c> survived</c><01:20:38.640><c> on</c>

01:19:35.044 --> 01:19:35.054 align:start position:0%
1,000 woolly mammoths survived on
 

01:19:35.054 --> 01:19:37.764 align:start position:0%
1,000 woolly mammoths survived on
Wrangler<01:20:39.440><c> Island</c><01:20:40.080><c> until</c><01:20:40.400><c> around</c><01:20:40.800><c> 4,000</c><01:20:41.440><c> years</c>

01:19:37.764 --> 01:19:37.774 align:start position:0%
Wrangler Island until around 4,000 years
 

01:19:37.774 --> 01:19:41.684 align:start position:0%
Wrangler Island until around 4,000 years
ago.<01:20:42.480><c> That's</c><01:20:43.040><c> 1,000</c><01:20:43.679><c> years</c><01:20:44.320><c> after</c><01:20:44.960><c> the</c><01:20:45.280><c> Great</c>

01:19:41.684 --> 01:19:41.694 align:start position:0%
ago. That's 1,000 years after the Great
 

01:19:41.694 --> 01:19:44.484 align:start position:0%
ago. That's 1,000 years after the Great
Pyramids<01:20:45.920><c> of</c><01:20:46.080><c> Giza</c><01:20:46.480><c> were</c><01:20:46.719><c> built.</c><01:20:47.840><c> Scientists</c>

01:19:44.484 --> 01:19:44.494 align:start position:0%
Pyramids of Giza were built. Scientists
 

01:19:44.494 --> 01:19:46.004 align:start position:0%
Pyramids of Giza were built. Scientists
think<01:20:48.480><c> that</c><01:20:48.640><c> the</c><01:20:48.800><c> mammoths</c><01:20:49.280><c> made</c><01:20:49.440><c> it</c><01:20:49.600><c> to</c><01:20:49.679><c> the</c>

01:19:46.004 --> 01:19:46.014 align:start position:0%
think that the mammoths made it to the
 

01:19:46.014 --> 01:19:48.804 align:start position:0%
think that the mammoths made it to the
island<01:20:50.159><c> across</c><01:20:50.480><c> the</c><01:20:50.640><c> landbridge</c><01:20:51.280><c> of</c><01:20:51.520><c> Bingia,</c>

01:19:48.804 --> 01:19:48.814 align:start position:0%
island across the landbridge of Bingia,
 

01:19:48.814 --> 01:19:51.363 align:start position:0%
island across the landbridge of Bingia,
which<01:20:52.880><c> used</c><01:20:53.120><c> to</c><01:20:53.280><c> connect</c><01:20:53.520><c> Alaska</c><01:20:54.080><c> and</c><01:20:54.320><c> Siberia</c>

01:19:51.363 --> 01:19:51.373 align:start position:0%
which used to connect Alaska and Siberia
 

01:19:51.373 --> 01:19:53.524 align:start position:0%
which used to connect Alaska and Siberia
before<01:20:55.600><c> it</c><01:20:55.920><c> was</c><01:20:56.080><c> submerged</c><01:20:56.560><c> under</c><01:20:56.800><c> the</c><01:20:56.960><c> Arctic</c>

01:19:53.524 --> 01:19:53.534 align:start position:0%
before it was submerged under the Arctic
 

01:19:53.534 --> 01:19:55.204 align:start position:0%
before it was submerged under the Arctic
Ocean.

01:19:55.204 --> 01:19:55.214 align:start position:0%
Ocean.
 

01:19:55.214 --> 01:19:57.924 align:start position:0%
Ocean.
Now<01:20:59.600><c> on</c><01:20:59.840><c> to</c><01:21:00.080><c> some</c><01:21:00.400><c> of</c><01:21:00.560><c> the</c><01:21:00.800><c> more</c><01:21:01.120><c> obscure</c>

01:19:57.924 --> 01:19:57.934 align:start position:0%
Now on to some of the more obscure
 

01:19:57.934 --> 01:20:04.323 align:start position:0%
Now on to some of the more obscure
creatures<01:21:02.159><c> of</c><01:21:02.480><c> that</c><01:21:02.719><c> glacial</c><01:21:03.280><c> period.</c>

01:20:04.323 --> 01:20:04.333 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:20:04.333 --> 01:20:06.644 align:start position:0%
 
The<01:21:08.640><c> Galipto,</c>

01:20:06.644 --> 01:20:06.654 align:start position:0%
The Galipto,
 

01:20:06.654 --> 01:20:10.084 align:start position:0%
The Galipto,
their<01:21:10.800><c> name</c><01:21:11.199><c> means</c><01:21:12.000><c> carved</c><01:21:12.560><c> tooth</c><01:21:12.960><c> in</c><01:21:13.199><c> Greek,</c>

01:20:10.084 --> 01:20:10.094 align:start position:0%
their name means carved tooth in Greek,
 

01:20:10.094 --> 01:20:12.403 align:start position:0%
their name means carved tooth in Greek,
owing<01:21:14.159><c> to</c><01:21:14.320><c> the</c><01:21:14.480><c> wide</c><01:21:15.199><c> grooved</c><01:21:15.679><c> structure</c><01:21:16.080><c> of</c>

01:20:12.403 --> 01:20:12.413 align:start position:0%
owing to the wide grooved structure of
 

01:20:12.413 --> 01:20:14.403 align:start position:0%
owing to the wide grooved structure of
their<01:21:16.480><c> teeth</c><01:21:17.120><c> which</c><01:21:17.360><c> was</c><01:21:17.520><c> adapted</c><01:21:17.920><c> for</c><01:21:18.080><c> them</c>

01:20:14.403 --> 01:20:14.413 align:start position:0%
their teeth which was adapted for them
 

01:20:14.413 --> 01:20:16.323 align:start position:0%
their teeth which was adapted for them
to<01:21:18.480><c> grind</c><01:21:18.719><c> on</c><01:21:18.960><c> the</c><01:21:19.120><c> tough</c><01:21:19.360><c> vegetation</c><01:21:19.840><c> of</c><01:21:20.000><c> the</c>

01:20:16.323 --> 01:20:16.333 align:start position:0%
to grind on the tough vegetation of the
 

01:20:16.333 --> 01:20:18.564 align:start position:0%
to grind on the tough vegetation of the
land<01:21:20.320><c> they</c><01:21:20.560><c> grazed.</c>

01:20:18.564 --> 01:20:18.574 align:start position:0%
land they grazed.
 

01:20:18.574 --> 01:20:21.604 align:start position:0%
land they grazed.
They<01:21:22.719><c> were</c><01:21:23.199><c> large,</c><01:21:24.000><c> cumbersome</c><01:21:24.640><c> creatures,</c>

01:20:21.604 --> 01:20:21.614 align:start position:0%
They were large, cumbersome creatures,
 

01:20:21.614 --> 01:20:24.403 align:start position:0%
They were large, cumbersome creatures,
weighing<01:21:25.840><c> up</c><01:21:26.000><c> to</c><01:21:26.239><c> two</c><01:21:26.400><c> tons</c><01:21:27.120><c> and</c><01:21:27.520><c> walking</c><01:21:27.920><c> on</c>

01:20:24.403 --> 01:20:24.413 align:start position:0%
weighing up to two tons and walking on
 

01:20:24.413 --> 01:20:27.924 align:start position:0%
weighing up to two tons and walking on
elephant-sized<01:21:29.199><c> legs</c><01:21:29.600><c> across</c><01:21:30.000><c> the</c><01:21:30.159><c> Americas.</c>

01:20:27.924 --> 01:20:27.934 align:start position:0%
elephant-sized legs across the Americas.
 

01:20:27.934 --> 01:20:30.164 align:start position:0%
elephant-sized legs across the Americas.
Their<01:21:32.000><c> bodies</c><01:21:32.400><c> were</c><01:21:32.560><c> protected</c><01:21:33.040><c> by</c><01:21:33.199><c> a</c><01:21:33.440><c> huge</c>

01:20:30.164 --> 01:20:30.174 align:start position:0%
Their bodies were protected by a huge
 

01:20:30.174 --> 01:20:33.363 align:start position:0%
Their bodies were protected by a huge
turtlike<01:21:34.800><c> shell</c><01:21:35.280><c> or</c><01:21:35.760><c> carropus,</c><01:21:36.640><c> giving</c><01:21:36.960><c> them</c>

01:20:33.363 --> 01:20:33.373 align:start position:0%
turtlike shell or carropus, giving them
 

01:20:33.373 --> 01:20:36.403 align:start position:0%
turtlike shell or carropus, giving them
a<01:21:37.440><c> similar</c><01:21:37.840><c> look</c><01:21:38.000><c> to</c><01:21:38.239><c> an</c><01:21:38.480><c> armadillo,</c><01:21:39.600><c> although</c>

01:20:36.403 --> 01:20:36.413 align:start position:0%
a similar look to an armadillo, although
 

01:20:36.413 --> 01:20:39.363 align:start position:0%
a similar look to an armadillo, although
they<01:21:40.480><c> couldn't</c><01:21:40.719><c> roll</c><01:21:40.960><c> up</c><01:21:41.120><c> into</c><01:21:41.360><c> a</c><01:21:41.520><c> ball.</c>

01:20:39.363 --> 01:20:39.373 align:start position:0%
they couldn't roll up into a ball.
 

01:20:39.373 --> 01:20:41.843 align:start position:0%
they couldn't roll up into a ball.
So,<01:21:43.600><c> you</c><01:21:43.840><c> can</c><01:21:44.000><c> think</c><01:21:44.159><c> of</c><01:21:44.320><c> them</c><01:21:44.640><c> as</c><01:21:44.960><c> a</c><01:21:45.199><c> distant</c>

01:20:41.843 --> 01:20:41.853 align:start position:0%
So, you can think of them as a distant
 

01:20:41.853 --> 01:20:44.164 align:start position:0%
So, you can think of them as a distant
relative<01:21:46.080><c> of</c><01:21:46.239><c> the</c><01:21:46.400><c> armadillos</c><01:21:47.280><c> that</c><01:21:47.520><c> behaved</c>

01:20:44.164 --> 01:20:44.174 align:start position:0%
relative of the armadillos that behaved
 

01:20:44.174 --> 01:20:46.084 align:start position:0%
relative of the armadillos that behaved
more<01:21:48.239><c> like</c><01:21:48.400><c> a</c><01:21:48.640><c> land</c><01:21:48.960><c> tortoise</c><01:21:49.520><c> or</c><01:21:49.760><c> a</c>

01:20:46.084 --> 01:20:46.094 align:start position:0%
more like a land tortoise or a
 

01:20:46.094 --> 01:20:48.403 align:start position:0%
more like a land tortoise or a
hippopotamus.<01:21:51.360><c> Quite</c><01:21:51.600><c> the</c><01:21:51.840><c> wacky</c>

01:20:48.403 --> 01:20:48.413 align:start position:0%
hippopotamus. Quite the wacky
 

01:20:48.413 --> 01:20:51.684 align:start position:0%
hippopotamus. Quite the wacky
combination<01:21:52.960><c> evolutionwise.</c>

01:20:51.684 --> 01:20:51.694 align:start position:0%
combination evolutionwise.
 

01:20:51.694 --> 01:20:53.684 align:start position:0%
combination evolutionwise.
Our<01:21:56.159><c> aliens</c><01:21:56.560><c> would</c><01:21:56.800><c> be</c><01:21:56.880><c> forgiven</c><01:21:57.280><c> for</c>

01:20:53.684 --> 01:20:53.694 align:start position:0%
Our aliens would be forgiven for
 

01:20:53.694 --> 01:20:55.363 align:start position:0%
Our aliens would be forgiven for
thinking<01:21:57.760><c> that</c><01:21:58.000><c> these</c><01:21:58.320><c> creatures</c><01:21:58.800><c> don't</c><01:21:59.040><c> get</c>

01:20:55.363 --> 01:20:55.373 align:start position:0%
thinking that these creatures don't get
 

01:20:55.373 --> 01:20:57.843 align:start position:0%
thinking that these creatures don't get
around<01:21:59.520><c> much,</c><01:22:00.239><c> but</c><01:22:00.480><c> recent</c><01:22:00.880><c> studies</c><01:22:01.360><c> testing</c>

01:20:57.843 --> 01:20:57.853 align:start position:0%
around much, but recent studies testing
 

01:20:57.853 --> 01:20:59.524 align:start position:0%
around much, but recent studies testing
the<01:22:02.000><c> strength</c><01:22:02.400><c> indicators</c><01:22:02.960><c> of</c><01:22:03.120><c> the</c>

01:20:59.524 --> 01:20:59.534 align:start position:0%
the strength indicators of the
 

01:20:59.534 --> 01:21:02.084 align:start position:0%
the strength indicators of the
Giptodons's<01:22:04.239><c> forearms</c><01:22:05.040><c> have</c><01:22:05.360><c> revealed</c><01:22:05.679><c> that</c>

01:21:02.084 --> 01:21:02.094 align:start position:0%
Giptodons's forearms have revealed that
 

01:21:02.094 --> 01:21:04.164 align:start position:0%
Giptodons's forearms have revealed that
they<01:22:06.159><c> bore</c><01:22:06.639><c> most</c><01:22:06.880><c> of</c><01:22:07.040><c> their</c><01:22:07.280><c> weight</c><01:22:07.520><c> on</c><01:22:07.760><c> their</c>

01:21:04.164 --> 01:21:04.174 align:start position:0%
they bore most of their weight on their
 

01:21:04.174 --> 01:21:07.044 align:start position:0%
they bore most of their weight on their
back<01:22:08.239><c> legs,</c><01:22:09.040><c> and</c><01:22:09.280><c> they</c><01:22:09.600><c> may</c><01:22:10.080><c> have</c><01:22:10.320><c> even</c><01:22:10.719><c> been</c>

01:21:07.044 --> 01:21:07.054 align:start position:0%
back legs, and they may have even been
 

01:21:07.054 --> 01:21:10.004 align:start position:0%
back legs, and they may have even been
able<01:22:11.120><c> to</c><01:22:11.280><c> stand</c><01:22:11.440><c> on</c><01:22:11.679><c> them</c><01:22:11.920><c> bipedily.</c>

01:21:10.004 --> 01:21:10.014 align:start position:0%
able to stand on them bipedily.
 

01:21:10.014 --> 01:21:12.484 align:start position:0%
able to stand on them bipedily.
This<01:22:14.320><c> conjures</c><01:22:14.800><c> up</c><01:22:15.040><c> some</c><01:22:15.360><c> even</c><01:22:15.679><c> crazier</c>

01:21:12.484 --> 01:21:12.494 align:start position:0%
This conjures up some even crazier
 

01:21:12.494 --> 01:21:15.604 align:start position:0%
This conjures up some even crazier
images.<01:22:17.280><c> a</c><01:22:17.440><c> giptodant</c><01:22:18.400><c> standing</c><01:22:18.880><c> to</c><01:22:19.120><c> deliver</c>

01:21:15.604 --> 01:21:15.614 align:start position:0%
images. a giptodant standing to deliver
 

01:21:15.614 --> 01:21:18.644 align:start position:0%
images. a giptodant standing to deliver
a<01:22:19.679><c> blow</c><01:22:20.000><c> with</c><01:22:20.159><c> their</c><01:22:20.320><c> armored</c><01:22:20.800><c> tail</c>

01:21:18.644 --> 01:21:18.654 align:start position:0%
a blow with their armored tail
 

01:21:18.654 --> 01:21:22.004 align:start position:0%
a blow with their armored tail
or<01:22:22.880><c> to</c><01:22:23.120><c> reach</c><01:22:23.360><c> a</c><01:22:23.520><c> high</c><01:22:23.840><c> food</c><01:22:24.080><c> source</c><01:22:25.520><c> and</c>

01:21:22.004 --> 01:21:22.014 align:start position:0%
or to reach a high food source and
 

01:21:22.014 --> 01:21:24.883 align:start position:0%
or to reach a high food source and
proves<01:22:26.239><c> that</c><01:22:26.639><c> these</c><01:22:27.120><c> creatures</c><01:22:28.080><c> were</c><01:22:28.320><c> not</c><01:22:28.560><c> to</c>

01:21:24.883 --> 01:21:24.893 align:start position:0%
proves that these creatures were not to
 

01:21:24.893 --> 01:21:29.044 align:start position:0%
proves that these creatures were not to
be<01:22:28.880><c> messed</c><01:22:29.199><c> with.</c>

01:21:29.044 --> 01:21:29.054 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:21:29.054 --> 01:21:31.363 align:start position:0%
 
The<01:22:33.120><c> next</c><01:22:33.280><c> creature</c><01:22:33.760><c> might</c><01:22:34.000><c> surprise</c><01:22:34.480><c> you</c><01:22:34.880><c> as</c>

01:21:31.363 --> 01:21:31.373 align:start position:0%
The next creature might surprise you as
 

01:21:31.373 --> 01:21:33.843 align:start position:0%
The next creature might surprise you as
it<01:22:35.440><c> still</c><01:22:35.679><c> has</c><01:22:36.000><c> relatives</c><01:22:36.400><c> alive</c><01:22:36.800><c> today,</c>

01:21:33.843 --> 01:21:33.853 align:start position:0%
it still has relatives alive today,
 

01:21:33.853 --> 01:21:35.924 align:start position:0%
it still has relatives alive today,
although<01:22:38.080><c> we</c><01:22:38.320><c> get</c><01:22:38.480><c> to</c><01:22:38.639><c> meet</c><01:22:38.880><c> a</c><01:22:39.120><c> mere</c><01:22:39.440><c> fraction</c>

01:21:35.924 --> 01:21:35.934 align:start position:0%
although we get to meet a mere fraction
 

01:21:35.934 --> 01:21:37.764 align:start position:0%
although we get to meet a mere fraction
of<01:22:39.920><c> the</c><01:22:40.159><c> diversity</c><01:22:40.560><c> that</c><01:22:40.880><c> our</c><01:22:41.199><c> alien</c>

01:21:37.764 --> 01:21:37.774 align:start position:0%
of the diversity that our alien
 

01:21:37.774 --> 01:21:40.084 align:start position:0%
of the diversity that our alien
travelers<01:22:42.080><c> would</c><01:22:42.239><c> have</c><01:22:42.400><c> seen.</c><01:22:43.280><c> The</c><01:22:43.520><c> late</c>

01:21:40.084 --> 01:21:40.094 align:start position:0%
travelers would have seen. The late
 

01:21:40.094 --> 01:21:44.564 align:start position:0%
travelers would have seen. The late
pletosine<01:22:44.719><c> sloth</c><01:22:45.600><c> included</c><01:22:46.480><c> 27</c><01:22:47.360><c> genera</c><01:22:47.920><c> in</c>

01:21:44.564 --> 01:21:44.574 align:start position:0%
pletosine sloth included 27 genera in
 

01:21:44.574 --> 01:21:47.363 align:start position:0%
pletosine sloth included 27 genera in
four<01:22:48.719><c> families</c><01:22:49.600><c> and</c><01:22:49.920><c> an</c><01:22:50.239><c> unknown</c><01:22:50.800><c> number</c><01:22:51.040><c> of</c>

01:21:47.363 --> 01:21:47.373 align:start position:0%
four families and an unknown number of
 

01:21:47.373 --> 01:21:49.524 align:start position:0%
four families and an unknown number of
species.

01:21:49.524 --> 01:21:49.534 align:start position:0%
species.
 

01:21:49.534 --> 01:21:53.044 align:start position:0%
species.
These<01:22:53.760><c> were</c><01:22:54.320><c> great</c><01:22:54.880><c> disperses</c><01:22:56.080><c> and</c><01:22:56.400><c> roamed</c>

01:21:53.044 --> 01:21:53.054 align:start position:0%
These were great disperses and roamed
 

01:21:53.054 --> 01:21:55.524 align:start position:0%
These were great disperses and roamed
across<01:22:57.199><c> the</c><01:22:57.440><c> Americas,</c><01:22:58.400><c> even</c><01:22:58.719><c> reaching</c><01:22:59.120><c> the</c>

01:21:55.524 --> 01:21:55.534 align:start position:0%
across the Americas, even reaching the
 

01:21:55.534 --> 01:21:58.244 align:start position:0%
across the Americas, even reaching the
Caribbean<01:22:59.840><c> islands</c><01:23:00.239><c> in</c><01:23:00.400><c> the</c><01:23:00.560><c> middle</c><01:23:00.880><c> Neoene</c>

01:21:58.244 --> 01:21:58.254 align:start position:0%
Caribbean islands in the middle Neoene
 

01:21:58.254 --> 01:22:01.924 align:start position:0%
Caribbean islands in the middle Neoene
before<01:23:02.480><c> the</c><01:23:02.880><c> istmas</c><01:23:03.520><c> of</c><01:23:03.679><c> Panama</c><01:23:04.239><c> formed.</c>

01:22:01.924 --> 01:22:01.934 align:start position:0%
before the istmas of Panama formed.
 

01:22:01.934 --> 01:22:03.924 align:start position:0%
before the istmas of Panama formed.
This<01:23:06.000><c> is</c><01:23:06.320><c> probably</c><01:23:06.800><c> part</c><01:23:07.040><c> of</c><01:23:07.120><c> the</c><01:23:07.360><c> reason</c><01:23:07.520><c> why</c>

01:22:03.924 --> 01:22:03.934 align:start position:0%
This is probably part of the reason why
 

01:22:03.934 --> 01:22:06.244 align:start position:0%
This is probably part of the reason why
they<01:23:07.920><c> were</c><01:23:08.080><c> able</c><01:23:08.320><c> to</c><01:23:08.480><c> diversify</c><01:23:09.199><c> into</c><01:23:09.520><c> so</c><01:23:09.760><c> many</c>

01:22:06.244 --> 01:22:06.254 align:start position:0%
they were able to diversify into so many
 

01:22:06.254 --> 01:22:09.284 align:start position:0%
they were able to diversify into so many
species<01:23:11.040><c> since</c><01:23:11.280><c> they</c><01:23:11.679><c> were</c><01:23:11.920><c> exposed</c><01:23:12.480><c> to</c><01:23:12.800><c> many</c>

01:22:09.284 --> 01:22:09.294 align:start position:0%
species since they were exposed to many
 

01:22:09.294 --> 01:22:11.444 align:start position:0%
species since they were exposed to many
different<01:23:13.440><c> habitats.</c>

01:22:11.444 --> 01:22:11.454 align:start position:0%
different habitats.
 

01:22:11.454 --> 01:22:13.924 align:start position:0%
different habitats.
Through<01:23:15.679><c> time,</c><01:23:16.080><c> the</c><01:23:16.320><c> sloths</c><01:23:16.880><c> tended</c><01:23:17.280><c> towards</c>

01:22:13.924 --> 01:22:13.934 align:start position:0%
Through time, the sloths tended towards
 

01:22:13.934 --> 01:22:17.363 align:start position:0%
Through time, the sloths tended towards
larger<01:23:18.159><c> sizes</c><01:23:19.040><c> and</c><01:23:19.280><c> by</c><01:23:19.520><c> the</c><01:23:19.679><c> late</c><01:23:20.000><c> pletoine,</c>

01:22:17.363 --> 01:22:17.373 align:start position:0%
larger sizes and by the late pletoine,
 

01:22:17.373 --> 01:22:20.323 align:start position:0%
larger sizes and by the late pletoine,
nature<01:23:21.679><c> had</c><01:23:22.080><c> given</c><01:23:22.400><c> birth</c><01:23:22.639><c> to</c><01:23:22.880><c> a</c><01:23:23.120><c> group</c><01:23:23.440><c> called</c>

01:22:20.323 --> 01:22:20.333 align:start position:0%
nature had given birth to a group called
 

01:22:20.333 --> 01:22:23.444 align:start position:0%
nature had given birth to a group called
giant<01:23:24.880><c> ground</c><01:23:25.360><c> sloths.</c>

01:22:23.444 --> 01:22:23.454 align:start position:0%
giant ground sloths.
 

01:22:23.454 --> 01:22:26.323 align:start position:0%
giant ground sloths.
Within<01:23:27.679><c> this</c><01:23:27.920><c> group,</c><01:23:28.400><c> Aramtherum</c><01:23:29.679><c> combined</c>

01:22:26.323 --> 01:22:26.333 align:start position:0%
Within this group, Aramtherum combined
 

01:22:26.333 --> 01:22:28.564 align:start position:0%
Within this group, Aramtherum combined
the<01:23:30.400><c> height</c><01:23:30.639><c> of</c><01:23:30.800><c> a</c><01:23:31.040><c> giraffe</c><01:23:31.440><c> with</c><01:23:31.679><c> the</c><01:23:31.840><c> bulk</c><01:23:32.239><c> of</c>

01:22:28.564 --> 01:22:28.574 align:start position:0%
the height of a giraffe with the bulk of
 

01:22:28.574 --> 01:22:31.124 align:start position:0%
the height of a giraffe with the bulk of
an<01:23:32.560><c> elephant.</c><01:23:33.679><c> And</c><01:23:33.840><c> the</c><01:23:34.080><c> first</c><01:23:34.320><c> described</c>

01:22:31.124 --> 01:22:31.134 align:start position:0%
an elephant. And the first described
 

01:22:31.134 --> 01:22:34.564 align:start position:0%
an elephant. And the first described
sloth<01:23:35.440><c> fossil,</c><01:23:36.159><c> Meggathereum</c><01:23:37.199><c> Americanum,</c>

01:22:34.564 --> 01:22:34.574 align:start position:0%
sloth fossil, Meggathereum Americanum,
 

01:22:34.574 --> 01:22:39.363 align:start position:0%
sloth fossil, Meggathereum Americanum,
had<01:23:38.639><c> an</c><01:23:38.880><c> estimated</c><01:23:39.600><c> body</c><01:23:39.920><c> mass</c><01:23:40.239><c> of</c><01:23:40.960><c> 3,800</c>

01:22:39.363 --> 01:22:39.373 align:start position:0%
had an estimated body mass of 3,800
 

01:22:39.373 --> 01:22:41.363 align:start position:0%
had an estimated body mass of 3,800
kg.

01:22:41.363 --> 01:22:41.373 align:start position:0%
kg.
 

01:22:41.373 --> 01:22:43.843 align:start position:0%
kg.
Our<01:23:45.600><c> modern-day</c><01:23:46.159><c> sloths</c><01:23:46.719><c> are</c><01:23:46.960><c> puny</c><01:23:47.440><c> in</c>

01:22:43.843 --> 01:22:43.853 align:start position:0%
Our modern-day sloths are puny in
 

01:22:43.853 --> 01:22:46.403 align:start position:0%
Our modern-day sloths are puny in
comparison.<01:23:48.719><c> Their</c><01:23:49.040><c> Pletoine</c><01:23:49.760><c> ancestors</c>

01:22:46.403 --> 01:22:46.413 align:start position:0%
comparison. Their Pletoine ancestors
 

01:22:46.413 --> 01:22:49.124 align:start position:0%
comparison. Their Pletoine ancestors
were<01:23:50.480><c> around</c><01:23:51.360><c> 950</c>

01:22:49.124 --> 01:22:49.134 align:start position:0%
were around 950
 

01:22:49.134 --> 01:22:52.724 align:start position:0%
were around 950
times<01:23:53.360><c> heavier,</c><01:23:54.400><c> far</c><01:23:54.719><c> more</c><01:23:54.960><c> widespread,</c><01:23:55.840><c> and</c>

01:22:52.724 --> 01:22:52.734 align:start position:0%
times heavier, far more widespread, and
 

01:22:52.734 --> 01:22:54.564 align:start position:0%
times heavier, far more widespread, and
if<01:23:56.800><c> the</c><01:23:56.960><c> relics</c><01:23:57.360><c> they've</c><01:23:57.600><c> left</c><01:23:57.840><c> behind</c><01:23:58.159><c> are</c>

01:22:54.564 --> 01:22:54.574 align:start position:0%
if the relics they've left behind are
 

01:22:54.574 --> 01:22:57.524 align:start position:0%
if the relics they've left behind are
anything<01:23:58.719><c> to</c><01:23:58.880><c> go</c><01:23:59.040><c> by,</c><01:23:59.840><c> they</c><01:24:00.239><c> got</c><01:24:00.400><c> up</c><01:24:00.639><c> to</c><01:24:00.880><c> a</c><01:24:01.199><c> lot</c>

01:22:57.524 --> 01:22:57.534 align:start position:0%
anything to go by, they got up to a lot
 

01:22:57.534 --> 01:23:00.883 align:start position:0%
anything to go by, they got up to a lot
more.<01:24:02.560><c> In</c><01:24:02.800><c> a</c><01:24:02.960><c> study</c><01:24:03.199><c> from</c><01:24:03.600><c> 2020,</c>

01:23:00.883 --> 01:23:00.893 align:start position:0%
more. In a study from 2020,
 

01:23:00.893 --> 01:23:02.964 align:start position:0%
more. In a study from 2020,
paleontologists<01:24:05.679><c> reported</c><01:24:06.239><c> finding</c><01:24:06.560><c> the</c>

01:23:02.964 --> 01:23:02.974 align:start position:0%
paleontologists reported finding the
 

01:23:02.974 --> 01:23:06.004 align:start position:0%
paleontologists reported finding the
remains<01:24:07.199><c> of</c><01:24:07.360><c> at</c><01:24:07.440><c> least</c><01:24:08.080><c> 22</c><01:24:08.880><c> Aramtherium</c>

01:23:06.004 --> 01:23:06.014 align:start position:0%
remains of at least 22 Aramtherium
 

01:23:06.014 --> 01:23:08.403 align:start position:0%
remains of at least 22 Aramtherium
sloths<01:24:10.320><c> of</c><01:24:10.639><c> various</c><01:24:11.040><c> ages</c><01:24:11.440><c> in</c><01:24:11.600><c> the</c><01:24:11.679><c> sediments</c>

01:23:08.403 --> 01:23:08.413 align:start position:0%
sloths of various ages in the sediments
 

01:23:08.413 --> 01:23:11.284 align:start position:0%
sloths of various ages in the sediments
of<01:24:12.560><c> Tank</c><01:24:13.120><c> Loma</c><01:24:13.760><c> on</c><01:24:14.000><c> the</c><01:24:14.159><c> southwest</c><01:24:14.639><c> coast</c><01:24:14.960><c> of</c>

01:23:11.284 --> 01:23:11.294 align:start position:0%
of Tank Loma on the southwest coast of
 

01:23:11.294 --> 01:23:14.244 align:start position:0%
of Tank Loma on the southwest coast of
Ecuador.<01:24:16.400><c> It's</c><01:24:16.719><c> likely</c><01:24:17.120><c> that</c><01:24:17.280><c> these</c><01:24:17.600><c> sloths</c>

01:23:14.244 --> 01:23:14.254 align:start position:0%
Ecuador. It's likely that these sloths
 

01:23:14.254 --> 01:23:16.403 align:start position:0%
Ecuador. It's likely that these sloths
got<01:24:18.320><c> caught</c><01:24:18.639><c> in</c><01:24:18.880><c> a</c><01:24:19.040><c> shrinking</c><01:24:19.520><c> watering</c><01:24:19.920><c> hole</c>

01:23:16.403 --> 01:23:16.413 align:start position:0%
got caught in a shrinking watering hole
 

01:23:16.413 --> 01:23:18.564 align:start position:0%
got caught in a shrinking watering hole
during<01:24:20.480><c> a</c><01:24:20.639><c> drought</c><01:24:21.199><c> and</c><01:24:21.520><c> died</c><01:24:21.760><c> from</c><01:24:22.000><c> disease</c>

01:23:18.564 --> 01:23:18.574 align:start position:0%
during a drought and died from disease
 

01:23:18.574 --> 01:23:20.564 align:start position:0%
during a drought and died from disease
or<01:24:22.639><c> starvation</c><01:24:23.199><c> as</c><01:24:23.440><c> the</c><01:24:23.600><c> drought</c><01:24:23.920><c> killed</c><01:24:24.239><c> off</c>

01:23:20.564 --> 01:23:20.574 align:start position:0%
or starvation as the drought killed off
 

01:23:20.574 --> 01:23:22.644 align:start position:0%
or starvation as the drought killed off
their<01:24:24.639><c> food</c><01:24:24.880><c> sources.</c>

01:23:22.644 --> 01:23:22.654 align:start position:0%
their food sources.
 

01:23:22.654 --> 01:23:25.524 align:start position:0%
their food sources.
But<01:24:26.960><c> weirdly</c><01:24:27.440><c> enough,</c><01:24:28.080><c> this</c><01:24:28.320><c> autopsy</c><01:24:28.960><c> report</c>

01:23:25.524 --> 01:23:25.534 align:start position:0%
But weirdly enough, this autopsy report
 

01:23:25.534 --> 01:23:27.843 align:start position:0%
But weirdly enough, this autopsy report
tells<01:24:29.600><c> us</c><01:24:29.760><c> a</c><01:24:30.080><c> lot</c><01:24:30.320><c> about</c><01:24:30.639><c> how</c><01:24:30.960><c> these</c><01:24:31.280><c> animals</c>

01:23:27.843 --> 01:23:27.853 align:start position:0%
tells us a lot about how these animals
 

01:23:27.853 --> 01:23:30.403 align:start position:0%
tells us a lot about how these animals
lived.<01:24:32.560><c> And</c><01:24:32.800><c> that's</c><01:24:33.199><c> where</c><01:24:33.440><c> scientists</c><01:24:34.000><c> get</c>

01:23:30.403 --> 01:23:30.413 align:start position:0%
lived. And that's where scientists get
 

01:23:30.413 --> 01:23:32.084 align:start position:0%
lived. And that's where scientists get
excited.

01:23:32.084 --> 01:23:32.094 align:start position:0%
excited.
 

01:23:32.094 --> 01:23:34.244 align:start position:0%
excited.
Think<01:24:36.159><c> about</c><01:24:36.400><c> it.</c><01:24:37.040><c> We</c><01:24:37.280><c> know</c><01:24:37.520><c> that</c><01:24:37.760><c> they</c>

01:23:34.244 --> 01:23:34.254 align:start position:0%
Think about it. We know that they
 

01:23:34.254 --> 01:23:36.084 align:start position:0%
Think about it. We know that they
congregated<01:24:38.719><c> at</c><01:24:38.880><c> watering</c><01:24:39.280><c> holes,</c>

01:23:36.084 --> 01:23:36.094 align:start position:0%
congregated at watering holes,
 

01:23:36.094 --> 01:23:37.764 align:start position:0%
congregated at watering holes,
suggesting<01:24:40.320><c> that</c><01:24:40.560><c> they</c><01:24:40.800><c> were</c><01:24:41.040><c> sociable</c>

01:23:37.764 --> 01:23:37.774 align:start position:0%
suggesting that they were sociable
 

01:23:37.774 --> 01:23:40.724 align:start position:0%
suggesting that they were sociable
animals<01:24:42.560><c> and</c><01:24:42.880><c> that</c><01:24:43.120><c> they</c><01:24:43.360><c> were</c><01:24:43.760><c> wallowing</c><01:24:44.320><c> in</c>

01:23:40.724 --> 01:23:40.734 align:start position:0%
animals and that they were wallowing in
 

01:23:40.734 --> 01:23:44.164 align:start position:0%
animals and that they were wallowing in
the<01:24:44.719><c> water</c><01:24:45.040><c> to</c><01:24:45.280><c> escape</c><01:24:45.600><c> the</c><01:24:45.840><c> sun</c><01:24:46.239><c> and</c><01:24:46.560><c> insects.</c>

01:23:44.164 --> 01:23:44.174 align:start position:0%
the water to escape the sun and insects.
 

01:23:44.174 --> 01:23:45.924 align:start position:0%
the water to escape the sun and insects.
Though<01:24:48.320><c> the</c><01:24:48.480><c> last</c><01:24:48.719><c> glacial</c><01:24:49.199><c> period</c><01:24:49.520><c> was</c>

01:23:45.924 --> 01:23:45.934 align:start position:0%
Though the last glacial period was
 

01:23:45.934 --> 01:23:48.323 align:start position:0%
Though the last glacial period was
dominated<01:24:50.320><c> by</c><01:24:50.560><c> ice</c><01:24:50.880><c> sheets,</c><01:24:51.520><c> they</c><01:24:51.840><c> didn't</c>

01:23:48.323 --> 01:23:48.333 align:start position:0%
dominated by ice sheets, they didn't
 

01:23:48.333 --> 01:23:50.964 align:start position:0%
dominated by ice sheets, they didn't
cover<01:24:52.400><c> the</c><01:24:52.639><c> entire</c><01:24:52.960><c> globe.</c><01:24:53.920><c> Tropical</c><01:24:54.400><c> regions</c>

01:23:50.964 --> 01:23:50.974 align:start position:0%
cover the entire globe. Tropical regions
 

01:23:50.974 --> 01:23:53.684 align:start position:0%
cover the entire globe. Tropical regions
like<01:24:55.040><c> Ecuador</c><01:24:55.840><c> see</c><01:24:56.159><c> warmer</c><01:24:56.639><c> seasons</c><01:24:57.199><c> when</c>

01:23:53.684 --> 01:23:53.694 align:start position:0%
like Ecuador see warmer seasons when
 

01:23:53.694 --> 01:23:57.044 align:start position:0%
like Ecuador see warmer seasons when
animals<01:24:58.000><c> would</c><01:24:58.320><c> have</c><01:24:58.480><c> needed</c><01:24:58.800><c> a</c><01:24:59.040><c> cool</c><01:24:59.360><c> refuge.</c>

01:23:57.044 --> 01:23:57.054 align:start position:0%
animals would have needed a cool refuge.
 

01:23:57.054 --> 01:23:59.444 align:start position:0%
animals would have needed a cool refuge.
The<01:25:01.120><c> sloth's</c><01:25:01.679><c> wallowing</c><01:25:02.239><c> behavior</c><01:25:02.719><c> is</c><01:25:02.960><c> shared</c>

01:23:59.444 --> 01:23:59.454 align:start position:0%
The sloth's wallowing behavior is shared
 

01:23:59.454 --> 01:24:01.604 align:start position:0%
The sloth's wallowing behavior is shared
with<01:25:03.600><c> many</c><01:25:03.920><c> large</c><01:25:04.320><c> African</c><01:25:04.719><c> mammals</c><01:25:05.120><c> alive</c>

01:24:01.604 --> 01:24:01.614 align:start position:0%
with many large African mammals alive
 

01:24:01.614 --> 01:24:05.444 align:start position:0%
with many large African mammals alive
today<01:25:06.239><c> like</c><01:25:06.639><c> hippos</c><01:25:07.280><c> or</c><01:25:07.679><c> rhinos.</c><01:25:08.639><c> So</c><01:25:08.880><c> it</c><01:25:09.120><c> turns</c>

01:24:05.444 --> 01:24:05.454 align:start position:0%
today like hippos or rhinos. So it turns
 

01:24:05.454 --> 01:24:08.004 align:start position:0%
today like hippos or rhinos. So it turns
out<01:25:09.600><c> that</c><01:25:09.920><c> the</c><01:25:10.159><c> pletoine</c><01:25:10.800><c> watering</c><01:25:11.199><c> holes</c>

01:24:08.004 --> 01:24:08.014 align:start position:0%
out that the pletoine watering holes
 

01:24:08.014 --> 01:24:10.644 align:start position:0%
out that the pletoine watering holes
were<01:25:12.080><c> still</c><01:25:12.400><c> the</c><01:25:12.639><c> bustling</c><01:25:13.360><c> ecological</c><01:25:14.000><c> hubs</c>

01:24:10.644 --> 01:24:10.654 align:start position:0%
were still the bustling ecological hubs
 

01:24:10.654 --> 01:24:15.604 align:start position:0%
were still the bustling ecological hubs
they<01:25:14.719><c> are</c><01:25:14.880><c> today.</c>

01:24:15.604 --> 01:24:15.614 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:24:15.614 --> 01:24:18.084 align:start position:0%
 
So,<01:25:19.840><c> we</c><01:25:20.159><c> know</c><01:25:20.320><c> where</c><01:25:20.560><c> they</c><01:25:20.800><c> hung</c><01:25:21.040><c> out,</c><01:25:21.600><c> but</c>

01:24:18.084 --> 01:24:18.094 align:start position:0%
So, we know where they hung out, but
 

01:24:18.094 --> 01:24:20.244 align:start position:0%
So, we know where they hung out, but
what<01:25:22.159><c> else</c><01:25:22.400><c> were</c><01:25:22.639><c> the</c><01:25:22.800><c> giant</c><01:25:23.199><c> ground</c><01:25:23.520><c> sloths</c>

01:24:20.244 --> 01:24:20.254 align:start position:0%
what else were the giant ground sloths
 

01:24:20.254 --> 01:24:23.284 align:start position:0%
what else were the giant ground sloths
getting<01:25:24.320><c> up</c><01:25:24.480><c> to?</c><01:25:25.840><c> Madel</c><01:25:26.400><c> Platter</c><01:25:26.880><c> in</c>

01:24:23.284 --> 01:24:23.294 align:start position:0%
getting up to? Madel Platter in
 

01:24:23.294 --> 01:24:26.564 align:start position:0%
getting up to? Madel Platter in
Argentina<01:25:28.080><c> is</c><01:25:28.320><c> home</c><01:25:28.639><c> to</c><01:25:29.120><c> several</c><01:25:29.840><c> paleo</c>

01:24:26.564 --> 01:24:26.574 align:start position:0%
Argentina is home to several paleo
 

01:24:26.574 --> 01:24:28.323 align:start position:0%
Argentina is home to several paleo
burrows,<01:25:31.120><c> which</c><01:25:31.360><c> have</c><01:25:31.600><c> been</c><01:25:31.760><c> discovered</c>

01:24:28.323 --> 01:24:28.333 align:start position:0%
burrows, which have been discovered
 

01:24:28.333 --> 01:24:31.843 align:start position:0%
burrows, which have been discovered
intermittently<01:25:32.960><c> over</c><01:25:33.199><c> the</c><01:25:33.360><c> past</c><01:25:33.600><c> century.</c><01:25:35.040><c> 42</c>

01:24:31.843 --> 01:24:31.853 align:start position:0%
intermittently over the past century. 42
 

01:24:31.853 --> 01:24:33.843 align:start position:0%
intermittently over the past century. 42
of<01:25:35.920><c> the</c><01:25:36.080><c> largest</c><01:25:36.400><c> burrows</c><01:25:36.880><c> were</c><01:25:37.120><c> dated</c><01:25:37.520><c> back</c>

01:24:33.843 --> 01:24:33.853 align:start position:0%
of the largest burrows were dated back
 

01:24:33.853 --> 01:24:36.883 align:start position:0%
of the largest burrows were dated back
to<01:25:37.920><c> the</c><01:25:38.080><c> pioene</c><01:25:39.040><c> or</c><01:25:39.280><c> late</c><01:25:39.520><c> pletosene</c><01:25:40.480><c> and</c>

01:24:36.883 --> 01:24:36.893 align:start position:0%
to the pioene or late pletosene and
 

01:24:36.893 --> 01:24:40.803 align:start position:0%
to the pioene or late pletosene and
reached<01:25:41.360><c> 5</c><01:25:41.679><c> to</c><01:25:42.000><c> 6</c><01:25:42.320><c> m</c><01:25:42.800><c> below</c><01:25:43.199><c> the</c><01:25:43.360><c> surface.</c><01:25:44.400><c> At</c>

01:24:40.803 --> 01:24:40.813 align:start position:0%
reached 5 to 6 m below the surface. At
 

01:24:40.813 --> 01:24:44.323 align:start position:0%
reached 5 to 6 m below the surface. At
their<01:25:44.880><c> largest,</c><01:25:45.520><c> they</c><01:25:45.760><c> are</c><01:25:46.000><c> 1.8</c><01:25:46.480><c> 8</c><01:25:46.719><c> m</c><01:25:47.120><c> wide</c><01:25:47.600><c> and</c>

01:24:44.323 --> 01:24:44.333 align:start position:0%
their largest, they are 1.8 8 m wide and
 

01:24:44.333 --> 01:24:47.764 align:start position:0%
their largest, they are 1.8 8 m wide and
40<01:25:48.480><c> m</c><01:25:48.880><c> long.</c><01:25:50.080><c> Several</c><01:25:50.560><c> mammal</c><01:25:50.960><c> candidates</c>

01:24:47.764 --> 01:24:47.774 align:start position:0%
40 m long. Several mammal candidates
 

01:24:47.774 --> 01:24:49.684 align:start position:0%
40 m long. Several mammal candidates
were<01:25:51.920><c> considered</c><01:25:52.320><c> as</c><01:25:52.480><c> the</c><01:25:52.719><c> possible</c><01:25:53.120><c> builders</c>

01:24:49.684 --> 01:24:49.694 align:start position:0%
were considered as the possible builders
 

01:24:49.694 --> 01:24:52.004 align:start position:0%
were considered as the possible builders
for<01:25:53.600><c> these</c><01:25:53.840><c> structures,</c><01:25:54.880><c> but</c><01:25:55.120><c> scientists</c><01:25:55.600><c> now</c>

01:24:52.004 --> 01:24:52.014 align:start position:0%
for these structures, but scientists now
 

01:24:52.014 --> 01:24:53.444 align:start position:0%
for these structures, but scientists now
think<01:25:56.000><c> that</c><01:25:56.159><c> the</c><01:25:56.320><c> culprits</c><01:25:56.800><c> were</c><01:25:57.040><c> the</c>

01:24:53.444 --> 01:24:53.454 align:start position:0%
think that the culprits were the
 

01:24:53.454 --> 01:24:56.403 align:start position:0%
think that the culprits were the
glosstherium<01:25:58.400><c> and</c><01:25:58.880><c> celothereum</c><01:25:59.920><c> ground</c>

01:24:56.403 --> 01:24:56.413 align:start position:0%
glosstherium and celothereum ground
 

01:24:56.413 --> 01:24:58.724 align:start position:0%
glosstherium and celothereum ground
sloths.<01:26:00.960><c> And</c><01:26:01.120><c> there</c><01:26:01.360><c> are</c><01:26:01.679><c> several</c><01:26:02.159><c> reasons</c>

01:24:58.724 --> 01:24:58.734 align:start position:0%
sloths. And there are several reasons
 

01:24:58.734 --> 01:25:00.403 align:start position:0%
sloths. And there are several reasons
why.

01:25:00.403 --> 01:25:00.413 align:start position:0%
why.
 

01:25:00.413 --> 01:25:02.564 align:start position:0%
why.
The<01:26:04.480><c> first</c><01:26:04.719><c> clues</c><01:26:05.199><c> were</c><01:26:05.440><c> the</c><01:26:05.679><c> armbbones</c><01:26:06.320><c> of</c>

01:25:02.564 --> 01:25:02.574 align:start position:0%
The first clues were the armbbones of
 

01:25:02.574 --> 01:25:04.403 align:start position:0%
The first clues were the armbbones of
these<01:26:06.639><c> sloths,</c><01:26:07.280><c> which</c><01:26:07.520><c> were</c><01:26:07.760><c> designed</c><01:26:08.080><c> to</c>

01:25:04.403 --> 01:25:04.413 align:start position:0%
these sloths, which were designed to
 

01:25:04.413 --> 01:25:06.644 align:start position:0%
these sloths, which were designed to
form<01:26:08.560><c> a</c><01:26:08.800><c> shovel-like</c><01:26:09.440><c> structure</c><01:26:10.080><c> with</c>

01:25:06.644 --> 01:25:06.654 align:start position:0%
form a shovel-like structure with
 

01:25:06.654 --> 01:25:09.764 align:start position:0%
form a shovel-like structure with
unusually<01:26:11.280><c> long</c><01:26:11.760><c> second</c><01:26:12.080><c> and</c><01:26:12.400><c> third</c><01:26:12.719><c> fingers,</c>

01:25:09.764 --> 01:25:09.774 align:start position:0%
unusually long second and third fingers,
 

01:25:09.774 --> 01:25:12.403 align:start position:0%
unusually long second and third fingers,
making<01:26:13.920><c> them</c><01:26:14.159><c> well</c><01:26:14.480><c> adapted</c><01:26:14.960><c> for</c><01:26:15.120><c> digging.</c>

01:25:12.403 --> 01:25:12.413 align:start position:0%
making them well adapted for digging.
 

01:25:12.413 --> 01:25:14.803 align:start position:0%
making them well adapted for digging.
The<01:26:16.480><c> bones</c><01:26:16.800><c> were</c><01:26:17.040><c> strong,</c><01:26:17.440><c> too,</c><01:26:18.080><c> designed</c><01:26:18.400><c> to</c>

01:25:14.803 --> 01:25:14.813 align:start position:0%
The bones were strong, too, designed to
 

01:25:14.813 --> 01:25:17.284 align:start position:0%
The bones were strong, too, designed to
withstand<01:26:19.280><c> intense</c><01:26:19.920><c> bending</c><01:26:20.320><c> forces</c><01:26:20.800><c> similar</c>

01:25:17.284 --> 01:25:17.294 align:start position:0%
withstand intense bending forces similar
 

01:25:17.294 --> 01:25:19.524 align:start position:0%
withstand intense bending forces similar
to<01:26:21.280><c> those</c><01:26:21.600><c> experienced</c><01:26:22.080><c> by</c><01:26:22.400><c> modern</c><01:26:22.800><c> galloping</c>

01:25:19.524 --> 01:25:19.534 align:start position:0%
to those experienced by modern galloping
 

01:25:19.534 --> 01:25:22.644 align:start position:0%
to those experienced by modern galloping
mammals.<01:26:24.639><c> From</c><01:26:25.120><c> further</c><01:26:25.520><c> detective</c><01:26:26.080><c> work</c><01:26:26.239><c> on</c>

01:25:22.644 --> 01:25:22.654 align:start position:0%
mammals. From further detective work on
 

01:25:22.654 --> 01:25:24.724 align:start position:0%
mammals. From further detective work on
their<01:26:26.719><c> skeletons,</c><01:26:27.600><c> paleontologists</c>

01:25:24.724 --> 01:25:24.734 align:start position:0%
their skeletons, paleontologists
 

01:25:24.734 --> 01:25:26.803 align:start position:0%
their skeletons, paleontologists
estimated<01:26:29.120><c> that</c><01:26:29.440><c> these</c><01:26:29.679><c> ground</c><01:26:30.000><c> sloth</c><01:26:30.400><c> center</c>

01:25:26.803 --> 01:25:26.813 align:start position:0%
estimated that these ground sloth center
 

01:25:26.813 --> 01:25:28.964 align:start position:0%
estimated that these ground sloth center
of<01:26:30.800><c> gravity</c><01:26:31.199><c> was</c><01:26:31.440><c> found</c><01:26:31.760><c> above</c><01:26:32.239><c> their</c><01:26:32.480><c> hind</c>

01:25:28.964 --> 01:25:28.974 align:start position:0%
of gravity was found above their hind
 

01:25:28.974 --> 01:25:31.284 align:start position:0%
of gravity was found above their hind
feet,<01:26:33.520><c> which</c><01:26:33.760><c> suggests</c><01:26:34.159><c> they</c><01:26:34.480><c> too</c><01:26:34.800><c> could</c>

01:25:31.284 --> 01:25:31.294 align:start position:0%
feet, which suggests they too could
 

01:25:31.294 --> 01:25:34.403 align:start position:0%
feet, which suggests they too could
achieve<01:26:35.440><c> a</c><01:26:35.679><c> bipeedal</c><01:26:36.320><c> posture.</c>

01:25:34.403 --> 01:25:34.413 align:start position:0%
achieve a bipeedal posture.
 

01:25:34.413 --> 01:25:36.964 align:start position:0%
achieve a bipeedal posture.
This<01:26:38.639><c> is</c><01:26:38.880><c> a</c><01:26:39.199><c> major</c><01:26:39.600><c> requirement</c><01:26:40.080><c> for</c><01:26:40.239><c> digging</c>

01:25:36.964 --> 01:25:36.974 align:start position:0%
This is a major requirement for digging
 

01:25:36.974 --> 01:25:39.124 align:start position:0%
This is a major requirement for digging
as<01:26:41.040><c> your</c><01:26:41.280><c> arms</c><01:26:41.679><c> have</c><01:26:41.840><c> to</c><01:26:42.080><c> be</c><01:26:42.159><c> able</c><01:26:42.400><c> to</c><01:26:42.560><c> exert</c>

01:25:39.124 --> 01:25:39.134 align:start position:0%
as your arms have to be able to exert
 

01:25:39.134 --> 01:25:40.803 align:start position:0%
as your arms have to be able to exert
pressure<01:26:43.280><c> on</c><01:26:43.440><c> the</c><01:26:43.600><c> soil</c><01:26:43.920><c> you're</c><01:26:44.239><c> trying</c><01:26:44.400><c> to</c>

01:25:40.803 --> 01:25:40.813 align:start position:0%
pressure on the soil you're trying to
 

01:25:40.813 --> 01:25:43.284 align:start position:0%
pressure on the soil you're trying to
dig<01:26:45.280><c> rather</c><01:26:45.600><c> than</c><01:26:45.920><c> support</c><01:26:46.320><c> your</c><01:26:46.639><c> body</c><01:26:46.880><c> weight</c>

01:25:43.284 --> 01:25:43.294 align:start position:0%
dig rather than support your body weight
 

01:25:43.294 --> 01:25:45.524 align:start position:0%
dig rather than support your body weight
all<01:26:47.360><c> the</c><01:26:47.520><c> time.</c>

01:25:45.524 --> 01:25:45.534 align:start position:0%
all the time.
 

01:25:45.534 --> 01:25:48.484 align:start position:0%
all the time.
And<01:26:49.679><c> the</c><01:26:49.840><c> final</c><01:26:50.159><c> clue,</c><01:26:51.120><c> well,</c><01:26:51.600><c> this</c><01:26:51.760><c> one</c><01:26:52.000><c> quite</c>

01:25:48.484 --> 01:25:48.494 align:start position:0%
And the final clue, well, this one quite
 

01:25:48.494 --> 01:25:51.363 align:start position:0%
And the final clue, well, this one quite
literally<01:26:52.719><c> caught</c><01:26:53.040><c> the</c><01:26:53.199><c> sloths</c><01:26:53.679><c> red-handed.</c>

01:25:51.363 --> 01:25:51.373 align:start position:0%
literally caught the sloths red-handed.
 

01:25:51.373 --> 01:25:54.403 align:start position:0%
literally caught the sloths red-handed.
See,<01:26:55.920><c> there</c><01:26:56.239><c> were</c><01:26:56.800><c> several</c><01:26:57.280><c> claw</c><01:26:57.679><c> marks</c><01:26:58.000><c> on</c>

01:25:54.403 --> 01:25:54.413 align:start position:0%
See, there were several claw marks on
 

01:25:54.413 --> 01:25:57.044 align:start position:0%
See, there were several claw marks on
the<01:26:58.480><c> sides</c><01:26:58.960><c> and</c><01:26:59.280><c> roofs</c><01:26:59.679><c> of</c><01:26:59.840><c> the</c><01:27:00.000><c> burrow</c><01:27:00.639><c> that</c>

01:25:57.044 --> 01:25:57.054 align:start position:0%
the sides and roofs of the burrow that
 

01:25:57.054 --> 01:25:59.044 align:start position:0%
the sides and roofs of the burrow that
had<01:27:01.120><c> been</c><01:27:01.360><c> perfectly</c><01:27:01.840><c> fossilized</c><01:27:02.480><c> with</c><01:27:02.719><c> the</c>

01:25:59.044 --> 01:25:59.054 align:start position:0%
had been perfectly fossilized with the
 

01:25:59.054 --> 01:26:02.164 align:start position:0%
had been perfectly fossilized with the
tunnels<01:27:03.280><c> themselves.</c><01:27:04.480><c> So</c><01:27:05.040><c> paleontologists</c>

01:26:02.164 --> 01:26:02.174 align:start position:0%
tunnels themselves. So paleontologists
 

01:26:02.174 --> 01:26:04.084 align:start position:0%
tunnels themselves. So paleontologists
just<01:27:06.239><c> had</c><01:27:06.480><c> to</c><01:27:06.639><c> match</c><01:27:06.880><c> up</c><01:27:07.040><c> these</c><01:27:07.280><c> marks</c><01:27:07.600><c> to</c><01:27:07.760><c> the</c>

01:26:04.084 --> 01:26:04.094 align:start position:0%
just had to match up these marks to the
 

01:26:04.094 --> 01:26:06.323 align:start position:0%
just had to match up these marks to the
hand<01:27:08.159><c> skeletons</c><01:27:08.560><c> of</c><01:27:08.719><c> the</c><01:27:08.880><c> sloths.</c><01:27:09.760><c> And</c><01:27:10.000><c> just</c>

01:26:06.323 --> 01:26:06.333 align:start position:0%
hand skeletons of the sloths. And just
 

01:26:06.333 --> 01:26:10.323 align:start position:0%
hand skeletons of the sloths. And just
like<01:27:10.400><c> that,</c><01:27:10.960><c> it</c><01:27:11.199><c> was</c><01:27:11.280><c> a</c><01:27:11.520><c> perfect</c><01:27:11.840><c> fit.</c>

01:26:10.323 --> 01:26:10.333 align:start position:0%
like that, it was a perfect fit.
 

01:26:10.333 --> 01:26:12.484 align:start position:0%
like that, it was a perfect fit.
So<01:27:14.639><c> we</c><01:27:14.800><c> can</c><01:27:14.960><c> be</c><01:27:15.120><c> pretty</c><01:27:15.440><c> confident</c><01:27:15.760><c> that</c><01:27:16.000><c> we</c>

01:26:12.484 --> 01:26:12.494 align:start position:0%
So we can be pretty confident that we
 

01:26:12.494 --> 01:26:14.644 align:start position:0%
So we can be pretty confident that we
found<01:27:16.639><c> the</c><01:27:16.960><c> burers.</c>

01:26:14.644 --> 01:26:14.654 align:start position:0%
found the burers.
 

01:26:14.654 --> 01:26:16.724 align:start position:0%
found the burers.
But<01:27:18.800><c> considering</c><01:27:19.280><c> these</c><01:27:19.679><c> ground</c><01:27:19.920><c> sloths</c>

01:26:16.724 --> 01:26:16.734 align:start position:0%
But considering these ground sloths
 

01:26:16.734 --> 01:26:21.524 align:start position:0%
But considering these ground sloths
weighed<01:27:20.960><c> between</c><01:27:21.440><c> 800</c><01:27:22.159><c> and</c><01:27:22.560><c> 1,200</c><01:27:23.840><c> kg,</c><01:27:25.120><c> this</c>

01:26:21.524 --> 01:26:21.534 align:start position:0%
weighed between 800 and 1,200 kg, this
 

01:26:21.534 --> 01:26:24.964 align:start position:0%
weighed between 800 and 1,200 kg, this
behavior<01:27:26.000><c> is</c><01:27:26.400><c> incredible</c><01:27:27.520><c> and</c><01:27:27.760><c> gives</c><01:27:28.080><c> us</c><01:27:28.400><c> real</c>

01:26:24.964 --> 01:26:24.974 align:start position:0%
behavior is incredible and gives us real
 

01:26:24.974 --> 01:26:27.524 align:start position:0%
behavior is incredible and gives us real
insight<01:27:29.280><c> into</c><01:27:29.600><c> the</c><01:27:29.840><c> kinds</c><01:27:30.159><c> of</c><01:27:30.400><c> pressures</c><01:27:31.040><c> they</c>

01:26:27.524 --> 01:26:27.534 align:start position:0%
insight into the kinds of pressures they
 

01:26:27.534 --> 01:26:30.084 align:start position:0%
insight into the kinds of pressures they
must<01:27:31.520><c> have</c><01:27:31.760><c> been</c><01:27:31.920><c> facing.</c><01:27:33.199><c> Scientists</c><01:27:33.679><c> have</c>

01:26:30.084 --> 01:26:30.094 align:start position:0%
must have been facing. Scientists have
 

01:26:30.094 --> 01:26:31.764 align:start position:0%
must have been facing. Scientists have
proposed<01:27:34.239><c> that</c><01:27:34.480><c> the</c><01:27:34.639><c> sloths</c><01:27:35.120><c> may</c><01:27:35.360><c> have</c>

01:26:31.764 --> 01:26:31.774 align:start position:0%
proposed that the sloths may have
 

01:26:31.774 --> 01:26:33.764 align:start position:0%
proposed that the sloths may have
relocated<01:27:36.239><c> underground</c><01:27:36.880><c> as</c><01:27:37.120><c> a</c><01:27:37.280><c> way</c><01:27:37.360><c> to</c>

01:26:33.764 --> 01:26:33.774 align:start position:0%
relocated underground as a way to
 

01:26:33.774 --> 01:26:36.323 align:start position:0%
relocated underground as a way to
insulate<01:27:38.080><c> themselves</c><01:27:38.560><c> against</c><01:27:38.880><c> the</c><01:27:39.120><c> cold</c><01:27:39.840><c> or</c>

01:26:36.323 --> 01:26:36.333 align:start position:0%
insulate themselves against the cold or
 

01:26:36.333 --> 01:26:38.164 align:start position:0%
insulate themselves against the cold or
shield<01:27:40.560><c> themselves</c><01:27:40.960><c> from</c><01:27:41.280><c> the</c><01:27:41.440><c> heat</c>

01:26:38.164 --> 01:26:38.174 align:start position:0%
shield themselves from the heat
 

01:26:38.174 --> 01:26:40.403 align:start position:0%
shield themselves from the heat
depending<01:27:42.320><c> on</c><01:27:42.480><c> the</c><01:27:42.719><c> climate</c><01:27:42.960><c> at</c><01:27:43.199><c> the</c><01:27:43.360><c> time.</c>

01:26:40.403 --> 01:26:40.413 align:start position:0%
depending on the climate at the time.
 

01:26:40.413 --> 01:26:42.644 align:start position:0%
depending on the climate at the time.
It's<01:27:44.560><c> also</c><01:27:44.800><c> been</c><01:27:45.040><c> suggested</c><01:27:45.600><c> that</c><01:27:45.840><c> the</c><01:27:46.000><c> sloths</c>

01:26:42.644 --> 01:26:42.654 align:start position:0%
It's also been suggested that the sloths
 

01:26:42.654 --> 01:26:45.524 align:start position:0%
It's also been suggested that the sloths
were<01:27:46.800><c> trying</c><01:27:47.040><c> to</c><01:27:47.199><c> escape</c><01:27:47.520><c> predators,</c><01:27:48.719><c> which</c>

01:26:45.524 --> 01:26:45.534 align:start position:0%
were trying to escape predators, which
 

01:26:45.534 --> 01:26:47.604 align:start position:0%
were trying to escape predators, which
really<01:27:49.679><c> makes</c><01:27:49.840><c> you</c><01:27:50.080><c> wonder</c><01:27:50.719><c> what</c><01:27:51.040><c> kind</c><01:27:51.280><c> of</c>

01:26:47.604 --> 01:26:47.614 align:start position:0%
really makes you wonder what kind of
 

01:26:47.614 --> 01:26:50.724 align:start position:0%
really makes you wonder what kind of
animal<01:27:52.080><c> would</c><01:27:52.320><c> want</c><01:27:52.560><c> to</c><01:27:52.719><c> take</c><01:27:52.880><c> them</c><01:27:53.120><c> on.</c><01:27:54.239><c> Most</c>

01:26:50.724 --> 01:26:50.734 align:start position:0%
animal would want to take them on. Most
 

01:26:50.734 --> 01:26:54.403 align:start position:0%
animal would want to take them on. Most
likely<01:27:55.440><c> a</c><01:27:55.679><c> saber-tooth</c><01:27:56.480><c> cat</c><01:27:57.280><c> or</c><01:27:57.600><c> giant</c>

01:26:54.403 --> 01:26:54.413 align:start position:0%
likely a saber-tooth cat or giant
 

01:26:54.413 --> 01:26:59.363 align:start position:0%
likely a saber-tooth cat or giant
short-faced<01:27:59.040><c> bear.</c>

01:26:59.363 --> 01:26:59.373 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:26:59.373 --> 01:27:02.004 align:start position:0%
 
As<01:28:03.520><c> our</c><01:28:03.840><c> aliens</c><01:28:04.320><c> watch</c><01:28:04.560><c> these</c><01:28:04.960><c> big,</c><01:28:05.360><c> tough</c>

01:27:02.004 --> 01:27:02.014 align:start position:0%
As our aliens watch these big, tough
 

01:27:02.014 --> 01:27:04.644 align:start position:0%
As our aliens watch these big, tough
creatures<01:28:06.560><c> brave</c><01:28:07.040><c> weather</c><01:28:07.440><c> extremes,</c>

01:27:04.644 --> 01:27:04.654 align:start position:0%
creatures brave weather extremes,
 

01:27:04.654 --> 01:27:06.724 align:start position:0%
creatures brave weather extremes,
megasized<01:28:09.120><c> predators,</c><01:28:09.679><c> and</c><01:28:10.080><c> shifting</c>

01:27:06.724 --> 01:27:06.734 align:start position:0%
megasized predators, and shifting
 

01:27:06.734 --> 01:27:09.284 align:start position:0%
megasized predators, and shifting
populations,<01:28:11.679><c> they</c><01:28:11.920><c> are</c><01:28:12.239><c> excited</c><01:28:12.719><c> to</c><01:28:12.960><c> see</c>

01:27:09.284 --> 01:27:09.294 align:start position:0%
populations, they are excited to see
 

01:27:09.294 --> 01:27:11.843 align:start position:0%
populations, they are excited to see
them<01:28:13.360><c> emerge</c><01:28:13.840><c> into</c><01:28:14.080><c> the</c><01:28:14.320><c> next</c><01:28:14.639><c> epoch</c><01:28:15.440><c> with</c>

01:27:11.843 --> 01:27:11.853 align:start position:0%
them emerge into the next epoch with
 

01:27:11.853 --> 01:27:15.044 align:start position:0%
them emerge into the next epoch with
their<01:28:15.920><c> innate</c><01:28:16.480><c> knack</c><01:28:16.800><c> for</c><01:28:17.040><c> survival.</c><01:28:18.080><c> Except</c>

01:27:15.044 --> 01:27:15.054 align:start position:0%
their innate knack for survival. Except
 

01:27:15.054 --> 01:27:18.084 align:start position:0%
their innate knack for survival. Except
that's<01:28:19.120><c> not</c><01:28:19.360><c> what</c><01:28:19.600><c> happens.</c><01:28:20.960><c> Almost</c><01:28:21.520><c> without</c>

01:27:18.084 --> 01:27:18.094 align:start position:0%
that's not what happens. Almost without
 

01:27:18.094 --> 01:27:20.164 align:start position:0%
that's not what happens. Almost without
warning,<01:28:22.560><c> they</c><01:28:22.880><c> vanish</c><01:28:23.199><c> at</c><01:28:23.440><c> the</c><01:28:23.600><c> end</c><01:28:23.679><c> of</c><01:28:23.840><c> the</c>

01:27:20.164 --> 01:27:20.174 align:start position:0%
warning, they vanish at the end of the
 

01:27:20.174 --> 01:27:24.803 align:start position:0%
warning, they vanish at the end of the
plea<01:28:24.560><c> scene.</c><01:28:25.440><c> Between</c><01:28:25.920><c> 72</c><01:28:26.560><c> and</c><01:28:26.960><c> 88%</c><01:28:28.000><c> of</c><01:28:28.159><c> these</c>

01:27:24.803 --> 01:27:24.813 align:start position:0%
plea scene. Between 72 and 88% of these
 

01:27:24.813 --> 01:27:27.124 align:start position:0%
plea scene. Between 72 and 88% of these
large<01:28:29.040><c> body</c><01:28:29.360><c> creatures</c><01:28:29.840><c> are</c><01:28:30.080><c> lost</c><01:28:30.480><c> from</c>

01:27:27.124 --> 01:27:27.134 align:start position:0%
large body creatures are lost from
 

01:27:27.134 --> 01:27:29.363 align:start position:0%
large body creatures are lost from
Australia<01:28:31.679><c> and</c><01:28:32.000><c> North</c><01:28:32.239><c> and</c><01:28:32.480><c> South</c><01:28:32.719><c> America</c>

01:27:29.363 --> 01:27:29.373 align:start position:0%
Australia and North and South America
 

01:27:29.373 --> 01:27:33.363 align:start position:0%
Australia and North and South America
alone.<01:28:34.239><c> But</c><01:28:34.560><c> how?</c><01:28:35.600><c> Why?</c>

01:27:33.363 --> 01:27:33.373 align:start position:0%
alone. But how? Why?
 

01:27:33.373 --> 01:27:36.164 align:start position:0%
alone. But how? Why?
Well,<01:28:37.840><c> this</c><01:28:38.080><c> topic</c><01:28:38.480><c> has</c><01:28:38.880><c> been</c><01:28:39.199><c> intensely</c>

01:27:36.164 --> 01:27:36.174 align:start position:0%
Well, this topic has been intensely
 

01:27:36.174 --> 01:27:38.484 align:start position:0%
Well, this topic has been intensely
debated<01:28:40.480><c> among</c><01:28:40.800><c> human</c><01:28:41.120><c> paleontologists</c><01:28:42.080><c> for</c>

01:27:38.484 --> 01:27:38.494 align:start position:0%
debated among human paleontologists for
 

01:27:38.494 --> 01:27:41.524 align:start position:0%
debated among human paleontologists for
nearly<01:28:42.639><c> a</c><01:28:42.960><c> century.</c><01:28:44.159><c> Some</c><01:28:44.480><c> suggest</c><01:28:44.960><c> that</c>

01:27:41.524 --> 01:27:41.534 align:start position:0%
nearly a century. Some suggest that
 

01:27:41.534 --> 01:27:43.843 align:start position:0%
nearly a century. Some suggest that
natural<01:28:45.840><c> climate</c><01:28:46.239><c> change</c><01:28:46.480><c> was</c><01:28:46.639><c> to</c><01:28:46.880><c> blame</c><01:28:47.440><c> as</c>

01:27:43.843 --> 01:27:43.853 align:start position:0%
natural climate change was to blame as
 

01:27:43.853 --> 01:27:45.684 align:start position:0%
natural climate change was to blame as
the<01:28:47.840><c> dawn</c><01:28:48.159><c> of</c><01:28:48.320><c> the</c><01:28:48.400><c> interglacial</c><01:28:49.120><c> period</c>

01:27:45.684 --> 01:27:45.694 align:start position:0%
the dawn of the interglacial period
 

01:27:45.694 --> 01:27:48.084 align:start position:0%
the dawn of the interglacial period
meant<01:28:50.000><c> that</c><01:28:50.239><c> sea</c><01:28:50.480><c> levels</c><01:28:50.800><c> started</c><01:28:51.120><c> to</c><01:28:51.280><c> rise,</c>

01:27:48.084 --> 01:27:48.094 align:start position:0%
meant that sea levels started to rise,
 

01:27:48.094 --> 01:27:50.323 align:start position:0%
meant that sea levels started to rise,
cutting<01:28:52.320><c> off</c><01:28:52.400><c> the</c><01:28:52.639><c> land</c><01:28:52.880><c> bridges</c><01:28:53.440><c> and</c><01:28:53.760><c> melting</c>

01:27:50.323 --> 01:27:50.333 align:start position:0%
cutting off the land bridges and melting
 

01:27:50.333 --> 01:27:52.403 align:start position:0%
cutting off the land bridges and melting
the<01:28:54.320><c> ice</c><01:28:54.560><c> sheets</c><01:28:54.880><c> that</c><01:28:55.199><c> species</c><01:28:55.679><c> needed</c><01:28:56.000><c> to</c>

01:27:52.403 --> 01:27:52.413 align:start position:0%
the ice sheets that species needed to
 

01:27:52.413 --> 01:27:55.444 align:start position:0%
the ice sheets that species needed to
reach<01:28:56.480><c> more</c><01:28:56.800><c> thermally</c><01:28:57.360><c> suitable</c><01:28:57.760><c> habitats.</c>

01:27:55.444 --> 01:27:55.454 align:start position:0%
reach more thermally suitable habitats.
 

01:27:55.454 --> 01:27:57.764 align:start position:0%
reach more thermally suitable habitats.
However,<01:28:59.840><c> we've</c><01:29:00.159><c> seen</c><01:29:00.639><c> this</c><01:29:00.880><c> explanation</c>

01:27:57.764 --> 01:27:57.774 align:start position:0%
However, we've seen this explanation
 

01:27:57.774 --> 01:28:00.484 align:start position:0%
However, we've seen this explanation
isn't<01:29:01.920><c> a</c><01:29:02.159><c> perfect</c><01:29:02.400><c> fit</c><01:29:03.120><c> as</c><01:29:03.360><c> some</c><01:29:03.600><c> groups</c><01:29:04.080><c> like</c>

01:28:00.484 --> 01:28:00.494 align:start position:0%
isn't a perfect fit as some groups like
 

01:28:00.494 --> 01:28:03.363 align:start position:0%
isn't a perfect fit as some groups like
the<01:29:04.639><c> wrangle</c><01:29:05.120><c> island</c><01:29:05.440><c> mammoths</c><01:29:06.159><c> survived</c><01:29:06.800><c> far</c>

01:28:03.363 --> 01:28:03.373 align:start position:0%
the wrangle island mammoths survived far
 

01:28:03.373 --> 01:28:06.164 align:start position:0%
the wrangle island mammoths survived far
beyond<01:29:07.679><c> this</c><01:29:08.000><c> transition.</c>

01:28:06.164 --> 01:28:06.174 align:start position:0%
beyond this transition.
 

01:28:06.174 --> 01:28:08.084 align:start position:0%
beyond this transition.
The<01:29:10.239><c> other</c><01:29:10.480><c> major</c><01:29:10.800><c> theory</c><01:29:11.360><c> was</c><01:29:11.679><c> first</c>

01:28:08.084 --> 01:28:08.094 align:start position:0%
The other major theory was first
 

01:28:08.094 --> 01:28:11.204 align:start position:0%
The other major theory was first
proposed<01:29:12.320><c> in</c><01:29:12.560><c> the</c><01:29:12.719><c> 1960s</c><01:29:14.080><c> and</c><01:29:14.400><c> brings</c><01:29:14.719><c> us</c><01:29:14.880><c> to</c>

01:28:11.204 --> 01:28:11.214 align:start position:0%
proposed in the 1960s and brings us to
 

01:28:11.214 --> 01:28:15.124 align:start position:0%
proposed in the 1960s and brings us to
the<01:29:15.280><c> next</c><01:29:15.600><c> point</c><01:29:15.920><c> on</c><01:29:16.239><c> our</c><01:29:16.560><c> ice</c><01:29:16.880><c> age</c><01:29:17.360><c> journey.</c>

01:28:15.124 --> 01:28:15.134 align:start position:0%
the next point on our ice age journey.
 

01:28:15.134 --> 01:28:20.803 align:start position:0%
the next point on our ice age journey.
Humans

01:28:20.803 --> 01:28:20.813 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:28:20.813 --> 01:28:23.444 align:start position:0%
 
for<01:29:24.880><c> the</c><01:29:25.120><c> first</c><01:29:25.679><c> time</c><01:29:26.080><c> ever</c><01:29:26.719><c> during</c><01:29:27.040><c> their</c>

01:28:23.444 --> 01:28:23.454 align:start position:0%
for the first time ever during their
 

01:28:23.454 --> 01:28:25.843 align:start position:0%
for the first time ever during their
visits<01:29:27.600><c> to</c><01:29:27.760><c> Earth,</c><01:29:28.480><c> our</c><01:29:28.880><c> timetraveling</c>

01:28:25.843 --> 01:28:25.853 align:start position:0%
visits to Earth, our timetraveling
 

01:28:25.853 --> 01:28:29.044 align:start position:0%
visits to Earth, our timetraveling
aliens<01:29:30.159><c> are</c><01:29:30.400><c> gazing</c><01:29:30.880><c> down</c><01:29:31.520><c> on</c><01:29:31.840><c> our</c><01:29:32.159><c> very</c><01:29:32.560><c> own</c>

01:28:29.044 --> 01:28:29.054 align:start position:0%
aliens are gazing down on our very own
 

01:28:29.054 --> 01:28:31.843 align:start position:0%
aliens are gazing down on our very own
ancestors.

01:28:31.843 --> 01:28:31.853 align:start position:0%
ancestors.
 

01:28:31.853 --> 01:28:35.204 align:start position:0%
ancestors.
Homo<01:29:36.080><c> sapiens</c><01:29:36.639><c> evolved</c><01:29:37.120><c> around</c><01:29:37.760><c> 300,000</c>

01:28:35.204 --> 01:28:35.214 align:start position:0%
Homo sapiens evolved around 300,000
 

01:28:35.214 --> 01:28:38.084 align:start position:0%
Homo sapiens evolved around 300,000
years<01:29:39.280><c> ago,</c><01:29:40.080><c> migrating</c><01:29:40.639><c> out</c><01:29:40.880><c> of</c><01:29:41.040><c> Africa</c><01:29:41.679><c> to</c>

01:28:38.084 --> 01:28:38.094 align:start position:0%
years ago, migrating out of Africa to
 

01:28:38.094 --> 01:28:41.924 align:start position:0%
years ago, migrating out of Africa to
colonize<01:29:42.560><c> regions</c><01:29:43.280><c> around</c><01:29:43.679><c> the</c><01:29:43.920><c> globe.</c>

01:28:41.924 --> 01:28:41.934 align:start position:0%
colonize regions around the globe.
 

01:28:41.934 --> 01:28:44.004 align:start position:0%
colonize regions around the globe.
This<01:29:46.000><c> means</c><01:29:46.400><c> they've</c><01:29:46.800><c> lived</c><01:29:47.120><c> through</c><01:29:47.360><c> a</c><01:29:47.600><c> fair</c>

01:28:44.004 --> 01:28:44.014 align:start position:0%
This means they've lived through a fair
 

01:28:44.014 --> 01:28:46.403 align:start position:0%
This means they've lived through a fair
chunk<01:29:48.080><c> of</c><01:29:48.159><c> the</c><01:29:48.320><c> plea</c><01:29:48.800><c> scene</c><01:29:49.360><c> and</c><01:29:49.679><c> shared</c><01:29:50.000><c> the</c>

01:28:46.403 --> 01:28:46.413 align:start position:0%
chunk of the plea scene and shared the
 

01:28:46.413 --> 01:28:48.564 align:start position:0%
chunk of the plea scene and shared the
land<01:29:50.400><c> with</c><01:29:50.639><c> other</c><01:29:51.040><c> ice</c><01:29:51.360><c> age</c><01:29:51.679><c> creatures</c><01:29:52.080><c> of</c><01:29:52.239><c> the</c>

01:28:48.564 --> 01:28:48.574 align:start position:0%
land with other ice age creatures of the
 

01:28:48.574 --> 01:28:50.724 align:start position:0%
land with other ice age creatures of the
time.

01:28:50.724 --> 01:28:50.734 align:start position:0%
time.
 

01:28:50.734 --> 01:28:53.684 align:start position:0%
time.
So<01:29:54.880><c> much</c><01:29:55.120><c> so</c><01:29:55.600><c> the</c><01:29:55.840><c> paleontologists</c><01:29:56.960><c> and</c><01:29:57.280><c> our</c>

01:28:53.684 --> 01:28:53.694 align:start position:0%
So much so the paleontologists and our
 

01:28:53.694 --> 01:28:56.803 align:start position:0%
So much so the paleontologists and our
aliens<01:29:58.480><c> are</c><01:29:58.800><c> wondering</c><01:29:59.280><c> whether</c><01:29:59.679><c> we</c><01:30:00.320><c> were</c>

01:28:56.803 --> 01:28:56.813 align:start position:0%
aliens are wondering whether we were
 

01:28:56.813 --> 01:28:58.883 align:start position:0%
aliens are wondering whether we were
responsible<01:30:01.280><c> for</c><01:30:01.520><c> the</c><01:30:01.760><c> mega</c><01:30:02.239><c> fauna</c>

01:28:58.883 --> 01:28:58.893 align:start position:0%
responsible for the mega fauna
 

01:28:58.893 --> 01:29:00.964 align:start position:0%
responsible for the mega fauna
extinctions<01:30:03.520><c> at</c><01:30:03.760><c> the</c><01:30:03.920><c> end</c><01:30:04.080><c> of</c><01:30:04.159><c> the</c><01:30:04.320><c> plea</c>

01:29:00.964 --> 01:29:00.974 align:start position:0%
extinctions at the end of the plea
 

01:29:00.974 --> 01:29:02.964 align:start position:0%
extinctions at the end of the plea
scene.

01:29:02.964 --> 01:29:02.974 align:start position:0%
scene.
 

01:29:02.974 --> 01:29:06.244 align:start position:0%
scene.
Could<01:30:07.199><c> this</c><01:30:07.520><c> be</c><01:30:07.760><c> true?</c><01:30:08.719><c> Could</c><01:30:09.040><c> we</c><01:30:09.360><c> have</c><01:30:09.679><c> taken</c>

01:29:06.244 --> 01:29:06.254 align:start position:0%
Could this be true? Could we have taken
 

01:29:06.254 --> 01:29:08.964 align:start position:0%
Could this be true? Could we have taken
on<01:30:10.560><c> great</c><01:30:10.880><c> woolly</c><01:30:11.280><c> mammoths</c><01:30:12.000><c> and</c><01:30:12.320><c> giant</c>

01:29:08.964 --> 01:29:08.974 align:start position:0%
on great woolly mammoths and giant
 

01:29:08.974 --> 01:29:12.564 align:start position:0%
on great woolly mammoths and giant
ground<01:30:13.120><c> sloths</c><01:30:13.679><c> and</c><01:30:14.159><c> won?</c><01:30:15.600><c> To</c><01:30:15.840><c> answer</c><01:30:16.080><c> these</c>

01:29:12.564 --> 01:29:12.574 align:start position:0%
ground sloths and won? To answer these
 

01:29:12.574 --> 01:29:14.883 align:start position:0%
ground sloths and won? To answer these
questions,<01:30:17.199><c> the</c><01:30:17.440><c> aliens</c><01:30:17.920><c> are</c><01:30:18.159><c> taking</c><01:30:18.480><c> a</c>

01:29:14.883 --> 01:29:14.893 align:start position:0%
questions, the aliens are taking a
 

01:29:14.893 --> 01:29:19.924 align:start position:0%
questions, the aliens are taking a
closer<01:30:19.120><c> look</c><01:30:19.440><c> at</c><01:30:19.679><c> our</c><01:30:20.080><c> ancestors</c><01:30:20.639><c> of</c><01:30:20.880><c> old.</c>

01:29:19.924 --> 01:29:19.934 align:start position:0%
closer look at our ancestors of old.
 

01:29:19.934 --> 01:29:23.044 align:start position:0%
closer look at our ancestors of old.
They<01:30:24.080><c> may</c><01:30:24.320><c> have</c><01:30:24.560><c> evolved</c><01:30:25.120><c> 300,000</c><01:30:25.920><c> years</c><01:30:26.080><c> ago,</c>

01:29:23.044 --> 01:29:23.054 align:start position:0%
They may have evolved 300,000 years ago,
 

01:29:23.054 --> 01:29:25.843 align:start position:0%
They may have evolved 300,000 years ago,
but<01:30:27.040><c> it</c><01:30:27.280><c> wasn't</c><01:30:27.520><c> until</c><01:30:27.840><c> the</c><01:30:28.080><c> late</c><01:30:28.400><c> Paleolithic</c>

01:29:25.843 --> 01:29:25.853 align:start position:0%
but it wasn't until the late Paleolithic
 

01:29:25.853 --> 01:29:29.124 align:start position:0%
but it wasn't until the late Paleolithic
or<01:30:30.080><c> between</c><01:30:30.639><c> 50,000</c><01:30:31.280><c> and</c><01:30:31.600><c> 10,000</c><01:30:32.159><c> years</c><01:30:32.320><c> ago</c>

01:29:29.124 --> 01:29:29.134 align:start position:0%
or between 50,000 and 10,000 years ago
 

01:29:29.134 --> 01:29:32.323 align:start position:0%
or between 50,000 and 10,000 years ago
that<01:30:33.360><c> Homo</c><01:30:33.840><c> sapiens</c><01:30:34.719><c> started</c><01:30:35.120><c> to</c><01:30:35.360><c> experience</c>

01:29:32.323 --> 01:29:32.333 align:start position:0%
that Homo sapiens started to experience
 

01:29:32.333 --> 01:29:35.684 align:start position:0%
that Homo sapiens started to experience
real<01:30:36.639><c> cultural</c><01:30:37.199><c> development.</c>

01:29:35.684 --> 01:29:35.694 align:start position:0%
real cultural development.
 

01:29:35.694 --> 01:29:38.403 align:start position:0%
real cultural development.
Hunter<01:30:40.000><c> gatherer</c><01:30:40.400><c> culture</c><01:30:40.800><c> was</c><01:30:41.040><c> at</c><01:30:41.280><c> its</c><01:30:41.600><c> peak</c>

01:29:38.403 --> 01:29:38.413 align:start position:0%
Hunter gatherer culture was at its peak
 

01:29:38.413 --> 01:29:40.564 align:start position:0%
Hunter gatherer culture was at its peak
and<01:30:42.560><c> human</c><01:30:42.880><c> burial</c><01:30:43.360><c> practices</c><01:30:43.920><c> started</c><01:30:44.239><c> to</c>

01:29:40.564 --> 01:29:40.574 align:start position:0%
and human burial practices started to
 

01:29:40.574 --> 01:29:42.323 align:start position:0%
and human burial practices started to
spread<01:30:44.800><c> between</c><01:30:45.199><c> multiple</c><01:30:45.760><c> human</c>

01:29:42.323 --> 01:29:42.333 align:start position:0%
spread between multiple human
 

01:29:42.333 --> 01:29:45.124 align:start position:0%
spread between multiple human
populations.<01:30:47.440><c> So</c><01:30:47.679><c> the</c><01:30:47.840><c> paleoonlogical</c>

01:29:45.124 --> 01:29:45.134 align:start position:0%
populations. So the paleoonlogical
 

01:29:45.134 --> 01:29:47.204 align:start position:0%
populations. So the paleoonlogical
relics<01:30:49.360><c> from</c><01:30:49.600><c> this</c><01:30:49.760><c> time</c><01:30:50.000><c> period</c><01:30:50.639><c> are</c>

01:29:47.204 --> 01:29:47.214 align:start position:0%
relics from this time period are
 

01:29:47.214 --> 01:29:49.843 align:start position:0%
relics from this time period are
unusually<01:30:51.760><c> good.</c>

01:29:49.843 --> 01:29:49.853 align:start position:0%
unusually good.
 

01:29:49.853 --> 01:29:52.883 align:start position:0%
unusually good.
We<01:30:53.920><c> started</c><01:30:54.239><c> to</c><01:30:54.480><c> use</c><01:30:54.880><c> more</c><01:30:55.199><c> diverse</c><01:30:55.679><c> tools,</c>

01:29:52.883 --> 01:29:52.893 align:start position:0%
We started to use more diverse tools,
 

01:29:52.893 --> 01:29:55.684 align:start position:0%
We started to use more diverse tools,
made<01:30:57.120><c> personal</c><01:30:57.600><c> decorations</c><01:30:58.239><c> like</c><01:30:58.480><c> pendants,</c>

01:29:55.684 --> 01:29:55.694 align:start position:0%
made personal decorations like pendants,
 

01:29:55.694 --> 01:29:58.084 align:start position:0%
made personal decorations like pendants,
and<01:30:59.760><c> invested</c><01:31:00.320><c> more</c><01:31:00.639><c> energy</c><01:31:01.120><c> in</c><01:31:01.440><c> activities</c>

01:29:58.084 --> 01:29:58.094 align:start position:0%
and invested more energy in activities
 

01:29:58.094 --> 01:30:01.204 align:start position:0%
and invested more energy in activities
that<01:31:02.239><c> went</c><01:31:02.480><c> beyond</c><01:31:03.120><c> just</c><01:31:03.440><c> surviving.</c>

01:30:01.204 --> 01:30:01.214 align:start position:0%
that went beyond just surviving.
 

01:30:01.214 --> 01:30:03.604 align:start position:0%
that went beyond just surviving.
For<01:31:05.199><c> example,</c><01:31:06.080><c> cave</c><01:31:06.400><c> art</c><01:31:06.719><c> was</c><01:31:06.880><c> used</c><01:31:07.120><c> as</c><01:31:07.280><c> an</c>

01:30:03.604 --> 01:30:03.614 align:start position:0%
For example, cave art was used as an
 

01:30:03.614 --> 01:30:05.444 align:start position:0%
For example, cave art was used as an
outlet<01:31:07.760><c> for</c><01:31:07.920><c> humans</c><01:31:08.239><c> to</c><01:31:08.400><c> interpret</c><01:31:08.880><c> the</c><01:31:09.040><c> world</c>

01:30:05.444 --> 01:30:05.454 align:start position:0%
outlet for humans to interpret the world
 

01:30:05.454 --> 01:30:08.084 align:start position:0%
outlet for humans to interpret the world
around<01:31:09.600><c> them.</c><01:31:10.400><c> And</c><01:31:10.560><c> many</c><01:31:10.880><c> of</c><01:31:10.960><c> the</c><01:31:11.199><c> images</c><01:31:11.600><c> they</c>

01:30:08.084 --> 01:30:08.094 align:start position:0%
around them. And many of the images they
 

01:30:08.094 --> 01:30:11.924 align:start position:0%
around them. And many of the images they
created<01:31:12.639><c> can</c><01:31:12.880><c> still</c><01:31:13.199><c> be</c><01:31:13.440><c> seen</c><01:31:13.760><c> today.</c>

01:30:11.924 --> 01:30:11.934 align:start position:0%
created can still be seen today.
 

01:30:11.934 --> 01:30:14.164 align:start position:0%
created can still be seen today.
One<01:31:16.000><c> of</c><01:31:16.080><c> the</c><01:31:16.239><c> most</c><01:31:16.480><c> impressive</c><01:31:17.280><c> described</c><01:31:17.760><c> as</c>

01:30:14.164 --> 01:30:14.174 align:start position:0%
One of the most impressive described as
 

01:30:14.174 --> 01:30:16.964 align:start position:0%
One of the most impressive described as
the<01:31:18.320><c> cyine</c><01:31:18.960><c> chapel</c><01:31:19.360><c> of</c><01:31:19.520><c> prehistory</c><01:31:20.560><c> was</c>

01:30:16.964 --> 01:30:16.974 align:start position:0%
the cyine chapel of prehistory was
 

01:30:16.974 --> 01:30:20.403 align:start position:0%
the cyine chapel of prehistory was
discovered<01:31:21.360><c> in</c><01:31:21.679><c> Leco</c><01:31:22.239><c> Cave</c><01:31:22.880><c> in</c><01:31:23.360><c> Montgy,</c>

01:30:20.403 --> 01:30:20.413 align:start position:0%
discovered in Leco Cave in Montgy,
 

01:30:20.413 --> 01:30:22.724 align:start position:0%
discovered in Leco Cave in Montgy,
France.

01:30:22.724 --> 01:30:22.734 align:start position:0%
France.
 

01:30:22.734 --> 01:30:26.964 align:start position:0%
France.
In<01:31:26.880><c> just</c><01:31:27.120><c> a</c><01:31:27.440><c> small</c><01:31:27.840><c> cave,</c><01:31:28.719><c> over</c><01:31:29.120><c> 500</c><01:31:29.920><c> painted</c>

01:30:26.964 --> 01:30:26.974 align:start position:0%
In just a small cave, over 500 painted
 

01:30:26.974 --> 01:30:30.644 align:start position:0%
In just a small cave, over 500 painted
and<01:31:31.280><c> 1,500</c><01:31:32.719><c> engraved</c><01:31:33.440><c> images</c><01:31:34.000><c> have</c><01:31:34.239><c> been</c>

01:30:30.644 --> 01:30:30.654 align:start position:0%
and 1,500 engraved images have been
 

01:30:30.654 --> 01:30:34.244 align:start position:0%
and 1,500 engraved images have been
found<01:31:35.120><c> that</c><01:31:35.360><c> were</c><01:31:35.600><c> created</c><01:31:36.159><c> up</c><01:31:36.320><c> to</c><01:31:36.560><c> 22,000</c>

01:30:34.244 --> 01:30:34.254 align:start position:0%
found that were created up to 22,000
 

01:30:34.254 --> 01:30:36.724 align:start position:0%
found that were created up to 22,000
years<01:31:38.320><c> ago.</c>

01:30:36.724 --> 01:30:36.734 align:start position:0%
years ago.
 

01:30:36.734 --> 01:30:38.724 align:start position:0%
years ago.
From<01:31:40.880><c> these</c><01:31:41.199><c> images,</c><01:31:41.600><c> you</c><01:31:41.840><c> can</c><01:31:42.000><c> see</c><01:31:42.239><c> that</c>

01:30:38.724 --> 01:30:38.734 align:start position:0%
From these images, you can see that
 

01:30:38.734 --> 01:30:41.604 align:start position:0%
From these images, you can see that
aspiring<01:31:43.120><c> human</c><01:31:43.520><c> artists</c><01:31:44.320><c> mostly</c><01:31:44.719><c> focused</c><01:31:45.120><c> on</c>

01:30:41.604 --> 01:30:41.614 align:start position:0%
aspiring human artists mostly focused on
 

01:30:41.614 --> 01:30:44.004 align:start position:0%
aspiring human artists mostly focused on
animal<01:31:45.840><c> subjects,</c><01:31:46.639><c> perhaps</c><01:31:47.040><c> as</c><01:31:47.280><c> a</c><01:31:47.440><c> testament</c>

01:30:44.004 --> 01:30:44.014 align:start position:0%
animal subjects, perhaps as a testament
 

01:30:44.014 --> 01:30:46.724 align:start position:0%
animal subjects, perhaps as a testament
to<01:31:48.000><c> their</c><01:31:48.320><c> hunter</c><01:31:48.800><c> culture</c><01:31:49.600><c> or</c><01:31:49.920><c> their</c><01:31:50.159><c> close</c>

01:30:46.724 --> 01:30:46.734 align:start position:0%
to their hunter culture or their close
 

01:30:46.734 --> 01:30:49.684 align:start position:0%
to their hunter culture or their close
relationship<01:31:51.120><c> with</c><01:31:51.360><c> wildlife.</c><01:31:52.560><c> Either</c><01:31:52.960><c> way,</c>

01:30:49.684 --> 01:30:49.694 align:start position:0%
relationship with wildlife. Either way,
 

01:30:49.694 --> 01:30:51.924 align:start position:0%
relationship with wildlife. Either way,
we<01:31:53.760><c> know</c><01:31:54.000><c> our</c><01:31:54.320><c> ancestors</c><01:31:54.960><c> were</c><01:31:55.199><c> aware</c><01:31:55.440><c> of</c><01:31:55.600><c> the</c>

01:30:51.924 --> 01:30:51.934 align:start position:0%
we know our ancestors were aware of the
 

01:30:51.934 --> 01:30:54.964 align:start position:0%
we know our ancestors were aware of the
ice<01:31:56.080><c> age</c><01:31:56.320><c> megapora</c><01:31:57.040><c> around</c><01:31:57.280><c> them,</c><01:31:58.000><c> but</c><01:31:58.480><c> were</c>

01:30:54.964 --> 01:30:54.974 align:start position:0%
ice age megapora around them, but were
 

01:30:54.974 --> 01:31:01.044 align:start position:0%
ice age megapora around them, but were
they<01:31:59.040><c> capable</c><01:31:59.440><c> of</c><01:31:59.760><c> driving</c><01:32:00.159><c> them</c><01:32:00.639><c> extinct?</c>

01:31:01.044 --> 01:31:01.054 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:31:01.054 --> 01:31:02.323 align:start position:0%
 
We've<01:32:05.280><c> talked</c><01:32:05.520><c> about</c><01:32:05.679><c> the</c><01:32:05.840><c> rapid</c>

01:31:02.323 --> 01:31:02.333 align:start position:0%
We've talked about the rapid
 

01:31:02.333 --> 01:31:04.244 align:start position:0%
We've talked about the rapid
improvements<01:32:06.639><c> to</c><01:32:06.880><c> tools</c><01:32:07.360><c> during</c><01:32:07.679><c> the</c><01:32:07.840><c> late</c>

01:31:04.244 --> 01:31:04.254 align:start position:0%
improvements to tools during the late
 

01:31:04.254 --> 01:31:06.803 align:start position:0%
improvements to tools during the late
Paleolithic,<01:32:09.360><c> and</c><01:32:09.679><c> this</c><01:32:09.920><c> would</c><01:32:10.239><c> have</c>

01:31:06.803 --> 01:31:06.813 align:start position:0%
Paleolithic, and this would have
 

01:31:06.813 --> 01:31:09.764 align:start position:0%
Paleolithic, and this would have
massively<01:32:11.280><c> improved</c><01:32:11.760><c> our</c><01:32:12.080><c> ability</c><01:32:12.320><c> to</c><01:32:12.560><c> hunt.</c>

01:31:09.764 --> 01:31:09.774 align:start position:0%
massively improved our ability to hunt.
 

01:31:09.774 --> 01:31:12.564 align:start position:0%
massively improved our ability to hunt.
One<01:32:14.000><c> brave</c><01:32:14.400><c> homo</c><01:32:14.800><c> sapiion</c><01:32:15.360><c> versus</c><01:32:15.760><c> a</c><01:32:16.000><c> woolly</c>

01:31:12.564 --> 01:31:12.574 align:start position:0%
One brave homo sapiion versus a woolly
 

01:31:12.574 --> 01:31:16.084 align:start position:0%
One brave homo sapiion versus a woolly
mammoth<01:32:17.120><c> is</c><01:32:17.440><c> unlikely</c><01:32:17.920><c> to</c><01:32:18.080><c> end</c><01:32:18.320><c> well.</c><01:32:19.360><c> But</c><01:32:19.600><c> a</c>

01:31:16.084 --> 01:31:16.094 align:start position:0%
mammoth is unlikely to end well. But a
 

01:31:16.094 --> 01:31:18.484 align:start position:0%
mammoth is unlikely to end well. But a
whole<01:32:20.159><c> group</c><01:32:20.480><c> of</c><01:32:20.639><c> them</c><01:32:21.120><c> armed</c><01:32:21.520><c> with</c><01:32:21.760><c> sharpened</c>

01:31:18.484 --> 01:31:18.494 align:start position:0%
whole group of them armed with sharpened
 

01:31:18.494 --> 01:31:21.604 align:start position:0%
whole group of them armed with sharpened
spears<01:32:22.639><c> that</c><01:32:22.880><c> can</c><01:32:23.040><c> throw</c><01:32:23.280><c> them</c><01:32:23.520><c> up</c><01:32:23.760><c> to</c><01:32:24.000><c> 40</c><01:32:24.320><c> m,</c>

01:31:21.604 --> 01:31:21.614 align:start position:0%
spears that can throw them up to 40 m,
 

01:31:21.614 --> 01:31:25.444 align:start position:0%
spears that can throw them up to 40 m,
that<01:32:25.760><c> creates</c><01:32:26.159><c> a</c><01:32:26.400><c> more</c><01:32:26.639><c> even</c><01:32:27.040><c> playing</c><01:32:27.280><c> field.</c>

01:31:25.444 --> 01:31:25.454 align:start position:0%
that creates a more even playing field.
 

01:31:25.454 --> 01:31:27.363 align:start position:0%
that creates a more even playing field.
One<01:32:29.679><c> particularly</c><01:32:30.400><c> skilled</c><01:32:30.800><c> group</c><01:32:30.960><c> of</c>

01:31:27.363 --> 01:31:27.373 align:start position:0%
One particularly skilled group of
 

01:31:27.373 --> 01:31:29.843 align:start position:0%
One particularly skilled group of
hunters<01:32:31.600><c> were</c><01:32:31.920><c> the</c><01:32:32.159><c> Clovis,</c><01:32:33.040><c> the</c><01:32:33.280><c> ancient</c>

01:31:29.843 --> 01:31:29.853 align:start position:0%
hunters were the Clovis, the ancient
 

01:31:29.853 --> 01:31:32.564 align:start position:0%
hunters were the Clovis, the ancient
ancestors<01:32:34.320><c> of</c><01:32:34.639><c> Native</c><01:32:35.040><c> Americans</c><01:32:35.840><c> who</c><01:32:36.080><c> had</c>

01:31:32.564 --> 01:31:32.574 align:start position:0%
ancestors of Native Americans who had
 

01:31:32.574 --> 01:31:34.883 align:start position:0%
ancestors of Native Americans who had
distinctively<01:32:37.120><c> shaped</c><01:32:37.520><c> spearheads</c><01:32:38.239><c> or</c>

01:31:34.883 --> 01:31:34.893 align:start position:0%
distinctively shaped spearheads or
 

01:31:34.893 --> 01:31:37.924 align:start position:0%
distinctively shaped spearheads or
clovis<01:32:39.280><c> points.</c><01:32:40.320><c> The</c><01:32:40.560><c> fine</c><01:32:40.880><c> craftsmanship</c><01:32:41.600><c> of</c>

01:31:37.924 --> 01:31:37.934 align:start position:0%
clovis points. The fine craftsmanship of
 

01:31:37.934 --> 01:31:39.684 align:start position:0%
clovis points. The fine craftsmanship of
these<01:32:42.000><c> weapons</c><01:32:42.480><c> suggested</c><01:32:42.960><c> that</c><01:32:43.120><c> these</c>

01:31:39.684 --> 01:31:39.694 align:start position:0%
these weapons suggested that these
 

01:31:39.694 --> 01:31:42.564 align:start position:0%
these weapons suggested that these
people<01:32:43.840><c> were</c><01:32:44.239><c> expert</c><01:32:44.719><c> hunters</c><01:32:45.679><c> capable</c><01:32:46.080><c> of</c>

01:31:42.564 --> 01:31:42.574 align:start position:0%
people were expert hunters capable of
 

01:31:42.574 --> 01:31:44.724 align:start position:0%
people were expert hunters capable of
taking<01:32:46.639><c> on</c><01:32:46.880><c> the</c><01:32:47.040><c> local</c><01:32:47.360><c> megaporna</c><01:32:48.080><c> of</c><01:32:48.320><c> North</c>

01:31:44.724 --> 01:31:44.734 align:start position:0%
taking on the local megaporna of North
 

01:31:44.734 --> 01:31:47.444 align:start position:0%
taking on the local megaporna of North
America<01:32:49.040><c> where</c><01:32:49.199><c> they</c><01:32:49.360><c> lived.</c><01:32:50.639><c> Another</c><01:32:51.040><c> point</c>

01:31:47.444 --> 01:31:47.454 align:start position:0%
America where they lived. Another point
 

01:31:47.454 --> 01:31:50.323 align:start position:0%
America where they lived. Another point
of<01:32:51.440><c> contention</c><01:32:51.920><c> was</c><01:32:52.159><c> the</c><01:32:52.400><c> fact</c><01:32:52.639><c> that</c><01:32:53.440><c> within</c><01:32:53.840><c> a</c>

01:31:50.323 --> 01:31:50.333 align:start position:0%
of contention was the fact that within a
 

01:31:50.333 --> 01:31:52.244 align:start position:0%
of contention was the fact that within a
few<01:32:54.320><c> thousand</c><01:32:54.800><c> years</c><01:32:55.040><c> of</c><01:32:55.199><c> the</c><01:32:55.360><c> Clovis</c><01:32:55.840><c> people</c>

01:31:52.244 --> 01:31:52.254 align:start position:0%
few thousand years of the Clovis people
 

01:31:52.254 --> 01:31:54.564 align:start position:0%
few thousand years of the Clovis people
arriving<01:32:56.560><c> in</c><01:32:56.800><c> North</c><01:32:57.040><c> America</c><01:32:57.600><c> and</c><01:32:58.000><c> spreading</c>

01:31:54.564 --> 01:31:54.574 align:start position:0%
arriving in North America and spreading
 

01:31:54.574 --> 01:31:57.764 align:start position:0%
arriving in North America and spreading
across<01:32:58.719><c> the</c><01:32:58.960><c> region,</c><01:33:00.080><c> the</c><01:33:00.239><c> megapora</c><01:33:01.120><c> had</c><01:33:01.360><c> gone</c>

01:31:57.764 --> 01:31:57.774 align:start position:0%
across the region, the megapora had gone
 

01:31:57.774 --> 01:32:01.044 align:start position:0%
across the region, the megapora had gone
extinct.<01:33:03.040><c> So,</c><01:33:03.360><c> we</c><01:33:03.679><c> have</c><01:33:03.840><c> to</c><01:33:04.159><c> wonder</c><01:33:04.560><c> whether</c>

01:32:01.044 --> 01:32:01.054 align:start position:0%
extinct. So, we have to wonder whether
 

01:32:01.054 --> 01:32:04.244 align:start position:0%
extinct. So, we have to wonder whether
it<01:33:05.199><c> was</c><01:33:05.360><c> the</c><01:33:05.679><c> intense</c><01:33:06.320><c> Clovis</c><01:33:06.880><c> predation</c><01:33:07.760><c> that</c>

01:32:04.244 --> 01:32:04.254 align:start position:0%
it was the intense Clovis predation that
 

01:32:04.254 --> 01:32:06.164 align:start position:0%
it was the intense Clovis predation that
led<01:33:08.480><c> the</c><01:33:08.719><c> last</c><01:33:09.040><c> populations</c><01:33:09.520><c> of</c><01:33:09.679><c> these</c>

01:32:06.164 --> 01:32:06.174 align:start position:0%
led the last populations of these
 

01:32:06.174 --> 01:32:09.284 align:start position:0%
led the last populations of these
animals<01:33:10.320><c> to</c><01:33:10.560><c> collapse.</c><01:33:11.679><c> Either</c><01:33:12.080><c> that</c><01:33:12.639><c> or</c><01:33:12.960><c> the</c>

01:32:09.284 --> 01:32:09.294 align:start position:0%
animals to collapse. Either that or the
 

01:32:09.294 --> 01:32:12.644 align:start position:0%
animals to collapse. Either that or the
timing<01:33:13.520><c> is</c><01:33:13.760><c> a</c><01:33:14.080><c> pretty</c><01:33:14.400><c> big</c><01:33:14.719><c> coincidence.</c>

01:32:12.644 --> 01:32:12.654 align:start position:0%
timing is a pretty big coincidence.
 

01:32:12.654 --> 01:32:15.444 align:start position:0%
timing is a pretty big coincidence.
A<01:33:16.719><c> 2024</c><01:33:17.600><c> study</c><01:33:17.920><c> sought</c><01:33:18.239><c> to</c><01:33:18.480><c> investigate</c><01:33:18.960><c> this</c>

01:32:15.444 --> 01:32:15.454 align:start position:0%
A 2024 study sought to investigate this
 

01:32:15.454 --> 01:32:17.924 align:start position:0%
A 2024 study sought to investigate this
by<01:33:19.520><c> analyzing</c><01:33:20.159><c> the</c><01:33:20.480><c> only</c><01:33:20.800><c> known</c><01:33:21.199><c> Clovis</c>

01:32:17.924 --> 01:32:17.934 align:start position:0%
by analyzing the only known Clovis
 

01:32:17.934 --> 01:32:20.803 align:start position:0%
by analyzing the only known Clovis
individual,<01:33:22.639><c> the</c><01:33:22.880><c> 18-month-old</c><01:33:24.000><c> Ansik</c>

01:32:20.803 --> 01:32:20.813 align:start position:0%
individual, the 18-month-old Ansik
 

01:32:20.813 --> 01:32:23.363 align:start position:0%
individual, the 18-month-old Ansik
child,<01:33:25.520><c> which</c><01:33:25.840><c> was</c><01:33:26.159><c> first</c><01:33:26.560><c> discovered</c><01:33:26.960><c> in</c>

01:32:23.363 --> 01:32:23.373 align:start position:0%
child, which was first discovered in
 

01:32:23.373 --> 01:32:26.724 align:start position:0%
child, which was first discovered in
1968<01:33:28.000><c> in</c><01:33:28.239><c> western</c><01:33:28.639><c> Montana.</c>

01:32:26.724 --> 01:32:26.734 align:start position:0%
1968 in western Montana.
 

01:32:26.734 --> 01:32:28.644 align:start position:0%
1968 in western Montana.
The<01:33:30.800><c> bones</c><01:33:31.120><c> of</c><01:33:31.199><c> the</c><01:33:31.360><c> child</c><01:33:31.600><c> are</c><01:33:31.840><c> thought</c><01:33:32.080><c> to</c><01:33:32.239><c> be</c>

01:32:28.644 --> 01:32:28.654 align:start position:0%
The bones of the child are thought to be
 

01:32:28.654 --> 01:32:32.244 align:start position:0%
The bones of the child are thought to be
12,700<01:33:33.760><c> years</c><01:33:34.000><c> old,</c><01:33:34.639><c> and</c><01:33:34.880><c> a</c><01:33:35.120><c> stable</c><01:33:35.520><c> isotope</c>

01:32:32.244 --> 01:32:32.254 align:start position:0%
12,700 years old, and a stable isotope
 

01:32:32.254 --> 01:32:34.403 align:start position:0%
12,700 years old, and a stable isotope
analysis<01:33:36.639><c> was</c><01:33:36.880><c> used</c><01:33:37.120><c> to</c><01:33:37.280><c> create</c><01:33:37.600><c> the</c><01:33:37.840><c> protein</c>

01:32:34.403 --> 01:32:34.413 align:start position:0%
analysis was used to create the protein
 

01:32:34.413 --> 01:32:36.883 align:start position:0%
analysis was used to create the protein
diet<01:33:38.560><c> of</c><01:33:38.719><c> its</c><01:33:38.960><c> mother.</c><01:33:39.920><c> Researchers</c><01:33:40.480><c> found</c>

01:32:36.883 --> 01:32:36.893 align:start position:0%
diet of its mother. Researchers found
 

01:32:36.893 --> 01:32:40.644 align:start position:0%
diet of its mother. Researchers found
that<01:33:41.040><c> mammoth</c><01:33:41.679><c> contributed</c><01:33:42.400><c> around</c><01:33:43.120><c> 40%</c><01:33:44.239><c> to</c>

01:32:40.644 --> 01:32:40.654 align:start position:0%
that mammoth contributed around 40% to
 

01:32:40.654 --> 01:32:42.803 align:start position:0%
that mammoth contributed around 40% to
the<01:33:44.639><c> maternal</c><01:33:45.120><c> protein</c><01:33:45.520><c> diet</c><01:33:46.159><c> and</c><01:33:46.400><c> was</c>

01:32:42.803 --> 01:32:42.813 align:start position:0%
the maternal protein diet and was
 

01:32:42.813 --> 01:32:44.724 align:start position:0%
the maternal protein diet and was
similar<01:33:46.960><c> to</c><01:33:47.120><c> the</c><01:33:47.280><c> diet</c><01:33:47.600><c> of</c><01:33:47.760><c> a</c><01:33:48.000><c> mammoth</c>

01:32:44.724 --> 01:32:44.734 align:start position:0%
similar to the diet of a mammoth
 

01:32:44.734 --> 01:32:48.403 align:start position:0%
similar to the diet of a mammoth
specialist<01:33:49.120><c> predator,</c><01:33:49.840><c> the</c><01:33:50.000><c> scimitar</c><01:33:50.639><c> cat.</c>

01:32:48.403 --> 01:32:48.413 align:start position:0%
specialist predator, the scimitar cat.
 

01:32:48.413 --> 01:32:50.084 align:start position:0%
specialist predator, the scimitar cat.
This<01:33:52.560><c> lends</c><01:33:52.960><c> support</c><01:33:53.280><c> to</c><01:33:53.440><c> the</c><01:33:53.520><c> theory</c><01:33:53.760><c> that</c>

01:32:50.084 --> 01:32:50.094 align:start position:0%
This lends support to the theory that
 

01:32:50.094 --> 01:32:52.244 align:start position:0%
This lends support to the theory that
the<01:33:54.080><c> Clovis</c><01:33:54.560><c> people</c><01:33:55.040><c> with</c><01:33:55.280><c> their</c><01:33:55.520><c> effective</c>

01:32:52.244 --> 01:32:52.254 align:start position:0%
the Clovis people with their effective
 

01:32:52.254 --> 01:32:54.244 align:start position:0%
the Clovis people with their effective
longer<01:33:56.560><c> distance</c><01:33:56.880><c> weapons</c><01:33:57.360><c> and</c><01:33:57.679><c> hunting</c>

01:32:54.244 --> 01:32:54.254 align:start position:0%
longer distance weapons and hunting
 

01:32:54.254 --> 01:32:56.564 align:start position:0%
longer distance weapons and hunting
strategies<01:33:59.040><c> were</c><01:33:59.280><c> at</c><01:33:59.280><c> least</c><01:33:59.760><c> partially</c>

01:32:56.564 --> 01:32:56.574 align:start position:0%
strategies were at least partially
 

01:32:56.574 --> 01:32:58.644 align:start position:0%
strategies were at least partially
responsible<01:34:00.960><c> for</c><01:34:01.199><c> the</c><01:34:01.440><c> rapid</c><01:34:01.760><c> megapora</c>

01:32:58.644 --> 01:32:58.654 align:start position:0%
responsible for the rapid megapora
 

01:32:58.654 --> 01:33:01.044 align:start position:0%
responsible for the rapid megapora
extinctions<01:34:02.960><c> in</c><01:34:03.199><c> North</c><01:34:03.360><c> America.</c>

01:33:01.044 --> 01:33:01.054 align:start position:0%
extinctions in North America.
 

01:33:01.054 --> 01:33:02.964 align:start position:0%
extinctions in North America.
However,<01:34:05.600><c> we're</c><01:34:05.920><c> still</c><01:34:06.159><c> lacking</c><01:34:06.560><c> in</c>

01:33:02.964 --> 01:33:02.974 align:start position:0%
However, we're still lacking in
 

01:33:02.974 --> 01:33:04.803 align:start position:0%
However, we're still lacking in
paleontological<01:34:07.920><c> remains</c><01:34:08.239><c> for</c><01:34:08.400><c> these</c>

01:33:04.803 --> 01:33:04.813 align:start position:0%
paleontological remains for these
 

01:33:04.813 --> 01:33:06.803 align:start position:0%
paleontological remains for these
people.<01:34:09.360><c> So,</c><01:34:09.600><c> we</c><01:34:09.840><c> can't</c><01:34:10.080><c> say</c><01:34:10.239><c> that</c><01:34:10.400><c> the</c>

01:33:06.803 --> 01:33:06.813 align:start position:0%
people. So, we can't say that the
 

01:33:06.813 --> 01:33:09.124 align:start position:0%
people. So, we can't say that the
conclusions<01:34:11.199><c> drawn</c><01:34:11.520><c> from</c><01:34:11.679><c> the</c><01:34:11.840><c> Ansik</c><01:34:12.400><c> child</c>

01:33:09.124 --> 01:33:09.134 align:start position:0%
conclusions drawn from the Ansik child
 

01:33:09.134 --> 01:33:11.044 align:start position:0%
conclusions drawn from the Ansik child
would<01:34:13.199><c> be</c><01:34:13.360><c> the</c><01:34:13.520><c> same</c><01:34:13.760><c> for</c><01:34:14.000><c> all</c><01:34:14.400><c> Clovis</c>

01:33:11.044 --> 01:33:11.054 align:start position:0%
would be the same for all Clovis
 

01:33:11.054 --> 01:33:14.004 align:start position:0%
would be the same for all Clovis
hunters.<01:34:16.159><c> But</c><01:34:16.480><c> if</c><01:34:16.719><c> this</c><01:34:16.960><c> evidence</c><01:34:17.440><c> is</c>

01:33:14.004 --> 01:33:14.014 align:start position:0%
hunters. But if this evidence is
 

01:33:14.014 --> 01:33:16.484 align:start position:0%
hunters. But if this evidence is
anything<01:34:18.159><c> to</c><01:34:18.400><c> go</c><01:34:18.560><c> by,</c><01:34:19.199><c> our</c><01:34:19.520><c> aliens</c><01:34:20.000><c> would</c><01:34:20.159><c> be</c>

01:33:16.484 --> 01:33:16.494 align:start position:0%
anything to go by, our aliens would be
 

01:33:16.494 --> 01:33:18.724 align:start position:0%
anything to go by, our aliens would be
right<01:34:20.639><c> to</c><01:34:20.960><c> want</c><01:34:21.199><c> to</c><01:34:21.360><c> keep</c><01:34:21.520><c> an</c><01:34:21.679><c> eye</c><01:34:22.000><c> on</c><01:34:22.239><c> the</c>

01:33:18.724 --> 01:33:18.734 align:start position:0%
right to want to keep an eye on the
 

01:33:18.734 --> 01:33:23.284 align:start position:0%
right to want to keep an eye on the
suspicious<01:34:23.280><c> activities</c><01:34:24.080><c> of</c><01:34:24.480><c> homo</c><01:34:24.960><c> sapiens.</c>

01:33:23.284 --> 01:33:23.294 align:start position:0%
suspicious activities of homo sapiens.
 

01:33:23.294 --> 01:33:26.164 align:start position:0%
suspicious activities of homo sapiens.
And<01:34:27.440><c> what</c><01:34:27.679><c> about</c><01:34:27.920><c> other</c><01:34:28.239><c> regions?</c><01:34:29.199><c> Megaporna</c>

01:33:26.164 --> 01:33:26.174 align:start position:0%
And what about other regions? Megaporna
 

01:33:26.174 --> 01:33:28.323 align:start position:0%
And what about other regions? Megaporna
suffered<01:34:30.320><c> heavy</c><01:34:30.719><c> extinctions</c><01:34:31.280><c> in</c><01:34:31.520><c> Australia,</c>

01:33:28.323 --> 01:33:28.333 align:start position:0%
suffered heavy extinctions in Australia,
 

01:33:28.333 --> 01:33:31.843 align:start position:0%
suffered heavy extinctions in Australia,
too.<01:34:33.199><c> Like</c><01:34:33.520><c> North</c><01:34:33.840><c> America,</c><01:34:34.560><c> Australia</c><01:34:35.199><c> lost</c>

01:33:31.843 --> 01:33:31.853 align:start position:0%
too. Like North America, Australia lost
 

01:33:31.853 --> 01:33:35.204 align:start position:0%
too. Like North America, Australia lost
85%<01:34:36.800><c> of</c><01:34:37.040><c> its</c><01:34:37.280><c> large</c><01:34:37.600><c> mammal</c><01:34:38.000><c> species.</c><01:34:38.800><c> Right</c>

01:33:35.204 --> 01:33:35.214 align:start position:0%
85% of its large mammal species. Right
 

01:33:35.214 --> 01:33:36.724 align:start position:0%
85% of its large mammal species. Right
around<01:34:39.280><c> the</c><01:34:39.520><c> time</c><01:34:39.600><c> that</c><01:34:39.840><c> humans</c><01:34:40.239><c> became</c>

01:33:36.724 --> 01:33:36.734 align:start position:0%
around the time that humans became
 

01:33:36.734 --> 01:33:39.124 align:start position:0%
around the time that humans became
established<01:34:41.120><c> there,</c>

01:33:39.124 --> 01:33:39.134 align:start position:0%
established there,
 

01:33:39.134 --> 01:33:41.684 align:start position:0%
established there,
seems<01:34:43.360><c> like</c><01:34:43.840><c> whenever</c><01:34:44.320><c> humans</c><01:34:44.719><c> arrive,</c>

01:33:41.684 --> 01:33:41.694 align:start position:0%
seems like whenever humans arrive,
 

01:33:41.694 --> 01:33:44.564 align:start position:0%
seems like whenever humans arrive,
things<01:34:45.840><c> start</c><01:34:46.000><c> to</c><01:34:46.239><c> collapse.</c>

01:33:44.564 --> 01:33:44.574 align:start position:0%
things start to collapse.
 

01:33:44.574 --> 01:33:47.124 align:start position:0%
things start to collapse.
Paleontologists<01:34:49.520><c> have</c><01:34:49.840><c> some</c><01:34:50.159><c> nifty</c><01:34:50.639><c> tricks</c>

01:33:47.124 --> 01:33:47.134 align:start position:0%
Paleontologists have some nifty tricks
 

01:33:47.134 --> 01:33:48.883 align:start position:0%
Paleontologists have some nifty tricks
to<01:34:51.120><c> piece</c><01:34:51.440><c> together</c><01:34:51.679><c> the</c><01:34:51.920><c> timeline</c><01:34:52.400><c> for</c><01:34:52.560><c> this</c>

01:33:48.883 --> 01:33:48.893 align:start position:0%
to piece together the timeline for this
 

01:33:48.893 --> 01:33:51.764 align:start position:0%
to piece together the timeline for this
collapse,<01:34:53.679><c> like</c><01:34:54.320><c> measuring</c><01:34:54.800><c> the</c><01:34:55.040><c> levels</c><01:34:55.360><c> of</c>

01:33:51.764 --> 01:33:51.774 align:start position:0%
collapse, like measuring the levels of
 

01:33:51.774 --> 01:33:53.924 align:start position:0%
collapse, like measuring the levels of
fungal<01:34:56.080><c> spores,</c><01:34:56.719><c> which</c><01:34:57.040><c> are</c><01:34:57.280><c> commonly</c>

01:33:53.924 --> 01:33:53.934 align:start position:0%
fungal spores, which are commonly
 

01:33:53.934 --> 01:33:56.323 align:start position:0%
fungal spores, which are commonly
produced<01:34:58.080><c> in</c><01:34:58.239><c> the</c><01:34:58.400><c> dung</c><01:34:58.639><c> of</c><01:34:58.800><c> herbivores</c><01:34:59.760><c> as</c><01:35:00.000><c> a</c>

01:33:56.323 --> 01:33:56.333 align:start position:0%
produced in the dung of herbivores as a
 

01:33:56.333 --> 01:33:59.284 align:start position:0%
produced in the dung of herbivores as a
proxy<01:35:00.639><c> for</c><01:35:00.880><c> megapora</c><01:35:01.600><c> populations.</c>

01:33:59.284 --> 01:33:59.294 align:start position:0%
proxy for megapora populations.
 

01:33:59.294 --> 01:34:02.803 align:start position:0%
proxy for megapora populations.
So<01:35:03.679><c> the</c><01:35:03.920><c> more</c><01:35:04.239><c> spores,</c><01:35:05.280><c> the</c><01:35:05.520><c> more</c><01:35:05.760><c> megasized</c>

01:34:02.803 --> 01:34:02.813 align:start position:0%
So the more spores, the more megasized
 

01:34:02.813 --> 01:34:06.164 align:start position:0%
So the more spores, the more megasized
herbivores<01:35:07.360><c> there</c><01:35:07.600><c> were</c><01:35:07.840><c> at</c><01:35:08.080><c> the</c><01:35:08.239><c> time.</c>

01:34:06.164 --> 01:34:06.174 align:start position:0%
herbivores there were at the time.
 

01:34:06.174 --> 01:34:07.764 align:start position:0%
herbivores there were at the time.
From<01:35:10.320><c> this</c><01:35:10.480><c> data,</c><01:35:10.800><c> they</c><01:35:11.120><c> found</c><01:35:11.280><c> that</c>

01:34:07.764 --> 01:34:07.774 align:start position:0%
From this data, they found that
 

01:34:07.774 --> 01:34:10.484 align:start position:0%
From this data, they found that
megapornal<01:35:12.400><c> populations</c><01:35:13.120><c> collapsed</c><01:35:13.679><c> within</c>

01:34:10.484 --> 01:34:10.494 align:start position:0%
megapornal populations collapsed within
 

01:34:10.494 --> 01:34:13.604 align:start position:0%
megapornal populations collapsed within
4,000<01:35:15.040><c> years</c><01:35:15.280><c> of</c><01:35:15.440><c> humans</c><01:35:15.840><c> arriving.</c><01:35:17.040><c> Although</c>

01:34:13.604 --> 01:34:13.614 align:start position:0%
4,000 years of humans arriving. Although
 

01:34:13.614 --> 01:34:15.684 align:start position:0%
4,000 years of humans arriving. Although
there<01:35:17.679><c> were</c><01:35:18.000><c> environmental</c><01:35:18.719><c> changes</c><01:35:19.120><c> in</c><01:35:19.280><c> the</c>

01:34:15.684 --> 01:34:15.694 align:start position:0%
there were environmental changes in the
 

01:34:15.694 --> 01:34:17.444 align:start position:0%
there were environmental changes in the
tens<01:35:19.840><c> of</c><01:35:20.000><c> thousands</c><01:35:20.320><c> of</c><01:35:20.560><c> years</c><01:35:20.800><c> before</c><01:35:21.120><c> the</c>

01:34:17.444 --> 01:34:17.454 align:start position:0%
tens of thousands of years before the
 

01:34:17.454 --> 01:34:20.164 align:start position:0%
tens of thousands of years before the
collapse,<01:35:22.239><c> including</c><01:35:22.719><c> wildfires</c><01:35:23.440><c> and</c><01:35:23.679><c> a</c>

01:34:20.164 --> 01:34:20.174 align:start position:0%
collapse, including wildfires and a
 

01:34:20.174 --> 01:34:22.964 align:start position:0%
collapse, including wildfires and a
transition<01:35:24.480><c> from</c><01:35:24.880><c> woodland</c><01:35:25.360><c> to</c><01:35:25.600><c> shrubland,</c>

01:34:22.964 --> 01:34:22.974 align:start position:0%
transition from woodland to shrubland,
 

01:34:22.974 --> 01:34:25.444 align:start position:0%
transition from woodland to shrubland,
humans<01:35:27.360><c> were</c><01:35:27.840><c> probably</c><01:35:28.239><c> the</c><01:35:28.480><c> straw</c><01:35:28.960><c> that</c>

01:34:25.444 --> 01:34:25.454 align:start position:0%
humans were probably the straw that
 

01:34:25.454 --> 01:34:28.004 align:start position:0%
humans were probably the straw that
broke<01:35:29.600><c> the</c><01:35:29.840><c> mega</c><01:35:30.239><c> camel's</c><01:35:30.639><c> back.</c><01:35:31.360><c> and</c><01:35:31.600><c> their</c>

01:34:28.004 --> 01:34:28.014 align:start position:0%
broke the mega camel's back. and their
 

01:34:28.014 --> 01:34:29.843 align:start position:0%
broke the mega camel's back. and their
hunting<01:35:32.239><c> pressure</c><01:35:32.560><c> was</c><01:35:32.880><c> too</c><01:35:33.120><c> intense</c><01:35:33.520><c> for</c>

01:34:29.843 --> 01:34:29.853 align:start position:0%
hunting pressure was too intense for
 

01:34:29.853 --> 01:34:32.724 align:start position:0%
hunting pressure was too intense for
these<01:35:33.920><c> animals</c><01:35:34.320><c> to</c><01:35:34.480><c> recover.</c>

01:34:32.724 --> 01:34:32.734 align:start position:0%
these animals to recover.
 

01:34:32.734 --> 01:34:35.044 align:start position:0%
these animals to recover.
Large<01:35:36.960><c> mammals</c><01:35:37.440><c> like</c><01:35:37.679><c> the</c><01:35:37.840><c> megapora</c>

01:34:35.044 --> 01:34:35.054 align:start position:0%
Large mammals like the megapora
 

01:34:35.054 --> 01:34:37.843 align:start position:0%
Large mammals like the megapora
typically<01:35:39.520><c> have</c><01:35:39.920><c> slow</c><01:35:40.480><c> population</c><01:35:41.040><c> growth</c>

01:34:37.843 --> 01:34:37.853 align:start position:0%
typically have slow population growth
 

01:34:37.853 --> 01:34:40.964 align:start position:0%
typically have slow population growth
and<01:35:42.000><c> don't</c><01:35:42.320><c> reproduce</c><01:35:42.880><c> often,</c><01:35:43.760><c> so</c><01:35:44.000><c> even</c><01:35:44.400><c> low</c>

01:34:40.964 --> 01:34:40.974 align:start position:0%
and don't reproduce often, so even low
 

01:34:40.974 --> 01:34:43.684 align:start position:0%
and don't reproduce often, so even low
intensity<01:35:45.520><c> hunting</c><01:35:46.320><c> would</c><01:35:46.719><c> have</c><01:35:46.960><c> a</c><01:35:47.199><c> big</c>

01:34:43.684 --> 01:34:43.694 align:start position:0%
intensity hunting would have a big
 

01:34:43.694 --> 01:34:47.843 align:start position:0%
intensity hunting would have a big
impact.

01:34:47.843 --> 01:34:47.853 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:34:47.853 --> 01:34:50.484 align:start position:0%
 
All<01:35:51.920><c> in</c><01:35:52.080><c> all,</c><01:35:52.639><c> we're</c><01:35:53.199><c> probably</c><01:35:53.679><c> not</c><01:35:54.000><c> giving</c>

01:34:50.484 --> 01:34:50.494 align:start position:0%
All in all, we're probably not giving
 

01:34:50.494 --> 01:34:52.803 align:start position:0%
All in all, we're probably not giving
the<01:35:54.560><c> friendliest</c><01:35:55.280><c> first</c><01:35:55.679><c> impression</c><01:35:56.080><c> to</c><01:35:56.320><c> our</c>

01:34:52.803 --> 01:34:52.813 align:start position:0%
the friendliest first impression to our
 

01:34:52.813 --> 01:34:55.444 align:start position:0%
the friendliest first impression to our
timetraveling<01:35:57.360><c> aliens.</c><01:35:58.480><c> We</c><01:35:58.719><c> seem</c><01:35:58.960><c> to</c><01:35:59.120><c> be</c><01:35:59.199><c> at</c>

01:34:55.444 --> 01:34:55.454 align:start position:0%
timetraveling aliens. We seem to be at
 

01:34:55.454 --> 01:34:58.004 align:start position:0%
timetraveling aliens. We seem to be at
least<01:35:59.679><c> partly</c><01:36:00.159><c> responsible</c><01:36:00.639><c> for</c><01:36:00.880><c> the</c><01:36:01.120><c> loss</c><01:36:01.440><c> of</c>

01:34:58.004 --> 01:34:58.014 align:start position:0%
least partly responsible for the loss of
 

01:34:58.014 --> 01:35:01.124 align:start position:0%
least partly responsible for the loss of
lots<01:36:02.320><c> of</c><01:36:02.560><c> other</c><01:36:02.880><c> ice</c><01:36:03.120><c> age</c><01:36:03.440><c> species.</c><01:36:04.480><c> And</c><01:36:04.639><c> it's</c>

01:35:01.124 --> 01:35:01.134 align:start position:0%
lots of other ice age species. And it's
 

01:35:01.134 --> 01:35:02.883 align:start position:0%
lots of other ice age species. And it's
not<01:36:05.199><c> only</c><01:36:05.440><c> the</c><01:36:05.679><c> megapora</c><01:36:06.400><c> that</c><01:36:06.560><c> were</c>

01:35:02.883 --> 01:35:02.893 align:start position:0%
not only the megapora that were
 

01:35:02.893 --> 01:35:05.044 align:start position:0%
not only the megapora that were
affected.<01:36:08.000><c> Another</c><01:36:08.400><c> mysterious</c>

01:35:05.044 --> 01:35:05.054 align:start position:0%
affected. Another mysterious
 

01:35:05.054 --> 01:35:07.124 align:start position:0%
affected. Another mysterious
disappearance<01:36:09.440><c> in</c><01:36:09.600><c> the</c><01:36:09.679><c> late</c><01:36:10.000><c> plea</c><01:36:10.480><c> scene</c>

01:35:07.124 --> 01:35:07.134 align:start position:0%
disappearance in the late plea scene
 

01:35:07.134 --> 01:35:10.244 align:start position:0%
disappearance in the late plea scene
were<01:36:11.760><c> then</c><01:36:12.000><c> the</c><01:36:12.159><c> Neanderthalss</c><01:36:13.280><c> who</c><01:36:13.600><c> vanished</c>

01:35:10.244 --> 01:35:10.254 align:start position:0%
were then the Neanderthalss who vanished
 

01:35:10.254 --> 01:35:14.883 align:start position:0%
were then the Neanderthalss who vanished
around<01:36:14.480><c> 40,000</c><01:36:15.280><c> years</c><01:36:15.520><c> ago.</c>

01:35:14.883 --> 01:35:14.893 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:35:14.893 --> 01:35:16.883 align:start position:0%
 
Neanderthalss<01:36:19.520><c> were</c><01:36:19.679><c> the</c><01:36:19.840><c> first</c><01:36:20.080><c> humans</c><01:36:20.480><c> to</c>

01:35:16.883 --> 01:35:16.893 align:start position:0%
Neanderthalss were the first humans to
 

01:35:16.893 --> 01:35:20.164 align:start position:0%
Neanderthalss were the first humans to
survive<01:36:21.040><c> a</c><01:36:21.440><c> cold</c><01:36:22.080><c> glacial</c><01:36:22.639><c> ecosystem</c><01:36:23.679><c> with</c>

01:35:20.164 --> 01:35:20.174 align:start position:0%
survive a cold glacial ecosystem with
 

01:35:20.174 --> 01:35:23.124 align:start position:0%
survive a cold glacial ecosystem with
clever<01:36:24.400><c> adaptations</c><01:36:25.040><c> to</c><01:36:25.280><c> do</c><01:36:25.440><c> so.</c><01:36:26.320><c> They</c><01:36:26.719><c> were</c>

01:35:23.124 --> 01:35:23.134 align:start position:0%
clever adaptations to do so. They were
 

01:35:23.134 --> 01:35:25.524 align:start position:0%
clever adaptations to do so. They were
short<01:36:27.280><c> and</c><01:36:27.600><c> stocky,</c><01:36:28.239><c> reaching</c><01:36:28.800><c> maximum</c>

01:35:25.524 --> 01:35:25.534 align:start position:0%
short and stocky, reaching maximum
 

01:35:25.534 --> 01:35:29.124 align:start position:0%
short and stocky, reaching maximum
heights<01:36:29.679><c> of</c><01:36:29.840><c> around</c><01:36:30.320><c> 160</c><01:36:30.880><c> cm.</c>

01:35:29.124 --> 01:35:29.134 align:start position:0%
heights of around 160 cm.
 

01:35:29.134 --> 01:35:32.084 align:start position:0%
heights of around 160 cm.
They<01:36:33.280><c> had</c><01:36:33.600><c> large</c><01:36:34.000><c> noses</c><01:36:34.480><c> with</c><01:36:34.719><c> a</c><01:36:34.880><c> high</c><01:36:35.120><c> bridge</c>

01:35:32.084 --> 01:35:32.094 align:start position:0%
They had large noses with a high bridge
 

01:35:32.094 --> 01:35:34.564 align:start position:0%
They had large noses with a high bridge
creating<01:36:36.400><c> a</c><01:36:36.719><c> larger</c><01:36:37.120><c> nasal</c><01:36:37.520><c> chamber</c><01:36:38.000><c> which</c>

01:35:34.564 --> 01:35:34.574 align:start position:0%
creating a larger nasal chamber which
 

01:35:34.574 --> 01:35:36.964 align:start position:0%
creating a larger nasal chamber which
humidified<01:36:39.040><c> the</c><01:36:39.199><c> air</c><01:36:39.360><c> as</c><01:36:39.600><c> they</c><01:36:39.840><c> breathed,</c><01:36:40.560><c> a</c>

01:35:36.964 --> 01:35:36.974 align:start position:0%
humidified the air as they breathed, a
 

01:35:36.974 --> 01:35:39.524 align:start position:0%
humidified the air as they breathed, a
similar<01:36:41.120><c> adaptation</c><01:36:41.679><c> to</c><01:36:41.840><c> the</c><01:36:42.000><c> mammoths.</c>

01:35:39.524 --> 01:35:39.534 align:start position:0%
similar adaptation to the mammoths.
 

01:35:39.534 --> 01:35:41.444 align:start position:0%
similar adaptation to the mammoths.
Contrary<01:36:43.760><c> to</c><01:36:44.000><c> popular</c><01:36:44.400><c> belief,</c><01:36:45.040><c> the</c>

01:35:41.444 --> 01:35:41.454 align:start position:0%
Contrary to popular belief, the
 

01:35:41.454 --> 01:35:43.684 align:start position:0%
Contrary to popular belief, the
Neanderthalss<01:36:46.080><c> had</c><01:36:46.320><c> quite</c><01:36:46.639><c> a</c><01:36:46.800><c> sophisticated</c>

01:35:43.684 --> 01:35:43.694 align:start position:0%
Neanderthalss had quite a sophisticated
 

01:35:43.694 --> 01:35:46.564 align:start position:0%
Neanderthalss had quite a sophisticated
culture.<01:36:48.480><c> They</c><01:36:48.800><c> were</c><01:36:48.960><c> also</c><01:36:49.440><c> partial</c><01:36:49.840><c> to</c><01:36:50.080><c> cave</c>

01:35:46.564 --> 01:35:46.574 align:start position:0%
culture. They were also partial to cave
 

01:35:46.574 --> 01:35:49.204 align:start position:0%
culture. They were also partial to cave
art,<01:36:51.040><c> ornamental</c><01:36:51.760><c> objects,</c><01:36:52.239><c> and</c><01:36:52.560><c> burial</c>

01:35:49.204 --> 01:35:49.214 align:start position:0%
art, ornamental objects, and burial
 

01:35:49.214 --> 01:35:52.244 align:start position:0%
art, ornamental objects, and burial
rituals<01:36:53.840><c> just</c><01:36:54.080><c> like</c><01:36:54.480><c> Homo</c><01:36:54.800><c> sapiens.</c>

01:35:52.244 --> 01:35:52.254 align:start position:0%
rituals just like Homo sapiens.
 

01:35:52.254 --> 01:35:54.883 align:start position:0%
rituals just like Homo sapiens.
So<01:36:56.560><c> with</c><01:36:56.880><c> all</c><01:36:57.199><c> these</c><01:36:57.520><c> abilities</c><01:36:58.000><c> to</c><01:36:58.320><c> help</c><01:36:58.480><c> them</c>

01:35:54.883 --> 01:35:54.893 align:start position:0%
So with all these abilities to help them
 

01:35:54.893 --> 01:35:57.524 align:start position:0%
So with all these abilities to help them
survive<01:36:59.119><c> the</c><01:36:59.360><c> extreme</c><01:36:59.920><c> climate,</c><01:37:00.960><c> how</c><01:37:01.199><c> did</c>

01:35:57.524 --> 01:35:57.534 align:start position:0%
survive the extreme climate, how did
 

01:35:57.534 --> 01:36:01.363 align:start position:0%
survive the extreme climate, how did
they<01:37:01.520><c> come</c><01:37:01.760><c> to</c><01:37:01.920><c> meet</c><01:37:02.159><c> their</c><01:37:02.480><c> end?</c>

01:36:01.363 --> 01:36:01.373 align:start position:0%
they come to meet their end?
 

01:36:01.373 --> 01:36:04.244 align:start position:0%
they come to meet their end?
You<01:37:05.440><c> guessed</c><01:37:05.679><c> it,</c><01:37:06.480><c> we</c><01:37:06.880><c> might</c><01:37:07.119><c> be</c><01:37:07.360><c> to</c><01:37:07.600><c> blame</c><01:37:07.840><c> for</c>

01:36:04.244 --> 01:36:04.254 align:start position:0%
You guessed it, we might be to blame for
 

01:36:04.254 --> 01:36:07.283 align:start position:0%
You guessed it, we might be to blame for
this<01:37:08.239><c> one,</c><01:37:08.480><c> too.</c><01:37:09.679><c> Paleontologists</c><01:37:10.719><c> think</c>

01:36:07.283 --> 01:36:07.293 align:start position:0%
this one, too. Paleontologists think
 

01:36:07.293 --> 01:36:10.323 align:start position:0%
this one, too. Paleontologists think
that<01:37:11.440><c> we</c><01:37:11.760><c> either</c><01:37:12.159><c> out</c><01:37:12.480><c> competed</c><01:37:12.880><c> them</c><01:37:13.520><c> or</c><01:37:13.840><c> they</c>

01:36:10.323 --> 01:36:10.333 align:start position:0%
that we either out competed them or they
 

01:36:10.333 --> 01:36:12.724 align:start position:0%
that we either out competed them or they
were<01:37:14.400><c> absorbed</c><01:37:15.040><c> into</c><01:37:15.360><c> our</c><01:37:15.679><c> populations,</c>

01:36:12.724 --> 01:36:12.734 align:start position:0%
were absorbed into our populations,
 

01:36:12.734 --> 01:36:16.004 align:start position:0%
were absorbed into our populations,
which<01:37:16.800><c> happened</c><01:37:17.040><c> to</c><01:37:17.199><c> be</c><01:37:17.360><c> larger</c><01:37:17.760><c> at</c><01:37:17.920><c> the</c><01:37:18.080><c> time.</c>

01:36:16.004 --> 01:36:16.014 align:start position:0%
which happened to be larger at the time.
 

01:36:16.014 --> 01:36:19.204 align:start position:0%
which happened to be larger at the time.
In<01:37:20.080><c> fact,</c><01:37:20.800><c> most</c><01:37:21.119><c> people</c><01:37:21.520><c> of</c><01:37:21.920><c> European</c><01:37:22.639><c> or</c>

01:36:19.204 --> 01:36:19.214 align:start position:0%
In fact, most people of European or
 

01:36:19.214 --> 01:36:22.964 align:start position:0%
In fact, most people of European or
Asian<01:37:23.440><c> descent</c><01:37:24.159><c> share</c><01:37:24.560><c> between</c><01:37:25.119><c> 1</c><01:37:25.520><c> and</c><01:37:25.920><c> 2%</c><01:37:26.639><c> of</c>

01:36:22.964 --> 01:36:22.974 align:start position:0%
Asian descent share between 1 and 2% of
 

01:36:22.974 --> 01:36:25.604 align:start position:0%
Asian descent share between 1 and 2% of
their<01:37:27.040><c> DNA</c><01:37:27.600><c> with</c><01:37:27.840><c> Neanderthalss,</c><01:37:29.199><c> which</c>

01:36:25.604 --> 01:36:25.614 align:start position:0%
their DNA with Neanderthalss, which
 

01:36:25.614 --> 01:36:29.604 align:start position:0%
their DNA with Neanderthalss, which
would<01:37:29.760><c> support</c><01:37:30.239><c> the</c><01:37:30.480><c> second</c><01:37:30.719><c> theory.</c>

01:36:29.604 --> 01:36:29.614 align:start position:0%
would support the second theory.
 

01:36:29.614 --> 01:36:32.084 align:start position:0%
would support the second theory.
As<01:37:33.760><c> for</c><01:37:34.000><c> competition,</c><01:37:34.960><c> the</c><01:37:35.280><c> latest</c><01:37:35.600><c> data</c>

01:36:32.084 --> 01:36:32.094 align:start position:0%
As for competition, the latest data
 

01:36:32.094 --> 01:36:33.924 align:start position:0%
As for competition, the latest data
suggests<01:37:36.320><c> that</c><01:37:36.560><c> Neanderthalss</c><01:37:37.280><c> and</c><01:37:37.440><c> modern</c>

01:36:33.924 --> 01:36:33.934 align:start position:0%
suggests that Neanderthalss and modern
 

01:36:33.934 --> 01:36:35.924 align:start position:0%
suggests that Neanderthalss and modern
humans<01:37:38.159><c> coexisted</c><01:37:38.880><c> happily</c><01:37:39.280><c> for</c><01:37:39.520><c> up</c><01:37:39.679><c> to</c>

01:36:35.924 --> 01:36:35.934 align:start position:0%
humans coexisted happily for up to
 

01:36:35.934 --> 01:36:38.004 align:start position:0%
humans coexisted happily for up to
several<01:37:40.159><c> thousand</c><01:37:40.480><c> years</c><01:37:40.719><c> in</c><01:37:40.960><c> Europe.</c><01:37:41.679><c> But</c>

01:36:38.004 --> 01:36:38.014 align:start position:0%
several thousand years in Europe. But
 

01:36:38.014 --> 01:36:40.164 align:start position:0%
several thousand years in Europe. But
it's<01:37:42.080><c> possible</c><01:37:42.400><c> that</c><01:37:42.639><c> in</c><01:37:42.880><c> some</c><01:37:43.119><c> regions</c><01:37:43.520><c> where</c>

01:36:40.164 --> 01:36:40.174 align:start position:0%
it's possible that in some regions where
 

01:36:40.174 --> 01:36:42.564 align:start position:0%
it's possible that in some regions where
resources<01:37:44.560><c> were</c><01:37:44.880><c> scarce,</c><01:37:45.679><c> the</c><01:37:45.840><c> pressure</c><01:37:46.159><c> was</c>

01:36:42.564 --> 01:36:42.574 align:start position:0%
resources were scarce, the pressure was
 

01:36:42.574 --> 01:36:45.204 align:start position:0%
resources were scarce, the pressure was
greater<01:37:47.040><c> and</c><01:37:47.280><c> we</c><01:37:47.520><c> did</c><01:37:47.840><c> compete</c><01:37:48.239><c> more</c><01:37:48.480><c> with</c><01:37:48.719><c> our</c>

01:36:45.204 --> 01:36:45.214 align:start position:0%
greater and we did compete more with our
 

01:36:45.214 --> 01:36:48.084 align:start position:0%
greater and we did compete more with our
evolutionary<01:37:49.679><c> cousins.</c>

01:36:48.084 --> 01:36:48.094 align:start position:0%
evolutionary cousins.
 

01:36:48.094 --> 01:36:49.843 align:start position:0%
evolutionary cousins.
Whilst<01:37:52.320><c> their</c><01:37:52.560><c> stocky</c><01:37:53.040><c> bodies</c><01:37:53.360><c> may</c><01:37:53.520><c> have</c>

01:36:49.843 --> 01:36:49.853 align:start position:0%
Whilst their stocky bodies may have
 

01:36:49.853 --> 01:36:52.164 align:start position:0%
Whilst their stocky bodies may have
helped<01:37:53.840><c> them</c><01:37:54.080><c> produce</c><01:37:54.480><c> and</c><01:37:54.800><c> retain</c><01:37:55.199><c> heat,</c>

01:36:52.164 --> 01:36:52.174 align:start position:0%
helped them produce and retain heat,
 

01:36:52.174 --> 01:36:54.564 align:start position:0%
helped them produce and retain heat,
this<01:37:56.239><c> also</c><01:37:56.560><c> made</c><01:37:56.719><c> them</c><01:37:56.960><c> worse</c><01:37:57.280><c> at</c><01:37:57.679><c> conserving</c>

01:36:54.564 --> 01:36:54.574 align:start position:0%
this also made them worse at conserving
 

01:36:54.574 --> 01:36:57.363 align:start position:0%
this also made them worse at conserving
energy.<01:37:59.600><c> With</c><01:37:59.840><c> bodies</c><01:38:00.239><c> that</c><01:38:00.400><c> were</c><01:38:00.639><c> costlier</c>

01:36:57.363 --> 01:36:57.373 align:start position:0%
energy. With bodies that were costlier
 

01:36:57.373 --> 01:37:00.084 align:start position:0%
energy. With bodies that were costlier
to<01:38:01.440><c> run,</c><01:38:02.159><c> it</c><01:38:02.400><c> was</c><01:38:02.719><c> probably</c><01:38:03.119><c> easier</c><01:38:03.520><c> for</c><01:38:03.679><c> the</c>

01:37:00.084 --> 01:37:00.094 align:start position:0%
to run, it was probably easier for the
 

01:37:00.094 --> 01:37:03.044 align:start position:0%
to run, it was probably easier for the
more<01:38:04.159><c> energyefficient</c><01:38:05.280><c> Homo</c><01:38:05.760><c> sapiens</c><01:38:06.639><c> to</c>

01:37:03.044 --> 01:37:03.054 align:start position:0%
more energyefficient Homo sapiens to
 

01:37:03.054 --> 01:37:06.164 align:start position:0%
more energyefficient Homo sapiens to
move<01:38:07.119><c> in</c><01:38:07.600><c> and</c><01:38:07.920><c> take</c><01:38:08.159><c> over.</c>

01:37:06.164 --> 01:37:06.174 align:start position:0%
move in and take over.
 

01:37:06.174 --> 01:37:08.084 align:start position:0%
move in and take over.
Like<01:38:10.320><c> many</c><01:38:10.639><c> debates</c><01:38:11.040><c> emerging</c><01:38:11.440><c> from</c><01:38:11.679><c> this</c>

01:37:08.084 --> 01:37:08.094 align:start position:0%
Like many debates emerging from this
 

01:37:08.094 --> 01:37:10.164 align:start position:0%
Like many debates emerging from this
time<01:38:12.159><c> period,</c><01:38:12.800><c> there's</c><01:38:13.119><c> no</c><01:38:13.360><c> simple</c><01:38:13.760><c> answer</c>

01:37:10.164 --> 01:37:10.174 align:start position:0%
time period, there's no simple answer
 

01:37:10.174 --> 01:37:12.724 align:start position:0%
time period, there's no simple answer
for<01:38:14.159><c> the</c><01:38:14.320><c> Neanderthalss</c><01:38:15.119><c> disappearance,</c><01:38:16.320><c> and</c>

01:37:12.724 --> 01:37:12.734 align:start position:0%
for the Neanderthalss disappearance, and
 

01:37:12.734 --> 01:37:14.644 align:start position:0%
for the Neanderthalss disappearance, and
the<01:38:16.800><c> situation</c><01:38:17.280><c> varies</c><01:38:17.760><c> from</c><01:38:18.000><c> place</c><01:38:18.239><c> to</c>

01:37:14.644 --> 01:37:14.654 align:start position:0%
the situation varies from place to
 

01:37:14.654 --> 01:37:17.204 align:start position:0%
the situation varies from place to
place.<01:38:19.679><c> Though</c><01:38:19.920><c> we</c><01:38:20.159><c> may</c><01:38:20.400><c> have</c><01:38:20.639><c> been</c><01:38:20.800><c> the</c>

01:37:17.204 --> 01:37:17.214 align:start position:0%
place. Though we may have been the
 

01:37:17.214 --> 01:37:19.843 align:start position:0%
place. Though we may have been the
better<01:38:21.360><c> competitor,</c><01:38:22.480><c> the</c><01:38:22.639><c> Neanderthalss</c><01:38:23.440><c> get</c>

01:37:19.843 --> 01:37:19.853 align:start position:0%
better competitor, the Neanderthalss get
 

01:37:19.853 --> 01:37:22.964 align:start position:0%
better competitor, the Neanderthalss get
a<01:38:23.840><c> bad</c><01:38:24.159><c> rep,</c><01:38:24.960><c> and</c><01:38:25.280><c> every</c><01:38:25.600><c> new</c><01:38:25.840><c> discovery</c><01:38:26.480><c> adds</c>

01:37:22.964 --> 01:37:22.974 align:start position:0%
a bad rep, and every new discovery adds
 

01:37:22.974 --> 01:37:25.604 align:start position:0%
a bad rep, and every new discovery adds
to<01:38:27.040><c> our</c><01:38:27.360><c> appreciation</c><01:38:28.239><c> of</c><01:38:28.560><c> the</c><01:38:28.880><c> complex</c>

01:37:25.604 --> 01:37:25.614 align:start position:0%
to our appreciation of the complex
 

01:37:25.614 --> 01:37:28.803 align:start position:0%
to our appreciation of the complex
culture,<01:38:30.400><c> language,</c><01:38:31.199><c> and</c><01:38:31.600><c> tools</c><01:38:32.080><c> they</c><01:38:32.400><c> left</c>

01:37:28.803 --> 01:37:28.813 align:start position:0%
culture, language, and tools they left
 

01:37:28.813 --> 01:37:33.604 align:start position:0%
culture, language, and tools they left
behind.

01:37:33.604 --> 01:37:33.614 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:37:33.614 --> 01:37:35.684 align:start position:0%
 
There's<01:38:37.760><c> no</c><01:38:38.000><c> doubt</c><01:38:38.320><c> that</c><01:38:38.560><c> the</c><01:38:38.719><c> last</c><01:38:38.960><c> ice</c><01:38:39.199><c> age</c>

01:37:35.684 --> 01:37:35.694 align:start position:0%
There's no doubt that the last ice age
 

01:37:35.694 --> 01:37:37.604 align:start position:0%
There's no doubt that the last ice age
brought<01:38:39.840><c> about</c><01:38:40.320><c> huge</c><01:38:40.719><c> developments</c><01:38:41.199><c> that</c>

01:37:37.604 --> 01:37:37.614 align:start position:0%
brought about huge developments that
 

01:37:37.614 --> 01:37:39.363 align:start position:0%
brought about huge developments that
would<01:38:41.679><c> change</c><01:38:42.000><c> the</c><01:38:42.320><c> course</c><01:38:42.560><c> of</c><01:38:42.800><c> Earth's</c>

01:37:39.363 --> 01:37:39.373 align:start position:0%
would change the course of Earth's
 

01:37:39.373 --> 01:37:41.843 align:start position:0%
would change the course of Earth's
history<01:38:43.600><c> forever.</c><01:38:44.560><c> Changes</c><01:38:45.119><c> that</c><01:38:45.440><c> our</c>

01:37:41.843 --> 01:37:41.853 align:start position:0%
history forever. Changes that our
 

01:37:41.853 --> 01:37:43.604 align:start position:0%
history forever. Changes that our
timetraveling<01:38:46.400><c> aliens</c><01:38:46.880><c> had</c><01:38:47.119><c> come</c><01:38:47.280><c> to</c>

01:37:43.604 --> 01:37:43.614 align:start position:0%
timetraveling aliens had come to
 

01:37:43.614 --> 01:37:45.444 align:start position:0%
timetraveling aliens had come to
witness.

01:37:45.444 --> 01:37:45.454 align:start position:0%
witness.
 

01:37:45.454 --> 01:37:48.004 align:start position:0%
witness.
Despite<01:38:49.760><c> the</c><01:38:50.080><c> unpredictable</c><01:38:50.960><c> nature</c><01:38:51.280><c> of</c><01:38:51.440><c> this</c>

01:37:48.004 --> 01:37:48.014 align:start position:0%
Despite the unpredictable nature of this
 

01:37:48.014 --> 01:37:50.323 align:start position:0%
Despite the unpredictable nature of this
era,<01:38:52.560><c> plenty</c><01:38:52.960><c> of</c><01:38:53.119><c> species</c><01:38:53.520><c> were</c><01:38:53.760><c> able</c><01:38:53.920><c> to</c>

01:37:50.323 --> 01:37:50.333 align:start position:0%
era, plenty of species were able to
 

01:37:50.333 --> 01:37:52.403 align:start position:0%
era, plenty of species were able to
thrive<01:38:54.639><c> during</c><01:38:55.040><c> both</c><01:38:55.440><c> glacial</c><01:38:55.920><c> and</c>

01:37:52.403 --> 01:37:52.413 align:start position:0%
thrive during both glacial and
 

01:37:52.413 --> 01:37:55.444 align:start position:0%
thrive during both glacial and
interglacial<01:38:56.960><c> periods,</c><01:38:58.080><c> diversifying,</c>

01:37:55.444 --> 01:37:55.454 align:start position:0%
interglacial periods, diversifying,
 

01:37:55.454 --> 01:37:58.323 align:start position:0%
interglacial periods, diversifying,
evolving<01:38:59.920><c> huge</c><01:39:00.320><c> body</c><01:39:00.639><c> sizes,</c><01:39:01.360><c> and</c><01:39:01.600><c> developing</c>

01:37:58.323 --> 01:37:58.333 align:start position:0%
evolving huge body sizes, and developing
 

01:37:58.333 --> 01:38:00.403 align:start position:0%
evolving huge body sizes, and developing
innovative<01:39:02.800><c> ways</c><01:39:03.119><c> to</c><01:39:03.360><c> combat</c><01:39:03.840><c> climate</c>

01:38:00.403 --> 01:38:00.413 align:start position:0%
innovative ways to combat climate
 

01:38:00.413 --> 01:38:01.924 align:start position:0%
innovative ways to combat climate
extremes.

01:38:01.924 --> 01:38:01.934 align:start position:0%
extremes.
 

01:38:01.934 --> 01:38:04.724 align:start position:0%
extremes.
Though<01:39:06.239><c> not</c><01:39:06.480><c> everyone</c><01:39:06.960><c> made</c><01:39:07.199><c> it</c><01:39:07.360><c> out</c><01:39:07.679><c> alive,</c>

01:38:04.724 --> 01:38:04.734 align:start position:0%
Though not everyone made it out alive,
 

01:38:04.734 --> 01:38:07.124 align:start position:0%
Though not everyone made it out alive,
it's<01:39:08.800><c> amazing</c><01:39:09.199><c> to</c><01:39:09.360><c> think</c><01:39:09.600><c> that</c><01:39:09.920><c> Homo</c><01:39:10.400><c> sapiens</c>

01:38:07.124 --> 01:38:07.134 align:start position:0%
it's amazing to think that Homo sapiens
 

01:38:07.134 --> 01:38:09.204 align:start position:0%
it's amazing to think that Homo sapiens
once<01:39:11.360><c> shared</c><01:39:11.600><c> the</c><01:39:11.760><c> land</c><01:39:12.000><c> with</c><01:39:12.239><c> these</c><01:39:12.560><c> weird</c>

01:38:09.204 --> 01:38:09.214 align:start position:0%
once shared the land with these weird
 

01:38:09.214 --> 01:38:12.644 align:start position:0%
once shared the land with these weird
and<01:39:13.440><c> wonderful</c><01:39:14.000><c> species,</c><01:39:15.040><c> human</c><01:39:15.679><c> and</c><01:39:16.080><c> animal</c>

01:38:12.644 --> 01:38:12.654 align:start position:0%
and wonderful species, human and animal
 

01:38:12.654 --> 01:38:14.244 align:start position:0%
and wonderful species, human and animal
alike.

01:38:14.244 --> 01:38:14.254 align:start position:0%
alike.
 

01:38:14.254 --> 01:38:16.644 align:start position:0%
alike.
But<01:39:18.400><c> perhaps</c><01:39:18.800><c> the</c><01:39:19.040><c> more</c><01:39:19.360><c> concerning</c><01:39:20.000><c> question</c>

01:38:16.644 --> 01:38:16.654 align:start position:0%
But perhaps the more concerning question
 

01:38:16.654 --> 01:38:19.604 align:start position:0%
But perhaps the more concerning question
is<01:39:20.800><c> whether</c><01:39:21.119><c> this</c><01:39:21.360><c> will</c><01:39:21.520><c> happen</c><01:39:21.840><c> again.</c>

01:38:19.604 --> 01:38:19.614 align:start position:0%
is whether this will happen again.
 

01:38:19.614 --> 01:38:21.204 align:start position:0%
is whether this will happen again.
We've<01:39:23.840><c> already</c><01:39:24.159><c> touched</c><01:39:24.400><c> on</c><01:39:24.560><c> the</c><01:39:24.719><c> fact</c><01:39:24.880><c> that</c>

01:38:21.204 --> 01:38:21.214 align:start position:0%
We've already touched on the fact that
 

01:38:21.214 --> 01:38:23.924 align:start position:0%
We've already touched on the fact that
the<01:39:25.280><c> Earth</c><01:39:25.520><c> has</c><01:39:25.760><c> seen</c><01:39:26.239><c> five</c><01:39:26.719><c> major</c><01:39:27.119><c> ice</c><01:39:27.360><c> ages</c>

01:38:23.924 --> 01:38:23.934 align:start position:0%
the Earth has seen five major ice ages
 

01:38:23.934 --> 01:38:26.244 align:start position:0%
the Earth has seen five major ice ages
throughout<01:39:28.159><c> its</c><01:39:28.400><c> history</c><01:39:29.199><c> and</c><01:39:29.520><c> this</c><01:39:29.760><c> most</c>

01:38:26.244 --> 01:38:26.254 align:start position:0%
throughout its history and this most
 

01:38:26.254 --> 01:38:29.444 align:start position:0%
throughout its history and this most
recent<01:39:30.400><c> one</c><01:39:30.800><c> is</c><01:39:31.119><c> still</c><01:39:31.360><c> ongoing.</c><01:39:32.639><c> Is</c><01:39:32.960><c> another</c>

01:38:29.444 --> 01:38:29.454 align:start position:0%
recent one is still ongoing. Is another
 

01:38:29.454 --> 01:38:32.084 align:start position:0%
recent one is still ongoing. Is another
glaciation<01:39:34.000><c> event</c><01:39:34.480><c> looming</c><01:39:34.960><c> in</c><01:39:35.199><c> our</c><01:39:35.520><c> planet's</c>

01:38:32.084 --> 01:38:32.094 align:start position:0%
glaciation event looming in our planet's
 

01:38:32.094 --> 01:38:35.444 align:start position:0%
glaciation event looming in our planet's
future.<01:39:37.280><c> We've</c><01:39:37.840><c> mentioned</c><01:39:38.159><c> Heinrich</c><01:39:38.719><c> events</c>

01:38:35.444 --> 01:38:35.454 align:start position:0%
future. We've mentioned Heinrich events
 

01:38:35.454 --> 01:38:37.843 align:start position:0%
future. We've mentioned Heinrich events
which<01:39:39.520><c> occur</c><01:39:39.840><c> on</c><01:39:40.080><c> more</c><01:39:40.400><c> short-term</c><01:39:41.040><c> scale</c><01:39:41.520><c> to</c>

01:38:37.843 --> 01:38:37.853 align:start position:0%
which occur on more short-term scale to
 

01:38:37.853 --> 01:38:40.004 align:start position:0%
which occur on more short-term scale to
the<01:39:41.840><c> Melankovich</c><01:39:42.480><c> cycles</c><01:39:43.119><c> and</c><01:39:43.360><c> can</c><01:39:43.520><c> cause</c>

01:38:40.004 --> 01:38:40.014 align:start position:0%
the Melankovich cycles and can cause
 

01:38:40.014 --> 01:38:42.164 align:start position:0%
the Melankovich cycles and can cause
periods<01:39:44.159><c> of</c><01:39:44.320><c> cooling</c><01:39:44.800><c> around</c><01:39:45.119><c> every</c><01:39:45.360><c> 10,000</c>

01:38:42.164 --> 01:38:42.174 align:start position:0%
periods of cooling around every 10,000
 

01:38:42.174 --> 01:38:44.724 align:start position:0%
periods of cooling around every 10,000
years.<01:39:46.960><c> They</c><01:39:47.199><c> happen</c><01:39:47.520><c> when</c><01:39:47.840><c> large</c><01:39:48.159><c> amounts</c><01:39:48.400><c> of</c>

01:38:44.724 --> 01:38:44.734 align:start position:0%
years. They happen when large amounts of
 

01:38:44.734 --> 01:38:47.124 align:start position:0%
years. They happen when large amounts of
ice<01:39:48.880><c> are</c><01:39:49.040><c> discharged</c><01:39:49.679><c> into</c><01:39:49.920><c> the</c><01:39:50.080><c> ocean,</c><01:39:50.639><c> which</c>

01:38:47.124 --> 01:38:47.134 align:start position:0%
ice are discharged into the ocean, which
 

01:38:47.134 --> 01:38:50.004 align:start position:0%
ice are discharged into the ocean, which
produces<01:39:51.520><c> a</c><01:39:51.920><c> global</c><01:39:52.400><c> footprint</c><01:39:53.199><c> that</c><01:39:53.520><c> has</c>

01:38:50.004 --> 01:38:50.014 align:start position:0%
produces a global footprint that has
 

01:38:50.014 --> 01:38:51.684 align:start position:0%
produces a global footprint that has
historically<01:39:54.400><c> made</c><01:39:54.719><c> regions</c><01:39:55.040><c> of</c><01:39:55.280><c> North</c>

01:38:51.684 --> 01:38:51.694 align:start position:0%
historically made regions of North
 

01:38:51.694 --> 01:38:54.564 align:start position:0%
historically made regions of North
America<01:39:56.080><c> and</c><01:39:56.320><c> Eurasia</c><01:39:57.119><c> become</c><01:39:57.600><c> colder</c><01:39:58.080><c> and</c>

01:38:54.564 --> 01:38:54.574 align:start position:0%
America and Eurasia become colder and
 

01:38:54.574 --> 01:38:56.883 align:start position:0%
America and Eurasia become colder and
drier.

01:38:56.883 --> 01:38:56.893 align:start position:0%
drier.
 

01:38:56.893 --> 01:38:58.564 align:start position:0%
drier.
Data<01:40:01.119><c> on</c><01:40:01.280><c> the</c><01:40:01.440><c> subsurface</c><01:40:02.080><c> ocean</c>

01:38:58.564 --> 01:38:58.574 align:start position:0%
Data on the subsurface ocean
 

01:38:58.574 --> 01:39:00.964 align:start position:0%
Data on the subsurface ocean
temperatures<01:40:03.280><c> has</c><01:40:03.520><c> revealed</c><01:40:03.920><c> that</c><01:40:04.320><c> warming</c>

01:39:00.964 --> 01:39:00.974 align:start position:0%
temperatures has revealed that warming
 

01:39:00.974 --> 01:39:02.964 align:start position:0%
temperatures has revealed that warming
usually<01:40:05.199><c> happens</c><01:40:05.520><c> in</c><01:40:05.760><c> the</c><01:40:05.920><c> hundreds</c><01:40:06.480><c> to</c>

01:39:02.964 --> 01:39:02.974 align:start position:0%
usually happens in the hundreds to
 

01:39:02.974 --> 01:39:05.604 align:start position:0%
usually happens in the hundreds to
thousands<01:40:07.280><c> of</c><01:40:07.440><c> years</c><01:40:08.000><c> before</c><01:40:08.480><c> these</c><01:40:08.800><c> ice</c><01:40:09.119><c> loss</c>

01:39:05.604 --> 01:39:05.614 align:start position:0%
thousands of years before these ice loss
 

01:39:05.614 --> 01:39:08.403 align:start position:0%
thousands of years before these ice loss
events<01:40:10.239><c> as</c><01:40:10.560><c> this</c><01:40:10.800><c> is</c><01:40:10.960><c> what</c><01:40:11.280><c> destabilizes</c><01:40:12.080><c> the</c>

01:39:08.403 --> 01:39:08.413 align:start position:0%
events as this is what destabilizes the
 

01:39:08.413 --> 01:39:11.604 align:start position:0%
events as this is what destabilizes the
ice<01:40:12.400><c> sheet</c><01:40:12.960><c> and</c><01:40:13.280><c> promotes</c><01:40:13.679><c> its</c><01:40:13.920><c> breakup.</c><01:40:15.119><c> This</c>

01:39:11.604 --> 01:39:11.614 align:start position:0%
ice sheet and promotes its breakup. This
 

01:39:11.614 --> 01:39:13.604 align:start position:0%
ice sheet and promotes its breakup. This
warming<01:40:16.000><c> contributes</c><01:40:16.480><c> to</c><01:40:16.639><c> a</c><01:40:16.880><c> weakening</c><01:40:17.280><c> of</c>

01:39:13.604 --> 01:39:13.614 align:start position:0%
warming contributes to a weakening of
 

01:39:13.614 --> 01:39:16.964 align:start position:0%
warming contributes to a weakening of
the<01:40:17.600><c> Aok</c><01:40:18.639><c> and</c><01:40:18.880><c> both</c><01:40:19.199><c> these</c><01:40:19.520><c> factors</c><01:40:20.000><c> act</c><01:40:20.400><c> as</c>

01:39:16.964 --> 01:39:16.974 align:start position:0%
the Aok and both these factors act as
 

01:39:16.974 --> 01:39:19.843 align:start position:0%
the Aok and both these factors act as
triggers<01:40:21.199><c> for</c><01:40:21.360><c> Heinrich</c><01:40:21.920><c> events.</c><01:40:23.119><c> We've</c><01:40:23.520><c> made</c>

01:39:19.843 --> 01:39:19.853 align:start position:0%
triggers for Heinrich events. We've made
 

01:39:19.853 --> 01:39:21.684 align:start position:0%
triggers for Heinrich events. We've made
a<01:40:23.840><c> video</c><01:40:23.920><c> on</c><01:40:24.080><c> the</c><01:40:24.239><c> Aark</c><01:40:24.719><c> over</c><01:40:24.880><c> on</c><01:40:25.040><c> Astramm</c>

01:39:21.684 --> 01:39:21.694 align:start position:0%
a video on the Aark over on Astramm
 

01:39:21.694 --> 01:39:23.444 align:start position:0%
a video on the Aark over on Astramm
Earth<01:40:25.920><c> which</c><01:40:26.159><c> you</c><01:40:26.400><c> can</c><01:40:26.560><c> check</c><01:40:26.719><c> out</c><01:40:26.880><c> for</c><01:40:27.119><c> more</c>

01:39:23.444 --> 01:39:23.454 align:start position:0%
Earth which you can check out for more
 

01:39:23.454 --> 01:39:26.403 align:start position:0%
Earth which you can check out for more
information.<01:40:28.719><c> But</c><01:40:28.880><c> the</c><01:40:29.040><c> point</c><01:40:29.280><c> is</c><01:40:29.679><c> that</c><01:40:30.000><c> we</c>

01:39:26.403 --> 01:39:26.413 align:start position:0%
information. But the point is that we
 

01:39:26.413 --> 01:39:28.803 align:start position:0%
information. But the point is that we
are<01:40:30.400><c> seeing</c><01:40:30.800><c> both</c><01:40:31.040><c> of</c><01:40:31.199><c> these</c><01:40:31.520><c> signs</c><01:40:32.000><c> happening</c>

01:39:28.803 --> 01:39:28.813 align:start position:0%
are seeing both of these signs happening
 

01:39:28.813 --> 01:39:31.924 align:start position:0%
are seeing both of these signs happening
now.<01:40:33.520><c> So</c><01:40:33.760><c> they</c><01:40:34.000><c> could</c><01:40:34.320><c> be</c><01:40:34.560><c> warning</c><01:40:34.960><c> signs</c><01:40:35.520><c> a</c>

01:39:31.924 --> 01:39:31.934 align:start position:0%
now. So they could be warning signs a
 

01:39:31.934 --> 01:39:35.363 align:start position:0%
now. So they could be warning signs a
Heinrich<01:40:36.400><c> event</c><01:40:36.639><c> is</c><01:40:36.880><c> coming.</c><01:40:38.000><c> If</c><01:40:38.159><c> it</c><01:40:38.400><c> does,</c>

01:39:35.363 --> 01:39:35.373 align:start position:0%
Heinrich event is coming. If it does,
 

01:39:35.373 --> 01:39:37.924 align:start position:0%
Heinrich event is coming. If it does,
then<01:40:39.440><c> it</c><01:40:39.679><c> could</c><01:40:40.080><c> cause</c><01:40:40.480><c> enough</c><01:40:40.880><c> cooling</c><01:40:41.440><c> to</c>

01:39:37.924 --> 01:39:37.934 align:start position:0%
then it could cause enough cooling to
 

01:39:37.934 --> 01:39:41.684 align:start position:0%
then it could cause enough cooling to
trigger<01:40:42.400><c> another</c><01:40:42.880><c> glaciation</c><01:40:43.520><c> period.</c>

01:39:41.684 --> 01:39:41.694 align:start position:0%
trigger another glaciation period.
 

01:39:41.694 --> 01:39:44.724 align:start position:0%
trigger another glaciation period.
Though<01:40:46.080><c> it's</c><01:40:46.480><c> hard</c><01:40:46.719><c> to</c><01:40:46.880><c> say</c><01:40:47.040><c> for</c><01:40:47.280><c> sure.</c><01:40:48.320><c> It</c>

01:39:44.724 --> 01:39:44.734 align:start position:0%
Though it's hard to say for sure. It
 

01:39:44.734 --> 01:39:46.403 align:start position:0%
Though it's hard to say for sure. It
would<01:40:48.719><c> probably</c><01:40:49.119><c> have</c><01:40:49.280><c> to</c><01:40:49.440><c> coincide</c><01:40:50.000><c> with</c>

01:39:46.403 --> 01:39:46.413 align:start position:0%
would probably have to coincide with
 

01:39:46.413 --> 01:39:48.803 align:start position:0%
would probably have to coincide with
another<01:40:50.560><c> Malankovich</c><01:40:51.360><c> cycle</c><01:40:51.600><c> to</c><01:40:51.840><c> cause</c><01:40:52.159><c> plea</c>

01:39:48.803 --> 01:39:48.813 align:start position:0%
another Malankovich cycle to cause plea
 

01:39:48.813 --> 01:39:51.843 align:start position:0%
another Malankovich cycle to cause plea
scene<01:40:52.960><c> levels</c><01:40:53.199><c> of</c><01:40:53.360><c> ice.</c><01:40:54.480><c> But</c><01:40:54.639><c> either</c><01:40:54.960><c> way,</c>

01:39:51.843 --> 01:39:51.853 align:start position:0%
scene levels of ice. But either way,
 

01:39:51.853 --> 01:39:54.403 align:start position:0%
scene levels of ice. But either way,
things<01:40:56.000><c> could</c><01:40:56.239><c> get</c><01:40:56.480><c> frosty.</c>

01:39:54.403 --> 01:39:54.413 align:start position:0%
things could get frosty.
 

01:39:54.413 --> 01:39:56.564 align:start position:0%
things could get frosty.
If<01:40:58.480><c> we</c><01:40:58.639><c> did</c><01:40:58.880><c> experience</c><01:40:59.440><c> another</c><01:40:59.760><c> glaciation</c>

01:39:56.564 --> 01:39:56.574 align:start position:0%
If we did experience another glaciation
 

01:39:56.574 --> 01:39:58.964 align:start position:0%
If we did experience another glaciation
period,<01:41:01.199><c> I</c><01:41:01.520><c> wonder</c><01:41:01.840><c> which</c><01:41:02.080><c> species</c><01:41:02.560><c> would</c>

01:39:58.964 --> 01:39:58.974 align:start position:0%
period, I wonder which species would
 

01:39:58.974 --> 01:40:01.684 align:start position:0%
period, I wonder which species would
survive.<01:41:03.840><c> Would</c><01:41:04.080><c> they</c><01:41:04.239><c> have</c><01:41:04.480><c> time</c><01:41:04.639><c> to</c><01:41:04.880><c> adapt</c>

01:40:01.684 --> 01:40:01.694 align:start position:0%
survive. Would they have time to adapt
 

01:40:01.694 --> 01:40:03.604 align:start position:0%
survive. Would they have time to adapt
or<01:41:05.840><c> would</c><01:41:06.080><c> temperatures</c><01:41:06.560><c> plummet</c><01:41:07.119><c> before</c>

01:40:03.604 --> 01:40:03.614 align:start position:0%
or would temperatures plummet before
 

01:40:03.614 --> 01:40:06.484 align:start position:0%
or would temperatures plummet before
they<01:41:07.679><c> had</c><01:41:07.840><c> the</c><01:41:08.080><c> chance?</c><01:41:09.119><c> Can</c><01:41:09.360><c> Homo</c><01:41:09.760><c> sapiens</c>

01:40:06.484 --> 01:40:06.494 align:start position:0%
they had the chance? Can Homo sapiens
 

01:40:06.494 --> 01:40:09.124 align:start position:0%
they had the chance? Can Homo sapiens
survive<01:41:10.800><c> yet</c><01:41:11.199><c> another</c><01:41:11.760><c> age</c><01:41:12.239><c> dominated</c><01:41:12.719><c> by</c>

01:40:09.124 --> 01:40:09.134 align:start position:0%
survive yet another age dominated by
 

01:40:09.134 --> 01:40:10.244 align:start position:0%
survive yet another age dominated by
ice?

01:40:10.244 --> 01:40:10.254 align:start position:0%
ice?
 

01:40:10.254 --> 01:40:12.644 align:start position:0%
ice?
Or<01:41:14.320><c> are</c><01:41:14.560><c> we</c><01:41:14.719><c> in</c><01:41:14.880><c> danger</c><01:41:15.199><c> of</c><01:41:15.440><c> being</c><01:41:15.760><c> wiped</c><01:41:16.239><c> out</c>

01:40:12.644 --> 01:40:12.654 align:start position:0%
Or are we in danger of being wiped out
 

01:40:12.654 --> 01:40:17.764 align:start position:0%
Or are we in danger of being wiped out
by<01:41:16.800><c> something</c><01:41:17.280><c> better</c><01:41:17.679><c> adapted</c><01:41:18.239><c> than</c><01:41:18.480><c> us?</c>

01:40:17.764 --> 01:40:17.774 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:40:17.774 --> 01:40:20.323 align:start position:0%
 
As<01:41:22.000><c> our</c><01:41:22.239><c> aliens</c><01:41:22.719><c> pack</c><01:41:22.960><c> their</c><01:41:23.199><c> notes</c><01:41:23.440><c> away</c><01:41:23.840><c> and</c>

01:40:20.323 --> 01:40:20.333 align:start position:0%
As our aliens pack their notes away and
 

01:40:20.333 --> 01:40:22.644 align:start position:0%
As our aliens pack their notes away and
leave<01:41:24.400><c> the</c><01:41:24.639><c> ice</c><01:41:24.880><c> age</c><01:41:25.119><c> behind,</c><01:41:26.000><c> I'm</c><01:41:26.320><c> sure</c>

01:40:22.644 --> 01:40:22.654 align:start position:0%
leave the ice age behind, I'm sure
 

01:40:22.654 --> 01:40:24.244 align:start position:0%
leave the ice age behind, I'm sure
they're<01:41:26.719><c> left</c><01:41:26.960><c> impressed</c><01:41:27.360><c> by</c><01:41:27.520><c> the</c><01:41:27.679><c> diversity</c>

01:40:24.244 --> 01:40:24.254 align:start position:0%
they're left impressed by the diversity
 

01:40:24.254 --> 01:40:26.724 align:start position:0%
they're left impressed by the diversity
of<01:41:28.239><c> life</c><01:41:28.480><c> that</c><01:41:28.719><c> lived</c><01:41:29.119><c> through</c><01:41:29.520><c> this</c><01:41:29.840><c> epoch</c><01:41:30.320><c> of</c>

01:40:26.724 --> 01:40:26.734 align:start position:0%
of life that lived through this epoch of
 

01:40:26.734 --> 01:40:28.883 align:start position:0%
of life that lived through this epoch of
Earth's<01:41:30.960><c> history.</c><01:41:31.840><c> Though</c><01:41:32.080><c> many</c><01:41:32.320><c> of</c><01:41:32.400><c> these</c>

01:40:28.883 --> 01:40:28.893 align:start position:0%
Earth's history. Though many of these
 

01:40:28.893 --> 01:40:30.883 align:start position:0%
Earth's history. Though many of these
creatures<01:41:33.040><c> are</c><01:41:33.280><c> now</c><01:41:33.520><c> just</c><01:41:33.920><c> remnants</c><01:41:34.320><c> of</c><01:41:34.480><c> the</c>

01:40:30.883 --> 01:40:30.893 align:start position:0%
creatures are now just remnants of the
 

01:40:30.893 --> 01:40:33.684 align:start position:0%
creatures are now just remnants of the
past,<01:41:35.520><c> they</c><01:41:35.840><c> still</c><01:41:36.159><c> capture</c><01:41:36.560><c> our</c><01:41:36.960><c> curiosity</c>

01:40:33.684 --> 01:40:33.694 align:start position:0%
past, they still capture our curiosity
 

01:40:33.694 --> 01:40:37.524 align:start position:0%
past, they still capture our curiosity
with<01:41:37.760><c> their</c><01:41:38.000><c> skeletons,</c><01:41:39.440><c> burrows,</c><01:41:40.880><c> and</c><01:41:41.040><c> even</c>

01:40:37.524 --> 01:40:37.534 align:start position:0%
with their skeletons, burrows, and even
 

01:40:37.534 --> 01:40:39.444 align:start position:0%
with their skeletons, burrows, and even
burial<01:41:41.840><c> sites.</c>

01:40:39.444 --> 01:40:39.454 align:start position:0%
burial sites.
 

01:40:39.454 --> 01:40:42.084 align:start position:0%
burial sites.
hinting<01:41:43.679><c> at</c><01:41:43.920><c> a</c><01:41:44.159><c> world</c><01:41:44.400><c> where,</c><01:41:45.119><c> at</c><01:41:45.199><c> least</c><01:41:45.520><c> for</c><01:41:45.760><c> a</c>

01:40:42.084 --> 01:40:42.094 align:start position:0%
hinting at a world where, at least for a
 

01:40:42.094 --> 01:40:45.283 align:start position:0%
hinting at a world where, at least for a
while,<01:41:46.639><c> mankind</c><01:41:47.119><c> lived</c><01:41:47.520><c> alongside</c><01:41:48.560><c> towering</c>

01:40:45.283 --> 01:40:45.293 align:start position:0%
while, mankind lived alongside towering
 

01:40:45.293 --> 01:40:48.323 align:start position:0%
while, mankind lived alongside towering
beasts<01:41:49.760><c> and</c><01:41:50.080><c> human</c><01:41:50.400><c> kin,</c><01:41:51.280><c> navigating</c><01:41:51.920><c> the</c>

01:40:48.323 --> 01:40:48.333 align:start position:0%
beasts and human kin, navigating the
 

01:40:48.333 --> 01:40:50.564 align:start position:0%
beasts and human kin, navigating the
same<01:41:52.400><c> raw,</c><01:41:53.119><c> unforgiving</c><01:41:53.920><c> wilderness</c>

01:40:50.564 --> 01:40:50.574 align:start position:0%
same raw, unforgiving wilderness
 

01:40:50.574 --> 01:40:53.524 align:start position:0%
same raw, unforgiving wilderness
together.<01:41:55.679><c> With</c><01:41:56.000><c> this,</c><01:41:56.400><c> our</c><01:41:56.639><c> aliens</c><01:41:57.119><c> have</c>

01:40:53.524 --> 01:40:53.534 align:start position:0%
together. With this, our aliens have
 

01:40:53.534 --> 01:40:55.924 align:start position:0%
together. With this, our aliens have
witnessed<01:41:57.840><c> almost</c><01:41:58.159><c> the</c><01:41:58.480><c> entirety</c><01:41:59.119><c> of</c><01:41:59.360><c> Earth's</c>

01:40:55.924 --> 01:40:55.934 align:start position:0%
witnessed almost the entirety of Earth's
 

01:40:55.934 --> 01:40:58.244 align:start position:0%
witnessed almost the entirety of Earth's
history<01:42:00.080><c> up</c><01:42:00.320><c> until</c><01:42:00.560><c> the</c><01:42:00.719><c> present</c><01:42:01.040><c> day.</c><01:42:01.840><c> But</c>

01:40:58.244 --> 01:40:58.254 align:start position:0%
history up until the present day. But
 

01:40:58.254 --> 01:41:00.803 align:start position:0%
history up until the present day. But
why<01:42:02.320><c> stop</c><01:42:02.560><c> there?</c><01:42:03.440><c> These</c><01:42:03.760><c> are</c><01:42:04.000><c> timetraveling</c>

01:41:00.803 --> 01:41:00.813 align:start position:0%
why stop there? These are timetraveling
 

01:41:00.813 --> 01:41:03.204 align:start position:0%
why stop there? These are timetraveling
aliens,<01:42:05.119><c> after</c><01:42:05.360><c> all.</c><01:42:06.159><c> What</c><01:42:06.560><c> might</c><01:42:06.800><c> they</c>

01:41:03.204 --> 01:41:03.214 align:start position:0%
aliens, after all. What might they
 

01:41:03.214 --> 01:41:06.484 align:start position:0%
aliens, after all. What might they
witness<01:42:07.440><c> in</c><01:42:07.760><c> our</c><01:42:08.000><c> planet's</c><01:42:08.560><c> future?</c><01:42:09.760><c> What</c><01:42:10.080><c> is</c>

01:41:06.484 --> 01:41:06.494 align:start position:0%
witness in our planet's future? What is
 

01:41:06.494 --> 01:41:12.564 align:start position:0%
witness in our planet's future? What is
the<01:42:10.639><c> Earth's</c><01:42:11.199><c> ultimate</c><01:42:11.600><c> destination?</c>

01:41:12.564 --> 01:41:12.574 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:41:12.574 --> 01:41:16.323 align:start position:0%
 
It<01:42:16.639><c> turns</c><01:42:16.880><c> out</c><01:42:17.679><c> the</c><01:42:17.920><c> outlook</c><01:42:18.400><c> is</c><01:42:18.880><c> bleak.</c><01:42:19.920><c> When</c>

01:41:16.323 --> 01:41:16.333 align:start position:0%
It turns out the outlook is bleak. When
 

01:41:16.333 --> 01:41:19.604 align:start position:0%
It turns out the outlook is bleak. When
they<01:42:20.400><c> arrive</c><01:42:21.119><c> 500</c><01:42:21.840><c> million</c><01:42:22.239><c> years</c><01:42:22.480><c> from</c><01:42:22.719><c> now,</c>

01:41:19.604 --> 01:41:19.614 align:start position:0%
they arrive 500 million years from now,
 

01:41:19.614 --> 01:41:22.803 align:start position:0%
they arrive 500 million years from now,
Earth<01:42:23.920><c> is</c><01:42:24.159><c> in</c><01:42:24.400><c> danger,</c><01:42:25.199><c> facing</c><01:42:25.679><c> an</c><01:42:26.000><c> extinction</c>

01:41:22.803 --> 01:41:22.813 align:start position:0%
Earth is in danger, facing an extinction
 

01:41:22.813 --> 01:41:25.843 align:start position:0%
Earth is in danger, facing an extinction
event<01:42:27.040><c> unlike</c><01:42:27.600><c> anything</c><01:42:28.159><c> seen</c><01:42:28.480><c> before.</c><01:42:29.360><c> More</c>

01:41:25.843 --> 01:41:25.853 align:start position:0%
event unlike anything seen before. More
 

01:41:25.853 --> 01:41:28.164 align:start position:0%
event unlike anything seen before. More
devastating<01:42:30.400><c> than</c><01:42:30.560><c> the</c><01:42:30.800><c> asteroid</c><01:42:31.280><c> that</c><01:42:31.600><c> wiped</c>

01:41:28.164 --> 01:41:28.174 align:start position:0%
devastating than the asteroid that wiped
 

01:41:28.174 --> 01:41:30.164 align:start position:0%
devastating than the asteroid that wiped
out<01:42:32.159><c> the</c><01:42:32.480><c> dinosaurs.</c>

01:41:30.164 --> 01:41:30.174 align:start position:0%
out the dinosaurs.
 

01:41:30.174 --> 01:41:32.244 align:start position:0%
out the dinosaurs.
more<01:42:34.320><c> deadly</c><01:42:34.719><c> than</c><01:42:34.880><c> the</c><01:42:35.119><c> volcanic</c><01:42:35.679><c> eruptions</c>

01:41:32.244 --> 01:41:32.254 align:start position:0%
more deadly than the volcanic eruptions
 

01:41:32.254 --> 01:41:35.764 align:start position:0%
more deadly than the volcanic eruptions
that<01:42:36.320><c> killed</c><01:42:36.639><c> off</c><01:42:37.040><c> 96%</c><01:42:38.239><c> of</c><01:42:38.480><c> marine</c><01:42:38.880><c> species</c>

01:41:35.764 --> 01:41:35.774 align:start position:0%
that killed off 96% of marine species
 

01:41:35.774 --> 01:41:39.764 align:start position:0%
that killed off 96% of marine species
and<01:42:40.080><c> 70%</c><01:42:40.800><c> of</c><01:42:41.040><c> land</c><01:42:41.360><c> creatures</c><01:42:42.080><c> 252</c><01:42:43.199><c> million</c>

01:41:39.764 --> 01:41:39.774 align:start position:0%
and 70% of land creatures 252 million
 

01:41:39.774 --> 01:41:43.444 align:start position:0%
and 70% of land creatures 252 million
years<01:42:43.840><c> ago.</c><01:42:44.880><c> Instead,</c><01:42:45.760><c> this</c><01:42:46.159><c> great</c><01:42:46.480><c> demise</c><01:42:46.960><c> of</c>

01:41:43.444 --> 01:41:43.454 align:start position:0%
years ago. Instead, this great demise of
 

01:41:43.454 --> 01:41:46.164 align:start position:0%
years ago. Instead, this great demise of
life<01:42:47.520><c> on</c><01:42:47.840><c> Earth</c><01:42:48.320><c> will</c><01:42:48.560><c> be</c><01:42:48.719><c> orchestrated</c><01:42:49.440><c> by</c>

01:41:46.164 --> 01:41:46.174 align:start position:0%
life on Earth will be orchestrated by
 

01:41:46.174 --> 01:41:49.604 align:start position:0%
life on Earth will be orchestrated by
something<01:42:50.400><c> we</c><01:42:50.719><c> need,</c><01:42:51.679><c> something</c><01:42:52.159><c> we</c><01:42:52.639><c> rely</c><01:42:52.960><c> on.</c>

01:41:49.604 --> 01:41:49.614 align:start position:0%
something we need, something we rely on.
 

01:41:49.614 --> 01:41:53.444 align:start position:0%
something we need, something we rely on.
In<01:42:53.600><c> fact,</c><01:42:54.719><c> what</c><01:42:54.960><c> will</c><01:42:55.280><c> be</c><01:42:55.440><c> the</c><01:42:55.679><c> culprit?</c><01:42:56.960><c> None</c>

01:41:53.444 --> 01:41:53.454 align:start position:0%
In fact, what will be the culprit? None
 

01:41:53.454 --> 01:41:57.843 align:start position:0%
In fact, what will be the culprit? None
other<01:42:57.760><c> than</c><01:42:58.080><c> our</c><01:42:58.480><c> own</c><01:42:59.119><c> lifegiving</c><01:43:00.239><c> sun.</c><01:43:01.440><c> As</c>

01:41:57.843 --> 01:41:57.853 align:start position:0%
other than our own lifegiving sun. As
 

01:41:57.853 --> 01:42:00.084 align:start position:0%
other than our own lifegiving sun. As
our<01:43:02.000><c> star</c><01:43:02.400><c> gets</c><01:43:02.800><c> brighter</c><01:43:03.280><c> over</c><01:43:03.520><c> the</c><01:43:03.760><c> next</c>

01:42:00.084 --> 01:42:00.094 align:start position:0%
our star gets brighter over the next
 

01:42:00.094 --> 01:42:02.564 align:start position:0%
our star gets brighter over the next
billion<01:43:04.400><c> years,</c><01:43:05.199><c> the</c><01:43:05.360><c> finely</c><01:43:05.760><c> tuned</c><01:43:06.080><c> balance</c>

01:42:02.564 --> 01:42:02.574 align:start position:0%
billion years, the finely tuned balance
 

01:42:02.574 --> 01:42:05.044 align:start position:0%
billion years, the finely tuned balance
that<01:43:06.639><c> has</c><01:43:06.800><c> kept</c><01:43:07.119><c> our</c><01:43:07.520><c> planet</c><01:43:08.000><c> thriving</c><01:43:08.560><c> for</c>

01:42:05.044 --> 01:42:05.054 align:start position:0%
that has kept our planet thriving for
 

01:42:05.054 --> 01:42:09.044 align:start position:0%
that has kept our planet thriving for
eons<01:43:09.760><c> will</c><01:43:10.080><c> begin</c><01:43:10.320><c> to</c><01:43:10.480><c> shatter.</c><01:43:11.600><c> Our</c><01:43:11.920><c> oceans,</c>

01:42:09.044 --> 01:42:09.054 align:start position:0%
eons will begin to shatter. Our oceans,
 

01:42:09.054 --> 01:42:11.444 align:start position:0%
eons will begin to shatter. Our oceans,
atmosphere,<01:43:13.520><c> and</c><01:43:13.679><c> tectonics</c><01:43:14.320><c> will</c><01:43:14.560><c> shift</c><01:43:14.800><c> so</c>

01:42:11.444 --> 01:42:11.454 align:start position:0%
atmosphere, and tectonics will shift so
 

01:42:11.454 --> 01:42:14.084 align:start position:0%
atmosphere, and tectonics will shift so
drastically<01:43:16.320><c> that</c><01:43:16.639><c> Earth</c><01:43:17.040><c> becomes</c>

01:42:14.084 --> 01:42:14.094 align:start position:0%
drastically that Earth becomes
 

01:42:14.094 --> 01:42:16.644 align:start position:0%
drastically that Earth becomes
completely<01:43:18.719><c> unrecognizable.</c>

01:42:16.644 --> 01:42:16.654 align:start position:0%
completely unrecognizable.
 

01:42:16.654 --> 01:42:20.724 align:start position:0%
completely unrecognizable.
The<01:43:20.719><c> question</c><01:43:21.040><c> is,</c><01:43:22.080><c> will</c><01:43:22.560><c> anything</c><01:43:23.119><c> survive?</c>

01:42:20.724 --> 01:42:20.734 align:start position:0%
The question is, will anything survive?
 

01:42:20.734 --> 01:42:22.964 align:start position:0%
The question is, will anything survive?
Let's<01:43:24.960><c> find</c><01:43:25.199><c> out.</c>

01:42:22.964 --> 01:42:22.974 align:start position:0%
Let's find out.
 

01:42:22.974 --> 01:42:25.604 align:start position:0%
Let's find out.
This<01:43:27.040><c> is</c><01:43:27.199><c> the</c><01:43:27.520><c> story</c><01:43:27.840><c> of</c><01:43:28.159><c> the</c><01:43:28.400><c> future</c><01:43:28.800><c> of</c><01:43:29.119><c> our</c>

01:42:25.604 --> 01:42:25.614 align:start position:0%
This is the story of the future of our
 

01:42:25.614 --> 01:42:28.484 align:start position:0%
This is the story of the future of our
planet.<01:43:30.480><c> And</c><01:43:30.800><c> although</c><01:43:31.280><c> I</c><01:43:31.600><c> mentioned</c><01:43:32.000><c> it's</c>

01:42:28.484 --> 01:42:28.494 align:start position:0%
planet. And although I mentioned it's
 

01:42:28.494 --> 01:42:30.564 align:start position:0%
planet. And although I mentioned it's
our<01:43:32.560><c> sun</c><01:43:32.800><c> that</c><01:43:33.119><c> has</c><01:43:33.360><c> the</c><01:43:33.600><c> potential</c><01:43:33.920><c> to</c><01:43:34.159><c> wipe</c>

01:42:30.564 --> 01:42:30.574 align:start position:0%
our sun that has the potential to wipe
 

01:42:30.574 --> 01:42:33.044 align:start position:0%
our sun that has the potential to wipe
out<01:43:34.719><c> life,</c><01:43:35.520><c> there's</c><01:43:35.760><c> a</c><01:43:36.000><c> lot</c><01:43:36.159><c> of</c><01:43:36.320><c> other</c><01:43:36.560><c> stuff</c>

01:42:33.044 --> 01:42:33.054 align:start position:0%
out life, there's a lot of other stuff
 

01:42:33.054 --> 01:42:36.323 align:start position:0%
out life, there's a lot of other stuff
going<01:43:37.119><c> on,</c><01:43:37.440><c> too.</c><01:43:38.719><c> I'll</c><01:43:39.040><c> take</c><01:43:39.280><c> you</c><01:43:39.600><c> through</c><01:43:39.920><c> it</c>

01:42:36.323 --> 01:42:36.333 align:start position:0%
going on, too. I'll take you through it
 

01:42:36.333 --> 01:42:39.524 align:start position:0%
going on, too. I'll take you through it
all.<01:43:41.040><c> But</c><01:43:41.280><c> before</c><01:43:41.520><c> we</c><01:43:41.760><c> get</c><01:43:41.920><c> started,</c><01:43:42.880><c> a</c><01:43:43.119><c> few</c>

01:42:39.524 --> 01:42:39.534 align:start position:0%
all. But before we get started, a few
 

01:42:39.534 --> 01:42:42.803 align:start position:0%
all. But before we get started, a few
disclaimers.<01:43:44.800><c> Firstly,</c><01:43:45.760><c> we'll</c><01:43:46.000><c> be</c><01:43:46.159><c> assuming</c>

01:42:42.803 --> 01:42:42.813 align:start position:0%
disclaimers. Firstly, we'll be assuming
 

01:42:42.813 --> 01:42:45.604 align:start position:0%
disclaimers. Firstly, we'll be assuming
that<01:43:46.880><c> there</c><01:43:47.119><c> is</c><01:43:47.520><c> no</c><01:43:48.000><c> human</c><01:43:48.320><c> influence</c><01:43:48.880><c> in</c><01:43:49.199><c> any</c>

01:42:45.604 --> 01:42:45.614 align:start position:0%
that there is no human influence in any
 

01:42:45.614 --> 01:42:48.244 align:start position:0%
that there is no human influence in any
of<01:43:49.600><c> this.</c><01:43:50.400><c> We</c><01:43:50.639><c> are</c><01:43:50.800><c> covering</c><01:43:51.199><c> how</c><01:43:51.440><c> we</c><01:43:51.679><c> think</c>

01:42:48.244 --> 01:42:48.254 align:start position:0%
of this. We are covering how we think
 

01:42:48.254 --> 01:42:50.644 align:start position:0%
of this. We are covering how we think
natural<01:43:52.719><c> processes</c><01:43:53.280><c> will</c><01:43:53.520><c> play</c><01:43:53.760><c> out</c><01:43:53.920><c> on</c><01:43:54.239><c> our</c>

01:42:50.644 --> 01:42:50.654 align:start position:0%
natural processes will play out on our
 

01:42:50.654 --> 01:42:53.363 align:start position:0%
natural processes will play out on our
planet<01:43:55.040><c> without</c><01:43:55.520><c> humanity's</c><01:43:56.159><c> intervention.</c>

01:42:53.363 --> 01:42:53.373 align:start position:0%
planet without humanity's intervention.
 

01:42:53.373 --> 01:42:55.283 align:start position:0%
planet without humanity's intervention.
Though,<01:43:57.600><c> we'll</c><01:43:57.920><c> come</c><01:43:58.080><c> back</c><01:43:58.239><c> to</c><01:43:58.400><c> humans</c><01:43:58.800><c> at</c><01:43:59.040><c> the</c>

01:42:55.283 --> 01:42:55.293 align:start position:0%
Though, we'll come back to humans at the
 

01:42:55.293 --> 01:42:56.323 align:start position:0%
Though, we'll come back to humans at the
end.

01:42:56.323 --> 01:42:56.333 align:start position:0%
end.
 

01:42:56.333 --> 01:42:58.644 align:start position:0%
end.
Secondly,<01:44:00.960><c> it's</c><01:44:01.360><c> useful</c><01:44:01.679><c> to</c><01:44:01.840><c> point</c><01:44:02.000><c> out</c><01:44:02.159><c> that</c>

01:42:58.644 --> 01:42:58.654 align:start position:0%
Secondly, it's useful to point out that
 

01:42:58.654 --> 01:43:01.764 align:start position:0%
Secondly, it's useful to point out that
Earth's<01:44:02.880><c> future</c><01:44:03.280><c> is</c><01:44:03.600><c> not</c><01:44:03.920><c> very</c><01:44:04.239><c> well</c><01:44:04.560><c> defined.</c>

01:43:01.764 --> 01:43:01.774 align:start position:0%
Earth's future is not very well defined.
 

01:43:01.774 --> 01:43:04.084 align:start position:0%
Earth's future is not very well defined.
We<01:44:05.840><c> can</c><01:44:06.000><c> project</c><01:44:06.480><c> a</c><01:44:06.800><c> general</c><01:44:07.119><c> idea</c><01:44:07.520><c> of</c><01:44:07.679><c> what</c>

01:43:04.084 --> 01:43:04.094 align:start position:0%
We can project a general idea of what
 

01:43:04.094 --> 01:43:06.004 align:start position:0%
We can project a general idea of what
might<01:44:08.159><c> happen</c><01:44:08.480><c> based</c><01:44:08.800><c> on</c><01:44:08.960><c> our</c><01:44:09.280><c> knowledge</c><01:44:09.520><c> of</c>

01:43:06.004 --> 01:43:06.014 align:start position:0%
might happen based on our knowledge of
 

01:43:06.014 --> 01:43:08.004 align:start position:0%
might happen based on our knowledge of
planetary<01:44:10.320><c> science,</c><01:44:10.960><c> geology,</c><01:44:11.600><c> and</c>

01:43:08.004 --> 01:43:08.014 align:start position:0%
planetary science, geology, and
 

01:43:08.014 --> 01:43:11.283 align:start position:0%
planetary science, geology, and
biochemistry.<01:44:13.199><c> But</c><01:44:13.360><c> a</c><01:44:13.520><c> billion</c><01:44:13.920><c> years</c><01:44:14.320><c> is</c><01:44:14.719><c> a</c>

01:43:11.283 --> 01:43:11.293 align:start position:0%
biochemistry. But a billion years is a
 

01:43:11.293 --> 01:43:15.363 align:start position:0%
biochemistry. But a billion years is a
really,<01:44:16.080><c> really</c><01:44:16.800><c> long</c><01:44:17.199><c> time.</c><01:44:18.080><c> I</c><01:44:18.400><c> mean,</c><01:44:18.960><c> 1</c>

01:43:15.363 --> 01:43:15.373 align:start position:0%
really, really long time. I mean, 1
 

01:43:15.373 --> 01:43:17.363 align:start position:0%
really, really long time. I mean, 1
billion<01:44:19.600><c> years</c><01:44:19.760><c> ago,</c><01:44:20.400><c> there</c><01:44:20.639><c> were</c><01:44:20.800><c> no</c><01:44:20.960><c> such</c>

01:43:17.363 --> 01:43:17.373 align:start position:0%
billion years ago, there were no such
 

01:43:17.373 --> 01:43:20.484 align:start position:0%
billion years ago, there were no such
things<01:44:21.520><c> as</c><01:44:21.920><c> plants,</c><01:44:22.800><c> almost</c><01:44:23.280><c> no</c><01:44:23.600><c> oxygen</c><01:44:24.080><c> in</c>

01:43:20.484 --> 01:43:20.494 align:start position:0%
things as plants, almost no oxygen in
 

01:43:20.494 --> 01:43:22.564 align:start position:0%
things as plants, almost no oxygen in
Earth's<01:44:24.639><c> atmosphere,</c><01:44:25.520><c> and</c><01:44:25.679><c> the</c><01:44:25.920><c> continents</c>

01:43:22.564 --> 01:43:22.574 align:start position:0%
Earth's atmosphere, and the continents
 

01:43:22.574 --> 01:43:24.644 align:start position:0%
Earth's atmosphere, and the continents
were<01:44:26.639><c> clustered</c><01:44:27.040><c> together</c><01:44:27.520><c> into</c><01:44:27.840><c> a</c><01:44:28.080><c> single</c>

01:43:24.644 --> 01:43:24.654 align:start position:0%
were clustered together into a single
 

01:43:24.654 --> 01:43:28.323 align:start position:0%
were clustered together into a single
landmass.<01:44:29.760><c> Our</c><01:44:30.080><c> home</c><01:44:30.639><c> was</c><01:44:31.119><c> literally</c><01:44:31.840><c> a</c>

01:43:28.323 --> 01:43:28.333 align:start position:0%
landmass. Our home was literally a
 

01:43:28.333 --> 01:43:31.044 align:start position:0%
landmass. Our home was literally a
different<01:44:32.480><c> world.</c><01:44:33.840><c> Earth</c><01:44:34.159><c> a</c><01:44:34.320><c> billion</c><01:44:34.719><c> years</c>

01:43:31.044 --> 01:43:31.054 align:start position:0%
different world. Earth a billion years
 

01:43:31.054 --> 01:43:34.004 align:start position:0%
different world. Earth a billion years
in<01:44:35.040><c> the</c><01:44:35.199><c> future</c><01:44:35.520><c> will</c><01:44:35.840><c> be</c><01:44:36.159><c> just</c><01:44:36.400><c> as</c><01:44:36.719><c> foreign.</c>

01:43:34.004 --> 01:43:34.014 align:start position:0%
in the future will be just as foreign.
 

01:43:34.014 --> 01:43:36.244 align:start position:0%
in the future will be just as foreign.
Nevertheless,<01:44:38.960><c> all</c><01:44:39.199><c> the</c><01:44:39.360><c> predictions</c><01:44:39.760><c> I'm</c>

01:43:36.244 --> 01:43:36.254 align:start position:0%
Nevertheless, all the predictions I'm
 

01:43:36.254 --> 01:43:39.044 align:start position:0%
Nevertheless, all the predictions I'm
about<01:44:40.239><c> to</c><01:44:40.400><c> share</c><01:44:40.880><c> are</c><01:44:41.199><c> based</c><01:44:41.600><c> in</c><01:44:41.840><c> science,</c>

01:43:39.044 --> 01:43:39.054 align:start position:0%
about to share are based in science,
 

01:43:39.054 --> 01:43:42.323 align:start position:0%
about to share are based in science,
even<01:44:43.199><c> if</c><01:44:43.520><c> they</c><01:44:43.760><c> feel</c><01:44:44.080><c> a</c><01:44:44.400><c> little</c><01:44:44.560><c> vague.</c><01:44:45.600><c> So</c>

01:43:42.323 --> 01:43:42.333 align:start position:0%
even if they feel a little vague. So
 

01:43:42.333 --> 01:43:44.883 align:start position:0%
even if they feel a little vague. So
without<01:44:46.480><c> further</c><01:44:46.800><c> ado,</c><01:44:47.600><c> let's</c><01:44:47.920><c> see</c><01:44:48.159><c> what's</c><01:44:48.480><c> in</c>

01:43:44.883 --> 01:43:44.893 align:start position:0%
without further ado, let's see what's in
 

01:43:44.893 --> 01:43:49.843 align:start position:0%
without further ado, let's see what's in
store<01:44:48.960><c> for</c><01:44:49.199><c> Earth.</c><01:44:50.639><c> Run</c><01:44:50.880><c> the</c><01:44:51.040><c> tape</c><01:44:51.280><c> forward.</c>

01:43:49.843 --> 01:43:49.853 align:start position:0%
store for Earth. Run the tape forward.
 

01:43:49.853 --> 01:43:52.323 align:start position:0%
store for Earth. Run the tape forward.
One<01:44:53.920><c> of</c><01:44:54.080><c> Earth's</c><01:44:54.560><c> most</c><01:44:54.880><c> unique</c><01:44:55.360><c> features</c><01:44:55.920><c> is</c>

01:43:52.323 --> 01:43:52.333 align:start position:0%
One of Earth's most unique features is
 

01:43:52.333 --> 01:43:54.803 align:start position:0%
One of Earth's most unique features is
its<01:44:56.480><c> plate</c><01:44:56.800><c> tectonics.</c><01:44:57.840><c> And</c><01:44:58.000><c> the</c><01:44:58.239><c> first</c><01:44:58.400><c> thing</c>

01:43:54.803 --> 01:43:54.813 align:start position:0%
its plate tectonics. And the first thing
 

01:43:54.813 --> 01:43:57.604 align:start position:0%
its plate tectonics. And the first thing
we<01:44:58.960><c> notice</c><01:44:59.600><c> is</c><01:44:59.840><c> how</c><01:45:00.159><c> fast</c><01:45:00.560><c> plate</c><01:45:00.880><c> tectonic</c>

01:43:57.604 --> 01:43:57.614 align:start position:0%
we notice is how fast plate tectonic
 

01:43:57.614 --> 01:44:00.724 align:start position:0%
we notice is how fast plate tectonic
shift.<01:45:02.719><c> What</c><01:45:02.960><c> we</c><01:45:03.199><c> know</c><01:45:03.679><c> is</c><01:45:04.000><c> the</c><01:45:04.239><c> Earth's</c>

01:44:00.724 --> 01:44:00.734 align:start position:0%
shift. What we know is the Earth's
 

01:44:00.734 --> 01:44:02.883 align:start position:0%
shift. What we know is the Earth's
plates<01:45:04.880><c> have</c><01:45:05.119><c> been</c><01:45:05.360><c> moving</c><01:45:05.679><c> for</c><01:45:05.920><c> more</c><01:45:06.080><c> than</c><01:45:06.400><c> 3</c>

01:44:02.883 --> 01:44:02.893 align:start position:0%
plates have been moving for more than 3
 

01:44:02.893 --> 01:44:04.724 align:start position:0%
plates have been moving for more than 3
billion<01:45:07.199><c> years.</c><01:45:07.679><c> And</c><01:45:07.840><c> they're</c><01:45:08.080><c> showing</c><01:45:08.320><c> no</c>

01:44:04.724 --> 01:44:04.734 align:start position:0%
billion years. And they're showing no
 

01:44:04.734 --> 01:44:07.924 align:start position:0%
billion years. And they're showing no
signs<01:45:08.880><c> of</c><01:45:09.119><c> stopping.</c><01:45:10.080><c> As</c><01:45:10.320><c> per</c><01:45:10.719><c> geologist</c><01:45:11.360><c> Dr.</c>

01:44:07.924 --> 01:44:07.934 align:start position:0%
signs of stopping. As per geologist Dr.
 

01:44:07.934 --> 01:44:10.323 align:start position:0%
signs of stopping. As per geologist Dr.
Christopher<01:45:12.159><c> Scottis'</c><01:45:13.040><c> pangia</c><01:45:13.679><c> proxima</c>

01:44:10.323 --> 01:44:10.333 align:start position:0%
Christopher Scottis' pangia proxima
 

01:44:10.333 --> 01:44:13.204 align:start position:0%
Christopher Scottis' pangia proxima
theory<01:45:14.719><c> in</c><01:45:15.119><c> 100</c><01:45:15.520><c> million</c><01:45:15.840><c> years</c><01:45:16.400><c> based</c><01:45:16.639><c> on</c><01:45:16.880><c> the</c>

01:44:13.204 --> 01:44:13.214 align:start position:0%
theory in 100 million years based on the
 

01:44:13.214 --> 01:44:15.524 align:start position:0%
theory in 100 million years based on the
current<01:45:17.360><c> trajectory</c><01:45:17.840><c> of</c><01:45:18.080><c> the</c><01:45:18.239><c> continent</c><01:45:19.119><c> the</c>

01:44:15.524 --> 01:44:15.534 align:start position:0%
current trajectory of the continent the
 

01:44:15.534 --> 01:44:17.843 align:start position:0%
current trajectory of the continent the
map<01:45:19.679><c> of</c><01:45:19.920><c> the</c><01:45:20.159><c> world</c><01:45:20.560><c> looks</c><01:45:20.880><c> something</c><01:45:21.360><c> like</c>

01:44:17.843 --> 01:44:17.853 align:start position:0%
map of the world looks something like
 

01:44:17.853 --> 01:44:19.363 align:start position:0%
map of the world looks something like
this

01:44:19.363 --> 01:44:19.373 align:start position:0%
this
 

01:44:19.373 --> 01:44:22.244 align:start position:0%
this
Africa<01:45:23.920><c> which</c><01:45:24.320><c> split</c><01:45:24.719><c> into</c><01:45:25.040><c> two</c><01:45:25.360><c> continents</c><01:45:25.840><c> a</c>

01:44:22.244 --> 01:44:22.254 align:start position:0%
Africa which split into two continents a
 

01:44:22.254 --> 01:44:24.564 align:start position:0%
Africa which split into two continents a
few<01:45:26.239><c> million</c><01:45:26.560><c> years</c><01:45:26.800><c> earlier</c><01:45:27.760><c> collides</c><01:45:28.159><c> with</c>

01:44:24.564 --> 01:44:24.574 align:start position:0%
few million years earlier collides with
 

01:44:24.574 --> 01:44:26.803 align:start position:0%
few million years earlier collides with
Europe<01:45:28.800><c> and</c><01:45:29.119><c> Arabia</c><01:45:30.000><c> closing</c><01:45:30.400><c> the</c>

01:44:26.803 --> 01:44:26.813 align:start position:0%
Europe and Arabia closing the
 

01:44:26.813 --> 01:44:29.524 align:start position:0%
Europe and Arabia closing the
Mediterranean<01:45:31.520><c> Red</c><01:45:31.760><c> Sea</c><01:45:32.400><c> and</c><01:45:32.719><c> the</c><01:45:32.960><c> Persian</c>

01:44:29.524 --> 01:44:29.534 align:start position:0%
Mediterranean Red Sea and the Persian
 

01:44:29.534 --> 01:44:32.403 align:start position:0%
Mediterranean Red Sea and the Persian
Gulf.<01:45:34.320><c> A</c><01:45:34.639><c> massive</c><01:45:35.119><c> Mediterranean</c><01:45:35.920><c> mountain</c>

01:44:32.403 --> 01:44:32.413 align:start position:0%
Gulf. A massive Mediterranean mountain
 

01:44:32.413 --> 01:44:35.363 align:start position:0%
Gulf. A massive Mediterranean mountain
range,<01:45:36.880><c> possibly</c><01:45:37.440><c> higher</c><01:45:37.760><c> than</c><01:45:38.000><c> Everest</c><01:45:38.880><c> will</c>

01:44:35.363 --> 01:44:35.373 align:start position:0%
range, possibly higher than Everest will
 

01:44:35.373 --> 01:44:38.724 align:start position:0%
range, possibly higher than Everest will
run<01:45:39.440><c> from</c><01:45:39.760><c> Spain</c><01:45:40.159><c> to</c><01:45:40.480><c> Asia.</c><01:45:41.520><c> Australia</c><01:45:42.159><c> joins</c>

01:44:38.724 --> 01:44:38.734 align:start position:0%
run from Spain to Asia. Australia joins
 

01:44:38.734 --> 01:44:41.204 align:start position:0%
run from Spain to Asia. Australia joins
Southeast<01:45:43.040><c> Asia,</c><01:45:43.760><c> compressing</c><01:45:44.320><c> Indonesia</c>

01:44:41.204 --> 01:44:41.214 align:start position:0%
Southeast Asia, compressing Indonesia
 

01:44:41.214 --> 01:44:44.004 align:start position:0%
Southeast Asia, compressing Indonesia
and<01:45:45.280><c> the</c><01:45:45.440><c> Philippines</c><01:45:46.080><c> into</c><01:45:46.320><c> new</c><01:45:46.639><c> mountains.</c>

01:44:44.004 --> 01:44:44.014 align:start position:0%
and the Philippines into new mountains.
 

01:44:44.014 --> 01:44:46.883 align:start position:0%
and the Philippines into new mountains.
North<01:45:48.159><c> America</c><01:45:48.560><c> and</c><01:45:48.800><c> Eurasia</c><01:45:49.520><c> move</c><01:45:49.840><c> apart,</c>

01:44:46.883 --> 01:44:46.893 align:start position:0%
North America and Eurasia move apart,
 

01:44:46.893 --> 01:44:49.524 align:start position:0%
North America and Eurasia move apart,
widening<01:45:51.280><c> the</c><01:45:51.520><c> Atlantic</c><01:45:52.000><c> Ocean.</c><01:45:52.880><c> Southern</c>

01:44:49.524 --> 01:44:49.534 align:start position:0%
widening the Atlantic Ocean. Southern
 

01:44:49.534 --> 01:44:53.044 align:start position:0%
widening the Atlantic Ocean. Southern
and<01:45:53.760><c> Baja</c><01:45:54.239><c> California</c><01:45:55.199><c> join</c><01:45:55.520><c> Alaska,</c><01:45:56.400><c> forming</c>

01:44:53.044 --> 01:44:53.054 align:start position:0%
and Baja California join Alaska, forming
 

01:44:53.054 --> 01:44:55.684 align:start position:0%
and Baja California join Alaska, forming
a<01:45:57.199><c> new</c><01:45:57.679><c> American</c><01:45:58.239><c> mountain</c><01:45:58.560><c> range,</c><01:45:59.119><c> while</c><01:45:59.360><c> the</c>

01:44:55.684 --> 01:44:55.694 align:start position:0%
a new American mountain range, while the
 

01:44:55.694 --> 01:44:59.444 align:start position:0%
a new American mountain range, while the
Rocky<01:45:59.920><c> Mountains</c><01:46:00.719><c> erode</c><01:46:01.199><c> down</c><01:46:01.520><c> into</c><01:46:01.920><c> lands.</c>

01:44:59.444 --> 01:44:59.454 align:start position:0%
Rocky Mountains erode down into lands.
 

01:44:59.454 --> 01:45:01.684 align:start position:0%
Rocky Mountains erode down into lands.
In<01:46:03.520><c> the</c><01:46:03.679><c> hands</c><01:46:04.000><c> of</c><01:46:04.320><c> tectonics</c><01:46:05.119><c> and</c>

01:45:01.684 --> 01:45:01.694 align:start position:0%
In the hands of tectonics and
 

01:45:01.694 --> 01:45:03.843 align:start position:0%
In the hands of tectonics and
subduction,<01:46:06.400><c> the</c><01:46:06.560><c> Earth's</c><01:46:06.800><c> surface</c><01:46:07.280><c> is</c>

01:45:03.843 --> 01:45:03.853 align:start position:0%
subduction, the Earth's surface is
 

01:45:03.853 --> 01:45:07.283 align:start position:0%
subduction, the Earth's surface is
incredibly<01:46:08.400><c> malleable.</c><01:46:09.600><c> Eventually,</c><01:46:10.080><c> in</c><01:46:10.400><c> 250</c>

01:45:07.283 --> 01:45:07.293 align:start position:0%
incredibly malleable. Eventually, in 250
 

01:45:07.293 --> 01:45:09.204 align:start position:0%
incredibly malleable. Eventually, in 250
million<01:46:11.440><c> years,</c><01:46:11.920><c> the</c><01:46:12.159><c> land</c><01:46:12.400><c> masses</c><01:46:12.719><c> of</c><01:46:12.880><c> the</c>

01:45:09.204 --> 01:45:09.214 align:start position:0%
million years, the land masses of the
 

01:45:09.214 --> 01:45:11.204 align:start position:0%
million years, the land masses of the
world<01:46:13.280><c> converge</c><01:46:13.760><c> into</c><01:46:14.000><c> a</c><01:46:14.239><c> new</c><01:46:14.639><c> superc</c>

01:45:11.204 --> 01:45:11.214 align:start position:0%
world converge into a new superc
 

01:45:11.214 --> 01:45:14.644 align:start position:0%
world converge into a new superc
continent<01:46:15.600><c> called</c><01:46:16.159><c> Panga</c><01:46:16.960><c> Proxima.</c><01:46:18.239><c> The</c>

01:45:14.644 --> 01:45:14.654 align:start position:0%
continent called Panga Proxima. The
 

01:45:14.654 --> 01:45:17.283 align:start position:0%
continent called Panga Proxima. The
Atlantic<01:46:19.119><c> and</c><01:46:19.520><c> Indian</c><01:46:20.000><c> oceans</c><01:46:20.400><c> close,</c>

01:45:17.283 --> 01:45:17.293 align:start position:0%
Atlantic and Indian oceans close,
 

01:45:17.293 --> 01:45:19.044 align:start position:0%
Atlantic and Indian oceans close,
bringing<01:46:21.440><c> the</c><01:46:21.679><c> Americas</c><01:46:22.159><c> together</c><01:46:22.560><c> with</c>

01:45:19.044 --> 01:45:19.054 align:start position:0%
bringing the Americas together with
 

01:45:19.054 --> 01:45:22.004 align:start position:0%
bringing the Americas together with
Eurasia<01:46:23.520><c> and</c><01:46:23.679><c> Africa.</c><01:46:24.719><c> South</c><01:46:24.960><c> America</c><01:46:25.440><c> curls</c>

01:45:22.004 --> 01:45:22.014 align:start position:0%
Eurasia and Africa. South America curls
 

01:45:22.014 --> 01:45:23.684 align:start position:0%
Eurasia and Africa. South America curls
around<01:46:26.080><c> the</c><01:46:26.239><c> southern</c><01:46:26.560><c> tip</c><01:46:26.800><c> of</c><01:46:26.960><c> Africa</c><01:46:27.360><c> and</c>

01:45:23.684 --> 01:45:23.694 align:start position:0%
around the southern tip of Africa and
 

01:45:23.694 --> 01:45:27.444 align:start position:0%
around the southern tip of Africa and
Antarctica,<01:46:28.639><c> creating</c><01:46:29.119><c> an</c><01:46:29.360><c> inland</c><01:46:29.840><c> sea.</c><01:46:31.040><c> The</c>

01:45:27.444 --> 01:45:27.454 align:start position:0%
Antarctica, creating an inland sea. The
 

01:45:27.454 --> 01:45:29.283 align:start position:0%
Antarctica, creating an inland sea. The
movement<01:46:31.600><c> of</c><01:46:31.760><c> these</c><01:46:32.000><c> continents</c><01:46:32.560><c> disrupts</c>

01:45:29.283 --> 01:45:29.293 align:start position:0%
movement of these continents disrupts
 

01:45:29.293 --> 01:45:31.363 align:start position:0%
movement of these continents disrupts
the<01:46:33.440><c> global</c><01:46:33.840><c> conveyor</c><01:46:34.320><c> system</c><01:46:34.560><c> of</c><01:46:34.800><c> ocean</c>

01:45:31.363 --> 01:45:31.373 align:start position:0%
the global conveyor system of ocean
 

01:45:31.373 --> 01:45:33.764 align:start position:0%
the global conveyor system of ocean
currents.<01:46:36.080><c> A</c><01:46:36.239><c> lack</c><01:46:36.400><c> of</c><01:46:36.560><c> circulation</c><01:46:37.199><c> causes</c>

01:45:33.764 --> 01:45:33.774 align:start position:0%
currents. A lack of circulation causes
 

01:45:33.774 --> 01:45:35.684 align:start position:0%
currents. A lack of circulation causes
the<01:46:37.840><c> water</c><01:46:38.239><c> deeper</c><01:46:38.639><c> than</c><01:46:38.880><c> a</c><01:46:39.040><c> few</c><01:46:39.119><c> hundred</c>

01:45:35.684 --> 01:45:35.694 align:start position:0%
the water deeper than a few hundred
 

01:45:35.694 --> 01:45:38.244 align:start position:0%
the water deeper than a few hundred
meters<01:46:40.000><c> to</c><01:46:40.239><c> lose</c><01:46:40.560><c> its</c><01:46:40.719><c> oxygen,</c><01:46:41.520><c> becoming</c>

01:45:38.244 --> 01:45:38.254 align:start position:0%
meters to lose its oxygen, becoming
 

01:45:38.254 --> 01:45:41.604 align:start position:0%
meters to lose its oxygen, becoming
unable<01:46:42.639><c> to</c><01:46:42.880><c> support</c><01:46:43.280><c> most</c><01:46:43.679><c> life,</c><01:46:44.480><c> leading</c><01:46:45.119><c> to</c>

01:45:41.604 --> 01:45:41.614 align:start position:0%
unable to support most life, leading to
 

01:45:41.614 --> 01:45:45.044 align:start position:0%
unable to support most life, leading to
another<01:46:46.000><c> great</c><01:46:46.400><c> extinction</c><01:46:46.960><c> event.</c><01:46:48.239><c> The</c><01:46:48.560><c> land</c>

01:45:45.044 --> 01:45:45.054 align:start position:0%
another great extinction event. The land
 

01:45:45.054 --> 01:45:46.803 align:start position:0%
another great extinction event. The land
doesn't<01:46:49.199><c> fare</c><01:46:49.440><c> much</c><01:46:49.679><c> better</c><01:46:49.840><c> than</c><01:46:50.000><c> the</c><01:46:50.239><c> water</c>

01:45:46.803 --> 01:45:46.813 align:start position:0%
doesn't fare much better than the water
 

01:45:46.813 --> 01:45:49.283 align:start position:0%
doesn't fare much better than the water
either.<01:46:51.600><c> Inland,</c><01:46:52.159><c> the</c><01:46:52.400><c> continent</c><01:46:52.800><c> will</c>

01:45:49.283 --> 01:45:49.293 align:start position:0%
either. Inland, the continent will
 

01:45:49.293 --> 01:45:52.004 align:start position:0%
either. Inland, the continent will
experience<01:46:53.520><c> semiarid</c><01:46:54.320><c> or</c><01:46:54.639><c> desert</c><01:46:55.040><c> climates</c>

01:45:52.004 --> 01:45:52.014 align:start position:0%
experience semiarid or desert climates
 

01:45:52.014 --> 01:45:54.084 align:start position:0%
experience semiarid or desert climates
with<01:46:56.159><c> extreme</c><01:46:56.719><c> temperatures</c><01:46:57.199><c> reaching</c><01:46:57.600><c> up</c><01:46:57.760><c> to</c>

01:45:54.084 --> 01:45:54.094 align:start position:0%
with extreme temperatures reaching up to
 

01:45:54.094 --> 01:45:56.004 align:start position:0%
with extreme temperatures reaching up to
55°.

01:45:56.004 --> 01:45:56.014 align:start position:0%
55°.
 

01:45:56.014 --> 01:45:58.403 align:start position:0%
55°.
The<01:47:00.159><c> only</c><01:47:00.560><c> areas</c><01:47:01.119><c> likely</c><01:47:01.440><c> to</c><01:47:01.679><c> be</c><01:47:01.760><c> habitable</c>

01:45:58.403 --> 01:45:58.413 align:start position:0%
The only areas likely to be habitable
 

01:45:58.413 --> 01:46:00.883 align:start position:0%
The only areas likely to be habitable
for<01:47:02.400><c> land</c><01:47:02.639><c> mammals</c><01:47:03.360><c> are</c><01:47:03.600><c> those</c><01:47:04.080><c> closest</c><01:47:04.560><c> to</c>

01:46:00.883 --> 01:46:00.893 align:start position:0%
for land mammals are those closest to
 

01:46:00.893 --> 01:46:02.644 align:start position:0%
for land mammals are those closest to
the<01:47:04.880><c> poles.</c>

01:46:02.644 --> 01:46:02.654 align:start position:0%
the poles.
 

01:46:02.654 --> 01:46:04.724 align:start position:0%
the poles.
But<01:47:06.880><c> this</c><01:47:07.119><c> configuration</c><01:47:07.920><c> won't</c><01:47:08.239><c> last</c>

01:46:04.724 --> 01:46:04.734 align:start position:0%
But this configuration won't last
 

01:46:04.734 --> 01:46:07.444 align:start position:0%
But this configuration won't last
forever.<01:47:09.600><c> Eventually,</c><01:47:10.239><c> Earth's</c><01:47:10.560><c> land</c><01:47:10.800><c> masses</c>

01:46:07.444 --> 01:46:07.454 align:start position:0%
forever. Eventually, Earth's land masses
 

01:46:07.454 --> 01:46:10.244 align:start position:0%
forever. Eventually, Earth's land masses
will<01:47:11.600><c> fan</c><01:47:11.920><c> out</c><01:47:12.159><c> again</c><01:47:12.480><c> in</c><01:47:12.719><c> an</c><01:47:12.960><c> almost</c><01:47:13.440><c> cyclical</c>

01:46:10.244 --> 01:46:10.254 align:start position:0%
will fan out again in an almost cyclical
 

01:46:10.254 --> 01:46:13.764 align:start position:0%
will fan out again in an almost cyclical
fashion.

01:46:13.764 --> 01:46:13.774 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:46:13.774 --> 01:46:16.323 align:start position:0%
 
Whilst<01:47:18.000><c> on</c><01:47:18.239><c> the</c><01:47:18.400><c> surface</c><01:47:18.719><c> they</c><01:47:19.040><c> look</c><01:47:19.280><c> drastic,</c>

01:46:16.323 --> 01:46:16.333 align:start position:0%
Whilst on the surface they look drastic,
 

01:46:16.333 --> 01:46:18.564 align:start position:0%
Whilst on the surface they look drastic,
these<01:47:20.560><c> shifting</c><01:47:21.040><c> continents</c><01:47:21.600><c> are</c><01:47:21.920><c> nowhere</c>

01:46:18.564 --> 01:46:18.574 align:start position:0%
these shifting continents are nowhere
 

01:46:18.574 --> 01:46:20.724 align:start position:0%
these shifting continents are nowhere
near<01:47:22.719><c> the</c><01:47:22.960><c> biggest</c><01:47:23.280><c> changes</c><01:47:23.760><c> life</c><01:47:24.080><c> on</c><01:47:24.239><c> Earth</c>

01:46:20.724 --> 01:46:20.734 align:start position:0%
near the biggest changes life on Earth
 

01:46:20.734 --> 01:46:23.204 align:start position:0%
near the biggest changes life on Earth
faces.<01:47:25.440><c> We</c><01:47:25.679><c> all</c><01:47:25.920><c> know</c><01:47:26.080><c> that</c><01:47:26.400><c> atmospheric</c>

01:46:23.204 --> 01:46:23.214 align:start position:0%
faces. We all know that atmospheric
 

01:46:23.214 --> 01:46:25.044 align:start position:0%
faces. We all know that atmospheric
carbon<01:47:27.360><c> dioxide</c><01:47:27.840><c> levels</c><01:47:28.239><c> influence</c><01:47:28.719><c> the</c>

01:46:25.044 --> 01:46:25.054 align:start position:0%
carbon dioxide levels influence the
 

01:46:25.054 --> 01:46:27.684 align:start position:0%
carbon dioxide levels influence the
planet's<01:47:29.360><c> climate.</c><01:47:30.239><c> Luckily,</c><01:47:30.719><c> the</c><01:47:30.960><c> Earth</c><01:47:31.280><c> has</c>

01:46:27.684 --> 01:46:27.694 align:start position:0%
planet's climate. Luckily, the Earth has
 

01:46:27.694 --> 01:46:30.244 align:start position:0%
planet's climate. Luckily, the Earth has
a<01:47:31.840><c> built-in</c><01:47:32.400><c> feedback</c><01:47:32.880><c> loop</c><01:47:33.199><c> that</c><01:47:33.520><c> naturally</c>

01:46:30.244 --> 01:46:30.254 align:start position:0%
a built-in feedback loop that naturally
 

01:46:30.254 --> 01:46:32.244 align:start position:0%
a built-in feedback loop that naturally
regulates<01:47:34.560><c> these</c><01:47:34.880><c> levels</c><01:47:35.199><c> over</c><01:47:35.520><c> millions</c><01:47:35.920><c> of</c>

01:46:32.244 --> 01:46:32.254 align:start position:0%
regulates these levels over millions of
 

01:46:32.254 --> 01:46:34.883 align:start position:0%
regulates these levels over millions of
years.<01:47:36.960><c> It's</c><01:47:37.280><c> known</c><01:47:37.520><c> as</c><01:47:37.760><c> the</c><01:47:38.080><c> carbonate</c>

01:46:34.883 --> 01:46:34.893 align:start position:0%
years. It's known as the carbonate
 

01:46:34.893 --> 01:46:38.084 align:start position:0%
years. It's known as the carbonate
silicut<01:47:39.360><c> cycle,</c><01:47:40.159><c> and</c><01:47:40.400><c> it</c><01:47:40.639><c> works</c><01:47:40.880><c> in</c><01:47:41.199><c> four</c><01:47:41.520><c> main</c>

01:46:38.084 --> 01:46:38.094 align:start position:0%
silicut cycle, and it works in four main
 

01:46:38.094 --> 01:46:41.204 align:start position:0%
silicut cycle, and it works in four main
steps.<01:47:43.119><c> When</c><01:47:43.360><c> a</c><01:47:43.520><c> volcano</c><01:47:44.159><c> erupts,</c><01:47:44.480><c> it</c><01:47:44.639><c> emits</c>

01:46:41.204 --> 01:46:41.214 align:start position:0%
steps. When a volcano erupts, it emits
 

01:46:41.214 --> 01:46:43.524 align:start position:0%
steps. When a volcano erupts, it emits
carbon<01:47:45.440><c> dioxide</c><01:47:45.920><c> into</c><01:47:46.159><c> the</c><01:47:46.320><c> atmosphere.</c>

01:46:43.524 --> 01:46:43.534 align:start position:0%
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
 

01:46:43.534 --> 01:46:45.924 align:start position:0%
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
There,<01:47:47.760><c> it</c><01:47:48.080><c> interacts</c><01:47:48.560><c> with</c><01:47:48.880><c> water</c><01:47:49.199><c> vapor</c><01:47:49.600><c> to</c>

01:46:45.924 --> 01:46:45.934 align:start position:0%
There, it interacts with water vapor to
 

01:46:45.934 --> 01:46:49.204 align:start position:0%
There, it interacts with water vapor to
form<01:47:50.159><c> carbonic</c><01:47:50.800><c> acid.</c><01:47:51.679><c> This</c><01:47:52.080><c> slightly</c><01:47:52.560><c> acidic</c>

01:46:49.204 --> 01:46:49.214 align:start position:0%
form carbonic acid. This slightly acidic
 

01:46:49.214 --> 01:46:51.764 align:start position:0%
form carbonic acid. This slightly acidic
water<01:47:53.360><c> condenses</c><01:47:53.840><c> into</c><01:47:54.159><c> rain</c><01:47:54.719><c> and</c><01:47:54.960><c> cascades</c>

01:46:51.764 --> 01:46:51.774 align:start position:0%
water condenses into rain and cascades
 

01:46:51.774 --> 01:46:54.084 align:start position:0%
water condenses into rain and cascades
onto<01:47:55.920><c> the</c><01:47:56.080><c> Earth's</c><01:47:56.400><c> crust</c><01:47:56.719><c> below.</c><01:47:57.760><c> The</c>

01:46:54.084 --> 01:46:54.094 align:start position:0%
onto the Earth's crust below. The
 

01:46:54.094 --> 01:46:55.843 align:start position:0%
onto the Earth's crust below. The
carbonic<01:47:58.480><c> acid</c><01:47:58.719><c> in</c><01:47:58.880><c> the</c><01:47:58.960><c> rain</c><01:47:59.280><c> reacts</c><01:47:59.600><c> with</c>

01:46:55.843 --> 01:46:55.853 align:start position:0%
carbonic acid in the rain reacts with
 

01:46:55.853 --> 01:46:57.604 align:start position:0%
carbonic acid in the rain reacts with
the<01:47:59.840><c> silicut</c><01:48:00.320><c> materials</c><01:48:00.719><c> in</c><01:48:00.880><c> the</c><01:48:00.960><c> rocks</c><01:48:01.280><c> to</c>

01:46:57.604 --> 01:46:57.614 align:start position:0%
the silicut materials in the rocks to
 

01:46:57.614 --> 01:47:00.164 align:start position:0%
the silicut materials in the rocks to
form<01:48:01.679><c> dissolved</c><01:48:02.320><c> ions</c><01:48:02.639><c> like</c><01:48:03.119><c> calcium</c><01:48:03.760><c> and</c>

01:47:00.164 --> 01:47:00.174 align:start position:0%
form dissolved ions like calcium and
 

01:47:00.174 --> 01:47:02.564 align:start position:0%
form dissolved ions like calcium and
bicarbonate<01:48:05.040><c> which</c><01:48:05.280><c> get</c><01:48:05.520><c> swept</c><01:48:05.920><c> up</c><01:48:06.080><c> by</c>

01:47:02.564 --> 01:47:02.574 align:start position:0%
bicarbonate which get swept up by
 

01:47:02.574 --> 01:47:05.444 align:start position:0%
bicarbonate which get swept up by
streams<01:48:06.800><c> and</c><01:48:07.119><c> rivers.</c><01:48:08.239><c> Once</c><01:48:08.560><c> in</c><01:48:08.719><c> the</c><01:48:08.880><c> ocean,</c>

01:47:05.444 --> 01:47:05.454 align:start position:0%
streams and rivers. Once in the ocean,
 

01:47:05.454 --> 01:47:07.764 align:start position:0%
streams and rivers. Once in the ocean,
these<01:48:09.760><c> ions</c><01:48:10.000><c> are</c><01:48:10.159><c> used</c><01:48:10.400><c> by</c><01:48:10.719><c> marine</c><01:48:11.040><c> organisms</c>

01:47:07.764 --> 01:47:07.774 align:start position:0%
these ions are used by marine organisms
 

01:47:07.774 --> 01:47:09.843 align:start position:0%
these ions are used by marine organisms
to<01:48:11.840><c> build</c><01:48:12.000><c> their</c><01:48:12.239><c> shells</c><01:48:12.560><c> and</c><01:48:12.800><c> skeletons</c>

01:47:09.843 --> 01:47:09.853 align:start position:0%
to build their shells and skeletons
 

01:47:09.853 --> 01:47:12.724 align:start position:0%
to build their shells and skeletons
which<01:48:13.920><c> are</c><01:48:14.159><c> made</c><01:48:14.320><c> of</c><01:48:14.639><c> calcium</c><01:48:15.280><c> carbonate.</c>

01:47:12.724 --> 01:47:12.734 align:start position:0%
which are made of calcium carbonate.
 

01:47:12.734 --> 01:47:14.964 align:start position:0%
which are made of calcium carbonate.
You'll<01:48:16.800><c> notice</c><01:48:17.280><c> carbon</c><01:48:17.679><c> dioxide</c><01:48:18.159><c> reappears</c>

01:47:14.964 --> 01:47:14.974 align:start position:0%
You'll notice carbon dioxide reappears
 

01:47:14.974 --> 01:47:17.524 align:start position:0%
You'll notice carbon dioxide reappears
here<01:48:18.960><c> as</c><01:48:19.199><c> a</c><01:48:19.360><c> byproduct.</c><01:48:20.480><c> This</c><01:48:20.800><c> process</c><01:48:21.119><c> of</c>

01:47:17.524 --> 01:47:17.534 align:start position:0%
here as a byproduct. This process of
 

01:47:17.534 --> 01:47:19.444 align:start position:0%
here as a byproduct. This process of
chemical<01:48:21.840><c> weathering</c><01:48:22.480><c> has</c><01:48:22.880><c> essentially</c>

01:47:19.444 --> 01:47:19.454 align:start position:0%
chemical weathering has essentially
 

01:47:19.454 --> 01:47:21.363 align:start position:0%
chemical weathering has essentially
pulled<01:48:23.679><c> carbon</c><01:48:24.000><c> dioxide</c><01:48:24.639><c> out</c><01:48:24.880><c> of</c><01:48:25.040><c> the</c>

01:47:21.363 --> 01:47:21.373 align:start position:0%
pulled carbon dioxide out of the
 

01:47:21.373 --> 01:47:24.564 align:start position:0%
pulled carbon dioxide out of the
atmosphere<01:48:26.000><c> and</c><01:48:26.320><c> stored</c><01:48:26.639><c> it</c><01:48:26.800><c> in</c><01:48:27.040><c> the</c><01:48:27.199><c> ocean.</c>

01:47:24.564 --> 01:47:24.574 align:start position:0%
atmosphere and stored it in the ocean.
 

01:47:24.574 --> 01:47:26.964 align:start position:0%
atmosphere and stored it in the ocean.
When<01:48:28.639><c> marine</c><01:48:29.040><c> organisms</c><01:48:29.679><c> die,</c><01:48:30.159><c> their</c><01:48:30.400><c> shells</c>

01:47:26.964 --> 01:47:26.974 align:start position:0%
When marine organisms die, their shells
 

01:47:26.974 --> 01:47:29.044 align:start position:0%
When marine organisms die, their shells
are<01:48:31.040><c> eventually</c><01:48:31.520><c> buried</c><01:48:31.840><c> in</c><01:48:32.000><c> the</c><01:48:32.159><c> seafloor,</c>

01:47:29.044 --> 01:47:29.054 align:start position:0%
are eventually buried in the seafloor,
 

01:47:29.054 --> 01:47:32.724 align:start position:0%
are eventually buried in the seafloor,
forming<01:48:33.520><c> carbonate</c><01:48:34.080><c> rocks.</c>

01:47:32.724 --> 01:47:32.734 align:start position:0%
forming carbonate rocks.
 

01:47:32.734 --> 01:47:34.803 align:start position:0%
forming carbonate rocks.
Over<01:48:36.880><c> millions</c><01:48:37.280><c> of</c><01:48:37.440><c> years,</c><01:48:37.920><c> the</c><01:48:38.159><c> oceanic</c>

01:47:34.803 --> 01:47:34.813 align:start position:0%
Over millions of years, the oceanic
 

01:47:34.813 --> 01:47:37.444 align:start position:0%
Over millions of years, the oceanic
crust<01:48:39.199><c> carrying</c><01:48:39.600><c> these</c><01:48:39.920><c> carbonate</c><01:48:40.400><c> rocks</c><01:48:41.040><c> is</c>

01:47:37.444 --> 01:47:37.454 align:start position:0%
crust carrying these carbonate rocks is
 

01:47:37.454 --> 01:47:39.843 align:start position:0%
crust carrying these carbonate rocks is
subducted<01:48:41.920><c> into</c><01:48:42.159><c> the</c><01:48:42.320><c> mantle,</c><01:48:43.040><c> ready</c><01:48:43.280><c> to</c><01:48:43.440><c> be</c>

01:47:39.843 --> 01:47:39.853 align:start position:0%
subducted into the mantle, ready to be
 

01:47:39.853 --> 01:47:42.883 align:start position:0%
subducted into the mantle, ready to be
released<01:48:44.080><c> via</c><01:48:44.480><c> volcanic</c><01:48:45.040><c> outgassing,</c><01:48:46.159><c> and</c>

01:47:42.883 --> 01:47:42.893 align:start position:0%
released via volcanic outgassing, and
 

01:47:42.893 --> 01:47:46.004 align:start position:0%
released via volcanic outgassing, and
the<01:48:47.040><c> cycle</c><01:48:47.360><c> starts</c><01:48:47.760><c> again.</c><01:48:48.880><c> It's</c><01:48:49.119><c> a</c><01:48:49.360><c> delicate</c>

01:47:46.004 --> 01:47:46.014 align:start position:0%
the cycle starts again. It's a delicate
 

01:47:46.014 --> 01:47:47.524 align:start position:0%
the cycle starts again. It's a delicate
balance<01:48:50.159><c> that</c><01:48:50.480><c> keeps</c><01:48:50.719><c> the</c><01:48:50.960><c> planet's</c>

01:47:47.524 --> 01:47:47.534 align:start position:0%
balance that keeps the planet's
 

01:47:47.534 --> 01:47:49.843 align:start position:0%
balance that keeps the planet's
temperature,<01:48:52.080><c> climate,</c><01:48:52.560><c> and</c><01:48:52.880><c> atmosphere</c><01:48:53.440><c> in</c>

01:47:49.843 --> 01:47:49.853 align:start position:0%
temperature, climate, and atmosphere in
 

01:47:49.853 --> 01:47:52.084 align:start position:0%
temperature, climate, and atmosphere in
check<01:48:54.320><c> when</c><01:48:54.639><c> humans</c><01:48:55.040><c> aren't</c><01:48:55.360><c> getting</c><01:48:55.520><c> in</c><01:48:55.760><c> the</c>

01:47:52.084 --> 01:47:52.094 align:start position:0%
check when humans aren't getting in the
 

01:47:52.094 --> 01:47:54.484 align:start position:0%
check when humans aren't getting in the
way.<01:48:56.800><c> But</c><01:48:57.040><c> when</c><01:48:57.280><c> the</c><01:48:57.440><c> alien</c><01:48:57.840><c> scientists</c>

01:47:54.484 --> 01:47:54.494 align:start position:0%
way. But when the alien scientists
 

01:47:54.494 --> 01:47:57.044 align:start position:0%
way. But when the alien scientists
return<01:48:58.719><c> in</c><01:48:59.119><c> 500</c><01:48:59.520><c> million</c><01:48:59.840><c> years,</c><01:49:00.560><c> something</c>

01:47:57.044 --> 01:47:57.054 align:start position:0%
return in 500 million years, something
 

01:47:57.054 --> 01:47:59.843 align:start position:0%
return in 500 million years, something
will<01:49:01.199><c> have</c><01:49:01.440><c> a</c><01:49:01.840><c> much</c><01:49:02.239><c> bigger</c><01:49:02.719><c> impact</c><01:49:03.119><c> on</c><01:49:03.360><c> our</c>

01:47:59.843 --> 01:47:59.853 align:start position:0%
will have a much bigger impact on our
 

01:47:59.853 --> 01:48:06.964 align:start position:0%
will have a much bigger impact on our
climate<01:49:04.320><c> than</c><01:49:04.719><c> us</c><01:49:05.360><c> or</c><01:49:05.600><c> this</c><01:49:05.920><c> cycle.</c><01:49:07.199><c> The</c><01:49:07.520><c> sun.</c>

01:48:06.964 --> 01:48:06.974 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:48:06.974 --> 01:48:09.604 align:start position:0%
 
Small<01:49:11.600><c> subtle</c><01:49:12.000><c> changes</c><01:49:12.400><c> our</c><01:49:12.719><c> star</c><01:49:13.040><c> has</c><01:49:13.280><c> been</c>

01:48:09.604 --> 01:48:09.614 align:start position:0%
Small subtle changes our star has been
 

01:48:09.614 --> 01:48:11.764 align:start position:0%
Small subtle changes our star has been
going<01:49:13.600><c> through</c><01:49:13.840><c> all</c><01:49:14.159><c> this</c><01:49:14.400><c> time</c><01:49:15.040><c> finally</c>

01:48:11.764 --> 01:48:11.774 align:start position:0%
going through all this time finally
 

01:48:11.774 --> 01:48:14.484 align:start position:0%
going through all this time finally
become<01:49:15.920><c> apparent</c><01:49:16.880><c> and</c><01:49:17.199><c> its</c><01:49:17.440><c> effects</c><01:49:17.840><c> are</c><01:49:18.000><c> felt</c>

01:48:14.484 --> 01:48:14.494 align:start position:0%
become apparent and its effects are felt
 

01:48:14.494 --> 01:48:17.684 align:start position:0%
become apparent and its effects are felt
on<01:49:18.560><c> Earth</c><01:49:18.960><c> like</c><01:49:19.360><c> never</c><01:49:19.679><c> before.</c><01:49:20.800><c> As</c><01:49:21.119><c> a</c><01:49:21.280><c> main</c>

01:48:17.684 --> 01:48:17.694 align:start position:0%
on Earth like never before. As a main
 

01:48:17.694 --> 01:48:20.244 align:start position:0%
on Earth like never before. As a main
sequence<01:49:21.920><c> star,</c><01:49:22.560><c> our</c><01:49:22.880><c> sun</c><01:49:23.199><c> is</c><01:49:23.520><c> constantly</c>

01:48:20.244 --> 01:48:20.254 align:start position:0%
sequence star, our sun is constantly
 

01:48:20.254 --> 01:48:23.044 align:start position:0%
sequence star, our sun is constantly
fusing<01:49:24.560><c> hydrogen</c><01:49:25.040><c> into</c><01:49:25.360><c> helium</c><01:49:25.760><c> in</c><01:49:25.920><c> its</c><01:49:26.080><c> core.</c>

01:48:23.044 --> 01:48:23.054 align:start position:0%
fusing hydrogen into helium in its core.
 

01:48:23.054 --> 01:48:25.363 align:start position:0%
fusing hydrogen into helium in its core.
Since<01:49:27.199><c> helium</c><01:49:27.600><c> is</c><01:49:27.840><c> heavier</c><01:49:28.159><c> than</c><01:49:28.400><c> hydrogen,</c>

01:48:25.363 --> 01:48:25.373 align:start position:0%
Since helium is heavier than hydrogen,
 

01:48:25.373 --> 01:48:27.283 align:start position:0%
Since helium is heavier than hydrogen,
over<01:49:29.520><c> millions</c><01:49:29.840><c> of</c><01:49:30.000><c> years,</c><01:49:30.239><c> the</c><01:49:30.480><c> sun's</c><01:49:30.800><c> core</c>

01:48:27.283 --> 01:48:27.293 align:start position:0%
over millions of years, the sun's core
 

01:48:27.293 --> 01:48:30.484 align:start position:0%
over millions of years, the sun's core
is<01:49:31.360><c> becoming</c><01:49:31.840><c> denser</c><01:49:32.560><c> and</c><01:49:32.880><c> more</c><01:49:33.119><c> contracted.</c>

01:48:30.484 --> 01:48:30.494 align:start position:0%
is becoming denser and more contracted.
 

01:48:30.494 --> 01:48:32.244 align:start position:0%
is becoming denser and more contracted.
Because<01:49:34.560><c> of</c><01:49:34.719><c> this,</c><01:49:35.040><c> the</c><01:49:35.280><c> outer</c><01:49:35.679><c> layers</c><01:49:35.840><c> of</c><01:49:35.920><c> the</c>

01:48:32.244 --> 01:48:32.254 align:start position:0%
Because of this, the outer layers of the
 

01:48:32.254 --> 01:48:35.124 align:start position:0%
Because of this, the outer layers of the
sun<01:49:36.400><c> move</c><01:49:36.800><c> closer</c><01:49:37.119><c> to</c><01:49:37.280><c> the</c><01:49:37.440><c> center,</c><01:49:37.840><c> too.</c><01:49:38.639><c> And</c>

01:48:35.124 --> 01:48:35.134 align:start position:0%
sun move closer to the center, too. And
 

01:48:35.134 --> 01:48:37.684 align:start position:0%
sun move closer to the center, too. And
in<01:49:39.199><c> the</c><01:49:39.360><c> process,</c><01:49:40.239><c> gravitational</c><01:49:41.040><c> potential</c>

01:48:37.684 --> 01:48:37.694 align:start position:0%
in the process, gravitational potential
 

01:48:37.694 --> 01:48:41.204 align:start position:0%
in the process, gravitational potential
energy<01:49:41.920><c> is</c><01:49:42.239><c> released</c><01:49:42.719><c> as</c><01:49:43.040><c> heat</c><01:49:43.520><c> and</c><01:49:43.840><c> light.</c>

01:48:41.204 --> 01:48:41.214 align:start position:0%
energy is released as heat and light.
 

01:48:41.214 --> 01:48:42.724 align:start position:0%
energy is released as heat and light.
This<01:49:45.280><c> increases</c><01:49:45.760><c> the</c><01:49:46.000><c> pressure</c><01:49:46.320><c> and</c>

01:48:42.724 --> 01:48:42.734 align:start position:0%
This increases the pressure and
 

01:48:42.734 --> 01:48:45.363 align:start position:0%
This increases the pressure and
temperature<01:49:46.960><c> of</c><01:49:47.119><c> the</c><01:49:47.360><c> core,</c><01:49:48.080><c> which</c><01:49:48.320><c> in</c><01:49:48.560><c> turn</c>

01:48:45.363 --> 01:48:45.373 align:start position:0%
temperature of the core, which in turn
 

01:48:45.373 --> 01:48:47.924 align:start position:0%
temperature of the core, which in turn
accelerates<01:49:49.760><c> the</c><01:49:50.000><c> rate</c><01:49:50.239><c> of</c><01:49:50.480><c> fusion.</c><01:49:51.520><c> The</c>

01:48:47.924 --> 01:48:47.934 align:start position:0%
accelerates the rate of fusion. The
 

01:48:47.934 --> 01:48:49.924 align:start position:0%
accelerates the rate of fusion. The
result<01:49:52.000><c> is</c><01:49:52.320><c> that</c><01:49:52.480><c> the</c><01:49:52.719><c> sun</c><01:49:53.040><c> increases</c><01:49:53.520><c> its</c>

01:48:49.924 --> 01:48:49.934 align:start position:0%
result is that the sun increases its
 

01:48:49.934 --> 01:48:52.564 align:start position:0%
result is that the sun increases its
energy<01:49:54.080><c> output</c><01:49:54.719><c> and</c><01:49:54.960><c> in</c><01:49:55.199><c> turn</c><01:49:55.600><c> its</c><01:49:55.920><c> brightness</c>

01:48:52.564 --> 01:48:52.574 align:start position:0%
energy output and in turn its brightness
 

01:48:52.574 --> 01:48:56.484 align:start position:0%
energy output and in turn its brightness
as<01:49:56.639><c> it</c><01:49:56.800><c> ages.</c><01:49:58.080><c> This</c><01:49:58.320><c> has</c><01:49:58.719><c> consequences.</c><01:50:00.080><c> As</c>

01:48:56.484 --> 01:48:56.494 align:start position:0%
as it ages. This has consequences. As
 

01:48:56.494 --> 01:48:58.644 align:start position:0%
as it ages. This has consequences. As
the<01:50:00.480><c> sun</c><01:50:00.719><c> gets</c><01:50:01.040><c> hotter</c><01:50:01.360><c> and</c><01:50:01.600><c> brighter,</c><01:50:02.159><c> it's</c>

01:48:58.644 --> 01:48:58.654 align:start position:0%
the sun gets hotter and brighter, it's
 

01:48:58.654 --> 01:49:00.883 align:start position:0%
the sun gets hotter and brighter, it's
also<01:50:02.800><c> getting</c><01:50:03.199><c> wider</c><01:50:03.760><c> because</c><01:50:04.000><c> of</c><01:50:04.159><c> the</c><01:50:04.400><c> extra</c>

01:49:00.883 --> 01:49:00.893 align:start position:0%
also getting wider because of the extra
 

01:49:00.893 --> 01:49:03.363 align:start position:0%
also getting wider because of the extra
energy<01:50:05.119><c> being</c><01:50:05.440><c> produced</c><01:50:05.760><c> in</c><01:50:05.920><c> the</c><01:50:06.080><c> core.</c><01:50:06.960><c> The</c>

01:49:03.363 --> 01:49:03.373 align:start position:0%
energy being produced in the core. The
 

01:49:03.373 --> 01:49:05.524 align:start position:0%
energy being produced in the core. The
sun<01:50:07.520><c> is</c><01:50:07.840><c> stuck</c><01:50:08.159><c> in</c><01:50:08.400><c> the</c><01:50:08.560><c> middle</c><01:50:08.719><c> of</c><01:50:08.800><c> a</c><01:50:09.040><c> game</c><01:50:09.199><c> of</c>

01:49:05.524 --> 01:49:05.534 align:start position:0%
sun is stuck in the middle of a game of
 

01:49:05.534 --> 01:49:08.323 align:start position:0%
sun is stuck in the middle of a game of
tugofwar<01:50:10.080><c> between</c><01:50:10.400><c> two</c><01:50:10.719><c> forces.</c><01:50:11.679><c> This</c>

01:49:08.323 --> 01:49:08.333 align:start position:0%
tugofwar between two forces. This
 

01:49:08.333 --> 01:49:10.244 align:start position:0%
tugofwar between two forces. This
outward<01:50:12.639><c> pushing</c><01:50:12.960><c> force</c><01:50:13.360><c> generated</c><01:50:13.840><c> by</c>

01:49:10.244 --> 01:49:10.254 align:start position:0%
outward pushing force generated by
 

01:49:10.254 --> 01:49:12.724 align:start position:0%
outward pushing force generated by
nuclear<01:50:14.560><c> fusion</c><01:50:15.360><c> and</c><01:50:15.600><c> the</c><01:50:15.840><c> inward</c><01:50:16.159><c> pull</c><01:50:16.400><c> of</c>

01:49:12.724 --> 01:49:12.734 align:start position:0%
nuclear fusion and the inward pull of
 

01:49:12.734 --> 01:49:15.524 align:start position:0%
nuclear fusion and the inward pull of
the<01:50:16.719><c> stars</c><01:50:17.040><c> own</c><01:50:17.280><c> gravity.</c><01:50:18.560><c> On</c><01:50:18.800><c> the</c><01:50:18.960><c> whole,</c>

01:49:15.524 --> 01:49:15.534 align:start position:0%
the stars own gravity. On the whole,
 

01:49:15.534 --> 01:49:18.403 align:start position:0%
the stars own gravity. On the whole,
this<01:50:19.600><c> system</c><01:50:20.159><c> looks</c><01:50:20.560><c> stable.</c><01:50:21.520><c> But</c><01:50:21.760><c> zoom</c><01:50:22.080><c> out</c>

01:49:18.403 --> 01:49:18.413 align:start position:0%
this system looks stable. But zoom out
 

01:49:18.413 --> 01:49:21.124 align:start position:0%
this system looks stable. But zoom out
to<01:50:22.400><c> a</c><01:50:22.560><c> time</c><01:50:22.800><c> scale</c><01:50:23.199><c> of</c><01:50:23.520><c> billions</c><01:50:23.920><c> of</c><01:50:24.080><c> years,</c>

01:49:21.124 --> 01:49:21.134 align:start position:0%
to a time scale of billions of years,
 

01:49:21.134 --> 01:49:24.564 align:start position:0%
to a time scale of billions of years,
and<01:50:25.199><c> you</c><01:50:25.440><c> can</c><01:50:25.600><c> see</c><01:50:25.760><c> that</c><01:50:26.000><c> it</c><01:50:26.239><c> isn't.</c>

01:49:24.564 --> 01:49:24.574 align:start position:0%
and you can see that it isn't.
 

01:49:24.574 --> 01:49:26.803 align:start position:0%
and you can see that it isn't.
As<01:50:28.639><c> more</c><01:50:28.880><c> and</c><01:50:29.040><c> more</c><01:50:29.280><c> hydrogen</c><01:50:29.760><c> is</c><01:50:29.920><c> used</c><01:50:30.159><c> up,</c>

01:49:26.803 --> 01:49:26.813 align:start position:0%
As more and more hydrogen is used up,
 

01:49:26.813 --> 01:49:29.924 align:start position:0%
As more and more hydrogen is used up,
the<01:50:30.880><c> sun's</c><01:50:31.199><c> core</c><01:50:31.600><c> slowly</c><01:50:32.159><c> starts</c><01:50:32.639><c> collapsing</c>

01:49:29.924 --> 01:49:29.934 align:start position:0%
the sun's core slowly starts collapsing
 

01:49:29.934 --> 01:49:32.964 align:start position:0%
the sun's core slowly starts collapsing
while<01:50:34.080><c> the</c><01:50:34.239><c> outer</c><01:50:34.719><c> layers</c><01:50:35.119><c> grow</c><01:50:35.440><c> larger.</c>

01:49:32.964 --> 01:49:32.974 align:start position:0%
while the outer layers grow larger.
 

01:49:32.974 --> 01:49:35.764 align:start position:0%
while the outer layers grow larger.
Right<01:50:37.119><c> now,</c><01:50:37.520><c> the</c><01:50:37.840><c> sun</c><01:50:38.000><c> is</c><01:50:38.239><c> getting</c><01:50:38.639><c> over</c><01:50:38.960><c> 1%</c>

01:49:35.764 --> 01:49:35.774 align:start position:0%
Right now, the sun is getting over 1%
 

01:49:35.774 --> 01:49:39.684 align:start position:0%
Right now, the sun is getting over 1%
brighter<01:50:40.159><c> every</c><01:50:40.719><c> 100</c><01:50:41.199><c> million</c><01:50:41.600><c> years.</c><01:50:42.719><c> So,</c><01:50:43.119><c> in</c>

01:49:39.684 --> 01:49:39.694 align:start position:0%
brighter every 100 million years. So, in
 

01:49:39.694 --> 01:49:42.244 align:start position:0%
brighter every 100 million years. So, in
500<01:50:44.000><c> million</c><01:50:44.320><c> years,</c><01:50:44.800><c> the</c><01:50:45.040><c> sun</c><01:50:45.360><c> will</c><01:50:45.600><c> be</c><01:50:45.760><c> about</c>

01:49:42.244 --> 01:49:42.254 align:start position:0%
500 million years, the sun will be about
 

01:49:42.254 --> 01:49:45.283 align:start position:0%
500 million years, the sun will be about
5%<01:50:46.719><c> brighter</c><01:50:47.040><c> than</c><01:50:47.280><c> today.</c><01:50:48.400><c> This</c><01:50:48.719><c> extra</c>

01:49:45.283 --> 01:49:45.293 align:start position:0%
5% brighter than today. This extra
 

01:49:45.293 --> 01:49:48.084 align:start position:0%
5% brighter than today. This extra
energy<01:50:49.679><c> warms</c><01:50:50.159><c> Earth,</c><01:50:50.880><c> speeds</c><01:50:51.280><c> up</c><01:50:51.520><c> reaction</c>

01:49:48.084 --> 01:49:48.094 align:start position:0%
energy warms Earth, speeds up reaction
 

01:49:48.094 --> 01:49:51.604 align:start position:0%
energy warms Earth, speeds up reaction
rates,<01:50:52.400><c> and</c><01:50:52.719><c> causes</c><01:50:53.199><c> oceans</c><01:50:54.080><c> to</c><01:50:54.400><c> evaporate,</c>

01:49:51.604 --> 01:49:51.614 align:start position:0%
rates, and causes oceans to evaporate,
 

01:49:51.614 --> 01:49:54.403 align:start position:0%
rates, and causes oceans to evaporate,
which<01:50:55.679><c> we'll</c><01:50:56.000><c> come</c><01:50:56.159><c> back</c><01:50:56.320><c> to.</c><01:50:57.520><c> This</c><01:50:58.000><c> increase</c>

01:49:54.403 --> 01:49:54.413 align:start position:0%
which we'll come back to. This increase
 

01:49:54.413 --> 01:49:56.883 align:start position:0%
which we'll come back to. This increase
in<01:50:58.480><c> reaction</c><01:50:58.880><c> rates</c><01:50:59.520><c> accelerates</c><01:51:00.239><c> chemical</c>

01:49:56.883 --> 01:49:56.893 align:start position:0%
in reaction rates accelerates chemical
 

01:49:56.893 --> 01:49:59.124 align:start position:0%
in reaction rates accelerates chemical
weathering,<01:51:01.520><c> pulling</c><01:51:01.920><c> carbon</c><01:51:02.239><c> dioxide</c><01:51:02.719><c> out</c>

01:49:59.124 --> 01:49:59.134 align:start position:0%
weathering, pulling carbon dioxide out
 

01:49:59.134 --> 01:50:01.124 align:start position:0%
weathering, pulling carbon dioxide out
of<01:51:03.040><c> the</c><01:51:03.199><c> atmosphere</c><01:51:03.760><c> faster</c><01:51:04.159><c> than</c><01:51:04.400><c> volcanic</c>

01:50:01.124 --> 01:50:01.134 align:start position:0%
of the atmosphere faster than volcanic
 

01:50:01.134 --> 01:50:03.764 align:start position:0%
of the atmosphere faster than volcanic
outgassing<01:51:05.600><c> can</c><01:51:05.840><c> replace</c><01:51:06.159><c> it.</c><01:51:06.800><c> Atmospheric</c>

01:50:03.764 --> 01:50:03.774 align:start position:0%
outgassing can replace it. Atmospheric
 

01:50:03.774 --> 01:50:06.964 align:start position:0%
outgassing can replace it. Atmospheric
carbon<01:51:08.000><c> dioxide</c><01:51:08.800><c> plummets.</c><01:51:10.080><c> This</c><01:51:10.320><c> is</c><01:51:10.560><c> the</c>

01:50:06.964 --> 01:50:06.974 align:start position:0%
carbon dioxide plummets. This is the
 

01:50:06.974 --> 01:50:09.444 align:start position:0%
carbon dioxide plummets. This is the
start<01:51:11.119><c> of</c><01:51:11.280><c> the</c><01:51:11.520><c> plant</c><01:51:11.840><c> apocalypse</c><01:51:12.800><c> that</c><01:51:13.040><c> our</c>

01:50:09.444 --> 01:50:09.454 align:start position:0%
start of the plant apocalypse that our
 

01:50:09.454 --> 01:50:12.244 align:start position:0%
start of the plant apocalypse that our
aliens<01:51:13.920><c> will</c><01:51:14.159><c> have</c><01:51:14.400><c> to</c><01:51:14.560><c> witness.</c>

01:50:12.244 --> 01:50:12.254 align:start position:0%
aliens will have to witness.
 

01:50:12.254 --> 01:50:15.204 align:start position:0%
aliens will have to witness.
Think<01:51:16.320><c> of</c><01:51:16.560><c> plants</c><01:51:17.040><c> like</c><01:51:17.440><c> tiny</c><01:51:17.920><c> factories.</c>

01:50:15.204 --> 01:50:15.214 align:start position:0%
Think of plants like tiny factories.
 

01:50:15.214 --> 01:50:17.684 align:start position:0%
Think of plants like tiny factories.
Using<01:51:19.360><c> photosynthesis,</c><01:51:20.560><c> they</c><01:51:20.800><c> turn</c><01:51:21.119><c> carbon</c>

01:50:17.684 --> 01:50:17.694 align:start position:0%
Using photosynthesis, they turn carbon
 

01:50:17.694 --> 01:50:20.164 align:start position:0%
Using photosynthesis, they turn carbon
dioxide<01:51:22.159><c> into</c><01:51:22.480><c> sugar,</c><01:51:23.040><c> which</c><01:51:23.280><c> they</c><01:51:23.520><c> use</c><01:51:23.760><c> to</c>

01:50:20.164 --> 01:50:20.174 align:start position:0%
dioxide into sugar, which they use to
 

01:50:20.174 --> 01:50:22.883 align:start position:0%
dioxide into sugar, which they use to
grow<01:51:24.320><c> and</c><01:51:24.639><c> build</c><01:51:24.960><c> new</c><01:51:25.280><c> things.</c><01:51:26.080><c> But</c><01:51:26.239><c> they</c><01:51:26.480><c> also</c>

01:50:22.883 --> 01:50:22.893 align:start position:0%
grow and build new things. But they also
 

01:50:22.893 --> 01:50:24.564 align:start position:0%
grow and build new things. But they also
need<01:51:26.880><c> to</c><01:51:27.040><c> burn</c><01:51:27.360><c> some</c><01:51:27.520><c> of</c><01:51:27.679><c> that</c><01:51:27.840><c> sugar</c><01:51:28.159><c> for</c>

01:50:24.564 --> 01:50:24.574 align:start position:0%
need to burn some of that sugar for
 

01:50:24.574 --> 01:50:26.403 align:start position:0%
need to burn some of that sugar for
energy<01:51:28.880><c> to</c><01:51:29.199><c> keep</c><01:51:29.440><c> everything</c><01:51:29.840><c> running</c>

01:50:26.403 --> 01:50:26.413 align:start position:0%
energy to keep everything running
 

01:50:26.413 --> 01:50:28.644 align:start position:0%
energy to keep everything running
smoothly,<01:51:31.119><c> a</c><01:51:31.360><c> process</c><01:51:31.679><c> known</c><01:51:32.080><c> as</c>

01:50:28.644 --> 01:50:28.654 align:start position:0%
smoothly, a process known as
 

01:50:28.654 --> 01:50:30.164 align:start position:0%
smoothly, a process known as
respiration.

01:50:30.164 --> 01:50:30.174 align:start position:0%
respiration.
 

01:50:30.174 --> 01:50:32.084 align:start position:0%
respiration.
When<01:51:34.239><c> the</c><01:51:34.400><c> amount</c><01:51:34.639><c> of</c><01:51:34.800><c> carbon</c><01:51:35.119><c> dioxide</c><01:51:35.600><c> gained</c>

01:50:32.084 --> 01:50:32.094 align:start position:0%
When the amount of carbon dioxide gained
 

01:50:32.094 --> 01:50:34.164 align:start position:0%
When the amount of carbon dioxide gained
from<01:51:36.080><c> photosynthesis</c><01:51:37.040><c> is</c><01:51:37.360><c> equal</c><01:51:37.679><c> to</c><01:51:37.840><c> the</c>

01:50:34.164 --> 01:50:34.174 align:start position:0%
from photosynthesis is equal to the
 

01:50:34.174 --> 01:50:36.484 align:start position:0%
from photosynthesis is equal to the
carbon<01:51:38.320><c> dioxide</c><01:51:38.800><c> lost</c><01:51:39.119><c> from</c><01:51:39.280><c> respiration,</c>

01:50:36.484 --> 01:50:36.494 align:start position:0%
carbon dioxide lost from respiration,
 

01:50:36.494 --> 01:50:39.444 align:start position:0%
carbon dioxide lost from respiration,
the<01:51:40.560><c> plant</c><01:51:40.800><c> is</c><01:51:41.040><c> at</c><01:51:41.280><c> its</c><01:51:41.679><c> compensation</c><01:51:42.400><c> point.</c>

01:50:39.444 --> 01:50:39.454 align:start position:0%
the plant is at its compensation point.
 

01:50:39.454 --> 01:50:42.164 align:start position:0%
the plant is at its compensation point.
It<01:51:43.520><c> is</c><01:51:43.760><c> breaking</c><01:51:44.239><c> even</c><01:51:44.719><c> energetically.</c><01:51:45.760><c> To</c>

01:50:42.164 --> 01:50:42.174 align:start position:0%
It is breaking even energetically. To
 

01:50:42.174 --> 01:50:44.644 align:start position:0%
It is breaking even energetically. To
grow<01:51:46.320><c> big</c><01:51:46.639><c> and</c><01:51:46.960><c> healthy,</c><01:51:47.679><c> the</c><01:51:47.920><c> plant</c><01:51:48.159><c> must</c>

01:50:44.644 --> 01:50:44.654 align:start position:0%
grow big and healthy, the plant must
 

01:50:44.654 --> 01:50:47.124 align:start position:0%
grow big and healthy, the plant must
make<01:51:48.719><c> more</c><01:51:49.119><c> sugar</c><01:51:49.440><c> than</c><01:51:49.599><c> it</c><01:51:49.760><c> burns.</c><01:51:50.560><c> If</c><01:51:50.719><c> it</c>

01:50:47.124 --> 01:50:47.134 align:start position:0%
make more sugar than it burns. If it
 

01:50:47.134 --> 01:50:50.724 align:start position:0%
make more sugar than it burns. If it
doesn't,<01:51:51.599><c> the</c><01:51:51.920><c> plant</c><01:51:52.320><c> eventually</c><01:51:52.960><c> dies.</c>

01:50:50.724 --> 01:50:50.734 align:start position:0%
doesn't, the plant eventually dies.
 

01:50:50.734 --> 01:50:53.604 align:start position:0%
doesn't, the plant eventually dies.
Photosynthesis<01:51:55.520><c> comes</c><01:51:55.840><c> in</c><01:51:56.080><c> two</c><01:51:56.320><c> main</c><01:51:56.560><c> forms,</c>

01:50:53.604 --> 01:50:53.614 align:start position:0%
Photosynthesis comes in two main forms,
 

01:50:53.614 --> 01:50:57.924 align:start position:0%
Photosynthesis comes in two main forms,
C3<01:51:58.159><c> and</c><01:51:58.480><c> C4.</c><01:51:59.679><c> Most</c><01:52:00.000><c> plants,</c><01:52:00.639><c> including</c><01:52:01.119><c> trees,</c>

01:50:57.924 --> 01:50:57.934 align:start position:0%
C3 and C4. Most plants, including trees,
 

01:50:57.934 --> 01:51:00.803 align:start position:0%
C3 and C4. Most plants, including trees,
grasses,<01:52:02.560><c> root</c><01:52:02.960><c> vegetables,</c><01:52:03.840><c> cotton,</c><01:52:04.400><c> and</c>

01:51:00.803 --> 01:51:00.813 align:start position:0%
grasses, root vegetables, cotton, and
 

01:51:00.813 --> 01:51:02.964 align:start position:0%
grasses, root vegetables, cotton, and
stable<01:52:05.040><c> grains</c><01:52:05.360><c> like</c><01:52:05.679><c> wheat,</c><01:52:06.239><c> rice,</c><01:52:06.560><c> and</c>

01:51:02.964 --> 01:51:02.974 align:start position:0%
stable grains like wheat, rice, and
 

01:51:02.974 --> 01:51:05.924 align:start position:0%
stable grains like wheat, rice, and
oats,<01:52:07.440><c> are</c><01:52:07.679><c> C3</c><01:52:08.320><c> plants.</c><01:52:09.199><c> They</c><01:52:09.440><c> need</c>

01:51:05.924 --> 01:51:05.934 align:start position:0%
oats, are C3 plants. They need
 

01:51:05.934 --> 01:51:08.323 align:start position:0%
oats, are C3 plants. They need
relatively<01:52:10.320><c> high</c><01:52:10.560><c> levels</c><01:52:10.800><c> of</c><01:52:10.960><c> carbon</c><01:52:11.199><c> dioxide</c>

01:51:08.323 --> 01:51:08.333 align:start position:0%
relatively high levels of carbon dioxide
 

01:51:08.333 --> 01:51:10.164 align:start position:0%
relatively high levels of carbon dioxide
because<01:52:12.560><c> their</c><01:52:12.880><c> system</c><01:52:13.360><c> isn't</c><01:52:13.760><c> very</c>

01:51:10.164 --> 01:51:10.174 align:start position:0%
because their system isn't very
 

01:51:10.174 --> 01:51:13.044 align:start position:0%
because their system isn't very
efficient.<01:52:14.800><c> According</c><01:52:15.599><c> to</c><01:52:15.679><c> a</c><01:52:15.920><c> 2019</c><01:52:16.560><c> study</c>

01:51:13.044 --> 01:51:13.054 align:start position:0%
efficient. According to a 2019 study
 

01:51:13.054 --> 01:51:14.644 align:start position:0%
efficient. According to a 2019 study
from<01:52:17.119><c> the</c><01:52:17.360><c> International</c><01:52:18.000><c> Journal</c><01:52:18.320><c> of</c>

01:51:14.644 --> 01:51:14.654 align:start position:0%
from the International Journal of
 

01:51:14.654 --> 01:51:16.164 align:start position:0%
from the International Journal of
Astrobiology,

01:51:16.164 --> 01:51:16.174 align:start position:0%
Astrobiology,
 

01:51:16.174 --> 01:51:18.883 align:start position:0%
Astrobiology,
within<01:52:20.400><c> about</c><01:52:20.880><c> 500</c><01:52:21.440><c> million</c><01:52:21.760><c> years,</c><01:52:22.400><c> the</c>

01:51:18.883 --> 01:51:18.893 align:start position:0%
within about 500 million years, the
 

01:51:18.893 --> 01:51:20.644 align:start position:0%
within about 500 million years, the
concentration<01:52:23.199><c> of</c><01:52:23.360><c> carbon</c><01:52:23.679><c> dioxide</c><01:52:24.239><c> will</c>

01:51:20.644 --> 01:51:20.654 align:start position:0%
concentration of carbon dioxide will
 

01:51:20.654 --> 01:51:24.484 align:start position:0%
concentration of carbon dioxide will
fall<01:52:24.800><c> below</c><01:52:25.920><c> 150</c><01:52:26.320><c> parts</c><01:52:26.639><c> per</c><01:52:26.880><c> million,</c><01:52:27.840><c> lower</c>

01:51:24.484 --> 01:51:24.494 align:start position:0%
fall below 150 parts per million, lower
 

01:51:24.494 --> 01:51:26.484 align:start position:0%
fall below 150 parts per million, lower
than<01:52:28.560><c> the</c><01:52:28.800><c> critical</c><01:52:29.119><c> threshold</c><01:52:29.679><c> needed</c><01:52:30.080><c> to</c>

01:51:26.484 --> 01:51:26.494 align:start position:0%
than the critical threshold needed to
 

01:51:26.494 --> 01:51:29.363 align:start position:0%
than the critical threshold needed to
sustain<01:52:31.040><c> C3</c><01:52:31.679><c> photosynthesis.</c>

01:51:29.363 --> 01:51:29.373 align:start position:0%
sustain C3 photosynthesis.
 

01:51:29.373 --> 01:51:31.524 align:start position:0%
sustain C3 photosynthesis.
But<01:52:33.360><c> this</c><01:52:33.599><c> extinction</c><01:52:34.080><c> event</c><01:52:34.480><c> is</c><01:52:34.800><c> a</c><01:52:35.040><c> slow</c>

01:51:31.524 --> 01:51:31.534 align:start position:0%
But this extinction event is a slow
 

01:51:31.534 --> 01:51:34.964 align:start position:0%
But this extinction event is a slow
burn.<01:52:36.239><c> Plant</c><01:52:36.639><c> groups</c><01:52:37.119><c> die</c><01:52:37.440><c> off</c><01:52:37.840><c> one</c><01:52:38.000><c> by</c><01:52:38.320><c> one,</c>

01:51:34.964 --> 01:51:34.974 align:start position:0%
burn. Plant groups die off one by one,
 

01:51:34.974 --> 01:51:37.524 align:start position:0%
burn. Plant groups die off one by one,
well<01:52:39.119><c> before</c><01:52:39.440><c> the</c><01:52:40.159><c> 150</c><01:52:40.480><c> parts</c><01:52:40.800><c> per</c><01:52:41.040><c> million</c>

01:51:37.524 --> 01:51:37.534 align:start position:0%
well before the 150 parts per million
 

01:51:37.534 --> 01:51:40.084 align:start position:0%
well before the 150 parts per million
level<01:52:41.599><c> is</c><01:52:41.920><c> reached.</c><01:52:42.800><c> However,</c><01:52:43.199><c> it</c><01:52:43.520><c> won't</c><01:52:43.679><c> kill</c>

01:51:40.084 --> 01:51:40.094 align:start position:0%
level is reached. However, it won't kill
 

01:51:40.094 --> 01:51:42.724 align:start position:0%
level is reached. However, it won't kill
them<01:52:44.159><c> all.</c><01:52:44.719><c> There's</c><01:52:44.960><c> still</c><01:52:45.199><c> the</c><01:52:45.360><c> C4</c><01:52:45.920><c> plants,</c>

01:51:42.724 --> 01:51:42.734 align:start position:0%
them all. There's still the C4 plants,
 

01:51:42.734 --> 01:51:45.524 align:start position:0%
them all. There's still the C4 plants,
which<01:52:46.960><c> make</c><01:52:47.199><c> up</c><01:52:47.440><c> just</c><01:52:47.840><c> 5%</c><01:52:48.480><c> of</c><01:52:48.639><c> Earth's</c><01:52:49.040><c> plant</c>

01:51:45.524 --> 01:51:45.534 align:start position:0%
which make up just 5% of Earth's plant
 

01:51:45.534 --> 01:51:48.403 align:start position:0%
which make up just 5% of Earth's plant
biomass<01:52:49.920><c> today.</c><01:52:50.880><c> They</c><01:52:51.119><c> can</c><01:52:51.280><c> survive</c><01:52:51.599><c> on</c><01:52:51.920><c> much</c>

01:51:48.403 --> 01:51:48.413 align:start position:0%
biomass today. They can survive on much
 

01:51:48.413 --> 01:51:51.763 align:start position:0%
biomass today. They can survive on much
less<01:52:52.560><c> atmospheric</c><01:52:53.199><c> carbon</c><01:52:53.520><c> dioxide,</c><01:52:54.480><c> just</c><01:52:55.119><c> 10</c>

01:51:51.763 --> 01:51:51.773 align:start position:0%
less atmospheric carbon dioxide, just 10
 

01:51:51.773 --> 01:51:53.924 align:start position:0%
less atmospheric carbon dioxide, just 10
parts<01:52:55.920><c> per</c><01:52:56.239><c> million,</c><01:52:56.960><c> because</c><01:52:57.280><c> they</c><01:52:57.599><c> have</c>

01:51:53.924 --> 01:51:53.934 align:start position:0%
parts per million, because they have
 

01:51:53.934 --> 01:51:56.244 align:start position:0%
parts per million, because they have
evolved<01:52:58.159><c> a</c><01:52:58.400><c> different</c><01:52:58.719><c> enzyme</c><01:52:59.199><c> system</c><01:52:59.760><c> and</c>

01:51:56.244 --> 01:51:56.254 align:start position:0%
evolved a different enzyme system and
 

01:51:56.254 --> 01:51:58.403 align:start position:0%
evolved a different enzyme system and
therefore<01:53:00.560><c> have</c><01:53:00.719><c> a</c><01:53:00.960><c> higher</c><01:53:01.280><c> carbon</c><01:53:01.679><c> dioxide</c>

01:51:58.403 --> 01:51:58.413 align:start position:0%
therefore have a higher carbon dioxide
 

01:51:58.413 --> 01:52:01.524 align:start position:0%
therefore have a higher carbon dioxide
resistance.<01:53:03.440><c> It's</c><01:53:03.760><c> thought</c><01:53:04.159><c> C4</c><01:53:04.719><c> plants</c><01:53:05.119><c> could</c>

01:52:01.524 --> 01:52:01.534 align:start position:0%
resistance. It's thought C4 plants could
 

01:52:01.534 --> 01:52:05.124 align:start position:0%
resistance. It's thought C4 plants could
survive<01:53:05.760><c> anywhere</c><01:53:06.239><c> from</c><01:53:06.800><c> 800</c><01:53:07.280><c> million</c><01:53:07.840><c> to</c><01:53:08.239><c> 1.2</c>

01:52:05.124 --> 01:52:05.134 align:start position:0%
survive anywhere from 800 million to 1.2
 

01:52:05.134 --> 01:52:07.684 align:start position:0%
survive anywhere from 800 million to 1.2
billion<01:53:09.360><c> years</c><01:53:09.599><c> into</c><01:53:09.920><c> the</c><01:53:10.080><c> future.</c><01:53:10.960><c> But</c><01:53:11.199><c> even</c>

01:52:07.684 --> 01:52:07.694 align:start position:0%
billion years into the future. But even
 

01:52:07.694 --> 01:52:09.604 align:start position:0%
billion years into the future. But even
with<01:53:11.840><c> this</c><01:53:12.239><c> brilliant</c><01:53:12.719><c> rose</c><01:53:13.119><c> up</c><01:53:13.280><c> their</c>

01:52:09.604 --> 01:52:09.614 align:start position:0%
with this brilliant rose up their
 

01:52:09.614 --> 01:52:11.604 align:start position:0%
with this brilliant rose up their
leaves,<01:53:14.159><c> they</c><01:53:14.480><c> can't</c><01:53:14.719><c> outlive</c><01:53:15.199><c> the</c>

01:52:11.604 --> 01:52:11.614 align:start position:0%
leaves, they can't outlive the
 

01:52:11.614 --> 01:52:15.684 align:start position:0%
leaves, they can't outlive the
brightening<01:53:16.000><c> sun.</c>

01:52:15.684 --> 01:52:15.694 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:52:15.694 --> 01:52:18.164 align:start position:0%
 
Our<01:53:19.760><c> aliens</c><01:53:20.159><c> jump</c><01:53:20.400><c> forward</c><01:53:20.639><c> in</c><01:53:20.880><c> time.</c><01:53:21.520><c> In</c><01:53:21.760><c> 1</c>

01:52:18.164 --> 01:52:18.174 align:start position:0%
Our aliens jump forward in time. In 1
 

01:52:18.174 --> 01:52:20.084 align:start position:0%
Our aliens jump forward in time. In 1
billion<01:53:22.320><c> years,</c><01:53:22.639><c> the</c><01:53:22.880><c> sun</c><01:53:23.119><c> is</c><01:53:23.360><c> just</c><01:53:23.599><c> over</c>

01:52:20.084 --> 01:52:20.094 align:start position:0%
billion years, the sun is just over
 

01:52:20.094 --> 01:52:22.004 align:start position:0%
billion years, the sun is just over
halfway<01:53:24.480><c> through</c><01:53:24.800><c> its</c><01:53:25.119><c> main</c><01:53:25.440><c> sequence</c>

01:52:22.004 --> 01:52:22.014 align:start position:0%
halfway through its main sequence
 

01:52:22.014 --> 01:52:25.444 align:start position:0%
halfway through its main sequence
lifetime.<01:53:27.040><c> As</c><01:53:27.280><c> its</c><01:53:27.520><c> core</c><01:53:27.840><c> gets</c><01:53:28.159><c> even</c><01:53:28.480><c> denser,</c>

01:52:25.444 --> 01:52:25.454 align:start position:0%
lifetime. As its core gets even denser,
 

01:52:25.454 --> 01:52:27.924 align:start position:0%
lifetime. As its core gets even denser,
the<01:53:29.520><c> rate</c><01:53:29.679><c> of</c><01:53:29.840><c> fusion</c><01:53:30.239><c> increases,</c><01:53:30.880><c> too.</c>

01:52:27.924 --> 01:52:27.934 align:start position:0%
the rate of fusion increases, too.
 

01:52:27.934 --> 01:52:31.363 align:start position:0%
the rate of fusion increases, too.
Today,<01:53:32.159><c> the</c><01:53:32.400><c> sun</c><01:53:32.719><c> turns</c><01:53:33.440><c> 600</c><01:53:34.239><c> million</c><01:53:34.719><c> tons</c><01:53:35.040><c> of</c>

01:52:31.363 --> 01:52:31.373 align:start position:0%
Today, the sun turns 600 million tons of
 

01:52:31.373 --> 01:52:34.244 align:start position:0%
Today, the sun turns 600 million tons of
hydrogen<01:53:35.679><c> into</c><01:53:35.920><c> helium</c><01:53:36.480><c> every</c><01:53:36.960><c> second.</c><01:53:37.840><c> in</c>

01:52:34.244 --> 01:52:34.254 align:start position:0%
hydrogen into helium every second. in
 

01:52:34.254 --> 01:52:36.724 align:start position:0%
hydrogen into helium every second. in
the<01:53:38.320><c> process</c><01:53:38.800><c> converting</c><01:53:39.280><c> about</c><01:53:39.840><c> 4</c><01:53:40.239><c> million</c>

01:52:36.724 --> 01:52:36.734 align:start position:0%
the process converting about 4 million
 

01:52:36.734 --> 01:52:39.604 align:start position:0%
the process converting about 4 million
tons<01:53:40.960><c> of</c><01:53:41.119><c> matter</c><01:53:41.599><c> into</c><01:53:42.000><c> energy.</c><01:53:43.040><c> The</c><01:53:43.280><c> more</c>

01:52:39.604 --> 01:52:39.614 align:start position:0%
tons of matter into energy. The more
 

01:52:39.614 --> 01:52:41.843 align:start position:0%
tons of matter into energy. The more
energy<01:53:43.760><c> it</c><01:53:44.000><c> releases,</c><01:53:44.880><c> the</c><01:53:45.040><c> more</c><01:53:45.199><c> luminous</c>

01:52:41.843 --> 01:52:41.853 align:start position:0%
energy it releases, the more luminous
 

01:52:41.853 --> 01:52:44.323 align:start position:0%
energy it releases, the more luminous
the<01:53:45.920><c> star</c><01:53:46.159><c> appears.</c><01:53:47.280><c> And</c><01:53:47.520><c> if</c><01:53:47.679><c> they</c><01:53:47.840><c> travel</c>

01:52:44.323 --> 01:52:44.333 align:start position:0%
the star appears. And if they travel
 

01:52:44.333 --> 01:52:46.644 align:start position:0%
the star appears. And if they travel
forward<01:53:48.400><c> in</c><01:53:48.639><c> time</c><01:53:48.960><c> another</c><01:53:49.440><c> billion</c><01:53:49.840><c> years,</c>

01:52:46.644 --> 01:52:46.654 align:start position:0%
forward in time another billion years,
 

01:52:46.654 --> 01:52:49.524 align:start position:0%
forward in time another billion years,
the<01:53:50.800><c> sun</c><01:53:51.199><c> becomes</c><01:53:51.760><c> 10%</c><01:53:52.480><c> brighter</c><01:53:52.880><c> than</c><01:53:53.040><c> it</c><01:53:53.199><c> is</c>

01:52:49.524 --> 01:52:49.534 align:start position:0%
the sun becomes 10% brighter than it is
 

01:52:49.534 --> 01:52:52.484 align:start position:0%
the sun becomes 10% brighter than it is
today.<01:53:54.320><c> The</c><01:53:54.560><c> effects</c><01:53:54.960><c> on</c><01:53:55.199><c> Earth</c><01:53:55.840><c> are</c>

01:52:52.484 --> 01:52:52.494 align:start position:0%
today. The effects on Earth are
 

01:52:52.494 --> 01:52:54.084 align:start position:0%
today. The effects on Earth are
disastrous.

01:52:54.084 --> 01:52:54.094 align:start position:0%
disastrous.
 

01:52:54.094 --> 01:52:57.044 align:start position:0%
disastrous.
Models<01:53:58.560><c> vary</c><01:53:58.960><c> wildly,</c><01:53:59.920><c> but</c><01:54:00.159><c> some</c><01:54:00.400><c> believe</c><01:54:00.639><c> the</c>

01:52:57.044 --> 01:52:57.054 align:start position:0%
Models vary wildly, but some believe the
 

01:52:57.054 --> 01:52:59.283 align:start position:0%
Models vary wildly, but some believe the
surface<01:54:01.280><c> temperature</c><01:54:01.760><c> could</c><01:54:02.000><c> skyrocket</c><01:54:02.719><c> to</c><01:54:02.960><c> a</c>

01:52:59.283 --> 01:52:59.293 align:start position:0%
surface temperature could skyrocket to a
 

01:52:59.293 --> 01:53:03.283 align:start position:0%
surface temperature could skyrocket to a
sweltering<01:54:04.000><c> 50°</c><01:54:04.800><c> C</c><01:54:05.360><c> or</c><01:54:05.679><c> more,</c><01:54:06.560><c> more</c><01:54:06.800><c> than</c>

01:53:03.283 --> 01:53:03.293 align:start position:0%
sweltering 50° C or more, more than
 

01:53:03.293 --> 01:53:06.484 align:start position:0%
sweltering 50° C or more, more than
triple<01:54:07.599><c> the</c><01:54:07.920><c> 20th</c><01:54:08.320><c> century</c><01:54:08.800><c> average.</c>

01:53:06.484 --> 01:53:06.494 align:start position:0%
triple the 20th century average.
 

01:53:06.494 --> 01:53:09.204 align:start position:0%
triple the 20th century average.
This<01:54:10.719><c> transforms</c><01:54:11.280><c> the</c><01:54:11.520><c> planet</c><01:54:11.920><c> into</c><01:54:12.239><c> a</c><01:54:12.480><c> near</c>

01:53:09.204 --> 01:53:09.214 align:start position:0%
This transforms the planet into a near
 

01:53:09.214 --> 01:53:12.403 align:start position:0%
This transforms the planet into a near
uninhabitable<01:54:14.080><c> world.</c><01:54:15.119><c> Oceans</c><01:54:15.599><c> evaporate</c>

01:53:12.403 --> 01:53:12.413 align:start position:0%
uninhabitable world. Oceans evaporate
 

01:53:12.413 --> 01:53:14.724 align:start position:0%
uninhabitable world. Oceans evaporate
faster<01:54:16.560><c> than</c><01:54:16.800><c> rainfall</c><01:54:17.280><c> can</c><01:54:17.440><c> replace</c><01:54:17.840><c> them.</c>

01:53:14.724 --> 01:53:14.734 align:start position:0%
faster than rainfall can replace them.
 

01:53:14.734 --> 01:53:17.124 align:start position:0%
faster than rainfall can replace them.
Vast<01:54:19.040><c> regions</c><01:54:19.599><c> turn</c><01:54:19.840><c> into</c><01:54:20.080><c> deserts</c><01:54:20.560><c> reaching</c>

01:53:17.124 --> 01:53:17.134 align:start position:0%
Vast regions turn into deserts reaching
 

01:53:17.134 --> 01:53:20.484 align:start position:0%
Vast regions turn into deserts reaching
over<01:54:21.360><c> 70°</c><01:54:22.080><c> C</c><01:54:22.480><c> in</c><01:54:22.719><c> the</c><01:54:22.800><c> daytime.</c><01:54:23.920><c> Without</c>

01:53:20.484 --> 01:53:20.494 align:start position:0%
over 70° C in the daytime. Without
 

01:53:20.494 --> 01:53:22.564 align:start position:0%
over 70° C in the daytime. Without
photosynthesis,<01:54:25.440><c> oxygen</c><01:54:25.920><c> levels</c><01:54:26.159><c> in</c><01:54:26.320><c> the</c>

01:53:22.564 --> 01:53:22.574 align:start position:0%
photosynthesis, oxygen levels in the
 

01:53:22.574 --> 01:53:25.044 align:start position:0%
photosynthesis, oxygen levels in the
atmosphere<01:54:26.880><c> fall</c><01:54:27.119><c> to</c><01:54:27.360><c> about</c><01:54:27.679><c> 1%</c><01:54:28.320><c> of</c><01:54:28.480><c> what</c><01:54:28.639><c> they</c>

01:53:25.044 --> 01:53:25.054 align:start position:0%
atmosphere fall to about 1% of what they
 

01:53:25.054 --> 01:53:28.244 align:start position:0%
atmosphere fall to about 1% of what they
are<01:54:29.040><c> today.</c><01:54:30.159><c> This</c><01:54:30.400><c> would</c><01:54:30.719><c> be</c><01:54:31.119><c> devastating</c><01:54:31.840><c> for</c>

01:53:28.244 --> 01:53:28.254 align:start position:0%
are today. This would be devastating for
 

01:53:28.254 --> 01:53:30.164 align:start position:0%
are today. This would be devastating for
complex<01:54:32.560><c> life</c><01:54:32.880><c> that</c><01:54:33.119><c> relies</c><01:54:33.440><c> on</c><01:54:33.599><c> it</c><01:54:33.760><c> to</c>

01:53:30.164 --> 01:53:30.174 align:start position:0%
complex life that relies on it to
 

01:53:30.174 --> 01:53:32.244 align:start position:0%
complex life that relies on it to
breathe.<01:54:34.880><c> But</c><01:54:35.040><c> it's</c><01:54:35.199><c> more</c><01:54:35.440><c> likely</c><01:54:35.679><c> they'd</c>

01:53:32.244 --> 01:53:32.254 align:start position:0%
breathe. But it's more likely they'd
 

01:53:32.254 --> 01:53:34.004 align:start position:0%
breathe. But it's more likely they'd
starve<01:54:36.400><c> to</c><01:54:36.560><c> death</c><01:54:36.800><c> before</c><01:54:37.119><c> this</c><01:54:37.360><c> became</c><01:54:37.679><c> an</c>

01:53:34.004 --> 01:53:34.014 align:start position:0%
starve to death before this became an
 

01:53:34.014 --> 01:53:36.803 align:start position:0%
starve to death before this became an
issue<01:54:38.080><c> for</c><01:54:38.239><c> them.</c><01:54:38.960><c> With</c><01:54:39.280><c> no</c><01:54:39.520><c> plants</c><01:54:39.840><c> to</c><01:54:40.000><c> eat,</c>

01:53:36.803 --> 01:53:36.813 align:start position:0%
issue for them. With no plants to eat,
 

01:53:36.813 --> 01:53:39.283 align:start position:0%
issue for them. With no plants to eat,
herbivores<01:54:41.199><c> die</c><01:54:41.440><c> out</c><01:54:42.000><c> and</c><01:54:42.320><c> carnivores</c>

01:53:39.283 --> 01:53:39.293 align:start position:0%
herbivores die out and carnivores
 

01:53:39.293 --> 01:53:43.924 align:start position:0%
herbivores die out and carnivores
quickly<01:54:43.599><c> follow.</c>

01:53:43.924 --> 01:53:43.934 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:53:43.934 --> 01:53:45.763 align:start position:0%
 
It<01:54:48.000><c> must</c><01:54:48.159><c> be</c><01:54:48.320><c> tempting</c><01:54:48.719><c> in</c><01:54:48.960><c> all</c><01:54:49.119><c> of</c><01:54:49.199><c> this</c><01:54:49.440><c> for</c>

01:53:45.763 --> 01:53:45.773 align:start position:0%
It must be tempting in all of this for
 

01:53:45.773 --> 01:53:48.403 align:start position:0%
It must be tempting in all of this for
the<01:54:49.760><c> aliens</c><01:54:50.239><c> to</c><01:54:50.560><c> interfere,</c><01:54:51.440><c> to</c><01:54:51.679><c> save</c><01:54:52.000><c> some</c>

01:53:48.403 --> 01:53:48.413 align:start position:0%
the aliens to interfere, to save some
 

01:53:48.413 --> 01:53:50.403 align:start position:0%
the aliens to interfere, to save some
species<01:54:52.719><c> from</c><01:54:52.880><c> their</c><01:54:53.199><c> inevitable</c><01:54:53.760><c> tragic</c>

01:53:50.403 --> 01:53:50.413 align:start position:0%
species from their inevitable tragic
 

01:53:50.413 --> 01:53:53.363 align:start position:0%
species from their inevitable tragic
end.<01:54:55.040><c> But</c><01:54:55.280><c> like</c><01:54:55.520><c> with</c><01:54:56.000><c> every</c><01:54:56.480><c> extinction</c><01:54:56.960><c> that</c>

01:53:53.363 --> 01:53:53.373 align:start position:0%
end. But like with every extinction that
 

01:53:53.373 --> 01:53:55.843 align:start position:0%
end. But like with every extinction that
has<01:54:57.360><c> gone</c><01:54:57.520><c> on</c><01:54:57.679><c> before,</c><01:54:58.400><c> our</c><01:54:58.719><c> aliens</c><01:54:59.360><c> must</c>

01:53:55.843 --> 01:53:55.853 align:start position:0%
has gone on before, our aliens must
 

01:53:55.853 --> 01:53:58.724 align:start position:0%
has gone on before, our aliens must
observe<01:55:00.239><c> only</c><01:55:00.719><c> whatever</c><01:55:01.199><c> their</c><01:55:01.440><c> desires.</c><01:55:02.400><c> The</c>

01:53:58.724 --> 01:53:58.734 align:start position:0%
observe only whatever their desires. The
 

01:53:58.734 --> 01:54:01.763 align:start position:0%
observe only whatever their desires. The
Earth<01:55:02.960><c> must</c><01:55:03.280><c> tread</c><01:55:03.599><c> its</c><01:55:03.840><c> course.</c><01:55:05.119><c> So</c><01:55:05.360><c> far,</c>

01:54:01.763 --> 01:54:01.773 align:start position:0%
Earth must tread its course. So far,
 

01:54:01.773 --> 01:54:03.444 align:start position:0%
Earth must tread its course. So far,
we've<01:55:05.840><c> covered</c><01:55:06.159><c> how</c><01:55:06.480><c> rising</c><01:55:06.880><c> temperatures</c>

01:54:03.444 --> 01:54:03.454 align:start position:0%
we've covered how rising temperatures
 

01:54:03.454 --> 01:54:05.524 align:start position:0%
we've covered how rising temperatures
affect<01:55:07.599><c> the</c><01:55:07.760><c> carbonate</c><01:55:08.239><c> silicut</c><01:55:08.719><c> cycle,</c>

01:54:05.524 --> 01:54:05.534 align:start position:0%
affect the carbonate silicut cycle,
 

01:54:05.534 --> 01:54:07.924 align:start position:0%
affect the carbonate silicut cycle,
cause<01:55:09.840><c> atmospheric</c><01:55:10.480><c> CO2</c><01:55:10.960><c> levels</c><01:55:11.280><c> to</c><01:55:11.440><c> drop,</c>

01:54:07.924 --> 01:54:07.934 align:start position:0%
cause atmospheric CO2 levels to drop,
 

01:54:07.934 --> 01:54:09.843 align:start position:0%
cause atmospheric CO2 levels to drop,
and<01:55:11.920><c> spell</c><01:55:12.239><c> the</c><01:55:12.400><c> end</c><01:55:12.560><c> of</c><01:55:12.719><c> complex</c><01:55:13.119><c> spell</c><01:55:13.360><c> the</c>

01:54:09.843 --> 01:54:09.853 align:start position:0%
and spell the end of complex spell the
 

01:54:09.853 --> 01:54:12.644 align:start position:0%
and spell the end of complex spell the
animal<01:55:14.000><c> life</c><01:55:14.239><c> on</c><01:55:14.480><c> Earth.</c><01:55:15.599><c> But</c><01:55:15.840><c> there's</c><01:55:16.239><c> one</c>

01:54:12.644 --> 01:54:12.654 align:start position:0%
animal life on Earth. But there's one
 

01:54:12.654 --> 01:54:16.564 align:start position:0%
animal life on Earth. But there's one
more<01:55:16.800><c> key</c><01:55:17.199><c> piece</c><01:55:17.440><c> to</c><01:55:17.599><c> the</c><01:55:17.840><c> puzzle.</c><01:55:18.719><c> Oceans.</c>

01:54:16.564 --> 01:54:16.574 align:start position:0%
more key piece to the puzzle. Oceans.
 

01:54:16.574 --> 01:54:19.604 align:start position:0%
more key piece to the puzzle. Oceans.
A<01:55:20.639><c> billion</c><01:55:21.040><c> years</c><01:55:21.199><c> from</c><01:55:21.440><c> now,</c><01:55:22.080><c> 27%</c><01:55:22.960><c> of</c><01:55:23.119><c> our</c>

01:54:19.604 --> 01:54:19.614 align:start position:0%
A billion years from now, 27% of our
 

01:54:19.614 --> 01:54:21.444 align:start position:0%
A billion years from now, 27% of our
modern<01:55:23.760><c> oceans</c><01:55:24.239><c> have</c><01:55:24.560><c> already</c><01:55:25.040><c> been</c>

01:54:21.444 --> 01:54:21.454 align:start position:0%
modern oceans have already been
 

01:54:21.454 --> 01:54:23.924 align:start position:0%
modern oceans have already been
subducted<01:55:25.920><c> into</c><01:55:26.159><c> the</c><01:55:26.320><c> Earth's</c><01:55:26.639><c> mantle.</c><01:55:27.520><c> The</c>

01:54:23.924 --> 01:54:23.934 align:start position:0%
subducted into the Earth's mantle. The
 

01:54:23.934 --> 01:54:26.644 align:start position:0%
subducted into the Earth's mantle. The
rest<01:55:28.000><c> won't</c><01:55:28.239><c> stay</c><01:55:28.480><c> put</c><01:55:28.719><c> for</c><01:55:28.960><c> long.</c><01:55:29.760><c> As</c><01:55:30.000><c> the</c><01:55:30.239><c> sun</c>

01:54:26.644 --> 01:54:26.654 align:start position:0%
rest won't stay put for long. As the sun
 

01:54:26.654 --> 01:54:28.564 align:start position:0%
rest won't stay put for long. As the sun
grows<01:55:30.800><c> hotter,</c><01:55:31.440><c> the</c><01:55:31.599><c> oceans</c><01:55:32.000><c> start</c><01:55:32.159><c> to</c>

01:54:28.564 --> 01:54:28.574 align:start position:0%
grows hotter, the oceans start to
 

01:54:28.574 --> 01:54:31.924 align:start position:0%
grows hotter, the oceans start to
evaporate,<01:55:33.280><c> turning</c><01:55:33.679><c> the</c><01:55:33.920><c> sky</c><01:55:34.320><c> into</c><01:55:34.639><c> a</c><01:55:34.880><c> thick,</c>

01:54:31.924 --> 01:54:31.934 align:start position:0%
evaporate, turning the sky into a thick,
 

01:54:31.934 --> 01:54:35.204 align:start position:0%
evaporate, turning the sky into a thick,
steamy<01:55:36.400><c> greenhouse.</c><01:55:37.840><c> Water</c><01:55:38.159><c> vapor</c><01:55:38.560><c> fills</c><01:55:38.880><c> the</c>

01:54:35.204 --> 01:54:35.214 align:start position:0%
steamy greenhouse. Water vapor fills the
 

01:54:35.214 --> 01:54:37.283 align:start position:0%
steamy greenhouse. Water vapor fills the
lower<01:55:39.360><c> atmosphere,</c><01:55:40.239><c> warming</c><01:55:40.639><c> the</c><01:55:40.800><c> planet</c>

01:54:37.283 --> 01:54:37.293 align:start position:0%
lower atmosphere, warming the planet
 

01:54:37.293 --> 01:54:40.484 align:start position:0%
lower atmosphere, warming the planet
steadily.<01:55:41.920><c> The</c><01:55:42.159><c> water</c><01:55:42.480><c> cycle</c><01:55:42.960><c> persists.</c><01:55:43.920><c> Rain</c>

01:54:40.484 --> 01:54:40.494 align:start position:0%
steadily. The water cycle persists. Rain
 

01:54:40.494 --> 01:54:42.883 align:start position:0%
steadily. The water cycle persists. Rain
still<01:55:44.639><c> falls</c><01:55:44.960><c> and</c><01:55:45.280><c> rivers</c><01:55:45.679><c> still</c><01:55:45.920><c> flow.</c>

01:54:42.883 --> 01:54:42.893 align:start position:0%
still falls and rivers still flow.
 

01:54:42.893 --> 01:54:46.164 align:start position:0%
still falls and rivers still flow.
Things<01:55:47.040><c> remain</c><01:55:47.599><c> pretty</c><01:55:47.920><c> stable</c><01:55:48.719><c> for</c><01:55:48.960><c> a</c><01:55:49.199><c> while.</c>

01:54:46.164 --> 01:54:46.174 align:start position:0%
Things remain pretty stable for a while.
 

01:54:46.174 --> 01:54:48.084 align:start position:0%
Things remain pretty stable for a while.
As<01:55:50.239><c> that</c><01:55:50.560><c> water</c><01:55:50.800><c> vapor</c><01:55:51.199><c> accumulates</c><01:55:51.679><c> in</c><01:55:51.840><c> the</c>

01:54:48.084 --> 01:54:48.094 align:start position:0%
As that water vapor accumulates in the
 

01:54:48.094 --> 01:54:50.564 align:start position:0%
As that water vapor accumulates in the
atmosphere,<01:55:52.719><c> it</c><01:55:53.040><c> creates</c><01:55:53.360><c> an</c><01:55:53.679><c> insulating</c>

01:54:50.564 --> 01:54:50.574 align:start position:0%
atmosphere, it creates an insulating
 

01:54:50.574 --> 01:54:52.964 align:start position:0%
atmosphere, it creates an insulating
blanket<01:55:54.880><c> around</c><01:55:55.119><c> the</c><01:55:55.360><c> planet.</c><01:55:56.239><c> Temperatures</c>

01:54:52.964 --> 01:54:52.974 align:start position:0%
blanket around the planet. Temperatures
 

01:54:52.974 --> 01:54:55.283 align:start position:0%
blanket around the planet. Temperatures
continue<01:55:57.119><c> to</c><01:55:57.280><c> rise,</c><01:55:58.000><c> eventually</c><01:55:58.639><c> triggering</c>

01:54:55.283 --> 01:54:55.293 align:start position:0%
continue to rise, eventually triggering
 

01:54:55.293 --> 01:54:58.004 align:start position:0%
continue to rise, eventually triggering
a<01:55:59.440><c> runaway</c><01:56:00.000><c> greenhouse</c><01:56:00.560><c> effect,</c><01:56:01.360><c> increasing</c>

01:54:58.004 --> 01:54:58.014 align:start position:0%
a runaway greenhouse effect, increasing
 

01:54:58.014 --> 01:55:00.564 align:start position:0%
a runaway greenhouse effect, increasing
the<01:56:02.000><c> Earth's</c><01:56:02.320><c> temperature</c><01:56:02.880><c> uncontrollably.</c>

01:55:00.564 --> 01:55:00.574 align:start position:0%
the Earth's temperature uncontrollably.
 

01:55:00.574 --> 01:55:02.403 align:start position:0%
the Earth's temperature uncontrollably.
The<01:56:04.639><c> only</c><01:56:04.800><c> other</c><01:56:05.040><c> planet</c><01:56:05.520><c> where</c><01:56:05.760><c> we've</c><01:56:05.920><c> seen</c>

01:55:02.403 --> 01:55:02.413 align:start position:0%
The only other planet where we've seen
 

01:55:02.413 --> 01:55:05.604 align:start position:0%
The only other planet where we've seen
anything<01:56:06.719><c> like</c><01:56:06.960><c> this</c><01:56:07.199><c> is</c><01:56:07.520><c> Venus.</c><01:56:08.639><c> Today,</c><01:56:09.040><c> it's</c>

01:55:05.604 --> 01:55:05.614 align:start position:0%
anything like this is Venus. Today, it's
 

01:55:05.614 --> 01:55:08.883 align:start position:0%
anything like this is Venus. Today, it's
completely<01:56:09.920><c> uninhabitable</c><01:56:10.719><c> at</c><01:56:11.040><c> around</c><01:56:11.440><c> 460°</c>

01:55:08.883 --> 01:55:08.893 align:start position:0%
completely uninhabitable at around 460°
 

01:55:08.893 --> 01:55:12.644 align:start position:0%
completely uninhabitable at around 460°
C<01:56:13.440><c> with</c><01:56:13.760><c> pressures</c><01:56:14.239><c> similar</c><01:56:14.639><c> to</c><01:56:14.880><c> being</c><01:56:15.360><c> 900</c><01:56:16.000><c> m</c>

01:55:12.644 --> 01:55:12.654 align:start position:0%
C with pressures similar to being 900 m
 

01:55:12.654 --> 01:55:15.124 align:start position:0%
C with pressures similar to being 900 m
under<01:56:16.800><c> the</c><01:56:17.040><c> ocean.</c><01:56:17.920><c> When</c><01:56:18.159><c> we</c><01:56:18.320><c> gaze</c><01:56:18.639><c> over</c><01:56:18.800><c> at</c>

01:55:15.124 --> 01:55:15.134 align:start position:0%
under the ocean. When we gaze over at
 

01:55:15.134 --> 01:55:17.604 align:start position:0%
under the ocean. When we gaze over at
the<01:56:19.119><c> goddess</c><01:56:19.440><c> of</c><01:56:19.679><c> love,</c><01:56:20.320><c> are</c><01:56:20.480><c> we</c><01:56:20.719><c> seeing</c><01:56:21.119><c> our</c>

01:55:17.604 --> 01:55:17.614 align:start position:0%
the goddess of love, are we seeing our
 

01:55:17.614 --> 01:55:19.843 align:start position:0%
the goddess of love, are we seeing our
own<01:56:21.679><c> future?</c>

01:55:19.843 --> 01:55:19.853 align:start position:0%
own future?
 

01:55:19.853 --> 01:55:20.883 align:start position:0%
own future?
Depending<01:56:24.000><c> on</c><01:56:24.080><c> the</c><01:56:24.239><c> pace</c><01:56:24.480><c> of</c><01:56:24.560><c> this</c>

01:55:20.883 --> 01:55:20.893 align:start position:0%
Depending on the pace of this
 

01:55:20.893 --> 01:55:23.924 align:start position:0%
Depending on the pace of this
evaporation,<01:56:25.840><c> Earth</c><01:56:26.239><c> is</c><01:56:26.639><c> doomed</c><01:56:27.119><c> to</c><01:56:27.360><c> lose</c><01:56:27.599><c> its</c>

01:55:23.924 --> 01:55:23.934 align:start position:0%
evaporation, Earth is doomed to lose its
 

01:55:23.934 --> 01:55:28.244 align:start position:0%
evaporation, Earth is doomed to lose its
oceans<01:56:28.239><c> within</c><01:56:28.719><c> 1</c><01:56:29.280><c> to</c><01:56:29.679><c> 1.5</c><01:56:30.719><c> billion</c><01:56:31.119><c> years.</c>

01:55:28.244 --> 01:55:28.254 align:start position:0%
oceans within 1 to 1.5 billion years.
 

01:55:28.254 --> 01:55:30.964 align:start position:0%
oceans within 1 to 1.5 billion years.
Yet,<01:56:32.480><c> Earth</c><01:56:32.800><c> won't</c><01:56:33.119><c> be</c><01:56:33.440><c> entirely</c><01:56:34.080><c> dry,</c><01:56:34.800><c> at</c>

01:55:30.964 --> 01:55:30.974 align:start position:0%
Yet, Earth won't be entirely dry, at
 

01:55:30.974 --> 01:55:34.244 align:start position:0%
Yet, Earth won't be entirely dry, at
least<01:56:35.280><c> not</c><01:56:35.520><c> right</c><01:56:35.840><c> away.</c><01:56:36.960><c> Deep</c><01:56:37.280><c> down</c><01:56:37.679><c> below</c>

01:55:34.244 --> 01:55:34.254 align:start position:0%
least not right away. Deep down below
 

01:55:34.254 --> 01:55:37.444 align:start position:0%
least not right away. Deep down below
the<01:56:38.239><c> crust,</c><01:56:39.199><c> huge</c><01:56:39.760><c> amounts</c><01:56:40.159><c> of</c><01:56:40.400><c> water,</c>

01:55:37.444 --> 01:55:37.454 align:start position:0%
the crust, huge amounts of water,
 

01:55:37.454 --> 01:55:40.004 align:start position:0%
the crust, huge amounts of water,
perhaps<01:56:41.840><c> several</c><01:56:42.400><c> times</c><01:56:42.960><c> the</c><01:56:43.280><c> amount</c><01:56:43.599><c> in</c>

01:55:40.004 --> 01:55:40.014 align:start position:0%
perhaps several times the amount in
 

01:55:40.014 --> 01:55:42.484 align:start position:0%
perhaps several times the amount in
Earth's<01:56:44.239><c> modern-day</c><01:56:44.800><c> oceans</c><01:56:45.679><c> are</c><01:56:46.000><c> still</c>

01:55:42.484 --> 01:55:42.494 align:start position:0%
Earth's modern-day oceans are still
 

01:55:42.494 --> 01:55:45.444 align:start position:0%
Earth's modern-day oceans are still
locked<01:56:46.719><c> away.</c><01:56:48.080><c> Over</c><01:56:48.400><c> time,</c><01:56:48.719><c> some</c><01:56:48.960><c> of</c><01:56:49.040><c> that</c>

01:55:45.444 --> 01:55:45.454 align:start position:0%
locked away. Over time, some of that
 

01:55:45.454 --> 01:55:47.363 align:start position:0%
locked away. Over time, some of that
water<01:56:49.599><c> seeps</c><01:56:50.000><c> back</c><01:56:50.159><c> to</c><01:56:50.320><c> the</c><01:56:50.560><c> surface</c><01:56:50.880><c> through</c>

01:55:47.363 --> 01:55:47.373 align:start position:0%
water seeps back to the surface through
 

01:55:47.373 --> 01:55:49.843 align:start position:0%
water seeps back to the surface through
geological<01:56:51.840><c> activity,</c><01:56:52.880><c> but</c><01:56:53.040><c> it</c><01:56:53.280><c> won't</c><01:56:53.520><c> be</c>

01:55:49.843 --> 01:55:49.853 align:start position:0%
geological activity, but it won't be
 

01:55:49.853 --> 01:55:52.484 align:start position:0%
geological activity, but it won't be
enough<01:56:53.920><c> to</c><01:56:54.159><c> bring</c><01:56:54.320><c> back</c><01:56:54.560><c> the</c><01:56:54.800><c> seas.</c><01:56:55.840><c> The</c><01:56:56.080><c> last</c>

01:55:52.484 --> 01:55:52.494 align:start position:0%
enough to bring back the seas. The last
 

01:55:52.494 --> 01:55:54.403 align:start position:0%
enough to bring back the seas. The last
place<01:56:56.560><c> surface</c><01:56:56.960><c> water</c><01:56:57.280><c> persists</c><01:56:57.840><c> are</c><01:56:58.080><c> the</c>

01:55:54.403 --> 01:55:54.413 align:start position:0%
place surface water persists are the
 

01:55:54.413 --> 01:55:56.883 align:start position:0%
place surface water persists are the
poles.<01:56:59.280><c> But</c><01:56:59.440><c> with</c><01:56:59.599><c> no</c><01:56:59.760><c> rivers</c><01:57:00.080><c> to</c><01:57:00.320><c> feed</c><01:57:00.480><c> them</c>

01:55:56.883 --> 01:55:56.893 align:start position:0%
poles. But with no rivers to feed them
 

01:55:56.893 --> 01:55:59.924 align:start position:0%
poles. But with no rivers to feed them
and<01:57:01.040><c> no</c><01:57:01.360><c> life</c><01:57:01.599><c> to</c><01:57:01.840><c> decompose,</c><01:57:02.960><c> these</c><01:57:03.360><c> polar</c>

01:55:59.924 --> 01:55:59.934 align:start position:0%
and no life to decompose, these polar
 

01:55:59.934 --> 01:56:03.684 align:start position:0%
and no life to decompose, these polar
lakes<01:57:04.159><c> are</c><01:57:04.400><c> no</c><01:57:04.719><c> more</c><01:57:04.960><c> than</c><01:57:05.440><c> sterile,</c><01:57:06.480><c> nutriump</c>

01:56:03.684 --> 01:56:03.694 align:start position:0%
lakes are no more than sterile, nutriump
 

01:56:03.694 --> 01:56:06.564 align:start position:0%
lakes are no more than sterile, nutriump
puddles.<01:57:08.719><c> Eventually,</c><01:57:09.840><c> even</c><01:57:10.080><c> these</c>

01:56:06.564 --> 01:56:06.574 align:start position:0%
puddles. Eventually, even these
 

01:56:06.574 --> 01:56:10.564 align:start position:0%
puddles. Eventually, even these
evaporate,<01:57:11.040><c> too.</c><01:57:12.400><c> Earth</c><01:57:12.880><c> transforms</c><01:57:13.679><c> into</c><01:57:14.080><c> a</c>

01:56:10.564 --> 01:56:10.574 align:start position:0%
evaporate, too. Earth transforms into a
 

01:56:10.574 --> 01:56:14.244 align:start position:0%
evaporate, too. Earth transforms into a
barren<01:57:15.199><c> desert</c><01:57:15.679><c> world.</c><01:57:16.719><c> Massive</c><01:57:17.199><c> dune</c><01:57:17.599><c> fields</c>

01:56:14.244 --> 01:56:14.254 align:start position:0%
barren desert world. Massive dune fields
 

01:56:14.254 --> 01:56:16.644 align:start position:0%
barren desert world. Massive dune fields
stretch<01:57:18.480><c> across</c><01:57:18.800><c> the</c><01:57:19.040><c> equator,</c><01:57:19.840><c> and</c><01:57:20.159><c> salt</c>

01:56:16.644 --> 01:56:16.654 align:start position:0%
stretch across the equator, and salt
 

01:56:16.654 --> 01:56:19.283 align:start position:0%
stretch across the equator, and salt
flats<01:57:20.960><c> mark</c><01:57:21.280><c> the</c><01:57:21.520><c> old</c><01:57:21.760><c> ocean</c><01:57:22.159><c> floors,</c><01:57:22.800><c> similar</c>

01:56:19.283 --> 01:56:19.293 align:start position:0%
flats mark the old ocean floors, similar
 

01:56:19.293 --> 01:56:22.323 align:start position:0%
flats mark the old ocean floors, similar
to<01:57:23.280><c> the</c><01:57:23.440><c> Atakama</c><01:57:24.159><c> desert</c><01:57:24.400><c> in</c><01:57:24.560><c> Chile.</c><01:57:25.679><c> Without</c>

01:56:22.323 --> 01:56:22.333 align:start position:0%
to the Atakama desert in Chile. Without
 

01:56:22.333 --> 01:56:25.124 align:start position:0%
to the Atakama desert in Chile. Without
surface<01:57:26.639><c> water,</c><01:57:27.360><c> the</c><01:57:27.599><c> Earth's</c><01:57:27.920><c> crust</c><01:57:28.480><c> dries</c>

01:56:25.124 --> 01:56:25.134 align:start position:0%
surface water, the Earth's crust dries
 

01:56:25.134 --> 01:56:28.403 align:start position:0%
surface water, the Earth's crust dries
out.<01:57:29.760><c> Without</c><01:57:30.159><c> lubrication,</c><01:57:31.440><c> subduction</c><01:57:32.000><c> can</c>

01:56:28.403 --> 01:56:28.413 align:start position:0%
out. Without lubrication, subduction can
 

01:56:28.413 --> 01:56:31.604 align:start position:0%
out. Without lubrication, subduction can
no<01:57:32.480><c> longer</c><01:57:32.800><c> take</c><01:57:33.040><c> place.</c><01:57:33.920><c> Tectonic</c><01:57:34.560><c> activity</c>

01:56:31.604 --> 01:56:31.614 align:start position:0%
no longer take place. Tectonic activity
 

01:56:31.614 --> 01:56:34.164 align:start position:0%
no longer take place. Tectonic activity
grinds<01:57:35.920><c> to</c><01:57:36.080><c> a</c><01:57:36.239><c> halt,</c><01:57:37.119><c> freezing</c><01:57:37.679><c> Earth's</c>

01:56:34.164 --> 01:56:34.174 align:start position:0%
grinds to a halt, freezing Earth's
 

01:56:34.174 --> 01:56:37.283 align:start position:0%
grinds to a halt, freezing Earth's
plates<01:57:38.560><c> in</c><01:57:38.800><c> place.</c><01:57:39.920><c> In</c><01:57:40.159><c> the</c><01:57:40.320><c> absence</c><01:57:40.560><c> of</c><01:57:40.719><c> that</c>

01:56:37.283 --> 01:56:37.293 align:start position:0%
plates in place. In the absence of that
 

01:56:37.293 --> 01:56:40.004 align:start position:0%
plates in place. In the absence of that
geological<01:57:41.840><c> action,</c><01:57:42.560><c> our</c><01:57:42.960><c> planet</c><01:57:43.360><c> slowly</c>

01:56:40.004 --> 01:56:40.014 align:start position:0%
geological action, our planet slowly
 

01:56:40.014 --> 01:56:42.564 align:start position:0%
geological action, our planet slowly
begins<01:57:44.320><c> accumulating</c><01:57:45.040><c> impact</c><01:57:45.520><c> craters</c><01:57:46.080><c> and</c>

01:56:42.564 --> 01:56:42.574 align:start position:0%
begins accumulating impact craters and
 

01:56:42.574 --> 01:56:46.564 align:start position:0%
begins accumulating impact craters and
shield<01:57:46.800><c> volcanoes</c><01:57:47.599><c> over</c><01:57:48.000><c> mantle</c><01:57:48.480><c> hotspots.</c>

01:56:46.564 --> 01:56:46.574 align:start position:0%
shield volcanoes over mantle hotspots.
 

01:56:46.574 --> 01:56:49.124 align:start position:0%
shield volcanoes over mantle hotspots.
Over<01:57:50.960><c> millions</c><01:57:51.360><c> of</c><01:57:51.520><c> years,</c><01:57:52.080><c> these</c><01:57:52.320><c> volcanoes</c>

01:56:49.124 --> 01:56:49.134 align:start position:0%
Over millions of years, these volcanoes
 

01:56:49.134 --> 01:56:51.044 align:start position:0%
Over millions of years, these volcanoes
release<01:57:53.440><c> trapped</c><01:57:53.760><c> carbon</c><01:57:54.080><c> dioxide</c><01:57:54.560><c> from</c><01:57:54.719><c> the</c>

01:56:51.044 --> 01:56:51.054 align:start position:0%
release trapped carbon dioxide from the
 

01:56:51.054 --> 01:56:53.444 align:start position:0%
release trapped carbon dioxide from the
mantle<01:57:55.280><c> into</c><01:57:55.520><c> the</c><01:57:55.679><c> atmosphere.</c><01:57:56.719><c> The</c><01:57:56.960><c> planet</c>

01:56:53.444 --> 01:56:53.454 align:start position:0%
mantle into the atmosphere. The planet
 

01:56:53.454 --> 01:56:56.564 align:start position:0%
mantle into the atmosphere. The planet
gets<01:57:57.599><c> even</c><01:57:58.000><c> hotter.</c><01:57:58.880><c> A</c><01:57:59.119><c> dry,</c><01:57:59.679><c> suffocating</c>

01:56:56.564 --> 01:56:56.574 align:start position:0%
gets even hotter. A dry, suffocating
 

01:56:56.574 --> 01:56:58.403 align:start position:0%
gets even hotter. A dry, suffocating
world<01:58:00.800><c> wrapped</c><01:58:01.040><c> in</c><01:58:01.199><c> a</c><01:58:01.360><c> thick</c><01:58:01.599><c> blanket</c><01:58:02.080><c> of</c>

01:56:58.403 --> 01:56:58.413 align:start position:0%
world wrapped in a thick blanket of
 

01:56:58.413 --> 01:57:01.604 align:start position:0%
world wrapped in a thick blanket of
carbon<01:58:02.639><c> dioxide</c><01:58:03.199><c> and</c><01:58:03.520><c> water</c><01:58:03.760><c> vapor.</c><01:58:04.800><c> The</c><01:58:05.119><c> only</c>

01:57:01.604 --> 01:57:01.614 align:start position:0%
carbon dioxide and water vapor. The only
 

01:57:01.614 --> 01:57:04.084 align:start position:0%
carbon dioxide and water vapor. The only
remaining<01:58:06.000><c> hideouts</c><01:58:06.639><c> are</c><01:58:06.880><c> tucked</c><01:58:07.280><c> away</c><01:58:07.599><c> in</c>

01:57:04.084 --> 01:57:04.094 align:start position:0%
remaining hideouts are tucked away in
 

01:57:04.094 --> 01:57:06.644 align:start position:0%
remaining hideouts are tucked away in
underground<01:58:08.560><c> ice</c><01:58:08.880><c> caves</c><01:58:09.599><c> or</c><01:58:09.920><c> in</c><01:58:10.159><c> high</c>

01:57:06.644 --> 01:57:06.654 align:start position:0%
underground ice caves or in high
 

01:57:06.654 --> 01:57:09.124 align:start position:0%
underground ice caves or in high
elevation<01:58:11.119><c> mountains</c><01:58:11.920><c> where</c><01:58:12.239><c> the</c><01:58:12.400><c> final</c>

01:57:09.124 --> 01:57:09.134 align:start position:0%
elevation mountains where the final
 

01:57:09.134 --> 01:57:12.323 align:start position:0%
elevation mountains where the final
smatterings<01:58:13.599><c> of</c><01:58:13.840><c> water</c><01:58:14.159><c> could</c><01:58:14.400><c> remain.</c><01:58:15.599><c> Here,</c>

01:57:12.323 --> 01:57:12.333 align:start position:0%
smatterings of water could remain. Here,
 

01:57:12.333 --> 01:57:14.803 align:start position:0%
smatterings of water could remain. Here,
protected<01:58:16.639><c> from</c><01:58:16.800><c> the</c><01:58:17.040><c> searing</c><01:58:17.520><c> surface,</c><01:58:18.320><c> we</c>

01:57:14.803 --> 01:57:14.813 align:start position:0%
protected from the searing surface, we
 

01:57:14.813 --> 01:57:17.843 align:start position:0%
protected from the searing surface, we
find<01:58:19.040><c> Earth's</c><01:58:19.679><c> last</c><01:58:20.159><c> living</c><01:58:20.480><c> creatures.</c>

01:57:17.843 --> 01:57:17.853 align:start position:0%
find Earth's last living creatures.
 

01:57:17.853 --> 01:57:20.803 align:start position:0%
find Earth's last living creatures.
Saltloving<01:58:22.480><c> microbes</c><01:58:23.360><c> capable</c><01:58:23.840><c> of</c><01:58:24.000><c> enduring</c>

01:57:20.803 --> 01:57:20.813 align:start position:0%
Saltloving microbes capable of enduring
 

01:57:20.813 --> 01:57:24.004 align:start position:0%
Saltloving microbes capable of enduring
brutal<01:58:25.119><c> heat</c><01:58:25.440><c> and</c><01:58:25.679><c> dehydration.</c><01:58:27.119><c> Some</c><01:58:27.520><c> might</c>

01:57:24.004 --> 01:57:24.014 align:start position:0%
brutal heat and dehydration. Some might
 

01:57:24.014 --> 01:57:26.244 align:start position:0%
brutal heat and dehydration. Some might
even<01:58:28.159><c> drift</c><01:58:28.560><c> high</c><01:58:28.800><c> into</c><01:58:29.040><c> the</c><01:58:29.199><c> atmosphere,</c>

01:57:26.244 --> 01:57:26.254 align:start position:0%
even drift high into the atmosphere,
 

01:57:26.254 --> 01:57:28.323 align:start position:0%
even drift high into the atmosphere,
surviving<01:58:30.639><c> in</c><01:58:30.960><c> cooler</c><01:58:31.440><c> layers</c><01:58:31.679><c> above</c><01:58:32.000><c> the</c>

01:57:28.323 --> 01:57:28.333 align:start position:0%
surviving in cooler layers above the
 

01:57:28.333 --> 01:57:30.724 align:start position:0%
surviving in cooler layers above the
scorched<01:58:32.639><c> ground,</c><01:58:33.520><c> much</c><01:58:33.760><c> like</c><01:58:34.159><c> what</c>

01:57:30.724 --> 01:57:30.734 align:start position:0%
scorched ground, much like what
 

01:57:30.734 --> 01:57:32.803 align:start position:0%
scorched ground, much like what
scientists<01:58:35.040><c> speculate</c><01:58:35.760><c> could</c><01:58:36.080><c> be</c><01:58:36.239><c> possible</c>

01:57:32.803 --> 01:57:32.813 align:start position:0%
scientists speculate could be possible
 

01:57:32.813 --> 01:57:35.524 align:start position:0%
scientists speculate could be possible
on<01:58:36.880><c> Venus,</c><01:58:37.840><c> which</c><01:58:38.239><c> potentially</c><01:58:38.880><c> has</c><01:58:39.119><c> a</c>

01:57:35.524 --> 01:57:35.534 align:start position:0%
on Venus, which potentially has a
 

01:57:35.534 --> 01:57:39.684 align:start position:0%
on Venus, which potentially has a
habitable<01:58:39.920><c> zone</c><01:58:40.560><c> 51</c><01:58:41.280><c> to</c><01:58:41.679><c> 62</c><01:58:42.239><c> km</c><01:58:42.880><c> above</c><01:58:43.199><c> its</c>

01:57:39.684 --> 01:57:39.694 align:start position:0%
habitable zone 51 to 62 km above its
 

01:57:39.694 --> 01:57:42.164 align:start position:0%
habitable zone 51 to 62 km above its
surface.

01:57:42.164 --> 01:57:42.174 align:start position:0%
surface.
 

01:57:42.174 --> 01:57:45.044 align:start position:0%
surface.
150<01:58:46.480><c> million</c><01:58:46.800><c> km</c><01:58:47.360><c> away,</c><01:58:48.000><c> the</c><01:58:48.159><c> sun</c><01:58:48.480><c> continues</c>

01:57:45.044 --> 01:57:45.054 align:start position:0%
150 million km away, the sun continues
 

01:57:45.054 --> 01:57:47.524 align:start position:0%
150 million km away, the sun continues
to<01:58:49.119><c> brighten</c><01:58:49.520><c> and</c><01:58:49.760><c> intensify.</c>

01:57:47.524 --> 01:57:47.534 align:start position:0%
to brighten and intensify.
 

01:57:47.534 --> 01:57:51.684 align:start position:0%
to brighten and intensify.
2.8<01:58:52.320><c> billion</c><01:58:52.719><c> years</c><01:58:52.960><c> from</c><01:58:53.199><c> now,</c><01:58:53.679><c> it</c><01:58:53.920><c> is</c><01:58:54.480><c> 28%</c>

01:57:51.684 --> 01:57:51.694 align:start position:0%
2.8 billion years from now, it is 28%
 

01:57:51.694 --> 01:57:53.924 align:start position:0%
2.8 billion years from now, it is 28%
brighter<01:58:55.920><c> than</c><01:58:56.080><c> today,</c><01:58:56.960><c> pushing</c><01:58:57.360><c> surface</c>

01:57:53.924 --> 01:57:53.934 align:start position:0%
brighter than today, pushing surface
 

01:57:53.934 --> 01:57:58.323 align:start position:0%
brighter than today, pushing surface
temperatures<01:58:58.239><c> to</c><01:58:58.480><c> around</c><01:58:59.679><c> 190°</c><01:59:00.560><c> C,</c><01:59:01.599><c> even</c><01:59:01.920><c> at</c>

01:57:58.323 --> 01:57:58.333 align:start position:0%
temperatures to around 190° C, even at
 

01:57:58.333 --> 01:58:01.283 align:start position:0%
temperatures to around 190° C, even at
the<01:59:02.400><c> poles</c><01:59:02.800><c> on</c><01:59:03.040><c> Earth.</c><01:59:03.920><c> They</c><01:59:04.400><c> put</c><01:59:04.639><c> up</c><01:59:04.719><c> a</c><01:59:04.960><c> good</c>

01:58:01.283 --> 01:58:01.293 align:start position:0%
the poles on Earth. They put up a good
 

01:58:01.293 --> 01:58:04.244 align:start position:0%
the poles on Earth. They put up a good
fight,<01:59:05.840><c> but</c><01:59:06.080><c> then</c><01:59:06.560><c> the</c><01:59:06.800><c> last</c><01:59:07.040><c> of</c><01:59:07.199><c> the</c><01:59:07.360><c> microbes</c>

01:58:04.244 --> 01:58:04.254 align:start position:0%
fight, but then the last of the microbes
 

01:58:04.254 --> 01:58:07.444 align:start position:0%
fight, but then the last of the microbes
perish,<01:59:08.880><c> and</c><01:59:09.119><c> with</c><01:59:09.360><c> them,</c><01:59:10.000><c> all</c><01:59:10.239><c> signs</c><01:59:10.639><c> of</c><01:59:10.880><c> life</c>

01:58:07.444 --> 01:58:07.454 align:start position:0%
perish, and with them, all signs of life
 

01:58:07.454 --> 01:58:10.564 align:start position:0%
perish, and with them, all signs of life
disappear.

01:58:10.564 --> 01:58:10.574 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:58:10.574 --> 01:58:12.803 align:start position:0%
 
If<01:59:14.639><c> our</c><01:59:14.960><c> team</c><01:59:15.119><c> of</c><01:59:15.360><c> advanced</c><01:59:15.760><c> alien</c><01:59:16.159><c> scientists</c>

01:58:12.803 --> 01:58:12.813 align:start position:0%
If our team of advanced alien scientists
 

01:58:12.813 --> 01:58:15.204 align:start position:0%
If our team of advanced alien scientists
flew<01:59:16.960><c> past</c><01:59:17.360><c> Earth</c><01:59:17.840><c> 3</c><01:59:18.159><c> billion</c><01:59:18.639><c> years</c><01:59:18.880><c> from</c>

01:58:15.204 --> 01:58:15.214 align:start position:0%
flew past Earth 3 billion years from
 

01:58:15.214 --> 01:58:18.244 align:start position:0%
flew past Earth 3 billion years from
now,<01:59:19.679><c> they</c><01:59:20.000><c> wouldn't</c><01:59:20.239><c> detect</c><01:59:20.880><c> a</c><01:59:21.199><c> single</c><01:59:21.679><c> bio</c>

01:58:18.244 --> 01:58:18.254 align:start position:0%
now, they wouldn't detect a single bio
 

01:58:18.254 --> 01:58:21.204 align:start position:0%
now, they wouldn't detect a single bio
signature.<01:59:23.199><c> They'd</c><01:59:23.520><c> have</c><01:59:23.840><c> no</c><01:59:24.159><c> idea</c><01:59:24.400><c> that</c><01:59:24.719><c> our</c>

01:58:21.204 --> 01:58:21.214 align:start position:0%
signature. They'd have no idea that our
 

01:58:21.214 --> 01:58:23.604 align:start position:0%
signature. They'd have no idea that our
world<01:59:25.360><c> once</c><01:59:25.760><c> teamed</c><01:59:26.159><c> with</c><01:59:26.400><c> the</c><01:59:26.560><c> buzz</c><01:59:26.880><c> of</c><01:59:27.119><c> lush</c>

01:58:23.604 --> 01:58:23.614 align:start position:0%
world once teamed with the buzz of lush
 

01:58:23.614 --> 01:58:25.763 align:start position:0%
world once teamed with the buzz of lush
rainforests,<01:59:28.560><c> rushing</c><01:59:29.040><c> rivers</c><01:59:29.360><c> and</c>

01:58:25.763 --> 01:58:25.773 align:start position:0%
rainforests, rushing rivers and
 

01:58:25.773 --> 01:58:28.164 align:start position:0%
rainforests, rushing rivers and
waterfalls,<01:59:30.560><c> and</c><01:59:30.800><c> a</c><01:59:30.960><c> chattering</c><01:59:31.599><c> human</c>

01:58:28.164 --> 01:58:28.174 align:start position:0%
waterfalls, and a chattering human
 

01:58:28.174 --> 01:58:31.604 align:start position:0%
waterfalls, and a chattering human
civilization.<01:59:33.360><c> They'd</c><01:59:33.679><c> see</c><01:59:34.080><c> a</c><01:59:34.320><c> barren</c><01:59:34.719><c> world,</c>

01:58:31.604 --> 01:58:31.614 align:start position:0%
civilization. They'd see a barren world,
 

01:58:31.614 --> 01:58:34.323 align:start position:0%
civilization. They'd see a barren world,
a<01:59:35.679><c> stagnant</c><01:59:36.320><c> rock,</c><01:59:37.119><c> waiting</c><01:59:37.760><c> for</c><01:59:38.000><c> the</c>

01:58:34.323 --> 01:58:34.333 align:start position:0%
a stagnant rock, waiting for the
 

01:58:34.333 --> 01:58:36.403 align:start position:0%
a stagnant rock, waiting for the
inevitable.

01:58:36.403 --> 01:58:36.413 align:start position:0%
inevitable.
 

01:58:36.413 --> 01:58:38.964 align:start position:0%
inevitable.
In<01:59:40.480><c> roughly</c><01:59:40.960><c> 6</c><01:59:41.199><c> billion</c><01:59:41.520><c> years,</c><01:59:42.080><c> we</c><01:59:42.400><c> approach</c>

01:58:38.964 --> 01:58:38.974 align:start position:0%
In roughly 6 billion years, we approach
 

01:58:38.974 --> 01:58:41.604 align:start position:0%
In roughly 6 billion years, we approach
the<01:59:43.119><c> end</c><01:59:43.280><c> of</c><01:59:43.440><c> not</c><01:59:43.679><c> just</c><01:59:43.840><c> the</c><01:59:44.000><c> Earth,</c><01:59:44.719><c> but</c><01:59:45.040><c> our</c>

01:58:41.604 --> 01:58:41.614 align:start position:0%
the end of not just the Earth, but our
 

01:58:41.614 --> 01:58:44.724 align:start position:0%
the end of not just the Earth, but our
entire<01:59:46.080><c> solar</c><01:59:46.480><c> system.</c><01:59:47.119><c> As</c><01:59:47.360><c> our</c><01:59:47.679><c> sun</c><01:59:48.000><c> begins</c>

01:58:44.724 --> 01:58:44.734 align:start position:0%
entire solar system. As our sun begins
 

01:58:44.734 --> 01:58:47.763 align:start position:0%
entire solar system. As our sun begins
dying,<01:59:49.040><c> too,</c><01:59:50.159><c> as</c><01:59:50.400><c> it</c><01:59:50.560><c> uses</c><01:59:50.880><c> up</c><01:59:51.040><c> the</c><01:59:51.199><c> last</c><01:59:51.440><c> of</c>

01:58:47.763 --> 01:58:47.773 align:start position:0%
dying, too, as it uses up the last of
 

01:58:47.773 --> 01:58:50.724 align:start position:0%
dying, too, as it uses up the last of
its<01:59:51.760><c> hydrogen</c><01:59:52.320><c> stores,</c><01:59:53.199><c> fusion</c><01:59:53.679><c> in</c><01:59:53.920><c> the</c><01:59:54.080><c> core</c>

01:58:50.724 --> 01:58:50.734 align:start position:0%
its hydrogen stores, fusion in the core
 

01:58:50.734 --> 01:58:53.283 align:start position:0%
its hydrogen stores, fusion in the core
stops.<01:59:55.520><c> That</c><01:59:55.840><c> outward</c><01:59:56.239><c> pressure</c><01:59:56.639><c> generated</c>

01:58:53.283 --> 01:58:53.293 align:start position:0%
stops. That outward pressure generated
 

01:58:53.293 --> 01:58:55.843 align:start position:0%
stops. That outward pressure generated
by<01:59:57.360><c> the</c><01:59:57.520><c> reaction</c><01:59:58.080><c> disappears.</c><01:59:59.119><c> So,</c><01:59:59.360><c> there's</c>

01:58:55.843 --> 01:58:55.853 align:start position:0%
by the reaction disappears. So, there's
 

01:58:55.853 --> 01:58:58.004 align:start position:0%
by the reaction disappears. So, there's
nothing<01:59:59.840><c> to</c><02:00:00.080><c> counter</c><02:00:00.400><c> the</c><02:00:00.560><c> core's</c><02:00:01.040><c> gravity,</c>

01:58:58.004 --> 01:58:58.014 align:start position:0%
nothing to counter the core's gravity,
 

01:58:58.014 --> 01:59:01.444 align:start position:0%
nothing to counter the core's gravity,
and<02:00:02.480><c> it</c><02:00:02.880><c> starts</c><02:00:03.199><c> collapsing.</c><02:00:04.480><c> As</c><02:00:04.719><c> the</c><02:00:04.960><c> sun's</c>

01:59:01.444 --> 01:59:01.454 align:start position:0%
and it starts collapsing. As the sun's
 

01:59:01.454 --> 01:59:04.164 align:start position:0%
and it starts collapsing. As the sun's
core<02:00:05.679><c> contracts</c><02:00:06.320><c> and</c><02:00:06.639><c> heats,</c><02:00:07.440><c> hydrogen</c>

01:59:04.164 --> 01:59:04.174 align:start position:0%
core contracts and heats, hydrogen
 

01:59:04.174 --> 01:59:06.484 align:start position:0%
core contracts and heats, hydrogen
fusion<02:00:08.560><c> ignites</c><02:00:08.880><c> in</c><02:00:09.040><c> a</c><02:00:09.199><c> shell</c><02:00:09.520><c> around</c><02:00:09.760><c> it,</c>

01:59:06.484 --> 01:59:06.494 align:start position:0%
fusion ignites in a shell around it,
 

01:59:06.494 --> 01:59:09.044 align:start position:0%
fusion ignites in a shell around it,
driving<02:00:10.800><c> rapid</c><02:00:11.199><c> expansion</c><02:00:11.920><c> and</c><02:00:12.159><c> a</c><02:00:12.320><c> surge</c><02:00:12.639><c> in</c>

01:59:09.044 --> 01:59:09.054 align:start position:0%
driving rapid expansion and a surge in
 

01:59:09.054 --> 01:59:11.444 align:start position:0%
driving rapid expansion and a surge in
brightness.<02:00:13.920><c> Within</c><02:00:14.480><c> another</c><02:00:14.880><c> billion</c>

01:59:11.444 --> 01:59:11.454 align:start position:0%
brightness. Within another billion
 

01:59:11.454 --> 01:59:14.004 align:start position:0%
brightness. Within another billion
years,<02:00:15.760><c> the</c><02:00:16.000><c> sun's</c><02:00:16.320><c> luminosity</c><02:00:17.040><c> exceeds</c><02:00:17.599><c> a</c>

01:59:14.004 --> 01:59:14.014 align:start position:0%
years, the sun's luminosity exceeds a
 

01:59:14.014 --> 01:59:16.164 align:start position:0%
years, the sun's luminosity exceeds a
thousand<02:00:18.320><c> times</c><02:00:18.639><c> what</c><02:00:18.880><c> it</c><02:00:19.040><c> is</c><02:00:19.199><c> today</c><02:00:19.679><c> as</c><02:00:19.840><c> it</c>

01:59:16.164 --> 01:59:16.174 align:start position:0%
thousand times what it is today as it
 

01:59:16.174 --> 01:59:20.724 align:start position:0%
thousand times what it is today as it
swells<02:00:20.480><c> from</c><02:00:20.719><c> a</c><02:00:21.040><c> subgiant</c><02:00:22.080><c> into</c><02:00:22.480><c> a</c><02:00:22.800><c> red</c><02:00:23.119><c> giant.</c>

01:59:20.724 --> 01:59:20.734 align:start position:0%
swells from a subgiant into a red giant.
 

01:59:20.734 --> 01:59:23.444 align:start position:0%
swells from a subgiant into a red giant.
Red<02:00:24.800><c> giants</c><02:00:25.280><c> cool</c><02:00:25.760><c> and</c><02:00:26.080><c> shed</c><02:00:26.400><c> vast</c><02:00:26.800><c> amounts</c><02:00:27.119><c> of</c>

01:59:23.444 --> 01:59:23.454 align:start position:0%
Red giants cool and shed vast amounts of
 

01:59:23.454 --> 01:59:25.684 align:start position:0%
Red giants cool and shed vast amounts of
mass<02:00:27.599><c> through</c><02:00:27.920><c> dense</c><02:00:28.320><c> stellar</c><02:00:28.719><c> winds.</c>

01:59:25.684 --> 01:59:25.694 align:start position:0%
mass through dense stellar winds.
 

01:59:25.694 --> 01:59:27.924 align:start position:0%
mass through dense stellar winds.
Material<02:00:29.920><c> that</c><02:00:30.239><c> could</c><02:00:30.560><c> one</c><02:00:30.880><c> day</c><02:00:31.119><c> seed</c><02:00:31.520><c> new</c>

01:59:27.924 --> 01:59:27.934 align:start position:0%
Material that could one day seed new
 

01:59:27.934 --> 01:59:30.644 align:start position:0%
Material that could one day seed new
stars<02:00:32.159><c> and</c><02:00:32.400><c> planets.</c><02:00:33.360><c> As</c><02:00:33.599><c> the</c><02:00:33.760><c> sun</c><02:00:34.000><c> loses</c>

01:59:30.644 --> 01:59:30.654 align:start position:0%
stars and planets. As the sun loses
 

01:59:30.654 --> 01:59:33.444 align:start position:0%
stars and planets. As the sun loses
about<02:00:34.880><c> half</c><02:00:35.280><c> its</c><02:00:35.599><c> mass,</c><02:00:36.560><c> its</c><02:00:36.800><c> weakened</c>

01:59:33.444 --> 01:59:33.454 align:start position:0%
about half its mass, its weakened
 

01:59:33.454 --> 01:59:35.843 align:start position:0%
about half its mass, its weakened
gravity<02:00:37.760><c> lets</c><02:00:38.080><c> the</c><02:00:38.239><c> outer</c><02:00:38.639><c> planets</c><02:00:39.119><c> drift</c>

01:59:35.843 --> 01:59:35.853 align:start position:0%
gravity lets the outer planets drift
 

01:59:35.853 --> 01:59:39.124 align:start position:0%
gravity lets the outer planets drift
outward,<02:00:40.560><c> roughly</c><02:00:41.119><c> doubling</c><02:00:41.520><c> their</c><02:00:41.760><c> orbits.</c>

01:59:39.124 --> 01:59:39.134 align:start position:0%
outward, roughly doubling their orbits.
 

01:59:39.134 --> 01:59:41.763 align:start position:0%
outward, roughly doubling their orbits.
Earth's<02:00:43.360><c> orbit</c><02:00:43.679><c> expands</c><02:00:44.159><c> to</c><02:00:44.400><c> about</c><02:00:44.800><c> 1.5</c>

01:59:41.763 --> 01:59:41.773 align:start position:0%
Earth's orbit expands to about 1.5
 

01:59:41.773 --> 01:59:44.803 align:start position:0%
Earth's orbit expands to about 1.5
astronomical<02:00:46.320><c> units,</c><02:00:47.199><c> but</c><02:00:47.520><c> tidal</c><02:00:47.920><c> forces</c>

01:59:44.803 --> 01:59:44.813 align:start position:0%
astronomical units, but tidal forces
 

01:59:44.813 --> 01:59:47.604 align:start position:0%
astronomical units, but tidal forces
eventually<02:00:49.199><c> pull</c><02:00:49.520><c> it</c><02:00:49.760><c> inward</c><02:00:50.159><c> again.</c><02:00:51.040><c> At</c><02:00:51.280><c> the</c>

01:59:47.604 --> 01:59:47.614 align:start position:0%
eventually pull it inward again. At the
 

01:59:47.614 --> 01:59:51.363 align:start position:0%
eventually pull it inward again. At the
red<02:00:51.679><c> giant's</c><02:00:52.159><c> peak,</c><02:00:52.880><c> in</c><02:00:53.119><c> about</c><02:00:53.599><c> 7.6</c><02:00:54.800><c> billion</c>

01:59:51.363 --> 01:59:51.373 align:start position:0%
red giant's peak, in about 7.6 billion
 

01:59:51.373 --> 01:59:55.604 align:start position:0%
red giant's peak, in about 7.6 billion
years,<02:00:55.920><c> the</c><02:00:56.159><c> sun's</c><02:00:56.719><c> radius</c><02:00:57.520><c> reaches</c><02:00:58.239><c> 1.19</c>

01:59:55.604 --> 01:59:55.614 align:start position:0%
years, the sun's radius reaches 1.19
 

01:59:55.614 --> 01:59:59.044 align:start position:0%
years, the sun's radius reaches 1.19
astronomical<02:01:00.239><c> units,</c><02:01:01.360><c> 256</c>

01:59:59.044 --> 01:59:59.054 align:start position:0%
astronomical units, 256
 

01:59:59.054 --> 02:00:02.004 align:start position:0%
astronomical units, 256
times<02:01:03.199><c> what</c><02:01:03.440><c> it</c><02:01:03.599><c> is</c><02:01:03.760><c> now,</c><02:01:04.639><c> and</c><02:01:05.119><c> engulfs</c><02:01:05.679><c> the</c>

02:00:02.004 --> 02:00:02.014 align:start position:0%
times what it is now, and engulfs the
 

02:00:02.014 --> 02:00:06.883 align:start position:0%
times what it is now, and engulfs the
Earth,<02:01:06.639><c> consuming</c><02:01:07.520><c> our</c><02:01:07.920><c> planet</c><02:01:08.560><c> entirely.</c>

02:00:06.883 --> 02:00:06.893 align:start position:0%
Earth, consuming our planet entirely.
 

02:00:06.893 --> 02:00:11.124 align:start position:0%
Earth, consuming our planet entirely.
Until

02:00:11.124 --> 02:00:11.134 align:start position:0%
 
 

02:00:11.134 --> 02:00:13.283 align:start position:0%
 
recently,<02:01:15.760><c> scientists</c><02:01:16.239><c> differed</c><02:01:16.639><c> on</c><02:01:16.880><c> how</c>

02:00:13.283 --> 02:00:13.293 align:start position:0%
recently, scientists differed on how
 

02:00:13.293 --> 02:00:14.883 align:start position:0%
recently, scientists differed on how
likely<02:01:17.440><c> it</c><02:01:17.599><c> was</c><02:01:17.760><c> that</c><02:01:18.080><c> Earth</c><02:01:18.400><c> would</c><02:01:18.639><c> be</c>

02:00:14.883 --> 02:00:14.893 align:start position:0%
likely it was that Earth would be
 

02:00:14.893 --> 02:00:16.964 align:start position:0%
likely it was that Earth would be
swallowed<02:01:19.199><c> up</c><02:01:19.360><c> by</c><02:01:19.520><c> the</c><02:01:19.679><c> sun,</c><02:01:20.400><c> with</c><02:01:20.560><c> some</c>

02:00:16.964 --> 02:00:16.974 align:start position:0%
swallowed up by the sun, with some
 

02:00:16.974 --> 02:00:19.444 align:start position:0%
swallowed up by the sun, with some
suggesting<02:01:21.360><c> our</c><02:01:21.679><c> orbit</c><02:01:22.159><c> could</c><02:01:22.400><c> expand</c><02:01:22.800><c> as</c><02:01:23.119><c> the</c>

02:00:19.444 --> 02:00:19.454 align:start position:0%
suggesting our orbit could expand as the
 

02:00:19.454 --> 02:00:21.924 align:start position:0%
suggesting our orbit could expand as the
sun<02:01:23.520><c> grows,</c><02:01:24.400><c> moving</c><02:01:24.719><c> us</c><02:01:24.960><c> out</c><02:01:25.119><c> of</c><02:01:25.199><c> the</c><02:01:25.440><c> danger</c>

02:00:21.924 --> 02:00:21.934 align:start position:0%
sun grows, moving us out of the danger
 

02:00:21.934 --> 02:00:24.323 align:start position:0%
sun grows, moving us out of the danger
zone<02:01:26.239><c> and</c><02:01:26.560><c> saving</c><02:01:26.880><c> us</c><02:01:27.119><c> from</c><02:01:27.360><c> this</c><02:01:27.599><c> grizzly</c>

02:00:24.323 --> 02:00:24.333 align:start position:0%
zone and saving us from this grizzly
 

02:00:24.333 --> 02:00:26.883 align:start position:0%
zone and saving us from this grizzly
fate.<02:01:28.960><c> But</c><02:01:29.199><c> a</c><02:01:29.360><c> new</c><02:01:29.520><c> study</c><02:01:29.840><c> using</c><02:01:30.159><c> data</c><02:01:30.480><c> from</c>

02:00:26.883 --> 02:00:26.893 align:start position:0%
fate. But a new study using data from
 

02:00:26.893 --> 02:00:29.283 align:start position:0%
fate. But a new study using data from
NASA's<02:01:31.360><c> transiting</c><02:01:32.000><c> exoplanet</c><02:01:32.719><c> Survey</c>

02:00:29.283 --> 02:00:29.293 align:start position:0%
NASA's transiting exoplanet Survey
 

02:00:29.293 --> 02:00:31.363 align:start position:0%
NASA's transiting exoplanet Survey
satellite<02:01:33.920><c> shows</c><02:01:34.239><c> planets</c><02:01:34.719><c> are</c><02:01:34.880><c> being</c>

02:00:31.363 --> 02:00:31.373 align:start position:0%
satellite shows planets are being
 

02:00:31.373 --> 02:00:34.724 align:start position:0%
satellite shows planets are being
destroyed<02:01:35.920><c> all</c><02:01:36.239><c> over</c><02:01:36.480><c> the</c><02:01:36.800><c> galaxy,</c><02:01:37.840><c> and</c><02:01:38.320><c> it</c>

02:00:34.724 --> 02:00:34.734 align:start position:0%
destroyed all over the galaxy, and it
 

02:00:34.734 --> 02:00:36.964 align:start position:0%
destroyed all over the galaxy, and it
doesn't<02:01:38.800><c> look</c><02:01:39.040><c> good</c><02:01:39.119><c> for</c><02:01:39.360><c> Earth.</c>

02:00:36.964 --> 02:00:36.974 align:start position:0%
doesn't look good for Earth.
 

02:00:36.974 --> 02:00:40.004 align:start position:0%
doesn't look good for Earth.
They<02:01:41.119><c> found</c><02:01:41.440><c> more</c><02:01:41.679><c> than</c><02:01:42.719><c> 130</c><02:01:43.199><c> potential</c>

02:00:40.004 --> 02:00:40.014 align:start position:0%
They found more than 130 potential
 

02:00:40.014 --> 02:00:43.124 align:start position:0%
They found more than 130 potential
planets,<02:01:44.880><c> but</c><02:01:45.119><c> there</c><02:01:45.440><c> were</c><02:01:45.679><c> very</c><02:01:46.080><c> few</c><02:01:46.480><c> around</c>

02:00:43.124 --> 02:00:43.134 align:start position:0%
planets, but there were very few around
 

02:00:43.134 --> 02:00:48.004 align:start position:0%
planets, but there were very few around
red<02:01:47.280><c> giants,</c><02:01:48.159><c> implying</c><02:01:49.040><c> they</c><02:01:49.360><c> had</c><02:01:49.599><c> vanished.</c>

02:00:48.004 --> 02:00:48.014 align:start position:0%
red giants, implying they had vanished.
 

02:00:48.014 --> 02:00:50.084 align:start position:0%
red giants, implying they had vanished.
It<02:01:52.080><c> seems</c><02:01:52.400><c> stars</c><02:01:52.960><c> swallow</c><02:01:53.440><c> their</c><02:01:53.599><c> inner</c>

02:00:50.084 --> 02:00:50.094 align:start position:0%
It seems stars swallow their inner
 

02:00:50.094 --> 02:00:52.484 align:start position:0%
It seems stars swallow their inner
planets<02:01:54.320><c> far</c><02:01:54.639><c> more</c><02:01:54.880><c> often</c><02:01:55.440><c> than</c><02:01:55.760><c> we</c><02:01:56.000><c> had</c>

02:00:52.484 --> 02:00:52.494 align:start position:0%
planets far more often than we had
 

02:00:52.494 --> 02:00:55.843 align:start position:0%
planets far more often than we had
previously<02:01:56.880><c> thought.</c><02:01:58.239><c> Lead</c><02:01:58.560><c> author</c><02:01:59.199><c> Dr.</c>

02:00:55.843 --> 02:00:55.853 align:start position:0%
previously thought. Lead author Dr.
 

02:00:55.853 --> 02:00:58.803 align:start position:0%
previously thought. Lead author Dr.
Edward<02:02:00.080><c> Bryant</c><02:02:00.880><c> stated</c><02:02:01.280><c> that</c><02:02:01.760><c> we</c><02:02:02.000><c> expected</c><02:02:02.400><c> to</c>

02:00:58.803 --> 02:00:58.813 align:start position:0%
Edward Bryant stated that we expected to
 

02:00:58.813 --> 02:01:00.644 align:start position:0%
Edward Bryant stated that we expected to
see<02:02:02.719><c> this</c><02:02:02.960><c> effect,</c><02:02:03.520><c> but</c><02:02:03.760><c> we</c><02:02:04.000><c> were</c><02:02:04.159><c> still</c>

02:01:00.644 --> 02:01:00.654 align:start position:0%
see this effect, but we were still
 

02:01:00.654 --> 02:01:03.283 align:start position:0%
see this effect, but we were still
surprised<02:02:05.360><c> by</c><02:02:05.679><c> just</c><02:02:06.000><c> how</c><02:02:06.400><c> efficient</c><02:02:06.800><c> these</c>

02:01:03.283 --> 02:01:03.293 align:start position:0%
surprised by just how efficient these
 

02:01:03.293 --> 02:01:05.684 align:start position:0%
surprised by just how efficient these
stars<02:02:07.520><c> seem</c><02:02:07.760><c> to</c><02:02:07.920><c> be</c><02:02:08.320><c> at</c><02:02:08.639><c> engulfing</c><02:02:09.199><c> their</c>

02:01:05.684 --> 02:01:05.694 align:start position:0%
stars seem to be at engulfing their
 

02:01:05.694 --> 02:01:08.004 align:start position:0%
stars seem to be at engulfing their
close<02:02:09.760><c> planets.</c><02:02:10.719><c> So,</c><02:02:10.960><c> with</c><02:02:11.199><c> Earth</c><02:02:11.520><c> and</c><02:02:11.679><c> the</c>

02:01:08.004 --> 02:01:08.014 align:start position:0%
close planets. So, with Earth and the
 

02:01:08.014 --> 02:01:09.843 align:start position:0%
close planets. So, with Earth and the
other<02:02:11.920><c> inner</c><02:02:12.320><c> rocky</c><02:02:12.639><c> worlds</c><02:02:12.880><c> of</c><02:02:13.119><c> our</c><02:02:13.360><c> solar</c>

02:01:09.843 --> 02:01:09.853 align:start position:0%
other inner rocky worlds of our solar
 

02:01:09.853 --> 02:01:12.644 align:start position:0%
other inner rocky worlds of our solar
system<02:02:14.000><c> gone,</c><02:02:14.800><c> the</c><02:02:15.040><c> sun</c><02:02:15.360><c> sheds</c><02:02:15.760><c> its</c><02:02:16.000><c> outer</c>

02:01:12.644 --> 02:01:12.654 align:start position:0%
system gone, the sun sheds its outer
 

02:01:12.654 --> 02:01:15.524 align:start position:0%
system gone, the sun sheds its outer
layers,<02:02:17.199><c> leaving</c><02:02:17.520><c> behind</c><02:02:17.920><c> its</c><02:02:18.239><c> hot,</c><02:02:18.960><c> dense</c>

02:01:15.524 --> 02:01:15.534 align:start position:0%
layers, leaving behind its hot, dense
 

02:01:15.534 --> 02:01:18.964 align:start position:0%
layers, leaving behind its hot, dense
core.<02:02:20.400><c> Over</c><02:02:20.960><c> trillions</c><02:02:21.440><c> of</c><02:02:21.599><c> years,</c><02:02:22.320><c> this</c>

02:01:18.964 --> 02:01:18.974 align:start position:0%
core. Over trillions of years, this
 

02:01:18.974 --> 02:01:21.843 align:start position:0%
core. Over trillions of years, this
white<02:02:23.119><c> dwarf</c><02:02:23.920><c> will</c><02:02:24.239><c> gradually</c><02:02:24.800><c> cool</c><02:02:25.440><c> and</c>

02:01:21.843 --> 02:01:21.853 align:start position:0%
white dwarf will gradually cool and
 

02:01:21.853 --> 02:01:24.803 align:start position:0%
white dwarf will gradually cool and
fade,<02:02:26.560><c> taking</c><02:02:26.960><c> with</c><02:02:27.119><c> it</c><02:02:27.520><c> any</c><02:02:27.920><c> memory</c><02:02:28.320><c> of</c><02:02:28.480><c> the</c>

02:01:24.803 --> 02:01:24.813 align:start position:0%
fade, taking with it any memory of the
 

02:01:24.813 --> 02:01:28.564 align:start position:0%
fade, taking with it any memory of the
solar<02:02:29.040><c> system</c><02:02:29.599><c> it</c><02:02:29.840><c> once</c><02:02:30.159><c> ruled.</c>

02:01:28.564 --> 02:01:28.574 align:start position:0%
solar system it once ruled.
 

02:01:28.574 --> 02:01:31.124 align:start position:0%
solar system it once ruled.
And<02:02:32.719><c> as</c><02:02:33.119><c> its</c><02:02:33.440><c> last</c><02:02:33.679><c> light</c><02:02:34.080><c> dwindles</c><02:02:34.639><c> into</c>

02:01:31.124 --> 02:01:31.134 align:start position:0%
And as its last light dwindles into
 

02:01:31.134 --> 02:01:33.843 align:start position:0%
And as its last light dwindles into
darkness,<02:02:35.840><c> our</c><02:02:36.080><c> visiting</c><02:02:36.560><c> aliens</c><02:02:37.119><c> finally</c>

02:01:33.843 --> 02:01:33.853 align:start position:0%
darkness, our visiting aliens finally
 

02:01:33.853 --> 02:01:36.084 align:start position:0%
darkness, our visiting aliens finally
turn<02:02:37.920><c> off</c><02:02:38.159><c> their</c><02:02:38.400><c> scanning</c><02:02:38.800><c> devices,</c><02:02:39.679><c> pack</c>

02:01:36.084 --> 02:01:36.094 align:start position:0%
turn off their scanning devices, pack
 

02:01:36.094 --> 02:01:38.644 align:start position:0%
turn off their scanning devices, pack
away<02:02:40.239><c> their</c><02:02:40.480><c> things,</c><02:02:41.360><c> and</c><02:02:41.599><c> leave</c><02:02:42.000><c> for</c><02:02:42.320><c> the</c>

02:01:38.644 --> 02:01:38.654 align:start position:0%
away their things, and leave for the
 

02:01:38.654 --> 02:01:41.924 align:start position:0%
away their things, and leave for the
last<02:02:42.800><c> time.</c><02:02:43.440><c> Their</c><02:02:44.239><c> billions</c><02:02:44.800><c> of</c><02:02:45.040><c> years</c><02:02:45.440><c> long</c>

02:01:41.924 --> 02:01:41.934 align:start position:0%
last time. Their billions of years long
 

02:01:41.934 --> 02:01:44.164 align:start position:0%
last time. Their billions of years long
mission<02:02:46.080><c> to</c><02:02:46.400><c> see</c><02:02:46.639><c> the</c><02:02:46.880><c> life</c><02:02:47.119><c> of</c><02:02:47.280><c> planet</c><02:02:47.679><c> Earth</c>

02:01:44.164 --> 02:01:44.174 align:start position:0%
mission to see the life of planet Earth
 

02:01:44.174 --> 02:01:46.484 align:start position:0%
mission to see the life of planet Earth
and<02:02:48.239><c> the</c><02:02:48.480><c> solar</c><02:02:48.800><c> system</c><02:02:49.520><c> is</c><02:02:49.760><c> finally</c>

02:01:46.484 --> 02:01:46.494 align:start position:0%
and the solar system is finally
 

02:01:46.494 --> 02:01:50.883 align:start position:0%
and the solar system is finally
complete.<02:02:51.520><c> But</c><02:02:51.760><c> is</c><02:02:52.159><c> that</c><02:02:52.800><c> really</c><02:02:53.119><c> it?</c><02:02:54.480><c> Even</c>

02:01:50.883 --> 02:01:50.893 align:start position:0%
complete. But is that really it? Even
 

02:01:50.893 --> 02:01:53.763 align:start position:0%
complete. But is that really it? Even
though<02:02:55.199><c> this</c><02:02:55.520><c> is</c><02:02:55.840><c> written</c><02:02:56.159><c> in</c><02:02:56.320><c> the</c><02:02:56.480><c> stars,</c><02:02:57.360><c> it</c>

02:01:53.763 --> 02:01:53.773 align:start position:0%
though this is written in the stars, it
 

02:01:53.773 --> 02:01:55.684 align:start position:0%
though this is written in the stars, it
doesn't<02:02:57.840><c> mean</c><02:02:58.000><c> it</c><02:02:58.239><c> will</c><02:02:58.480><c> spell</c><02:02:58.800><c> the</c><02:02:59.040><c> end</c><02:02:59.280><c> for</c>

02:01:55.684 --> 02:01:55.694 align:start position:0%
doesn't mean it will spell the end for
 

02:01:55.694 --> 02:01:57.843 align:start position:0%
doesn't mean it will spell the end for
us.<02:03:00.400><c> I</c><02:03:00.639><c> mentioned</c><02:03:00.960><c> at</c><02:03:01.119><c> the</c><02:03:01.280><c> beginning</c><02:03:01.440><c> that</c>

02:01:57.843 --> 02:01:57.853 align:start position:0%
us. I mentioned at the beginning that
 

02:01:57.853 --> 02:01:59.763 align:start position:0%
us. I mentioned at the beginning that
this<02:03:01.840><c> is</c><02:03:01.920><c> what</c><02:03:02.159><c> would</c><02:03:02.320><c> happen</c><02:03:02.639><c> assuming</c><02:03:03.199><c> no</c>

02:01:59.763 --> 02:01:59.773 align:start position:0%
this is what would happen assuming no
 

02:01:59.773 --> 02:02:02.724 align:start position:0%
this is what would happen assuming no
human<02:03:04.000><c> intervention.</c><02:03:05.360><c> But</c><02:03:05.599><c> humans</c><02:03:06.080><c> have</c><02:03:06.320><c> a</c>

02:02:02.724 --> 02:02:02.734 align:start position:0%
human intervention. But humans have a
 

02:02:02.734 --> 02:02:05.044 align:start position:0%
human intervention. But humans have a
compulsive<02:03:07.040><c> habit</c><02:03:07.440><c> of</c><02:03:07.760><c> rewriting</c><02:03:08.400><c> nature's</c>

02:02:05.044 --> 02:02:05.054 align:start position:0%
compulsive habit of rewriting nature's
 

02:02:05.054 --> 02:02:07.444 align:start position:0%
compulsive habit of rewriting nature's
story.<02:03:09.760><c> We've</c><02:03:10.080><c> done</c><02:03:10.239><c> it</c><02:03:10.480><c> so</c><02:03:10.719><c> many</c><02:03:10.960><c> times</c>

02:02:07.444 --> 02:02:07.454 align:start position:0%
story. We've done it so many times
 

02:02:07.454 --> 02:02:09.924 align:start position:0%
story. We've done it so many times
already.<02:03:12.080><c> Just</c><02:03:12.400><c> imagine</c><02:03:12.880><c> what</c><02:03:13.119><c> we</c><02:03:13.280><c> may</c><02:03:13.520><c> be</c>

02:02:09.924 --> 02:02:09.934 align:start position:0%
already. Just imagine what we may be
 

02:02:09.934 --> 02:02:13.124 align:start position:0%
already. Just imagine what we may be
capable<02:03:14.159><c> of</c><02:03:14.480><c> in</c><02:03:14.719><c> a</c><02:03:14.960><c> few</c><02:03:15.119><c> million</c><02:03:15.520><c> years.</c><02:03:16.480><c> If</c><02:03:16.719><c> we</c>

02:02:13.124 --> 02:02:13.134 align:start position:0%
capable of in a few million years. If we
 

02:02:13.134 --> 02:02:16.164 align:start position:0%
capable of in a few million years. If we
make<02:03:17.119><c> it</c><02:03:17.280><c> that</c><02:03:17.520><c> far,</c><02:03:18.560><c> we</c><02:03:18.880><c> could</c><02:03:19.199><c> intervene</c><02:03:19.760><c> to</c>

02:02:16.164 --> 02:02:16.174 align:start position:0%
make it that far, we could intervene to
 

02:02:16.174 --> 02:02:18.244 align:start position:0%
make it that far, we could intervene to
find<02:03:20.239><c> ways</c><02:03:20.480><c> of</c><02:03:20.639><c> adapting</c><02:03:21.119><c> to</c><02:03:21.440><c> or</c><02:03:21.679><c> even</c>

02:02:18.244 --> 02:02:18.254 align:start position:0%
find ways of adapting to or even
 

02:02:18.254 --> 02:02:19.924 align:start position:0%
find ways of adapting to or even
preventing<02:03:22.639><c> some</c><02:03:22.880><c> of</c><02:03:22.960><c> these</c><02:03:23.199><c> events</c><02:03:23.520><c> from</c>

02:02:19.924 --> 02:02:19.934 align:start position:0%
preventing some of these events from
 

02:02:19.934 --> 02:02:22.564 align:start position:0%
preventing some of these events from
occurring<02:03:24.480><c> by</c><02:03:25.040><c> terraforming</c><02:03:25.760><c> parts</c><02:03:26.000><c> of</c><02:03:26.159><c> Earth</c>

02:02:22.564 --> 02:02:22.574 align:start position:0%
occurring by terraforming parts of Earth
 

02:02:22.574 --> 02:02:25.363 align:start position:0%
occurring by terraforming parts of Earth
for<02:03:26.639><c> survival</c><02:03:27.520><c> or</c><02:03:27.840><c> perhaps</c><02:03:28.159><c> even</c><02:03:28.480><c> colonizing</c>

02:02:25.363 --> 02:02:25.373 align:start position:0%
for survival or perhaps even colonizing
 

02:02:25.373 --> 02:02:28.803 align:start position:0%
for survival or perhaps even colonizing
other<02:03:29.520><c> planets.</c><02:03:30.719><c> The</c><02:03:30.880><c> Earth</c><02:03:31.199><c> story</c><02:03:31.599><c> may</c><02:03:31.920><c> end,</c>

02:02:28.803 --> 02:02:28.813 align:start position:0%
other planets. The Earth story may end,
 

02:02:28.813 --> 02:02:31.924 align:start position:0%
other planets. The Earth story may end,
but<02:03:33.040><c> ours</c><02:03:33.599><c> doesn't</c><02:03:33.920><c> have</c><02:03:34.080><c> to.</c><02:03:34.960><c> And</c><02:03:35.199><c> even</c><02:03:35.360><c> if</c><02:03:35.599><c> it</c>

02:02:31.924 --> 02:02:31.934 align:start position:0%
but ours doesn't have to. And even if it
 

02:02:31.934 --> 02:02:35.283 align:start position:0%
but ours doesn't have to. And even if it
does,<02:03:36.480><c> that's</c><02:03:36.719><c> okay.</c><02:03:37.760><c> After</c><02:03:38.080><c> all,</c><02:03:38.719><c> we</c><02:03:38.960><c> are</c>

02:02:35.283 --> 02:02:35.293 align:start position:0%
does, that's okay. After all, we are
 

02:02:35.293 --> 02:02:37.763 align:start position:0%
does, that's okay. After all, we are
made<02:03:39.360><c> of</c><02:03:39.599><c> stardust.</c><02:03:40.639><c> So,</c><02:03:40.880><c> it's</c><02:03:41.040><c> only</c><02:03:41.280><c> fitting</c>

02:02:37.763 --> 02:02:37.773 align:start position:0%
made of stardust. So, it's only fitting
 

02:02:37.773 --> 02:02:44.883 align:start position:0%
made of stardust. So, it's only fitting
that<02:03:41.920><c> we're</c><02:03:42.480><c> reunited</c><02:03:43.119><c> with</c><02:03:43.360><c> the</c><02:03:43.599><c> stars.</c>

02:02:44.883 --> 02:02:44.893 align:start position:0%
 
 

02:02:44.893 --> 02:02:47.444 align:start position:0%
 
I<02:03:48.960><c> want</c><02:03:49.040><c> to</c><02:03:49.199><c> give</c><02:03:49.440><c> a</c><02:03:49.840><c> quick</c><02:03:50.159><c> shout</c><02:03:50.320><c> out</c><02:03:50.560><c> to</c><02:03:50.800><c> a</c>

02:02:47.444 --> 02:02:47.454 align:start position:0%
I want to give a quick shout out to a
 

02:02:47.454 --> 02:02:50.084 align:start position:0%
I want to give a quick shout out to a
special<02:03:52.080><c> super</c><02:03:52.480><c> massive</c><02:03:52.960><c> black</c><02:03:53.199><c> hole</c><02:03:53.599><c> tier</c>

02:02:50.084 --> 02:02:50.094 align:start position:0%
special super massive black hole tier
 

02:02:50.094 --> 02:02:53.124 align:start position:0%
special super massive black hole tier
member<02:03:54.239><c> on</c><02:03:54.480><c> Patreon,</c><02:03:55.119><c> Bryant</c><02:03:55.679><c> K.</c><02:03:56.480><c> Thank</c><02:03:56.719><c> you</c>

02:02:53.124 --> 02:02:53.134 align:start position:0%
member on Patreon, Bryant K. Thank you
 

02:02:53.134 --> 02:02:55.283 align:start position:0%
member on Patreon, Bryant K. Thank you
for<02:03:57.199><c> going</c><02:03:57.440><c> above</c><02:03:57.840><c> and</c><02:03:58.080><c> beyond</c><02:03:58.560><c> to</c><02:03:58.880><c> support</c>

02:02:55.283 --> 02:02:55.293 align:start position:0%
for going above and beyond to support
 

02:02:55.293 --> 02:02:57.763 align:start position:0%
for going above and beyond to support
the<02:03:59.360><c> channel.</c><02:04:00.400><c> There's</c><02:04:00.639><c> a</c><02:04:00.880><c> reason</c><02:04:01.040><c> these</c>

02:02:57.763 --> 02:02:57.773 align:start position:0%
the channel. There's a reason these
 

02:02:57.773 --> 02:03:00.244 align:start position:0%
the channel. There's a reason these
educational<02:04:02.480><c> mini</c><02:04:02.800><c> documentaries</c><02:04:03.599><c> are</c><02:04:03.840><c> free</c>

02:03:00.244 --> 02:03:00.254 align:start position:0%
educational mini documentaries are free
 

02:03:00.254 --> 02:03:02.803 align:start position:0%
educational mini documentaries are free
for<02:04:04.320><c> everyone.</c><02:04:05.199><c> It's</c><02:04:05.520><c> not</c><02:04:05.679><c> just</c><02:04:05.840><c> the</c><02:04:06.080><c> ads</c><02:04:06.400><c> or</c>

02:03:02.803 --> 02:03:02.813 align:start position:0%
for everyone. It's not just the ads or
 

02:03:02.813 --> 02:03:04.883 align:start position:0%
for everyone. It's not just the ads or
sponsors,<02:04:07.440><c> but</c><02:04:07.599><c> it's</c><02:04:07.760><c> thanks</c><02:04:08.000><c> to</c><02:04:08.239><c> our</c>

02:03:04.883 --> 02:03:04.893 align:start position:0%
sponsors, but it's thanks to our
 

02:03:04.893 --> 02:03:07.124 align:start position:0%
sponsors, but it's thanks to our
hundreds<02:04:09.119><c> of</c><02:04:09.360><c> Patreon</c><02:04:09.840><c> members</c><02:04:10.239><c> who</c><02:04:10.560><c> make</c><02:04:10.719><c> it</c>

02:03:07.124 --> 02:03:07.134 align:start position:0%
hundreds of Patreon members who make it
 

02:03:07.134 --> 02:03:08.964 align:start position:0%
hundreds of Patreon members who make it
possible<02:04:11.360><c> for</c><02:04:11.599><c> everyone</c><02:04:11.920><c> to</c><02:04:12.080><c> get</c><02:04:12.239><c> the</c><02:04:12.480><c> best</c>

02:03:08.964 --> 02:03:08.974 align:start position:0%
possible for everyone to get the best
 

02:03:08.974 --> 02:03:11.283 align:start position:0%
possible for everyone to get the best
possible<02:04:13.360><c> content.</c><02:04:14.239><c> If</c><02:04:14.400><c> you'd</c><02:04:14.639><c> like</c><02:04:14.800><c> to</c><02:04:14.960><c> be</c>

02:03:11.283 --> 02:03:11.293 align:start position:0%
possible content. If you'd like to be
 

02:03:11.293 --> 02:03:13.604 align:start position:0%
possible content. If you'd like to be
part<02:04:15.280><c> of</c><02:04:15.440><c> that</c><02:04:15.679><c> group,</c><02:04:16.239><c> the</c><02:04:16.480><c> people</c><02:04:16.719><c> who</c><02:04:17.119><c> keep</c>

02:03:13.604 --> 02:03:13.614 align:start position:0%
part of that group, the people who keep
 

02:03:13.614 --> 02:03:16.323 align:start position:0%
part of that group, the people who keep
space<02:04:17.840><c> education</c><02:04:18.480><c> open</c><02:04:18.719><c> to</c><02:04:18.960><c> everyone,</c><02:04:19.920><c> join</c>

02:03:16.323 --> 02:03:16.333 align:start position:0%
space education open to everyone, join
 

02:03:16.333 --> 02:03:19.044 align:start position:0%
space education open to everyone, join
us<02:04:20.320><c> on</c><02:04:20.560><c> Patreon</c><02:04:21.199><c> through</c><02:04:21.520><c> the</c><02:04:21.679><c> link</c><02:04:21.920><c> below.</c><02:04:22.639><c> We</c>

02:03:19.044 --> 02:03:19.054 align:start position:0%
us on Patreon through the link below. We
 

02:03:19.054 --> 02:03:22.174 align:start position:0%
us on Patreon through the link below. We
would<02:04:23.119><c> love</c><02:04:23.280><c> to</c><02:04:23.440><c> have</c><02:04:23.599><c> you.</c>