WEBVTT 00:00.320 --> 00:04.070 align:start position:0% How<00:00:00.640> did<00:00:01.199> a<00:00:01.520> tiny<00:00:02.240> Martian<00:00:02.720> lander<00:00:03.439> become<00:00:03.919> one 00:04.070 --> 00:04.080 align:start position:0% How did a tiny Martian lander become one 00:04.080 --> 00:06.390 align:start position:0% How did a tiny Martian lander become one of<00:00:04.240> the<00:00:04.400> most<00:00:04.799> important<00:00:05.440> planetary<00:00:06.000> science 00:06.390 --> 00:06.400 align:start position:0% of the most important planetary science 00:06.400 --> 00:10.150 align:start position:0% of the most important planetary science experiments<00:00:07.200> in<00:00:07.680> history?<00:00:09.120> On<00:00:09.360> the<00:00:09.519> 26th<00:00:09.920> of 00:10.150 --> 00:10.160 align:start position:0% experiments in history? On the 26th of 00:10.160 --> 00:13.090 align:start position:0% experiments in history? On the 26th of November<00:00:10.639> 2018,<00:00:11.599> NASA's<00:00:12.160> Insight<00:00:12.639> lander 00:13.090 --> 00:13.100 align:start position:0% November 2018, NASA's Insight lander 00:13.100 --> 00:14.629 align:start position:0% November 2018, NASA's Insight lander [music]<00:00:13.120> touched<00:00:13.519> down<00:00:13.759> on<00:00:14.000> the<00:00:14.160> surface<00:00:14.480> of 00:14.629 --> 00:14.639 align:start position:0% [music] touched down on the surface of 00:14.639 --> 00:17.990 align:start position:0% [music] touched down on the surface of Mars<00:00:15.519> on<00:00:15.759> a<00:00:15.920> wide<00:00:16.560> flat<00:00:16.960> plane<00:00:17.440> called 00:17.990 --> 00:18.000 align:start position:0% Mars on a wide flat plane called 00:18.000 --> 00:21.990 align:start position:0% Mars on a wide flat plane called Ellesium<00:00:18.800> Plenicia.<00:00:20.160> Unlike<00:00:20.800> Mars<00:00:21.199> rovers, 00:21.990 --> 00:22.000 align:start position:0% Ellesium Plenicia. Unlike Mars rovers, 00:22.000 --> 00:23.990 align:start position:0% Ellesium Plenicia. Unlike Mars rovers, Insight<00:00:22.560> wasn't<00:00:22.880> designed<00:00:23.199> to<00:00:23.359> move<00:00:23.600> around 00:23.990 --> 00:24.000 align:start position:0% Insight wasn't designed to move around 00:24.000 --> 00:27.109 align:start position:0% Insight wasn't designed to move around or<00:00:24.320> explore<00:00:24.800> the<00:00:25.039> surface.<00:00:26.080> Its<00:00:26.320> goal<00:00:26.800> was 00:27.109 --> 00:27.119 align:start position:0% or explore the surface. Its goal was 00:27.119 --> 00:31.029 align:start position:0% or explore the surface. Its goal was simply<00:00:27.680> to<00:00:28.000> sit<00:00:28.560> and<00:00:28.880> wait,<00:00:29.760> to<00:00:30.000> listen<00:00:30.800> with 00:31.029 --> 00:31.039 align:start position:0% simply to sit and wait, to listen with 00:31.039 --> 00:33.590 align:start position:0% simply to sit and wait, to listen with the<00:00:31.279> most<00:00:31.519> sensitive<00:00:32.160> seismometer<00:00:33.120> ever 00:33.590 --> 00:33.600 align:start position:0% the most sensitive seismometer ever 00:33.600 --> 00:36.389 align:start position:0% the most sensitive seismometer ever placed<00:00:34.000> on<00:00:34.239> another<00:00:34.559> world.<00:00:35.680> It<00:00:35.920> was<00:00:36.079> trying 00:36.389 --> 00:36.399 align:start position:0% placed on another world. It was trying 00:36.399 --> 00:39.110 align:start position:0% placed on another world. It was trying to<00:00:36.559> detect<00:00:37.120> seismic<00:00:37.600> waves<00:00:38.000> on<00:00:38.160> Mars<00:00:38.640> in<00:00:38.960> an 00:39.110 --> 00:39.120 align:start position:0% to detect seismic waves on Mars in an 00:39.120 --> 00:41.990 align:start position:0% to detect seismic waves on Mars in an attempt<00:00:39.600> to<00:00:39.840> decode<00:00:40.399> the<00:00:40.640> planet's<00:00:41.280> interior 00:41.990 --> 00:42.000 align:start position:0% attempt to decode the planet's interior 00:42.000 --> 00:45.030 align:start position:0% attempt to decode the planet's interior structure.<00:00:43.120> For<00:00:43.360> the<00:00:43.520> very<00:00:43.920> first<00:00:44.320> time, 00:45.030 --> 00:45.040 align:start position:0% structure. For the very first time, 00:45.040 --> 00:47.190 align:start position:0% structure. For the very first time, scientists<00:00:45.600> could<00:00:45.760> begin<00:00:46.079> to<00:00:46.239> decipher<00:00:46.879> what 00:47.190 --> 00:47.200 align:start position:0% scientists could begin to decipher what 00:47.200 --> 00:50.549 align:start position:0% scientists could begin to decipher what lies<00:00:47.600> beneath<00:00:48.079> the<00:00:48.399> surface<00:00:48.960> of<00:00:49.280> Mars.<00:00:50.399> And 00:50.549 --> 00:50.559 align:start position:0% lies beneath the surface of Mars. And 00:50.559 --> 00:54.150 align:start position:0% lies beneath the surface of Mars. And what<00:00:50.719> they<00:00:51.039> found<00:00:51.360> was<00:00:52.480> lumpy. 00:54.150 --> 00:54.160 align:start position:0% what they found was lumpy. 00:54.160 --> 00:56.069 align:start position:0% what they found was lumpy. I'm<00:00:54.399> Alex<00:00:54.719> Mccoan<00:00:55.360> and<00:00:55.600> you're<00:00:55.840> watching 00:56.069 --> 00:56.079 align:start position:0% I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching 00:56.079 --> 00:59.029 align:start position:0% I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching Astramm.<00:00:57.039> Join<00:00:57.360> me<00:00:57.600> as<00:00:57.840> we<00:00:58.079> unearth<00:00:58.640> secrets 00:59.029 --> 00:59.039 align:start position:0% Astramm. Join me as we unearth secrets 00:59.039 --> 01:01.349 align:start position:0% Astramm. Join me as we unearth secrets that<00:00:59.359> Mars<00:00:59.680> has<00:00:59.920> kept<00:01:00.160> buried<00:01:00.559> deep<00:01:00.960> beneath 01:01.349 --> 01:01.359 align:start position:0% that Mars has kept buried deep beneath 01:01.359 --> 01:03.830 align:start position:0% that Mars has kept buried deep beneath its<00:01:01.600> surface<00:01:02.000> for<00:01:02.399> billions<00:01:02.800> of<00:01:03.039> years<00:01:03.600> and 01:03.830 --> 01:03.840 align:start position:0% its surface for billions of years and 01:03.840 --> 01:06.070 align:start position:0% its surface for billions of years and get<00:01:04.000> to<00:01:04.159> the<00:01:04.320> bottom<00:01:04.559> of<00:01:04.720> how<00:01:05.040> this<00:01:05.280> chunky 01:06.070 --> 01:06.080 align:start position:0% get to the bottom of how this chunky 01:06.080 --> 01:08.950 align:start position:0% get to the bottom of how this chunky planetary<00:01:06.640> interior<00:01:07.520> may<00:01:07.840> be<00:01:08.000> reshaping<00:01:08.640> our 01:08.950 --> 01:08.960 align:start position:0% planetary interior may be reshaping our 01:08.960 --> 01:11.270 align:start position:0% planetary interior may be reshaping our understanding<00:01:09.439> of<00:01:09.920> all<00:01:10.240> the<00:01:10.560> rocky<00:01:10.960> planets 01:11.270 --> 01:11.280 align:start position:0% understanding of all the rocky planets 01:11.280 --> 01:14.630 align:start position:0% understanding of all the rocky planets in<00:01:11.520> our<00:01:11.680> solar<00:01:12.000> system<00:01:12.560> and<00:01:12.880> beyond. 01:14.630 --> 01:14.640 align:start position:0% in our solar system and beyond. 01:14.640 --> 01:17.030 align:start position:0% in our solar system and beyond. We<00:01:14.960> live<00:01:15.200> in<00:01:15.360> a<00:01:15.600> solar<00:01:15.840> system<00:01:16.159> with<00:01:16.479> four 01:17.030 --> 01:17.040 align:start position:0% We live in a solar system with four 01:17.040 --> 01:20.550 align:start position:0% We live in a solar system with four terrestrial<00:01:17.759> or<00:01:18.240> rocky<00:01:18.720> planets.<00:01:19.680> Mercury, 01:20.550 --> 01:20.560 align:start position:0% terrestrial or rocky planets. Mercury, 01:20.560 --> 01:24.469 align:start position:0% terrestrial or rocky planets. Mercury, Venus,<00:01:21.439> Earth,<00:01:22.000> and<00:01:22.240> Mars.<00:01:23.439> 4.5<00:01:24.080> billion 01:24.469 --> 01:24.479 align:start position:0% Venus, Earth, and Mars. 4.5 billion 01:24.479 --> 01:26.630 align:start position:0% Venus, Earth, and Mars. 4.5 billion years<00:01:24.640> ago,<00:01:25.200> these<00:01:25.520> planets<00:01:25.920> formed<00:01:26.240> from<00:01:26.479> the 01:26.630 --> 01:26.640 align:start position:0% years ago, these planets formed from the 01:26.640 --> 01:29.670 align:start position:0% years ago, these planets formed from the same<00:01:26.880> primordial<00:01:27.520> cloud<00:01:27.920> of<00:01:28.080> dust<00:01:28.479> and<00:01:28.720> gas. 01:29.670 --> 01:29.680 align:start position:0% same primordial cloud of dust and gas. 01:29.680 --> 01:32.630 align:start position:0% same primordial cloud of dust and gas. Yet,<00:01:30.159> each<00:01:30.479> world<00:01:30.799> is<00:01:31.200> distinct<00:01:32.000> and<00:01:32.240> for<00:01:32.479> the 01:32.630 --> 01:32.640 align:start position:0% Yet, each world is distinct and for the 01:32.640 --> 01:35.030 align:start position:0% Yet, each world is distinct and for the most<00:01:32.799> part,<00:01:33.520> our<00:01:34.000> understanding<00:01:34.560> of<00:01:34.799> their 01:35.030 --> 01:35.040 align:start position:0% most part, our understanding of their 01:35.040 --> 01:38.469 align:start position:0% most part, our understanding of their interiors<00:01:35.840> has<00:01:36.079> been<00:01:36.400> a<00:01:36.720> slow<00:01:37.119> process.<00:01:38.240> That 01:38.469 --> 01:38.479 align:start position:0% interiors has been a slow process. That 01:38.479 --> 01:43.109 align:start position:0% interiors has been a slow process. That is<00:01:38.960> until<00:01:39.360> now.<00:01:40.720> Mercury<00:01:41.280> is<00:01:41.520> a<00:01:41.840> scorched<00:01:42.720> dry 01:43.109 --> 01:43.119 align:start position:0% is until now. Mercury is a scorched dry 01:43.119 --> 01:45.990 align:start position:0% is until now. Mercury is a scorched dry planet<00:01:43.520> with<00:01:43.840> no<00:01:44.159> atmosphere.<00:01:45.200> Its<00:01:45.439> surface 01:45.990 --> 01:46.000 align:start position:0% planet with no atmosphere. Its surface 01:46.000 --> 01:48.789 align:start position:0% planet with no atmosphere. Its surface battered<00:01:46.560> with<00:01:46.799> craters.<00:01:48.000> Venus<00:01:48.479> is<00:01:48.640> a 01:48.789 --> 01:48.799 align:start position:0% battered with craters. Venus is a 01:48.799 --> 01:50.950 align:start position:0% battered with craters. Venus is a hellish<00:01:49.280> place<00:01:49.840> like<00:01:50.000> a<00:01:50.240> pressure<00:01:50.560> cooker 01:50.950 --> 01:50.960 align:start position:0% hellish place like a pressure cooker 01:50.960 --> 01:52.710 align:start position:0% hellish place like a pressure cooker wrapped<00:01:51.280> in<00:01:51.520> suffocating<00:01:52.159> clouds<00:01:52.560> of 01:52.710 --> 01:52.720 align:start position:0% wrapped in suffocating clouds of 01:52.720 --> 01:56.389 align:start position:0% wrapped in suffocating clouds of sulfuric<00:01:53.360> acid.<00:01:54.479> Earth<00:01:54.960> of<00:01:55.200> course<00:01:55.759> is 01:56.389 --> 01:56.399 align:start position:0% sulfuric acid. Earth of course is 01:56.399 --> 01:58.950 align:start position:0% sulfuric acid. Earth of course is teeming<00:01:56.960> with<00:01:57.280> water,<00:01:58.000> life,<00:01:58.560> and<00:01:58.719> a 01:58.950 --> 01:58.960 align:start position:0% teeming with water, life, and a 01:58.960 --> 02:01.990 align:start position:0% teeming with water, life, and a protective<00:01:59.439> atmosphere.<00:02:00.880> But<00:02:01.040> how<00:02:01.280> it<00:02:01.520> became 02:01.990 --> 02:02.000 align:start position:0% protective atmosphere. But how it became 02:02.000 --> 02:05.590 align:start position:0% protective atmosphere. But how it became like<00:02:02.320> that<00:02:02.640> is<00:02:03.439> even<00:02:03.840> now<00:02:04.799> somewhat<00:02:05.280> of<00:02:05.439> a 02:05.590 --> 02:05.600 align:start position:0% like that is even now somewhat of a 02:05.600 --> 02:08.469 align:start position:0% like that is even now somewhat of a mystery.<00:02:06.799> What<00:02:07.040> we<00:02:07.200> do<00:02:07.439> know,<00:02:07.759> however,<00:02:08.239> is 02:08.469 --> 02:08.479 align:start position:0% mystery. What we do know, however, is 02:08.479 --> 02:10.869 align:start position:0% mystery. What we do know, however, is that<00:02:08.720> the<00:02:08.959> interior<00:02:09.679> is<00:02:10.160> constantly 02:10.869 --> 02:10.879 align:start position:0% that the interior is constantly 02:10.879 --> 02:13.990 align:start position:0% that the interior is constantly churning,<00:02:11.760> recycling<00:02:12.640> crust,<00:02:13.040> and<00:02:13.520> replacing 02:13.990 --> 02:14.000 align:start position:0% churning, recycling crust, and replacing 02:14.000 --> 02:16.630 align:start position:0% churning, recycling crust, and replacing it,<00:02:14.560> effectively<00:02:15.360> erasing<00:02:15.840> much<00:02:16.080> of<00:02:16.160> its<00:02:16.400> own 02:16.630 --> 02:16.640 align:start position:0% it, effectively erasing much of its own 02:16.640 --> 02:18.869 align:start position:0% it, effectively erasing much of its own history<00:02:17.040> through<00:02:17.360> the<00:02:17.520> movement<00:02:17.920> of<00:02:18.160> tectonic 02:18.869 --> 02:18.879 align:start position:0% history through the movement of tectonic 02:18.879 --> 02:21.830 align:start position:0% history through the movement of tectonic plates.<00:02:19.840> We<00:02:20.160> simply<00:02:20.640> don't<00:02:20.959> know<00:02:21.360> what<00:02:21.599> the 02:21.830 --> 02:21.840 align:start position:0% plates. We simply don't know what the 02:21.840 --> 02:23.830 align:start position:0% plates. We simply don't know what the inside<00:02:22.160> of<00:02:22.400> our<00:02:22.640> planet<00:02:23.120> actually<00:02:23.520> looked 02:23.830 --> 02:23.840 align:start position:0% inside of our planet actually looked 02:23.840 --> 02:27.510 align:start position:0% inside of our planet actually looked like<00:02:24.239> millions<00:02:24.640> of<00:02:24.800> years<00:02:24.959> ago.<00:02:26.160> But<00:02:26.480> Mars, 02:27.510 --> 02:27.520 align:start position:0% like millions of years ago. But Mars, 02:27.520 --> 02:29.750 align:start position:0% like millions of years ago. But Mars, well,<00:02:28.160> Mars<00:02:28.560> has<00:02:28.800> been<00:02:28.959> doing<00:02:29.200> something 02:29.750 --> 02:29.760 align:start position:0% well, Mars has been doing something 02:29.760 --> 02:33.270 align:start position:0% well, Mars has been doing something entirely<00:02:30.480> different.<00:02:31.599> This<00:02:32.080> cold,<00:02:32.800> quiet 02:33.270 --> 02:33.280 align:start position:0% entirely different. This cold, quiet 02:33.280 --> 02:36.150 align:start position:0% entirely different. This cold, quiet planet<00:02:34.080> has<00:02:34.239> a<00:02:34.480> thin<00:02:34.720> atmosphere<00:02:35.599> and<00:02:35.840> its 02:36.150 --> 02:36.160 align:start position:0% planet has a thin atmosphere and its 02:36.160 --> 02:39.190 align:start position:0% planet has a thin atmosphere and its surface<00:02:36.640> appears<00:02:37.120> to<00:02:37.280> be<00:02:37.519> frozen<00:02:38.000> in<00:02:38.319> time. 02:39.190 --> 02:39.200 align:start position:0% surface appears to be frozen in time. 02:39.200 --> 02:41.990 align:start position:0% surface appears to be frozen in time. While<00:02:39.519> Earth<00:02:39.840> has<00:02:40.080> been<00:02:40.560> erasing<00:02:41.040> history, 02:41.990 --> 02:42.000 align:start position:0% While Earth has been erasing history, 02:42.000 --> 02:44.949 align:start position:0% While Earth has been erasing history, Mars<00:02:42.400> has<00:02:42.720> been<00:02:43.120> preserving<00:02:43.599> it.<00:02:44.480> It<00:02:44.720> turns 02:44.949 --> 02:44.959 align:start position:0% Mars has been preserving it. It turns 02:44.959 --> 02:48.470 align:start position:0% Mars has been preserving it. It turns out<00:02:45.360> that<00:02:45.840> preservation<00:02:46.959> also<00:02:47.360> extends<00:02:48.160> below 02:48.470 --> 02:48.480 align:start position:0% out that preservation also extends below 02:48.480 --> 02:51.670 align:start position:0% out that preservation also extends below the<00:02:48.800> ground<00:02:49.120> to<00:02:49.360> the<00:02:49.519> Martian<00:02:50.080> interior.<00:02:51.440> This 02:51.670 --> 02:51.680 align:start position:0% the ground to the Martian interior. This 02:51.680 --> 02:54.150 align:start position:0% the ground to the Martian interior. This makes<00:02:51.920> it<00:02:52.239> arguably<00:02:53.200> one<00:02:53.440> of<00:02:53.519> the<00:02:53.680> most 02:54.150 --> 02:54.160 align:start position:0% makes it arguably one of the most 02:54.160 --> 02:56.550 align:start position:0% makes it arguably one of the most valuable<00:02:54.720> sources<00:02:55.200> of<00:02:55.440> information<00:02:56.080> in<00:02:56.319> the 02:56.550 --> 02:56.560 align:start position:0% valuable sources of information in the 02:56.560 --> 02:59.430 align:start position:0% valuable sources of information in the entire<00:02:57.120> solar<00:02:57.440> system.<00:02:58.080> It's<00:02:58.319> a<00:02:58.560> time<00:02:58.879> capsule 02:59.430 --> 02:59.440 align:start position:0% entire solar system. It's a time capsule 02:59.440 --> 03:02.550 align:start position:0% entire solar system. It's a time capsule of<00:02:59.840> planetary<00:03:00.400> formation,<00:03:01.440> explaining<00:03:02.159> not 03:02.550 --> 03:02.560 align:start position:0% of planetary formation, explaining not 03:02.560 --> 03:05.509 align:start position:0% of planetary formation, explaining not only<00:03:02.800> how<00:03:03.120> Mars<00:03:03.440> came<00:03:03.680> to<00:03:03.840> be,<00:03:04.480> but<00:03:04.879> all<00:03:05.120> rocky 03:05.509 --> 03:05.519 align:start position:0% only how Mars came to be, but all rocky 03:05.519 --> 03:08.949 align:start position:0% only how Mars came to be, but all rocky planets,<00:03:06.239> including<00:03:06.800> Earth.<00:03:07.840> The<00:03:08.159> inside<00:03:08.720> of 03:08.949 --> 03:08.959 align:start position:0% planets, including Earth. The inside of 03:08.959 --> 03:11.670 align:start position:0% planets, including Earth. The inside of the<00:03:09.120> red<00:03:09.440> planet<00:03:10.159> could<00:03:10.560> help<00:03:10.879> explain<00:03:11.360> the 03:11.670 --> 03:11.680 align:start position:0% the red planet could help explain the 03:11.680 --> 03:14.790 align:start position:0% the red planet could help explain the role<00:03:12.080> our<00:03:12.480> own<00:03:12.879> planet's<00:03:13.440> interior<00:03:14.000> played<00:03:14.480> in 03:14.790 --> 03:14.800 align:start position:0% role our own planet's interior played in 03:14.800 --> 03:17.670 align:start position:0% role our own planet's interior played in creating<00:03:15.280> a<00:03:15.599> habitable<00:03:16.159> world.<00:03:17.200> The<00:03:17.440> question 03:17.670 --> 03:17.680 align:start position:0% creating a habitable world. The question 03:17.680 --> 03:21.190 align:start position:0% creating a habitable world. The question is,<00:03:18.720> how<00:03:19.040> do<00:03:19.519> you<00:03:19.760> explore<00:03:20.159> the<00:03:20.400> insides<00:03:20.879> of<00:03:21.040> a 03:21.190 --> 03:21.200 align:start position:0% is, how do you explore the insides of a 03:21.200 --> 03:23.750 align:start position:0% is, how do you explore the insides of a planet? 03:23.750 --> 03:23.760 align:start position:0% planet? 03:23.760 --> 03:25.910 align:start position:0% planet? We<00:03:24.000> know<00:03:24.400> plenty<00:03:24.800> about<00:03:24.959> the<00:03:25.120> surfaces<00:03:25.599> of<00:03:25.760> the 03:25.910 --> 03:25.920 align:start position:0% We know plenty about the surfaces of the 03:25.920 --> 03:27.910 align:start position:0% We know plenty about the surfaces of the other<00:03:26.159> rocky<00:03:26.560> planets<00:03:26.879> in<00:03:27.040> our<00:03:27.200> solar<00:03:27.440> system 03:27.910 --> 03:27.920 align:start position:0% other rocky planets in our solar system 03:27.920 --> 03:30.550 align:start position:0% other rocky planets in our solar system because<00:03:28.400> we<00:03:28.640> can<00:03:28.800> see<00:03:28.959> them<00:03:29.360> with<00:03:29.680> telescopes, 03:30.550 --> 03:30.560 align:start position:0% because we can see them with telescopes, 03:30.560 --> 03:33.190 align:start position:0% because we can see them with telescopes, with<00:03:30.799> orbiters,<00:03:31.760> with<00:03:32.000> landers.<00:03:32.959> Their 03:33.190 --> 03:33.200 align:start position:0% with orbiters, with landers. Their 03:33.200 --> 03:35.670 align:start position:0% with orbiters, with landers. Their internal<00:03:33.920> structure,<00:03:34.720> however,<00:03:35.120> is<00:03:35.360> another 03:35.670 --> 03:35.680 align:start position:0% internal structure, however, is another 03:35.680 --> 03:37.350 align:start position:0% internal structure, however, is another thing<00:03:35.840> altogether. 03:37.350 --> 03:37.360 align:start position:0% thing altogether. 03:37.360 --> 03:40.149 align:start position:0% thing altogether. But<00:03:37.599> why?<00:03:38.640> On<00:03:38.879> the<00:03:39.040> surface,<00:03:39.599> the<00:03:39.920> answer 03:40.149 --> 03:40.159 align:start position:0% But why? On the surface, the answer 03:40.159 --> 03:42.229 align:start position:0% But why? On the surface, the answer seems<00:03:40.560> obvious.<00:03:41.200> And<00:03:41.360> yes,<00:03:41.599> I<00:03:41.840> really<00:03:42.080> did 03:42.229 --> 03:42.239 align:start position:0% seems obvious. And yes, I really did 03:42.239 --> 03:44.869 align:start position:0% seems obvious. And yes, I really did mean<00:03:42.480> to<00:03:42.640> make<00:03:42.799> that<00:03:42.959> joke.<00:03:43.840> You<00:03:44.080> just<00:03:44.480> can't 03:44.869 --> 03:44.879 align:start position:0% mean to make that joke. You just can't 03:44.879 --> 03:47.670 align:start position:0% mean to make that joke. You just can't see<00:03:45.200> inside<00:03:45.599> a<00:03:45.840> planet.<00:03:46.799> But<00:03:46.879> the<00:03:47.120> problem<00:03:47.360> is 03:47.670 --> 03:47.680 align:start position:0% see inside a planet. But the problem is 03:47.680 --> 03:50.229 align:start position:0% see inside a planet. But the problem is actually<00:03:48.000> much<00:03:48.400> deeper.<00:03:49.360> Let's<00:03:49.680> look<00:03:49.840> at<00:03:50.000> the 03:50.229 --> 03:50.239 align:start position:0% actually much deeper. Let's look at the 03:50.239 --> 03:52.630 align:start position:0% actually much deeper. Let's look at the Earth<00:03:50.560> for<00:03:50.799> some<00:03:50.959> perspective.<00:03:51.680> Our<00:03:52.319> planet's 03:52.630 --> 03:52.640 align:start position:0% Earth for some perspective. Our planet's 03:52.640 --> 03:54.630 align:start position:0% Earth for some perspective. Our planet's inner<00:03:52.879> core<00:03:53.120> reaches<00:03:53.440> a<00:03:53.599> depth<00:03:53.920> of<00:03:54.080> about 03:54.630 --> 03:54.640 align:start position:0% inner core reaches a depth of about 03:54.640 --> 03:57.030 align:start position:0% inner core reaches a depth of about 6,378 03:57.030 --> 03:57.040 align:start position:0% 6,378 03:57.040 --> 03:59.910 align:start position:0% 6,378 km<00:03:57.599> from<00:03:57.760> the<00:03:57.920> surface.<00:03:58.959> Let's<00:03:59.200> say<00:03:59.360> we<00:03:59.599> wanted 03:59.910 --> 03:59.920 align:start position:0% km from the surface. Let's say we wanted 03:59.920 --> 04:02.229 align:start position:0% km from the surface. Let's say we wanted to<00:04:00.080> learn<00:04:00.400> about<00:04:00.720> Earth's<00:04:01.200> interior<00:04:02.000> by 04:02.229 --> 04:02.239 align:start position:0% to learn about Earth's interior by 04:02.239 --> 04:04.630 align:start position:0% to learn about Earth's interior by drilling<00:04:02.720> down<00:04:02.959> as<00:04:03.200> far<00:04:03.360> as<00:04:03.439> we<00:04:03.680> could<00:04:03.840> reach. 04:04.630 --> 04:04.640 align:start position:0% drilling down as far as we could reach. 04:04.640 --> 04:06.309 align:start position:0% drilling down as far as we could reach. First,<00:04:05.040> we'd<00:04:05.360> have<00:04:05.439> to<00:04:05.599> make<00:04:05.680> it<00:04:05.920> through<00:04:06.080> the 04:06.309 --> 04:06.319 align:start position:0% First, we'd have to make it through the 04:06.319 --> 04:08.630 align:start position:0% First, we'd have to make it through the crust.<00:04:07.040> And<00:04:07.280> depending<00:04:07.599> on<00:04:07.760> where<00:04:08.000> we<00:04:08.239> started 04:08.630 --> 04:08.640 align:start position:0% crust. And depending on where we started 04:08.640 --> 04:11.429 align:start position:0% crust. And depending on where we started drilling,<00:04:09.280> that<00:04:09.519> could<00:04:09.760> be<00:04:09.920> anywhere<00:04:10.400> from<00:04:10.879> 5 04:11.429 --> 04:11.439 align:start position:0% drilling, that could be anywhere from 5 04:11.439 --> 04:15.429 align:start position:0% drilling, that could be anywhere from 5 to<00:04:12.000> 60<00:04:12.400> km<00:04:12.959> thick.<00:04:13.840> If<00:04:14.080> we<00:04:14.239> made<00:04:14.400> it<00:04:14.560> that<00:04:14.879> far, 04:15.429 --> 04:15.439 align:start position:0% to 60 km thick. If we made it that far, 04:15.439 --> 04:18.469 align:start position:0% to 60 km thick. If we made it that far, we<00:04:15.760> would<00:04:15.920> reach<00:04:16.239> the<00:04:16.479> mantle.<00:04:17.840> Not<00:04:18.160> only 04:18.469 --> 04:18.479 align:start position:0% we would reach the mantle. Not only 04:18.479 --> 04:20.469 align:start position:0% we would reach the mantle. Not only would<00:04:18.799> our<00:04:19.199> drill<00:04:19.519> have<00:04:19.680> to<00:04:19.840> withstand<00:04:20.239> the 04:20.469 --> 04:20.479 align:start position:0% would our drill have to withstand the 04:20.479 --> 04:23.990 align:start position:0% would our drill have to withstand the temperatures<00:04:20.959> of<00:04:21.120> up<00:04:21.280> to<00:04:21.519> 1,000°<00:04:22.639> C,<00:04:23.600> it<00:04:23.840> would 04:23.990 --> 04:24.000 align:start position:0% temperatures of up to 1,000° C, it would 04:24.000 --> 04:27.670 align:start position:0% temperatures of up to 1,000° C, it would also<00:04:24.240> have<00:04:24.400> to<00:04:24.560> pass<00:04:24.800> through<00:04:25.280> another<00:04:26.160> 2,900 04:27.670 --> 04:27.680 align:start position:0% also have to pass through another 2,900 04:27.680 --> 04:30.950 align:start position:0% also have to pass through another 2,900 km<00:04:28.160> of<00:04:28.320> mantle<00:04:28.720> to<00:04:28.880> reach<00:04:29.120> the<00:04:29.440> outer<00:04:29.840> core. 04:30.950 --> 04:30.960 align:start position:0% km of mantle to reach the outer core. 04:30.960 --> 04:34.230 align:start position:0% km of mantle to reach the outer core. From<00:04:31.199> there,<00:04:31.759> there<00:04:32.000> would<00:04:32.160> be<00:04:32.400> another<00:04:33.120> 2,200 04:34.230 --> 04:34.240 align:start position:0% From there, there would be another 2,200 04:34.240 --> 04:38.710 align:start position:0% From there, there would be another 2,200 km<00:04:34.800> of<00:04:35.360> liquid<00:04:35.840> outer<00:04:36.240> core<00:04:36.800> and<00:04:37.120> 1,250 04:38.710 --> 04:38.720 align:start position:0% km of liquid outer core and 1,250 04:38.720 --> 04:42.150 align:start position:0% km of liquid outer core and 1,250 km<00:04:39.280> of<00:04:39.600> solid<00:04:40.000> inner<00:04:40.400> core<00:04:41.040> made<00:04:41.360> of<00:04:41.680> high 04:42.150 --> 04:42.160 align:start position:0% km of solid inner core made of high 04:42.160 --> 04:44.469 align:start position:0% km of solid inner core made of high density<00:04:42.639> metal,<00:04:43.360> reaching<00:04:43.840> temperatures<00:04:44.320> of 04:44.469 --> 04:44.479 align:start position:0% density metal, reaching temperatures of 04:44.479 --> 04:47.749 align:start position:0% density metal, reaching temperatures of up<00:04:44.720> to<00:04:44.960> 6,000°<00:04:46.080> C<00:04:46.880> before<00:04:47.199> we<00:04:47.520> reach<00:04:47.548> [music] 04:47.749 --> 04:47.759 align:start position:0% up to 6,000° C before we reach [music] 04:47.759 --> 04:51.110 align:start position:0% up to 6,000° C before we reach [music] the<00:04:48.000> center.<00:04:49.120> Of<00:04:49.440> course,<00:04:50.000> this<00:04:50.240> scenario<00:04:50.880> is 04:51.110 --> 04:51.120 align:start position:0% the center. Of course, this scenario is 04:51.120 --> 04:53.430 align:start position:0% the center. Of course, this scenario is impossible.<00:04:52.240> Not<00:04:52.479> only<00:04:52.639> would<00:04:52.880> our<00:04:53.040> tools 04:53.430 --> 04:53.440 align:start position:0% impossible. Not only would our tools 04:53.440 --> 04:56.550 align:start position:0% impossible. Not only would our tools melt<00:04:53.840> or<00:04:54.320> vaporize<00:04:55.040> at<00:04:55.280> such<00:04:55.600> temperatures, 04:56.550 --> 04:56.560 align:start position:0% melt or vaporize at such temperatures, 04:56.560 --> 04:59.430 align:start position:0% melt or vaporize at such temperatures, but<00:04:56.960> even<00:04:57.280> with<00:04:57.759> our<00:04:58.080> best<00:04:58.479> efforts,<00:04:59.199> the 04:59.430 --> 04:59.440 align:start position:0% but even with our best efforts, the 04:59.440 --> 05:01.350 align:start position:0% but even with our best efforts, the deepest<00:04:59.840> humans<00:05:00.240> have<00:05:00.479> ever<00:05:00.800> managed<00:05:01.199> to 05:01.350 --> 05:01.360 align:start position:0% deepest humans have ever managed to 05:01.360 --> 05:04.150 align:start position:0% deepest humans have ever managed to drill<00:05:01.680> down<00:05:02.000> into<00:05:02.320> the<00:05:02.479> earth<00:05:03.199> was<00:05:03.520> only<00:05:03.919> a 05:04.150 --> 05:04.160 align:start position:0% drill down into the earth was only a 05:04.160 --> 05:07.990 align:start position:0% drill down into the earth was only a little<00:05:04.479> more<00:05:04.720> than<00:05:05.040> 12<00:05:05.440> km<00:05:06.400> at<00:05:06.720> the<00:05:06.880> Cola<00:05:07.680> super 05:07.990 --> 05:08.000 align:start position:0% little more than 12 km at the Cola super 05:08.000 --> 05:12.070 align:start position:0% little more than 12 km at the Cola super deep<00:05:08.240> bore<00:05:08.479> hole<00:05:08.880> in<00:05:09.120> Russia.<00:05:10.080> It<00:05:10.320> took<00:05:11.120> 22 05:12.070 --> 05:12.080 align:start position:0% deep bore hole in Russia. It took 22 05:12.080 --> 05:16.070 align:start position:0% deep bore hole in Russia. It took 22 years<00:05:12.800> from<00:05:13.120> 1970<00:05:13.919> to<00:05:14.320> 1992<00:05:15.280> to<00:05:15.520> make<00:05:15.680> it<00:05:15.840> that 05:16.070 --> 05:16.080 align:start position:0% years from 1970 to 1992 to make it that 05:16.080 --> 05:18.870 align:start position:0% years from 1970 to 1992 to make it that far.<00:05:16.800> and<00:05:17.120> drilling<00:05:17.520> had<00:05:17.759> to<00:05:18.000> stop<00:05:18.479> when 05:18.870 --> 05:18.880 align:start position:0% far. and drilling had to stop when 05:18.880 --> 05:23.430 align:start position:0% far. and drilling had to stop when temperatures<00:05:19.440> became<00:05:19.919> too<00:05:20.240> extreme<00:05:21.199> at<00:05:22.560> 180° 05:23.430 --> 05:23.440 align:start position:0% temperatures became too extreme at 180° 05:23.440 --> 05:27.350 align:start position:0% temperatures became too extreme at 180° C.<00:05:24.720> They<00:05:25.039> had<00:05:25.280> made<00:05:25.520> it<00:05:26.000> about<00:05:26.400> a<00:05:26.639> third<00:05:27.039> of<00:05:27.199> the 05:27.350 --> 05:27.360 align:start position:0% C. They had made it about a third of the 05:27.360 --> 05:29.270 align:start position:0% C. They had made it about a third of the way<00:05:27.520> through<00:05:27.759> the<00:05:28.000> crust<00:05:28.560> where<00:05:28.800> the<00:05:28.960> bore 05:29.270 --> 05:29.280 align:start position:0% way through the crust where the bore 05:29.280 --> 05:32.230 align:start position:0% way through the crust where the bore hole<00:05:29.600> was<00:05:29.759> located<00:05:30.720> over<00:05:30.960> the<00:05:31.199> Baltic<00:05:31.680> Shield 05:32.230 --> 05:32.240 align:start position:0% hole was located over the Baltic Shield 05:32.240 --> 05:35.430 align:start position:0% hole was located over the Baltic Shield continental<00:05:32.880> crust.<00:05:34.000> We<00:05:34.479> did<00:05:34.800> make<00:05:35.039> it<00:05:35.199> to<00:05:35.360> the 05:35.430 --> 05:35.440 align:start position:0% continental crust. We did make it to the 05:35.440 --> 05:39.749 align:start position:0% continental crust. We did make it to the mantle<00:05:35.840> once<00:05:36.479> in<00:05:36.880> 2023<00:05:37.759> and<00:05:38.160> 2024.<00:05:39.199> A<00:05:39.520> team 05:39.749 --> 05:39.759 align:start position:0% mantle once in 2023 and 2024. A team 05:39.759 --> 05:42.150 align:start position:0% mantle once in 2023 and 2024. A team aboard<00:05:40.160> the<00:05:40.560> Joyers<00:05:41.199> Resolution<00:05:41.759> drilling 05:42.150 --> 05:42.160 align:start position:0% aboard the Joyers Resolution drilling 05:42.160 --> 05:44.550 align:start position:0% aboard the Joyers Resolution drilling ship<00:05:42.800> managed<00:05:43.120> to<00:05:43.280> find<00:05:43.440> a<00:05:43.680> piece<00:05:43.919> of<00:05:44.080> crust 05:44.550 --> 05:44.560 align:start position:0% ship managed to find a piece of crust 05:44.560 --> 05:46.629 align:start position:0% ship managed to find a piece of crust thin<00:05:44.800> enough<00:05:45.280> to<00:05:45.600> drill<00:05:45.919> down<00:05:46.240> more<00:05:46.479> than 05:46.629 --> 05:46.639 align:start position:0% thin enough to drill down more than 05:46.639 --> 05:50.230 align:start position:0% thin enough to drill down more than 1,200<00:05:47.840> meters<00:05:48.240> deep<00:05:48.800> and<00:05:49.039> retrieve<00:05:49.520> a<00:05:49.840> sample 05:50.230 --> 05:50.240 align:start position:0% 1,200 meters deep and retrieve a sample 05:50.240 --> 05:53.029 align:start position:0% 1,200 meters deep and retrieve a sample of<00:05:50.400> rock<00:05:50.800> from<00:05:51.039> the<00:05:51.199> mantle.<00:05:52.320> But<00:05:52.479> they<00:05:52.720> had<00:05:52.880> to 05:53.029 --> 05:53.039 align:start position:0% of rock from the mantle. But they had to 05:53.039 --> 05:55.110 align:start position:0% of rock from the mantle. But they had to do<00:05:53.199> this<00:05:53.600> in<00:05:53.840> the<00:05:54.000> middle<00:05:54.240> of<00:05:54.400> the<00:05:54.639> Atlantic 05:55.110 --> 05:55.120 align:start position:0% do this in the middle of the Atlantic 05:55.120 --> 05:57.830 align:start position:0% do this in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean<00:05:55.919> at<00:05:56.160> the<00:05:56.400> top<00:05:56.639> of<00:05:56.880> an<00:05:57.120> underwater 05:57.830 --> 05:57.840 align:start position:0% Ocean at the top of an underwater 05:57.840 --> 06:02.070 align:start position:0% Ocean at the top of an underwater mountain<00:05:58.720> more<00:05:58.960> than<00:05:59.440> 700<00:06:00.240> m<00:06:00.639> under<00:06:00.960> the<00:06:01.199> sea. 06:02.070 --> 06:02.080 align:start position:0% mountain more than 700 m under the sea. 06:02.080 --> 06:04.309 align:start position:0% mountain more than 700 m under the sea. No<00:06:02.400> easy<00:06:02.800> feat. 06:04.309 --> 06:04.319 align:start position:0% No easy feat. 06:04.319 --> 06:06.870 align:start position:0% No easy feat. As<00:06:04.560> you<00:06:04.720> can<00:06:04.880> see,<00:06:05.199> physically<00:06:05.919> accessing<00:06:06.560> our 06:06.870 --> 06:06.880 align:start position:0% As you can see, physically accessing our 06:06.880 --> 06:09.590 align:start position:0% As you can see, physically accessing our own<00:06:07.120> planet's<00:06:07.600> interior<00:06:08.080> is<00:06:08.479> hard<00:06:08.800> enough. 06:09.590 --> 06:09.600 align:start position:0% own planet's interior is hard enough. 06:09.600 --> 06:11.670 align:start position:0% own planet's interior is hard enough. So,<00:06:09.919> unlocking<00:06:10.400> the<00:06:10.639> contents<00:06:11.039> of<00:06:11.280> other 06:11.670 --> 06:11.680 align:start position:0% So, unlocking the contents of other 06:11.680 --> 06:14.950 align:start position:0% So, unlocking the contents of other rocky<00:06:12.080> planets<00:06:12.560> interiors<00:06:13.440> is<00:06:14.080> that<00:06:14.560> much 06:14.950 --> 06:14.960 align:start position:0% rocky planets interiors is that much 06:14.960 --> 06:17.990 align:start position:0% rocky planets interiors is that much more<00:06:15.360> challenging.<00:06:16.639> And<00:06:16.960> without<00:06:17.440> access<00:06:17.840> to 06:17.990 --> 06:18.000 align:start position:0% more challenging. And without access to 06:18.000 --> 06:21.189 align:start position:0% more challenging. And without access to their<00:06:18.319> interiors,<00:06:19.680> we're<00:06:20.080> missing<00:06:20.400> out<00:06:20.639> on<00:06:20.880> a 06:21.189 --> 06:21.199 align:start position:0% their interiors, we're missing out on a 06:21.199 --> 06:23.990 align:start position:0% their interiors, we're missing out on a treasure<00:06:21.680> trove<00:06:22.080> of<00:06:22.319> clues. 06:23.990 --> 06:24.000 align:start position:0% treasure trove of clues. 06:24.000 --> 06:25.830 align:start position:0% treasure trove of clues. It's<00:06:24.240> not<00:06:24.479> just<00:06:24.639> for<00:06:24.960> our<00:06:25.280> scientists<00:06:25.680> to 06:25.830 --> 06:25.840 align:start position:0% It's not just for our scientists to 06:25.840 --> 06:28.230 align:start position:0% It's not just for our scientists to solve<00:06:26.080> problems<00:06:26.400> like<00:06:26.639> this.<00:06:27.280> One<00:06:27.520> day,<00:06:28.000> the 06:28.230 --> 06:28.240 align:start position:0% solve problems like this. One day, the 06:28.240 --> 06:30.550 align:start position:0% solve problems like this. One day, the next<00:06:28.479> generation<00:06:28.960> will<00:06:29.280> have<00:06:29.759> many<00:06:30.160> such 06:30.550 --> 06:30.560 align:start position:0% next generation will have many such 06:30.560 --> 06:34.150 align:start position:0% next generation will have many such problems,<00:06:31.360> both<00:06:31.759> on<00:06:32.000> Earth<00:06:32.479> and<00:06:32.800> on<00:06:33.039> Mars.<00:06:33.840> So, 06:34.150 --> 06:34.160 align:start position:0% problems, both on Earth and on Mars. So, 06:34.160 --> 06:35.430 align:start position:0% problems, both on Earth and on Mars. So, giving<00:06:34.400> them<00:06:34.560> the<00:06:34.720> knowledge<00:06:34.960> they'll<00:06:35.280> need 06:35.430 --> 06:35.440 align:start position:0% giving them the knowledge they'll need 06:35.440 --> 06:38.550 align:start position:0% giving them the knowledge they'll need to<00:06:35.600> do<00:06:35.759> so<00:06:36.080> now<00:06:36.639> is<00:06:36.960> critical.<00:06:37.840> And<00:06:38.080> how<00:06:38.319> better 06:36.195 --> 06:39.385 align:start position:0% subscription. Now, back to the problem at<00:07:45.280> hand.<00:07:46.560> Why<00:07:46.800> do<00:07:47.120> rocky<00:07:47.520> planets<00:07:47.919> have 06:39.385 --> 06:39.395 align:start position:0% at hand. Why do rocky planets have 06:39.395 --> 06:42.505 align:start position:0% at hand. Why do rocky planets have dramatically<00:07:49.120> different<00:07:49.599> core<00:07:49.919> sizes?<00:07:51.039> How 06:42.505 --> 06:42.515 align:start position:0% dramatically different core sizes? How 06:42.515 --> 06:44.345 align:start position:0% dramatically different core sizes? How exactly<00:07:51.759> do<00:07:52.000> the<00:07:52.240> different<00:07:52.639> layers<00:07:52.800> of<00:07:52.880> a 06:44.345 --> 06:44.355 align:start position:0% exactly do the different layers of a 06:44.355 --> 06:46.824 align:start position:0% exactly do the different layers of a planet's<00:07:53.440> interior<00:07:54.000> separate?<00:07:55.120> What<00:07:55.360> makes 06:46.824 --> 06:46.834 align:start position:0% planet's interior separate? What makes 06:46.834 --> 06:49.305 align:start position:0% planet's interior separate? What makes some<00:07:55.840> planets<00:07:56.319> tectonically<00:07:57.120> active<00:07:57.759> and 06:49.305 --> 06:49.315 align:start position:0% some planets tectonically active and 06:49.315 --> 06:52.585 align:start position:0% some planets tectonically active and others<00:07:58.479> not?<00:07:59.440> How<00:07:59.680> do<00:08:00.000> interiors<00:08:00.720> impact<00:08:01.120> a 06:52.585 --> 06:52.595 align:start position:0% others not? How do interiors impact a 06:52.595 --> 06:54.264 align:start position:0% others not? How do interiors impact a planet's<00:08:01.840> ability<00:08:02.160> to<00:08:02.400> retain<00:08:02.720> an 06:54.264 --> 06:54.274 align:start position:0% planet's ability to retain an 06:54.274 --> 06:57.144 align:start position:0% planet's ability to retain an atmosphere,<00:08:03.919> maintain<00:08:04.400> a<00:08:04.720> magnetic<00:08:05.120> field, 06:57.144 --> 06:57.154 align:start position:0% atmosphere, maintain a magnetic field, 06:57.154 --> 07:00.104 align:start position:0% atmosphere, maintain a magnetic field, hold<00:08:06.319> liquid<00:08:06.800> water<00:08:07.120> on<00:08:07.360> the<00:08:07.520> surface,<00:08:08.400> or 07:00.104 --> 07:00.114 align:start position:0% hold liquid water on the surface, or 07:00.114 --> 07:02.185 align:start position:0% hold liquid water on the surface, or support<00:08:09.440> life? 07:02.185 --> 07:02.195 align:start position:0% support life? 07:02.195 --> 07:04.104 align:start position:0% support life? These<00:08:11.440> questions<00:08:11.910> [music]<00:08:12.000> have<00:08:12.319> profound 07:04.104 --> 07:04.114 align:start position:0% These questions [music] have profound 07:04.114 --> 07:06.824 align:start position:0% These questions [music] have profound implications<00:08:13.680> for<00:08:14.080> habitability.<00:08:15.280> And<00:08:15.440> the 07:06.824 --> 07:06.834 align:start position:0% implications for habitability. And the 07:06.834 --> 07:09.225 align:start position:0% implications for habitability. And the answers<00:08:16.080> could<00:08:16.560> rewrite<00:08:17.120> our<00:08:17.440> understanding 07:09.225 --> 07:09.235 align:start position:0% answers could rewrite our understanding 07:09.235 --> 07:12.424 align:start position:0% answers could rewrite our understanding of<00:08:18.240> both<00:08:18.560> our<00:08:18.960> own<00:08:19.280> solar<00:08:19.599> systems<00:08:20.080> past<00:08:20.800> and 07:12.424 --> 07:12.434 align:start position:0% of both our own solar systems past and 07:12.434 --> 07:15.544 align:start position:0% of both our own solar systems past and how<00:08:21.520> extra<00:08:22.000> solar<00:08:22.400> systems<00:08:22.879> form<00:08:23.520> with<00:08:23.840> rocky 07:15.544 --> 07:15.554 align:start position:0% how extra solar systems form with rocky 07:15.554 --> 07:18.104 align:start position:0% how extra solar systems form with rocky exoplanets<00:08:25.039> of<00:08:25.199> their<00:08:25.360> own. 07:18.104 --> 07:18.114 align:start position:0% exoplanets of their own. 07:18.114 --> 07:19.785 align:start position:0% exoplanets of their own. But<00:08:27.120> thankfully,<00:08:27.599> there<00:08:27.759> is<00:08:27.919> another<00:08:28.240> way<00:08:28.400> to 07:19.785 --> 07:19.795 align:start position:0% But thankfully, there is another way to 07:19.795 --> 07:23.065 align:start position:0% But thankfully, there is another way to probe<00:08:28.879> the<00:08:29.039> insides<00:08:29.440> of<00:08:29.520> a<00:08:29.759> planet.<00:08:30.879> Now,<00:08:31.360> as 07:23.065 --> 07:23.075 align:start position:0% probe the insides of a planet. Now, as 07:23.075 --> 07:24.905 align:start position:0% probe the insides of a planet. Now, as difficult<00:08:32.159> as<00:08:32.399> it<00:08:32.560> is<00:08:32.719> to<00:08:32.880> study<00:08:33.120> a<00:08:33.279> planet's 07:24.905 --> 07:24.915 align:start position:0% difficult as it is to study a planet's 07:24.915 --> 07:27.305 align:start position:0% difficult as it is to study a planet's interior,<00:08:34.560> here<00:08:34.800> on<00:08:35.039> Earth<00:08:35.360> at<00:08:35.360> least,<00:08:35.839> we 07:27.305 --> 07:27.315 align:start position:0% interior, here on Earth at least, we 07:27.315 --> 07:29.064 align:start position:0% interior, here on Earth at least, we have<00:08:36.145> [music]<00:08:36.240> managed<00:08:36.560> to<00:08:36.800> decode<00:08:37.360> what<00:08:37.599> it's 07:29.064 --> 07:29.074 align:start position:0% have [music] managed to decode what it's 07:29.074 --> 07:31.624 align:start position:0% have [music] managed to decode what it's like<00:08:38.320> right<00:08:38.640> now.<00:08:39.440> And<00:08:39.680> that's<00:08:40.000> most 07:31.624 --> 07:31.634 align:start position:0% like right now. And that's most 07:31.634 --> 07:32.905 align:start position:0% like right now. And that's most importantly<00:08:41.200> thanks<00:08:41.385> [music]<00:08:41.519> to 07:32.905 --> 07:32.915 align:start position:0% importantly thanks [music] to 07:32.915 --> 07:35.144 align:start position:0% importantly thanks [music] to seismometers,<00:08:42.880> instruments<00:08:43.360> that<00:08:43.599> measure 07:35.144 --> 07:35.154 align:start position:0% seismometers, instruments that measure 07:35.154 --> 07:37.624 align:start position:0% seismometers, instruments that measure seismic<00:08:44.399> waves.<00:08:45.440> When<00:08:45.680> an<00:08:45.920> earthquake 07:37.624 --> 07:37.634 align:start position:0% seismic waves. When an earthquake 07:37.634 --> 07:39.865 align:start position:0% seismic waves. When an earthquake happens,<00:08:46.880> it<00:08:47.040> sends<00:08:47.440> ripples<00:08:47.920> of<00:08:48.080> energy<00:08:48.399> in 07:39.865 --> 07:39.875 align:start position:0% happens, it sends ripples of energy in 07:39.875 --> 07:42.265 align:start position:0% happens, it sends ripples of energy in every<00:08:48.959> direction.<00:08:50.000> These<00:08:50.240> seismic<00:08:50.640> waves 07:42.265 --> 07:42.275 align:start position:0% every direction. These seismic waves 07:42.275 --> 07:44.425 align:start position:0% every direction. These seismic waves travel<00:08:51.440> at<00:08:51.760> different<00:08:52.080> speeds<00:08:52.640> depending<00:08:53.040> on 07:44.425 --> 07:44.435 align:start position:0% travel at different speeds depending on 07:44.435 --> 07:46.265 align:start position:0% travel at different speeds depending on the<00:08:53.360> density<00:08:53.839> and<00:08:54.160> composition<00:08:54.640> of<00:08:54.880> the 07:46.265 --> 07:46.275 align:start position:0% the density and composition of the 07:46.275 --> 07:47.865 align:start position:0% the density and composition of the material<00:08:55.519> the<00:08:55.760> waves<00:08:56.080> are<00:08:56.240> traveling 07:47.865 --> 07:47.875 align:start position:0% material the waves are traveling 07:47.875 --> 07:50.265 align:start position:0% material the waves are traveling through.<00:08:57.519> There<00:08:57.760> are<00:08:57.920> two<00:08:58.240> main<00:08:58.560> types<00:08:58.880> of 07:50.265 --> 07:50.275 align:start position:0% through. There are two main types of 07:50.275 --> 07:53.865 align:start position:0% through. There are two main types of waves.<00:08:59.760> One<00:09:00.000> called<00:09:00.399> P<00:09:00.800> or<00:09:01.279> primary<00:09:01.760> waves<00:09:02.399> and 07:53.865 --> 07:53.875 align:start position:0% waves. One called P or primary waves and 07:53.875 --> 07:57.145 align:start position:0% waves. One called P or primary waves and the<00:09:02.800> other<00:09:03.120> called<00:09:03.600> S<00:09:03.920> or<00:09:04.399> secondary<00:09:04.880> waves. 07:57.145 --> 07:57.155 align:start position:0% the other called S or secondary waves. 07:57.155 --> 07:59.545 align:start position:0% the other called S or secondary waves. As<00:09:06.160> you<00:09:06.320> can<00:09:06.480> see,<00:09:06.959> when<00:09:07.200> P<00:09:07.440> waves<00:09:07.839> encounter 07:59.545 --> 07:59.555 align:start position:0% As you can see, when P waves encounter 07:59.555 --> 08:01.785 align:start position:0% As you can see, when P waves encounter different<00:09:08.800> layers<00:09:09.040> inside<00:09:09.360> the<00:09:09.519> Earth,<00:09:10.240> the 08:01.785 --> 08:01.795 align:start position:0% different layers inside the Earth, the 08:01.795 --> 08:03.624 align:start position:0% different layers inside the Earth, the different<00:09:10.880> materials<00:09:11.519> cause<00:09:11.760> the<00:09:11.920> waves<00:09:12.240> to 08:03.624 --> 08:03.634 align:start position:0% different materials cause the waves to 08:03.634 --> 08:05.785 align:start position:0% different materials cause the waves to change<00:09:12.720> speed<00:09:13.040> and<00:09:13.279> direction,<00:09:14.080> but<00:09:14.399> the 08:05.785 --> 08:05.795 align:start position:0% change speed and direction, but the 08:05.795 --> 08:08.105 align:start position:0% change speed and direction, but the waves<00:09:14.880> are<00:09:15.120> still<00:09:15.440> able<00:09:15.760> to<00:09:16.000> travel<00:09:16.399> through 08:08.105 --> 08:08.115 align:start position:0% waves are still able to travel through 08:08.115 --> 08:10.905 align:start position:0% waves are still able to travel through all<00:09:17.200> the<00:09:17.519> layers.<00:09:18.399> But<00:09:18.560> when<00:09:18.959> S<00:09:19.279> waves 08:10.905 --> 08:10.915 align:start position:0% all the layers. But when S waves 08:10.915 --> 08:13.865 align:start position:0% all the layers. But when S waves encounter<00:09:20.160> the<00:09:20.399> liquid<00:09:20.720> core,<00:09:21.600> they<00:09:22.080> can't 08:13.865 --> 08:13.875 align:start position:0% encounter the liquid core, they can't 08:13.875 --> 08:16.425 align:start position:0% encounter the liquid core, they can't travel<00:09:23.040> through<00:09:23.279> that<00:09:23.600> material.<00:09:24.800> This<00:09:25.040> is 08:16.425 --> 08:16.435 align:start position:0% travel through that material. This is 08:16.435 --> 08:18.665 align:start position:0% travel through that material. This is because<00:09:25.600> of<00:09:25.760> the<00:09:26.000> shape<00:09:26.320> of<00:09:26.480> the<00:09:26.720> P<00:09:26.959> and<00:09:27.279> S 08:18.665 --> 08:18.675 align:start position:0% because of the shape of the P and S 08:18.675 --> 08:21.545 align:start position:0% because of the shape of the P and S waves<00:09:27.839> themselves.<00:09:29.040> P<00:09:29.279> waves<00:09:29.680> move<00:09:30.000> by 08:21.545 --> 08:21.555 align:start position:0% waves themselves. P waves move by 08:21.555 --> 08:23.385 align:start position:0% waves themselves. P waves move by compressing<00:09:30.880> and<00:09:31.200> expanding<00:09:31.519> the<00:09:31.760> material 08:23.385 --> 08:23.395 align:start position:0% compressing and expanding the material 08:23.395 --> 08:25.385 align:start position:0% compressing and expanding the material they<00:09:32.399> move<00:09:32.640> through,<00:09:33.200> pushing<00:09:33.519> and<00:09:33.839> pulling 08:25.385 --> 08:25.395 align:start position:0% they move through, pushing and pulling 08:25.395 --> 08:27.545 align:start position:0% they move through, pushing and pulling like<00:09:34.320> a<00:09:34.480> slinky.<00:09:35.360> They're<00:09:35.600> called<00:09:35.839> primary 08:27.545 --> 08:27.555 align:start position:0% like a slinky. They're called primary 08:27.555 --> 08:29.624 align:start position:0% like a slinky. They're called primary waves<00:09:36.720> because<00:09:36.959> they<00:09:37.279> move<00:09:37.519> faster<00:09:37.920> than<00:09:38.160> S- 08:29.624 --> 08:29.634 align:start position:0% waves because they move faster than S- 08:29.634 --> 08:32.184 align:start position:0% waves because they move faster than S- waves.<00:09:39.279> These<00:09:39.680> P<00:09:39.920> waves<00:09:40.240> can<00:09:40.399> travel<00:09:40.720> through 08:32.184 --> 08:32.194 align:start position:0% waves. These P waves can travel through 08:32.194 --> 08:35.225 align:start position:0% waves. These P waves can travel through both<00:09:41.279> liquid<00:09:41.760> and<00:09:42.240> solid<00:09:42.720> materials,<00:09:43.680> making 08:35.225 --> 08:35.235 align:start position:0% both liquid and solid materials, making 08:35.235 --> 08:37.624 align:start position:0% both liquid and solid materials, making them<00:09:44.320> capable<00:09:44.880> of<00:09:45.279> passing<00:09:45.680> through<00:09:46.000> Earth's 08:37.624 --> 08:37.634 align:start position:0% them capable of passing through Earth's 08:37.634 --> 08:40.665 align:start position:0% them capable of passing through Earth's core.<00:09:47.680> S<00:09:47.920> waves,<00:09:48.240> on<00:09:48.399> the<00:09:48.480> other<00:09:48.640> hand,<00:09:49.120> move 08:40.665 --> 08:40.675 align:start position:0% core. S waves, on the other hand, move 08:40.675 --> 08:42.425 align:start position:0% core. S waves, on the other hand, move by<00:09:49.680> shifting<00:09:50.080> the<00:09:50.320> material<00:09:50.720> they<00:09:50.959> pass 08:42.425 --> 08:42.435 align:start position:0% by shifting the material they pass 08:42.435 --> 08:44.985 align:start position:0% by shifting the material they pass through<00:09:51.440> from<00:09:51.760> side<00:09:52.000> to<00:09:52.240> side<00:09:52.800> or<00:09:53.120> up<00:09:53.360> and<00:09:53.600> down 08:44.985 --> 08:44.995 align:start position:0% through from side to side or up and down 08:44.995 --> 08:47.785 align:start position:0% through from side to side or up and down as<00:09:54.000> they<00:09:54.240> pass<00:09:54.480> through.<00:09:55.360> This<00:09:55.680> type<00:09:55.839> of<00:09:56.000> wave 08:47.785 --> 08:47.795 align:start position:0% as they pass through. This type of wave 08:47.795 --> 08:50.985 align:start position:0% as they pass through. This type of wave can't<00:09:57.120> travel<00:09:57.519> through<00:09:57.920> a<00:09:58.240> liquid.<00:09:59.440> By 08:50.985 --> 08:50.995 align:start position:0% can't travel through a liquid. By 08:50.995 --> 08:53.385 align:start position:0% can't travel through a liquid. By measuring<00:10:00.080> and<00:10:00.399> recording<00:10:01.040> P<00:10:01.360> and<00:10:01.600> S<00:10:01.839> waves 08:53.385 --> 08:53.395 align:start position:0% measuring and recording P and S waves 08:53.395 --> 08:55.465 align:start position:0% measuring and recording P and S waves around<00:10:02.399> the<00:10:02.640> globe,<00:10:03.200> we<00:10:03.519> get<00:10:03.600> a<00:10:03.839> sort<00:10:04.000> of 08:55.465 --> 08:55.475 align:start position:0% around the globe, we get a sort of 08:55.475 --> 08:58.744 align:start position:0% around the globe, we get a sort of seismic<00:10:04.880> X-ray<00:10:05.519> of<00:10:05.839> Earth's<00:10:06.160> interior.<00:10:07.279> The 08:58.744 --> 08:58.754 align:start position:0% seismic X-ray of Earth's interior. The 08:58.754 --> 09:01.145 align:start position:0% seismic X-ray of Earth's interior. The way<00:10:07.600> the<00:10:07.839> P<00:10:08.080> and<00:10:08.320> S<00:10:08.480> waves<00:10:08.880> speed<00:10:09.120> up<00:10:09.279> or<00:10:09.600> slow 09:01.145 --> 09:01.155 align:start position:0% way the P and S waves speed up or slow 09:01.155 --> 09:04.184 align:start position:0% way the P and S waves speed up or slow down,<00:10:10.560> and<00:10:10.800> how<00:10:11.040> they<00:10:11.279> bend,<00:10:11.839> refract,<00:10:12.399> or<00:10:12.720> get 09:04.184 --> 09:04.194 align:start position:0% down, and how they bend, refract, or get 09:04.194 --> 09:06.425 align:start position:0% down, and how they bend, refract, or get blocked<00:10:13.360> by<00:10:13.600> different<00:10:14.000> layers<00:10:14.560> allow<00:10:14.880> us<00:10:15.040> to 09:06.425 --> 09:06.435 align:start position:0% blocked by different layers allow us to 09:06.435 --> 09:08.345 align:start position:0% blocked by different layers allow us to outline<00:10:15.680> what<00:10:15.839> it<00:10:16.079> looks<00:10:16.240> like<00:10:16.480> inside<00:10:16.800> the 09:08.345 --> 09:08.355 align:start position:0% outline what it looks like inside the 09:08.355 --> 09:11.064 align:start position:0% outline what it looks like inside the planet,<00:10:17.839> what<00:10:18.320> layers<00:10:18.560> there<00:10:18.800> are,<00:10:19.440> if<00:10:19.680> they 09:11.064 --> 09:11.074 align:start position:0% planet, what layers there are, if they 09:11.074 --> 09:14.184 align:start position:0% planet, what layers there are, if they are<00:10:20.079> solid<00:10:20.480> or<00:10:20.880> liquid,<00:10:21.680> and<00:10:21.920> can<00:10:22.240> even<00:10:22.640> offer 09:14.184 --> 09:14.194 align:start position:0% are solid or liquid, and can even offer 09:14.194 --> 09:16.504 align:start position:0% are solid or liquid, and can even offer clues<00:10:23.440> about<00:10:23.760> the<00:10:24.000> composition<00:10:24.640> of<00:10:24.880> those 09:16.504 --> 09:16.514 align:start position:0% clues about the composition of those 09:16.514 --> 09:19.705 align:start position:0% clues about the composition of those layers.<00:10:26.560> But<00:10:26.800> Earth's<00:10:27.200> interior<00:10:27.760> is<00:10:28.160> too 09:19.705 --> 09:19.715 align:start position:0% layers. But Earth's interior is too 09:19.715 --> 09:21.785 align:start position:0% layers. But Earth's interior is too active<00:10:28.959> for<00:10:29.200> us<00:10:29.360> to<00:10:29.600> understand<00:10:30.000> much<00:10:30.320> about 09:21.785 --> 09:21.795 align:start position:0% active for us to understand much about 09:21.795 --> 09:24.504 align:start position:0% active for us to understand much about its<00:10:30.880> past.<00:10:31.680> The<00:10:32.000> continually<00:10:32.640> recycled 09:24.504 --> 09:24.514 align:start position:0% its past. The continually recycled 09:24.514 --> 09:27.064 align:start position:0% its past. The continually recycled interior<00:10:33.920> makes<00:10:34.240> it<00:10:34.480> extremely<00:10:35.120> hard<00:10:35.360> to<00:10:35.600> work 09:27.064 --> 09:27.074 align:start position:0% interior makes it extremely hard to work 09:27.074 --> 09:29.465 align:start position:0% interior makes it extremely hard to work out<00:10:36.079> the<00:10:36.480> original<00:10:36.959> conditions<00:10:37.360> of<00:10:37.600> how<00:10:37.839> our 09:29.465 --> 09:29.475 align:start position:0% out the original conditions of how our 09:29.475 --> 09:32.265 align:start position:0% out the original conditions of how our planet<00:10:38.640> formed.<00:10:40.000> Mars,<00:10:40.399> on<00:10:40.560> the<00:10:40.640> other<00:10:40.800> hand, 09:32.265 --> 09:32.275 align:start position:0% planet formed. Mars, on the other hand, 09:32.275 --> 09:34.665 align:start position:0% planet formed. Mars, on the other hand, happens<00:10:41.360> to<00:10:41.519> be<00:10:41.760> a<00:10:42.000> sort<00:10:42.240> of<00:10:42.399> Goldilocks<00:10:43.120> world 09:34.665 --> 09:34.675 align:start position:0% happens to be a sort of Goldilocks world 09:34.675 --> 09:36.585 align:start position:0% happens to be a sort of Goldilocks world for<00:10:43.680> studying<00:10:44.079> the<00:10:44.320> interior<00:10:44.720> of<00:10:44.880> rocky 09:36.585 --> 09:36.595 align:start position:0% for studying the interior of rocky 09:36.595 --> 09:39.064 align:start position:0% for studying the interior of rocky planets.<00:10:46.160> It's<00:10:46.399> very<00:10:46.720> nearly<00:10:47.120> geologically 09:39.064 --> 09:39.074 align:start position:0% planets. It's very nearly geologically 09:39.074 --> 09:41.465 align:start position:0% planets. It's very nearly geologically dormant,<00:10:48.480> but<00:10:48.720> was<00:10:48.959> active<00:10:49.440> enough<00:10:49.839> in<00:10:50.079> the 09:41.465 --> 09:41.475 align:start position:0% dormant, but was active enough in the 09:41.475 --> 09:44.585 align:start position:0% dormant, but was active enough in the past<00:10:50.399> to<00:10:50.640> develop<00:10:50.959> a<00:10:51.200> crust,<00:10:51.839> mantle,<00:10:52.640> core, 09:44.585 --> 09:44.595 align:start position:0% past to develop a crust, mantle, core, 09:44.595 --> 09:47.945 align:start position:0% past to develop a crust, mantle, core, and<00:10:53.680> to<00:10:53.920> be<00:10:54.079> volcanically<00:10:54.720> active. 09:47.945 --> 09:47.955 align:start position:0% and to be volcanically active. 09:47.955 --> 09:49.945 align:start position:0% and to be volcanically active. Critically,<00:10:57.440> the<00:10:57.760> majority<00:10:58.079> of<00:10:58.240> Mars's 09:49.945 --> 09:49.955 align:start position:0% Critically, the majority of Mars's 09:49.955 --> 09:52.105 align:start position:0% Critically, the majority of Mars's geological<00:10:59.279> activity<00:10:59.839> slowed<00:11:00.160> down<00:11:00.399> to<00:11:00.640> a 09:52.105 --> 09:52.115 align:start position:0% geological activity slowed down to a 09:52.115 --> 09:55.064 align:start position:0% geological activity slowed down to a near<00:11:01.279> stop<00:11:02.079> in<00:11:02.399> time<00:11:02.800> to<00:11:03.120> preserve<00:11:03.519> its 09:55.064 --> 09:55.074 align:start position:0% near stop in time to preserve its 09:55.074 --> 09:58.025 align:start position:0% near stop in time to preserve its interior<00:11:04.399> structure<00:11:05.200> roughly<00:11:05.760> 3<00:11:06.079> to<00:11:06.399> 4 09:58.025 --> 09:58.035 align:start position:0% interior structure roughly 3 to 4 09:58.035 --> 10:00.504 align:start position:0% interior structure roughly 3 to 4 billion<00:11:07.200> years<00:11:07.440> ago.<00:11:08.240> Like<00:11:08.399> an<00:11:08.640> insect<00:11:09.040> that 10:00.504 --> 10:00.514 align:start position:0% billion years ago. Like an insect that 10:00.514 --> 10:03.785 align:start position:0% billion years ago. Like an insect that got<00:11:09.519> stuck<00:11:09.839> in<00:11:10.079> amber,<00:11:10.800> frozen<00:11:11.279> in<00:11:11.519> time,<00:11:12.160> and 10:03.785 --> 10:03.795 align:start position:0% got stuck in amber, frozen in time, and 10:03.795 --> 10:06.744 align:start position:0% got stuck in amber, frozen in time, and preserved<00:11:13.120> for<00:11:13.360> centuries.<00:11:14.800> This<00:11:15.040> likely 10:06.744 --> 10:06.754 align:start position:0% preserved for centuries. This likely 10:06.754 --> 10:09.304 align:start position:0% preserved for centuries. This likely happened<00:11:16.079> because<00:11:16.480> Mars<00:11:16.880> is<00:11:17.200> significantly 10:09.304 --> 10:09.314 align:start position:0% happened because Mars is significantly 10:09.314 --> 10:11.624 align:start position:0% happened because Mars is significantly smaller<00:11:18.480> than<00:11:18.720> Earth,<00:11:19.519> about<00:11:19.839> half<00:11:20.079> the 10:11.624 --> 10:11.634 align:start position:0% smaller than Earth, about half the 10:11.634 --> 10:14.345 align:start position:0% smaller than Earth, about half the diameter,<00:11:21.120> and<00:11:21.440> only<00:11:21.680> about<00:11:22.079> 1/10enth<00:11:22.800> of 10:14.345 --> 10:14.355 align:start position:0% diameter, and only about 1/10enth of 10:14.355 --> 10:17.465 align:start position:0% diameter, and only about 1/10enth of Earth's<00:11:23.440> mass.<00:11:24.079> Smaller<00:11:24.880> planets<00:11:25.519> cool<00:11:25.920> more 10:17.465 --> 10:17.475 align:start position:0% Earth's mass. Smaller planets cool more 10:17.475 --> 10:19.545 align:start position:0% Earth's mass. Smaller planets cool more quickly,<00:11:26.880> like<00:11:27.120> a<00:11:27.360> small<00:11:27.600> cup<00:11:27.760> of<00:11:27.920> tea<00:11:28.160> will 10:19.545 --> 10:19.555 align:start position:0% quickly, like a small cup of tea will 10:19.555 --> 10:22.744 align:start position:0% quickly, like a small cup of tea will cool<00:11:28.640> faster<00:11:29.120> than<00:11:29.360> a<00:11:29.519> large<00:11:29.839> teapot<00:11:30.320> full.<00:11:31.279> As 10:22.744 --> 10:22.754 align:start position:0% cool faster than a large teapot full. As 10:22.754 --> 10:25.304 align:start position:0% cool faster than a large teapot full. As it<00:11:31.760> cooled,<00:11:32.320> Mars<00:11:32.800> likely<00:11:33.200> lost<00:11:33.519> most<00:11:33.760> of<00:11:33.839> its 10:25.304 --> 10:25.314 align:start position:0% it cooled, Mars likely lost most of its 10:25.314 --> 10:27.465 align:start position:0% it cooled, Mars likely lost most of its internal<00:11:34.480> heat<00:11:34.800> within<00:11:35.200> a<00:11:35.440> billion<00:11:35.760> years<00:11:36.000> of 10:27.465 --> 10:27.475 align:start position:0% internal heat within a billion years of 10:27.475 --> 10:30.425 align:start position:0% internal heat within a billion years of forming,<00:11:36.959> becoming<00:11:37.360> a<00:11:37.680> mostly<00:11:38.160> quiet<00:11:38.640> and 10:30.425 --> 10:30.435 align:start position:0% forming, becoming a mostly quiet and 10:30.435 --> 10:32.744 align:start position:0% forming, becoming a mostly quiet and cool<00:11:39.600> planet.<00:11:40.560> Because<00:11:40.880> of<00:11:41.040> this,<00:11:41.279> the 10:32.744 --> 10:32.754 align:start position:0% cool planet. Because of this, the 10:32.754 --> 10:34.665 align:start position:0% cool planet. Because of this, the interior<00:11:41.920> of<00:11:42.160> Mars<00:11:42.480> is<00:11:42.720> closer<00:11:43.040> to<00:11:43.200> a 10:34.665 --> 10:34.675 align:start position:0% interior of Mars is closer to a 10:34.675 --> 10:36.825 align:start position:0% interior of Mars is closer to a primordial<00:11:44.079> state<00:11:44.480> than<00:11:44.800> anything<00:11:45.200> we<00:11:45.440> can 10:36.825 --> 10:36.835 align:start position:0% primordial state than anything we can 10:36.835 --> 10:39.465 align:start position:0% primordial state than anything we can study<00:11:45.839> on<00:11:46.079> Earth.<00:11:46.800> It's<00:11:47.040> a<00:11:47.200> record<00:11:47.519> of<00:11:47.760> what<00:11:48.000> a 10:39.465 --> 10:39.475 align:start position:0% study on Earth. It's a record of what a 10:39.475 --> 10:41.304 align:start position:0% study on Earth. It's a record of what a rocky<00:11:48.640> planet<00:11:48.959> can<00:11:49.120> look<00:11:49.360> like<00:11:49.600> after<00:11:49.839> the 10:41.304 --> 10:41.314 align:start position:0% rocky planet can look like after the 10:41.314 --> 10:43.865 align:start position:0% rocky planet can look like after the interior<00:11:50.480> has<00:11:50.800> separated<00:11:51.200> into<00:11:51.680> layers.<00:11:52.399> But 10:43.865 --> 10:43.875 align:start position:0% interior has separated into layers. But 10:43.875 --> 10:46.025 align:start position:0% interior has separated into layers. But before<00:11:53.279> billions<00:11:53.760> of<00:11:53.920> years<00:11:54.079> of<00:11:54.240> tectonic 10:46.025 --> 10:46.035 align:start position:0% before billions of years of tectonic 10:46.035 --> 10:49.225 align:start position:0% before billions of years of tectonic recycling<00:11:55.760> destroys<00:11:56.240> the<00:11:56.480> history.<00:11:57.760> And 10:49.225 --> 10:49.235 align:start position:0% recycling destroys the history. And 10:49.235 --> 10:51.705 align:start position:0% recycling destroys the history. And therein<00:11:58.399> lies<00:11:58.720> the<00:11:58.880> key<00:11:59.200> to<00:11:59.360> why<00:11:59.680> Mars<00:12:00.000> is<00:12:00.240> so 10:51.705 --> 10:51.715 align:start position:0% therein lies the key to why Mars is so 10:51.715 --> 10:53.145 align:start position:0% therein lies the key to why Mars is so perfect<00:12:00.720> for<00:12:00.959> studying<00:12:01.360> planetary 10:53.145 --> 10:53.155 align:start position:0% perfect for studying planetary 10:53.155 --> 10:56.265 align:start position:0% perfect for studying planetary interiors.<00:12:02.959> Its<00:12:03.200> internal<00:12:03.680> activity<00:12:04.399> nearly 10:56.265 --> 10:56.275 align:start position:0% interiors. Its internal activity nearly 10:56.275 --> 10:59.705 align:start position:0% interiors. Its internal activity nearly stopped,<00:12:05.839> but<00:12:06.320> not<00:12:06.639> entirely.<00:12:08.000> That<00:12:08.240> makes 10:59.705 --> 10:59.715 align:start position:0% stopped, but not entirely. That makes 10:59.715 --> 11:02.744 align:start position:0% stopped, but not entirely. That makes Mars<00:12:08.880> both<00:12:09.200> a<00:12:09.440> geological<00:12:10.160> time<00:12:10.480> capsule<00:12:11.279> and 11:02.744 --> 11:02.754 align:start position:0% Mars both a geological time capsule and 11:02.754 --> 11:05.545 align:start position:0% Mars both a geological time capsule and a<00:12:11.760> planet<00:12:12.160> capable<00:12:12.639> of<00:12:12.880> producing<00:12:13.600> lowlevel 11:05.545 --> 11:05.555 align:start position:0% a planet capable of producing lowlevel 11:05.555 --> 11:07.945 align:start position:0% a planet capable of producing lowlevel seismic<00:12:14.880> data<00:12:15.360> that<00:12:15.680> can<00:12:15.839> reveal<00:12:16.320> its 11:07.945 --> 11:07.955 align:start position:0% seismic data that can reveal its 11:07.955 --> 11:11.545 align:start position:0% seismic data that can reveal its contents<00:12:17.120> to<00:12:17.360> us.<00:12:18.000> A<00:12:18.399> winning<00:12:18.880> combination<00:12:20.000> if 11:11.545 --> 11:11.555 align:start position:0% contents to us. A winning combination if 11:11.555 --> 11:14.825 align:start position:0% contents to us. A winning combination if we<00:12:20.480> can<00:12:20.720> measure<00:12:21.040> it. 11:14.825 --> 11:14.835 align:start position:0% 11:14.835 --> 11:16.825 align:start position:0% For<00:12:23.920> decades,<00:12:24.399> all<00:12:24.639> we<00:12:24.800> could<00:12:24.880> do<00:12:25.040> was<00:12:25.279> study 11:16.825 --> 11:16.835 align:start position:0% For decades, all we could do was study 11:16.835 --> 11:19.385 align:start position:0% For decades, all we could do was study Mars<00:12:25.920> from<00:12:26.160> the<00:12:26.320> surface,<00:12:26.959> from<00:12:27.279> orbit,<00:12:28.000> or 11:19.385 --> 11:19.395 align:start position:0% Mars from the surface, from orbit, or 11:19.395 --> 11:21.624 align:start position:0% Mars from the surface, from orbit, or from<00:12:28.399> Martian<00:12:28.880> meteorites<00:12:29.519> that<00:12:29.839> eventually 11:21.624 --> 11:21.634 align:start position:0% from Martian meteorites that eventually 11:21.634 --> 11:23.705 align:start position:0% from Martian meteorites that eventually found<00:12:30.639> their<00:12:30.880> way<00:12:30.959> to<00:12:31.200> Earth.<00:12:32.079> But<00:12:32.240> we 11:23.705 --> 11:23.715 align:start position:0% found their way to Earth. But we 11:23.715 --> 11:26.985 align:start position:0% found their way to Earth. But we couldn't<00:12:32.800> do<00:12:33.120> seismology<00:12:34.000> on<00:12:34.240> Mars.<00:12:35.440> That 11:26.985 --> 11:26.995 align:start position:0% couldn't do seismology on Mars. That 11:26.995 --> 11:30.585 align:start position:0% couldn't do seismology on Mars. That changed<00:12:36.399> on<00:12:36.639> the<00:12:36.880> 26th<00:12:37.279> of<00:12:37.519> November<00:12:38.320> 2018 11:30.585 --> 11:30.595 align:start position:0% changed on the 26th of November 2018 11:30.595 --> 11:33.225 align:start position:0% changed on the 26th of November 2018 when<00:12:39.600> NASA's<00:12:40.240> insight<00:12:40.720> lander<00:12:41.440> which<00:12:41.680> stands 11:33.225 --> 11:33.235 align:start position:0% when NASA's insight lander which stands 11:33.235 --> 11:36.265 align:start position:0% when NASA's insight lander which stands for<00:12:42.480> interior<00:12:43.200> exploration<00:12:44.000> using<00:12:44.399> seismic 11:36.265 --> 11:36.275 align:start position:0% for interior exploration using seismic 11:36.275 --> 11:38.825 align:start position:0% for interior exploration using seismic investigations<00:12:46.240> geodessi<00:12:47.040> and<00:12:47.279> heat 11:38.825 --> 11:38.835 align:start position:0% investigations geodessi and heat 11:38.835 --> 11:41.705 align:start position:0% investigations geodessi and heat transport<00:12:48.639> touched<00:12:49.200> down<00:12:49.600> near<00:12:49.920> the<00:12:50.079> Martian 11:41.705 --> 11:41.715 align:start position:0% transport touched down near the Martian 11:41.715 --> 11:44.265 align:start position:0% transport touched down near the Martian equator.<00:12:51.440> The<00:12:51.760> location<00:12:52.079> was<00:12:52.320> chosen<00:12:52.639> for<00:12:52.800> its 11:44.265 --> 11:44.275 align:start position:0% equator. The location was chosen for its 11:44.275 --> 11:47.545 align:start position:0% equator. The location was chosen for its flatness,<00:12:53.839> stability,<00:12:54.720> and<00:12:54.959> lack<00:12:55.200> of<00:12:55.440> rocks. 11:47.545 --> 11:47.555 align:start position:0% flatness, stability, and lack of rocks. 11:47.555 --> 11:49.465 align:start position:0% flatness, stability, and lack of rocks. This<00:12:56.560> would<00:12:56.720> give<00:12:56.959> Insight<00:12:57.440> the<00:12:57.680> best<00:12:57.920> chance 11:49.465 --> 11:49.475 align:start position:0% This would give Insight the best chance 11:49.475 --> 11:51.545 align:start position:0% This would give Insight the best chance at<00:12:58.560> successfully<00:12:59.120> deploying<00:12:59.600> its<00:12:59.839> sensitive 11:51.545 --> 11:51.555 align:start position:0% at successfully deploying its sensitive 11:51.555 --> 11:54.825 align:start position:0% at successfully deploying its sensitive instruments<00:13:01.120> and<00:13:01.360> then<00:13:01.600> listen<00:13:02.480> and<00:13:02.720> moving 11:54.825 --> 11:54.835 align:start position:0% instruments and then listen and moving 11:54.835 --> 11:58.504 align:start position:0% instruments and then listen and moving silently<00:13:04.320> for<00:13:04.560> years.<00:13:06.000> Insight<00:13:06.560> was<00:13:06.720> carrying 11:58.504 --> 11:58.514 align:start position:0% silently for years. Insight was carrying 11:58.514 --> 12:00.985 align:start position:0% silently for years. Insight was carrying the<00:13:07.519> seismic<00:13:08.160> experiment<00:13:08.800> for<00:13:09.040> interior 12:00.985 --> 12:00.995 align:start position:0% the seismic experiment for interior 12:00.995 --> 12:03.864 align:start position:0% the seismic experiment for interior structure<00:13:10.399> or<00:13:10.800> size,<00:13:11.600> a<00:13:11.839> seismometer 12:03.864 --> 12:03.874 align:start position:0% structure or size, a seismometer 12:03.874 --> 12:05.945 align:start position:0% structure or size, a seismometer primarily<00:13:13.279> built<00:13:13.519> by<00:13:13.760> the<00:13:13.920> French<00:13:14.399> space 12:05.945 --> 12:05.955 align:start position:0% primarily built by the French space 12:05.955 --> 12:07.465 align:start position:0% primarily built by the French space agency 12:07.465 --> 12:07.475 align:start position:0% agency 12:07.475 --> 12:08.825 align:start position:0% agency as<00:13:16.560> part<00:13:16.720> of<00:13:16.800> an<00:13:17.040> international 12:08.825 --> 12:08.835 align:start position:0% as part of an international 12:08.835 --> 12:11.304 align:start position:0% as part of an international collaboration.<00:13:18.720> The<00:13:18.880> seismometer<00:13:19.600> worked<00:13:19.920> by 12:11.304 --> 12:11.314 align:start position:0% collaboration. The seismometer worked by 12:11.314 --> 12:12.985 align:start position:0% collaboration. The seismometer worked by using<00:13:20.480> electrodes<00:13:21.040> to<00:13:21.279> measure<00:13:21.519> the 12:12.985 --> 12:12.995 align:start position:0% using electrodes to measure the 12:12.995 --> 12:14.744 align:start position:0% using electrodes to measure the displacement<00:13:22.240> of<00:13:22.399> the<00:13:22.560> moving<00:13:22.880> parts<00:13:23.200> of<00:13:23.360> his 12:14.744 --> 12:14.754 align:start position:0% displacement of the moving parts of his 12:14.754 --> 12:17.705 align:start position:0% displacement of the moving parts of his pendulum,<00:13:24.480> making<00:13:24.800> for<00:13:25.120> an<00:13:25.440> astonishingly 12:17.705 --> 12:17.715 align:start position:0% pendulum, making for an astonishingly 12:17.715 --> 12:20.504 align:start position:0% pendulum, making for an astonishingly sensitive<00:13:26.959> instrument.<00:13:28.320> At<00:13:28.560> the<00:13:28.720> time<00:13:28.880> it<00:13:29.120> was 12:20.504 --> 12:20.514 align:start position:0% sensitive instrument. At the time it was 12:20.514 --> 12:23.145 align:start position:0% sensitive instrument. At the time it was deployed,<00:13:30.000> size<00:13:30.399> was<00:13:30.560> the<00:13:30.800> most<00:13:31.360> sensitive 12:23.145 --> 12:23.155 align:start position:0% deployed, size was the most sensitive 12:23.155 --> 12:26.504 align:start position:0% deployed, size was the most sensitive seismometer<00:13:32.959> ever<00:13:33.519> put<00:13:33.839> on<00:13:34.079> another<00:13:34.480> planet. 12:26.504 --> 12:26.514 align:start position:0% seismometer ever put on another planet. 12:26.514 --> 12:28.905 align:start position:0% seismometer ever put on another planet. It<00:13:35.519> was<00:13:35.680> sensitive<00:13:36.240> enough<00:13:36.560> to<00:13:36.880> detect<00:13:37.360> ground 12:28.905 --> 12:28.915 align:start position:0% It was sensitive enough to detect ground 12:28.915 --> 12:32.025 align:start position:0% It was sensitive enough to detect ground movements<00:13:38.240> smaller<00:13:38.800> than<00:13:39.040> the<00:13:39.279> diameter<00:13:40.079> of<00:13:40.399> a 12:32.025 --> 12:32.035 align:start position:0% movements smaller than the diameter of a 12:32.035 --> 12:35.145 align:start position:0% movements smaller than the diameter of a hydrogen<00:13:41.519> atom.<00:13:42.560> The<00:13:42.880> execution<00:13:43.440> may<00:13:43.760> have 12:35.145 --> 12:35.155 align:start position:0% hydrogen atom. The execution may have 12:35.155 --> 12:37.785 align:start position:0% hydrogen atom. The execution may have been<00:13:44.160> complex,<00:13:44.959> but<00:13:45.200> the<00:13:45.360> idea<00:13:45.600> was<00:13:45.920> simple. 12:37.785 --> 12:37.795 align:start position:0% been complex, but the idea was simple. 12:37.795 --> 12:39.705 align:start position:0% been complex, but the idea was simple. Put<00:13:46.720> the<00:13:46.880> lander<00:13:47.200> on<00:13:47.360> Mars,<00:13:48.000> deploy<00:13:48.320> the 12:39.705 --> 12:39.715 align:start position:0% Put the lander on Mars, deploy the 12:39.715 --> 12:41.945 align:start position:0% Put the lander on Mars, deploy the seismometer<00:13:49.120> on<00:13:49.200> the<00:13:49.360> Martian<00:13:49.760> surface,<00:13:50.480> and 12:41.945 --> 12:41.955 align:start position:0% seismometer on the Martian surface, and 12:41.955 --> 12:44.585 align:start position:0% seismometer on the Martian surface, and wait<00:13:50.959> for<00:13:51.519> Mars<00:13:51.920> quakes.<00:13:52.720> The<00:13:52.880> Martian 12:44.585 --> 12:44.595 align:start position:0% wait for Mars quakes. The Martian 12:44.595 --> 12:46.425 align:start position:0% wait for Mars quakes. The Martian equivalent<00:13:53.839> of<00:13:54.000> an<00:13:54.160> earthquake<00:13:54.800> thought<00:13:55.040> to 12:46.425 --> 12:46.435 align:start position:0% equivalent of an earthquake thought to 12:46.435 --> 12:48.585 align:start position:0% equivalent of an earthquake thought to be<00:13:55.279> mainly<00:13:55.680> caused<00:13:56.000> by<00:13:56.240> the<00:13:56.480> cooling<00:13:57.040> and 12:48.585 --> 12:48.595 align:start position:0% be mainly caused by the cooling and 12:48.595 --> 12:50.985 align:start position:0% be mainly caused by the cooling and shrinking<00:13:57.760> of<00:13:58.000> the<00:13:58.160> planet's<00:13:58.560> crust,<00:13:59.279> or<00:13:59.519> in 12:50.985 --> 12:50.995 align:start position:0% shrinking of the planet's crust, or in 12:50.995 --> 12:53.304 align:start position:0% shrinking of the planet's crust, or in the<00:13:59.920> volcanic<00:14:00.399> regions,<00:14:01.120> ongoing<00:14:01.680> magma 12:53.304 --> 12:53.314 align:start position:0% the volcanic regions, ongoing magma 12:53.314 --> 12:55.624 align:start position:0% the volcanic regions, ongoing magma movements<00:14:02.480> deep<00:14:02.720> underground.<00:14:04.000> The<00:14:04.240> next 12:55.624 --> 12:55.634 align:start position:0% movements deep underground. The next 12:55.634 --> 12:57.225 align:start position:0% movements deep underground. The next part<00:14:04.639> of<00:14:04.720> the<00:14:04.959> plan<00:14:05.120> was<00:14:05.360> to<00:14:05.519> record<00:14:05.839> the 12:57.225 --> 12:57.235 align:start position:0% part of the plan was to record the 12:57.235 --> 12:59.545 align:start position:0% part of the plan was to record the seismic<00:14:06.480> waves<00:14:06.959> and<00:14:07.279> use<00:14:07.440> the<00:14:07.680> properties<00:14:08.079> of 12:59.545 --> 12:59.555 align:start position:0% seismic waves and use the properties of 12:59.555 --> 13:02.265 align:start position:0% seismic waves and use the properties of those<00:14:08.560> waves<00:14:08.959> to<00:14:09.199> map<00:14:09.440> the<00:14:09.680> interior<00:14:10.160> of<00:14:10.399> Mars, 13:02.265 --> 13:02.275 align:start position:0% those waves to map the interior of Mars, 13:02.275 --> 13:04.905 align:start position:0% those waves to map the interior of Mars, similar<00:14:11.360> to<00:14:11.519> what's<00:14:11.839> been<00:14:12.000> done<00:14:12.160> on<00:14:12.399> Earth.<00:14:13.040> Of 13:04.905 --> 13:04.915 align:start position:0% similar to what's been done on Earth. Of 13:04.915 --> 13:06.985 align:start position:0% similar to what's been done on Earth. Of course,<00:14:13.920> some<00:14:14.240> wondered<00:14:14.639> if<00:14:14.880> Mars<00:14:15.279> would<00:14:15.519> even 13:06.985 --> 13:06.995 align:start position:0% course, some wondered if Mars would even 13:06.995 --> 13:08.905 align:start position:0% course, some wondered if Mars would even have<00:14:16.000> quakes.<00:14:16.880> Maybe<00:14:17.120> it<00:14:17.279> was<00:14:17.440> too 13:08.905 --> 13:08.915 align:start position:0% have quakes. Maybe it was too 13:08.915 --> 13:11.705 align:start position:0% have quakes. Maybe it was too geologically<00:14:18.399> dead.<00:14:19.199> Would<00:14:19.519> Insight<00:14:20.079> end<00:14:20.320> up 13:11.705 --> 13:11.715 align:start position:0% geologically dead. Would Insight end up 13:11.715 --> 13:16.025 align:start position:0% geologically dead. Would Insight end up listening<00:14:20.959> to<00:14:21.199> a<00:14:21.519> completely<00:14:22.240> silent<00:14:22.720> planet? 13:16.025 --> 13:16.035 align:start position:0% listening to a completely silent planet? 13:16.035 --> 13:19.624 align:start position:0% listening to a completely silent planet? Well,<00:14:25.519> no.<00:14:26.000> As<00:14:26.240> it<00:14:26.399> turns<00:14:26.639> out,<00:14:27.040> Mars<00:14:27.600> was<00:14:27.920> not 13:19.624 --> 13:19.634 align:start position:0% Well, no. As it turns out, Mars was not 13:19.634 --> 13:22.504 align:start position:0% Well, no. As it turns out, Mars was not silent.<00:14:29.600> In<00:14:29.760> fact,<00:14:30.000> Insight<00:14:30.560> began<00:14:30.800> detecting 13:22.504 --> 13:22.514 align:start position:0% silent. In fact, Insight began detecting 13:22.514 --> 13:24.345 align:start position:0% silent. In fact, Insight began detecting Mars<00:14:31.600> quake<00:14:31.920> shortly<00:14:32.240> after<00:14:32.560> size<00:14:32.959> was 13:24.345 --> 13:24.355 align:start position:0% Mars quake shortly after size was 13:24.355 --> 13:26.665 align:start position:0% Mars quake shortly after size was deployed<00:14:34.000> with<00:14:34.240> the<00:14:34.399> first<00:14:34.639> quake<00:14:35.040> recorded 13:26.665 --> 13:26.675 align:start position:0% deployed with the first quake recorded 13:26.675 --> 13:30.345 align:start position:0% deployed with the first quake recorded on<00:14:35.600> the<00:14:35.760> 6th<00:14:36.000> of<00:14:36.240> April<00:14:36.639> 2019<00:14:37.519> on<00:14:37.760> the<00:14:37.920> lander's 13:30.345 --> 13:30.355 align:start position:0% on the 6th of April 2019 on the lander's 13:30.355 --> 13:37.785 align:start position:0% on the 6th of April 2019 on the lander's 128th<00:14:39.680> Martian<00:14:40.079> day<00:14:40.560> or<00:14:41.040> soul. 13:37.785 --> 13:37.795 align:start position:0% 13:37.795 --> 13:40.105 align:start position:0% This<00:14:46.800> quake<00:14:47.199> was<00:14:47.440> too<00:14:47.839> small<00:14:48.160> to<00:14:48.399> provide 13:40.105 --> 13:40.115 align:start position:0% This quake was too small to provide 13:40.115 --> 13:42.265 align:start position:0% This quake was too small to provide information<00:14:49.279> about<00:14:49.600> the<00:14:49.839> interior,<00:14:50.639> but<00:14:50.800> it 13:42.265 --> 13:42.275 align:start position:0% information about the interior, but it 13:42.275 --> 13:45.225 align:start position:0% information about the interior, but it was<00:14:51.199> a<00:14:51.440> promising<00:14:51.839> sign<00:14:52.079> of<00:14:52.320> more<00:14:52.560> to<00:14:52.800> come.<00:14:53.760> By 13:45.225 --> 13:45.235 align:start position:0% was a promising sign of more to come. By 13:45.235 --> 13:47.785 align:start position:0% was a promising sign of more to come. By the<00:14:54.240> time<00:14:54.560> dust<00:14:55.040> covered<00:14:55.440> solar<00:14:55.760> panels<00:14:56.160> and 13:47.785 --> 13:47.795 align:start position:0% the time dust covered solar panels and 13:47.795 --> 13:49.945 align:start position:0% the time dust covered solar panels and dark<00:14:56.959> skies<00:14:57.360> brought<00:14:57.680> the<00:14:57.839> Insight<00:14:58.320> landers 13:49.945 --> 13:49.955 align:start position:0% dark skies brought the Insight landers 13:49.955 --> 13:52.905 align:start position:0% dark skies brought the Insight landers mission<00:14:58.959> to<00:14:59.120> an<00:14:59.360> end<00:14:59.519> in<00:14:59.839> 2022,<00:15:01.120> it<00:15:01.440> had 13:52.905 --> 13:52.915 align:start position:0% mission to an end in 2022, it had 13:52.915 --> 13:57.064 align:start position:0% mission to an end in 2022, it had recorded<00:15:02.320> more<00:15:02.720> than<00:15:03.040> 1,319 13:57.064 --> 13:57.074 align:start position:0% recorded more than 1,319 13:57.074 --> 14:00.105 align:start position:0% recorded more than 1,319 Mars<00:15:06.240> quakes,<00:15:07.040> including<00:15:07.519> a<00:15:07.839> magnitude<00:15:08.560> 5 14:00.105 --> 14:00.115 align:start position:0% Mars quakes, including a magnitude 5 14:00.115 --> 14:03.304 align:start position:0% Mars quakes, including a magnitude 5 quake<00:15:09.360> on<00:15:09.600> the<00:15:09.760> 4th<00:15:10.000> of<00:15:10.160> May,<00:15:10.560> 2022.<00:15:11.680> the 14:03.304 --> 14:03.314 align:start position:0% quake on the 4th of May, 2022. the 14:03.314 --> 14:04.960 align:start position:0% quake on the 4th of May, 2022. the 1,22nd 14:04.960 --> 14:04.970 align:start position:0% 1,22nd 14:04.970 --> 14:06.025 align:start position:0% 1,22nd [music] 14:06.025 --> 14:06.035 align:start position:0% [music] 14:06.035 --> 14:12.424 align:start position:0% [music] Martian<00:15:15.360> soul. 14:12.424 --> 14:12.434 align:start position:0% 14:12.434 --> 14:14.744 align:start position:0% Whilst<00:15:21.519> on<00:15:21.760> Earth<00:15:22.079> this<00:15:22.320> is<00:15:22.480> a<00:15:22.720> relatively 14:14.744 --> 14:14.754 align:start position:0% Whilst on Earth this is a relatively 14:14.754 --> 14:17.624 align:start position:0% Whilst on Earth this is a relatively mediumcale<00:15:24.399> quake,<00:15:25.199> on<00:15:25.440> Mars<00:15:25.760> it's<00:15:26.160> pretty 14:17.624 --> 14:17.634 align:start position:0% mediumcale quake, on Mars it's pretty 14:17.634 --> 14:19.385 align:start position:0% mediumcale quake, on Mars it's pretty much<00:15:26.639> as<00:15:26.800> big<00:15:27.040> as<00:15:27.199> scientists<00:15:27.600> predict<00:15:27.920> they 14:19.385 --> 14:19.395 align:start position:0% much as big as scientists predict they 14:19.395 --> 14:22.985 align:start position:0% much as big as scientists predict they can<00:15:28.320> get<00:15:29.040> and<00:15:29.440> we<00:15:29.760> detected<00:15:30.240> one.<00:15:31.199> Insight 14:22.985 --> 14:22.995 align:start position:0% can get and we detected one. Insight 14:22.995 --> 14:24.905 align:start position:0% can get and we detected one. Insight also<00:15:32.079> carried<00:15:32.399> out<00:15:32.560> a<00:15:32.880> radio<00:15:33.360> science 14:24.905 --> 14:24.915 align:start position:0% also carried out a radio science 14:24.915 --> 14:26.665 align:start position:0% also carried out a radio science experiment<00:15:34.160> called<00:15:34.399> the<00:15:34.639> rotation<00:15:35.199> and 14:26.665 --> 14:26.675 align:start position:0% experiment called the rotation and 14:26.675 --> 14:29.785 align:start position:0% experiment called the rotation and interior<00:15:36.079> structure<00:15:36.560> experiment<00:15:37.120> or<00:15:37.519> rise. 14:29.785 --> 14:29.795 align:start position:0% interior structure experiment or rise. 14:29.795 --> 14:32.424 align:start position:0% interior structure experiment or rise. It<00:15:38.880> used<00:15:39.199> precise<00:15:39.680> radio<00:15:40.160> signal<00:15:40.560> tracking<00:15:40.959> to 14:32.424 --> 14:32.434 align:start position:0% It used precise radio signal tracking to 14:32.434 --> 14:34.504 align:start position:0% It used precise radio signal tracking to measure<00:15:41.600> Mars's<00:15:42.160> slight<00:15:42.480> wobble<00:15:42.880> as<00:15:43.120> it 14:34.504 --> 14:34.514 align:start position:0% measure Mars's slight wobble as it 14:34.514 --> 14:37.145 align:start position:0% measure Mars's slight wobble as it rotated<00:15:44.160> called<00:15:44.399> its<00:15:44.720> procession.<00:15:45.680> The 14:37.145 --> 14:37.155 align:start position:0% rotated called its procession. The 14:37.155 --> 14:38.905 align:start position:0% rotated called its procession. The wobble<00:15:46.320> is<00:15:46.560> primarily<00:15:47.120> due<00:15:47.279> to<00:15:47.440> the 14:38.905 --> 14:38.915 align:start position:0% wobble is primarily due to the 14:38.915 --> 14:40.825 align:start position:0% wobble is primarily due to the gravitational<00:15:48.240> pole<00:15:48.480> of<00:15:48.639> the<00:15:48.800> sun<00:15:49.040> and<00:15:49.360> other 14:40.825 --> 14:40.835 align:start position:0% gravitational pole of the sun and other 14:40.835 --> 14:43.385 align:start position:0% gravitational pole of the sun and other planets,<00:15:50.240> particularly<00:15:50.959> Jupiter,<00:15:51.680> but<00:15:52.000> is 14:43.385 --> 14:43.395 align:start position:0% planets, particularly Jupiter, but is 14:43.395 --> 14:45.064 align:start position:0% planets, particularly Jupiter, but is also<00:15:52.399> sensitive<00:15:52.800> to<00:15:53.040> the<00:15:53.199> distribution<00:15:53.680> of 14:45.064 --> 14:45.074 align:start position:0% also sensitive to the distribution of 14:45.074 --> 14:47.225 align:start position:0% also sensitive to the distribution of mass<00:15:54.240> inside<00:15:54.639> a<00:15:54.959> planet,<00:15:55.519> which<00:15:55.759> could 14:47.225 --> 14:47.235 align:start position:0% mass inside a planet, which could 14:47.235 --> 14:49.225 align:start position:0% mass inside a planet, which could provide<00:15:56.480> further<00:15:56.959> constraints<00:15:57.519> about<00:15:57.839> the 14:49.225 --> 14:49.235 align:start position:0% provide further constraints about the 14:49.235 --> 14:51.465 align:start position:0% provide further constraints about the interior<00:15:58.560> structure,<00:15:59.279> specifically<00:15:59.920> the 14:51.465 --> 14:51.475 align:start position:0% interior structure, specifically the 14:51.475 --> 14:53.945 align:start position:0% interior structure, specifically the core.<00:16:01.360> Together,<00:16:01.759> these<00:16:02.000> instruments<00:16:02.480> gave 14:53.945 --> 14:53.955 align:start position:0% core. Together, these instruments gave 14:53.955 --> 14:55.945 align:start position:0% core. Together, these instruments gave scientists<00:16:03.199> an<00:16:03.440> unprecedented<00:16:04.240> look<00:16:04.480> into 14:55.945 --> 14:55.955 align:start position:0% scientists an unprecedented look into 14:55.955 --> 14:58.025 align:start position:0% scientists an unprecedented look into the<00:16:04.959> Martian<00:16:05.360> interior.<00:16:06.160> And<00:16:06.399> although<00:16:06.639> the 14:58.025 --> 14:58.035 align:start position:0% the Martian interior. And although the 14:58.035 --> 15:01.064 align:start position:0% the Martian interior. And although the lander's<00:16:07.279> job<00:16:07.519> concluded<00:16:08.000> in<00:16:08.320> 2022,<00:16:09.519> we 15:01.064 --> 15:01.074 align:start position:0% lander's job concluded in 2022, we 15:01.074 --> 15:03.385 align:start position:0% lander's job concluded in 2022, we continue<00:16:10.399> to<00:16:10.639> learn<00:16:10.880> from<00:16:11.120> all<00:16:11.360> the<00:16:11.600> data<00:16:11.839> it 15:03.385 --> 15:03.395 align:start position:0% continue to learn from all the data it 15:03.395 --> 15:06.184 align:start position:0% continue to learn from all the data it collected.<00:16:13.440> Before<00:16:13.759> Insight,<00:16:14.240> we<00:16:14.399> knew<00:16:14.639> very 15:06.184 --> 15:06.194 align:start position:0% collected. Before Insight, we knew very 15:06.194 --> 15:07.624 align:start position:0% collected. Before Insight, we knew very little<00:16:15.120> about<00:16:15.360> the<00:16:15.519> interior<00:16:16.000> structure<00:16:16.240> of 15:07.624 --> 15:07.634 align:start position:0% little about the interior structure of 15:07.634 --> 15:10.265 align:start position:0% little about the interior structure of Mars.<00:16:17.279> Estimates<00:16:17.839> about<00:16:18.160> how<00:16:18.560> thick<00:16:18.800> the 15:10.265 --> 15:10.275 align:start position:0% Mars. Estimates about how thick the 15:10.275 --> 15:12.424 align:start position:0% Mars. Estimates about how thick the crust<00:16:19.279> was<00:16:19.440> on<00:16:19.680> Mars<00:16:20.000> ranged<00:16:20.320> from<00:16:20.560> anywhere 15:12.424 --> 15:12.434 align:start position:0% crust was on Mars ranged from anywhere 15:12.434 --> 15:15.945 align:start position:0% crust was on Mars ranged from anywhere from<00:16:21.519> about<00:16:21.920> 20<00:16:22.240> km,<00:16:23.279> similar<00:16:23.680> to<00:16:24.000> our<00:16:24.320> own 15:15.945 --> 15:15.955 align:start position:0% from about 20 km, similar to our own 15:15.955 --> 15:18.665 align:start position:0% from about 20 km, similar to our own Earth<00:16:25.120> crust<00:16:25.519> thickness,<00:16:26.399> all<00:16:26.560> the<00:16:26.720> way<00:16:26.959> to 15:18.665 --> 15:18.675 align:start position:0% Earth crust thickness, all the way to 15:18.675 --> 15:21.624 align:start position:0% Earth crust thickness, all the way to 100<00:16:27.839> km,<00:16:28.639> depending<00:16:29.040> on<00:16:29.199> the<00:16:29.360> method<00:16:29.680> used<00:16:30.000> and 15:21.624 --> 15:21.634 align:start position:0% 100 km, depending on the method used and 15:21.634 --> 15:24.184 align:start position:0% 100 km, depending on the method used and assumptions<00:16:30.959> made.<00:16:31.920> Seismic<00:16:32.480> data<00:16:32.720> from 15:24.184 --> 15:24.194 align:start position:0% assumptions made. Seismic data from 15:24.194 --> 15:26.424 align:start position:0% assumptions made. Seismic data from Insight<00:16:33.600> helped<00:16:33.920> dramatically<00:16:34.639> narrow<00:16:35.040> down 15:26.424 --> 15:26.434 align:start position:0% Insight helped dramatically narrow down 15:26.434 --> 15:29.465 align:start position:0% Insight helped dramatically narrow down this<00:16:35.440> estimate,<00:16:36.160> which<00:16:36.399> is<00:16:36.560> now<00:16:37.040> between<00:16:37.519> 24 15:29.465 --> 15:29.475 align:start position:0% this estimate, which is now between 24 15:29.475 --> 15:33.145 align:start position:0% this estimate, which is now between 24 to<00:16:38.639> 72<00:16:39.279> km<00:16:39.839> thick<00:16:40.160> on<00:16:40.399> average.<00:16:41.279> And<00:16:41.519> below<00:16:41.759> the 15:33.145 --> 15:33.155 align:start position:0% to 72 km thick on average. And below the 15:33.155 --> 15:35.705 align:start position:0% to 72 km thick on average. And below the Martian<00:16:42.399> crust,<00:16:42.959> made<00:16:43.279> up<00:16:43.440> of<00:16:43.759> iron, 15:35.705 --> 15:35.715 align:start position:0% Martian crust, made up of iron, 15:35.715 --> 15:38.504 align:start position:0% Martian crust, made up of iron, magnesium,<00:16:45.519> aluminium,<00:16:46.480> calcium,<00:16:47.040> and 15:38.504 --> 15:38.514 align:start position:0% magnesium, aluminium, calcium, and 15:38.514 --> 15:41.465 align:start position:0% magnesium, aluminium, calcium, and potassium<00:16:48.320> is<00:16:48.560> a<00:16:48.720> rocky<00:16:49.120> mantle<00:16:49.519> that<00:16:49.839> extends 15:41.465 --> 15:41.475 align:start position:0% potassium is a rocky mantle that extends 15:41.475 --> 15:44.025 align:start position:0% potassium is a rocky mantle that extends to<00:16:50.399> a<00:16:50.560> depth<00:16:50.880> of<00:16:51.279> 1,560 15:44.025 --> 15:44.035 align:start position:0% to a depth of 1,560 15:44.035 --> 15:46.585 align:start position:0% to a depth of 1,560 km.<00:16:53.759> And<00:16:54.000> then<00:16:54.160> finally,<00:16:54.639> we<00:16:54.880> get<00:16:54.959> to<00:16:55.120> the 15:46.585 --> 15:46.595 align:start position:0% km. And then finally, we get to the 15:46.595 --> 15:49.385 align:start position:0% km. And then finally, we get to the dense<00:16:55.759> Martian<00:16:56.240> core<00:16:56.639> made<00:16:56.880> of<00:16:57.120> iron,<00:16:57.759> nickel, 15:49.385 --> 15:49.395 align:start position:0% dense Martian core made of iron, nickel, 15:49.395 --> 15:53.465 align:start position:0% dense Martian core made of iron, nickel, and<00:16:58.480> sulfur<00:16:59.279> stretching<00:16:59.920> about<00:17:00.399> 1,830 15:53.465 --> 15:53.475 align:start position:0% and sulfur stretching about 1,830 15:53.475 --> 15:56.745 align:start position:0% and sulfur stretching about 1,830 km<00:17:02.720> in<00:17:02.959> radius.<00:17:04.400> Plenty<00:17:04.799> of<00:17:05.039> interesting 15:56.745 --> 15:56.755 align:start position:0% km in radius. Plenty of interesting 15:56.755 --> 15:59.225 align:start position:0% km in radius. Plenty of interesting findings<00:17:05.919> have<00:17:06.160> come<00:17:06.400> from<00:17:06.720> the<00:17:06.880> inside<00:17:07.280> data. 15:59.225 --> 15:59.235 align:start position:0% findings have come from the inside data. 15:59.235 --> 16:01.705 align:start position:0% findings have come from the inside data. One<00:17:08.160> of<00:17:08.319> which<00:17:08.640> is<00:17:08.880> that<00:17:09.120> Mars<00:17:09.679> seems<00:17:10.000> to<00:17:10.160> have 16:01.705 --> 16:01.715 align:start position:0% One of which is that Mars seems to have 16:01.715 --> 16:05.144 align:start position:0% One of which is that Mars seems to have a<00:17:10.799> crust<00:17:11.520> dichotomy,<00:17:12.480> a<00:17:12.799> dramatic<00:17:13.520> difference 16:05.144 --> 16:05.154 align:start position:0% a crust dichotomy, a dramatic difference 16:05.154 --> 16:06.825 align:start position:0% a crust dichotomy, a dramatic difference between<00:17:14.240> the<00:17:14.400> crustal<00:17:14.880> thickness<00:17:15.280> in<00:17:15.439> the 16:06.825 --> 16:06.835 align:start position:0% between the crustal thickness in the 16:06.835 --> 16:08.904 align:start position:0% between the crustal thickness in the northern<00:17:15.919> and<00:17:16.160> southern<00:17:16.480> hemispheres.<00:17:17.360> The 16:08.904 --> 16:08.914 align:start position:0% northern and southern hemispheres. The 16:08.914 --> 16:11.865 align:start position:0% northern and southern hemispheres. The north<00:17:18.000> has<00:17:18.559> low-lying<00:17:19.280> plains<00:17:19.679> with<00:17:20.160> thin 16:11.865 --> 16:11.875 align:start position:0% north has low-lying plains with thin 16:11.875 --> 16:14.264 align:start position:0% north has low-lying plains with thin crust,<00:17:21.199> while<00:17:21.439> the<00:17:21.679> south<00:17:22.160> has<00:17:22.559> heavily 16:14.264 --> 16:14.274 align:start position:0% crust, while the south has heavily 16:14.274 --> 16:16.985 align:start position:0% crust, while the south has heavily created<00:17:23.520> highlands<00:17:24.000> with<00:17:24.319> thick<00:17:24.720> crust.<00:17:25.600> But 16:16.985 --> 16:16.995 align:start position:0% created highlands with thick crust. But 16:16.995 --> 16:18.985 align:start position:0% created highlands with thick crust. But the<00:17:26.000> origin<00:17:26.319> of<00:17:26.480> this<00:17:26.720> difference<00:17:27.120> is<00:17:27.439> still 16:18.985 --> 16:18.995 align:start position:0% the origin of this difference is still 16:18.995 --> 16:20.745 align:start position:0% the origin of this difference is still being<00:17:28.000> investigated. 16:20.745 --> 16:20.755 align:start position:0% being investigated. 16:20.755 --> 16:23.385 align:start position:0% being investigated. Perhaps<00:17:29.919> the<00:17:30.160> most<00:17:30.400> unexpected<00:17:31.120> and<00:17:31.520> unusual 16:23.385 --> 16:23.395 align:start position:0% Perhaps the most unexpected and unusual 16:23.395 --> 16:25.545 align:start position:0% Perhaps the most unexpected and unusual find<00:17:32.400> to<00:17:32.640> emerge<00:17:32.880> from<00:17:33.039> the<00:17:33.120> inside<00:17:33.520> data<00:17:34.000> is 16:25.545 --> 16:25.555 align:start position:0% find to emerge from the inside data is 16:25.555 --> 16:28.585 align:start position:0% find to emerge from the inside data is that<00:17:34.480> the<00:17:34.720> interior<00:17:35.280> of<00:17:35.600> Mars<00:17:36.000> is<00:17:36.240> lumpy.<00:17:37.200> And 16:28.585 --> 16:28.595 align:start position:0% that the interior of Mars is lumpy. And 16:28.595 --> 16:31.865 align:start position:0% that the interior of Mars is lumpy. And no,<00:17:37.919> before<00:17:38.160> you<00:17:38.400> wonder,<00:17:39.039> I'm<00:17:39.440> not<00:17:39.679> joking. 16:31.865 --> 16:31.875 align:start position:0% no, before you wonder, I'm not joking. 16:31.875 --> 16:34.345 align:start position:0% no, before you wonder, I'm not joking. In<00:17:40.880> 2025,<00:17:41.760> a<00:17:42.000> team<00:17:42.160> of<00:17:42.320> scientists<00:17:42.799> published 16:34.345 --> 16:34.355 align:start position:0% In 2025, a team of scientists published 16:34.355 --> 16:36.585 align:start position:0% In 2025, a team of scientists published their<00:17:43.360> results<00:17:43.679> in<00:17:43.919> the<00:17:44.080> journal<00:17:44.480> Science, 16:36.585 --> 16:36.595 align:start position:0% their results in the journal Science, 16:36.595 --> 16:38.745 align:start position:0% their results in the journal Science, fundamentally<00:17:46.160> changing<00:17:46.559> our<00:17:46.960> view<00:17:47.200> of<00:17:47.360> the 16:38.745 --> 16:38.755 align:start position:0% fundamentally changing our view of the 16:38.755 --> 16:41.385 align:start position:0% fundamentally changing our view of the Martian<00:17:48.000> mantle.<00:17:48.880> Using<00:17:49.200> seismic<00:17:49.679> data<00:17:49.919> from 16:41.385 --> 16:41.395 align:start position:0% Martian mantle. Using seismic data from 16:41.395 --> 16:43.545 align:start position:0% Martian mantle. Using seismic data from Insight,<00:17:50.640> they<00:17:50.880> found<00:17:51.039> that<00:17:51.200> Mars'<00:17:51.679> mantle<00:17:52.080> is 16:43.545 --> 16:43.555 align:start position:0% Insight, they found that Mars' mantle is 16:43.555 --> 16:46.585 align:start position:0% Insight, they found that Mars' mantle is far<00:17:52.640> from<00:17:52.880> uniform.<00:17:53.840> In<00:17:54.080> fact,<00:17:54.640> they<00:17:54.880> found<00:17:55.200> it 16:46.585 --> 16:46.595 align:start position:0% far from uniform. In fact, they found it 16:46.595 --> 16:49.705 align:start position:0% far from uniform. In fact, they found it wasn't<00:17:55.679> smooth<00:17:56.160> at<00:17:56.559> all.<00:17:57.600> At<00:17:57.840> first,<00:17:58.080> the<00:17:58.320> team 16:49.705 --> 16:49.715 align:start position:0% wasn't smooth at all. At first, the team 16:49.715 --> 16:51.705 align:start position:0% wasn't smooth at all. At first, the team wasn't<00:17:58.799> sure<00:17:59.039> what<00:17:59.280> they<00:17:59.440> were<00:17:59.600> seeing<00:18:00.000> until 16:51.705 --> 16:51.715 align:start position:0% wasn't sure what they were seeing until 16:51.715 --> 16:53.625 align:start position:0% wasn't sure what they were seeing until they<00:18:00.720> realized<00:18:01.120> that<00:18:01.360> the<00:18:01.600> seismic<00:18:02.080> waves 16:53.625 --> 16:53.635 align:start position:0% they realized that the seismic waves 16:53.635 --> 16:56.024 align:start position:0% they realized that the seismic waves were<00:18:02.559> slowing<00:18:02.960> down<00:18:03.280> at<00:18:03.520> specific<00:18:04.160> regions 16:56.024 --> 16:56.034 align:start position:0% were slowing down at specific regions 16:56.034 --> 16:58.024 align:start position:0% were slowing down at specific regions scattered<00:18:05.200> throughout<00:18:05.520> the<00:18:05.679> mantle.<00:18:06.559> They 16:58.024 --> 16:58.034 align:start position:0% scattered throughout the mantle. They 16:58.034 --> 16:59.865 align:start position:0% scattered throughout the mantle. They found<00:18:07.120> significant<00:18:07.679> regions<00:18:08.160> where<00:18:08.400> the 16:59.865 --> 16:59.875 align:start position:0% found significant regions where the 16:59.875 --> 17:02.345 align:start position:0% found significant regions where the composition,<00:18:09.520> temperature,<00:18:10.080> and<00:18:10.320> structure 17:02.345 --> 17:02.355 align:start position:0% composition, temperature, and structure 17:02.355 --> 17:04.185 align:start position:0% composition, temperature, and structure differed<00:18:11.600> from<00:18:11.840> their<00:18:12.080> surroundings, 17:04.185 --> 17:04.195 align:start position:0% differed from their surroundings, 17:04.195 --> 17:06.185 align:start position:0% differed from their surroundings, painting<00:18:13.360> a<00:18:13.600> picture<00:18:13.840> of<00:18:14.000> a<00:18:14.160> mantle<00:18:14.480> that<00:18:14.720> is 17:06.185 --> 17:06.195 align:start position:0% painting a picture of a mantle that is 17:06.195 --> 17:09.465 align:start position:0% painting a picture of a mantle that is patchy,<00:18:15.840> irregular,<00:18:16.880> and<00:18:17.120> more<00:18:17.440> complex<00:18:17.919> than 17:09.465 --> 17:09.475 align:start position:0% patchy, irregular, and more complex than 17:09.475 --> 17:11.545 align:start position:0% patchy, irregular, and more complex than many<00:18:18.559> models<00:18:18.960> had<00:18:19.120> predicted.<00:18:20.000> These 17:11.545 --> 17:11.555 align:start position:0% many models had predicted. These 17:11.555 --> 17:14.185 align:start position:0% many models had predicted. These irregular<00:18:20.880> lumps<00:18:21.280> or<00:18:21.600> chunks<00:18:22.400> are<00:18:22.640> what 17:14.185 --> 17:14.195 align:start position:0% irregular lumps or chunks are what 17:14.195 --> 17:16.585 align:start position:0% irregular lumps or chunks are what appear<00:18:23.280> to<00:18:23.440> be<00:18:23.520> the<00:18:23.760> leftover<00:18:24.320> fragments<00:18:24.799> from 17:16.585 --> 17:16.595 align:start position:0% appear to be the leftover fragments from 17:16.595 --> 17:18.665 align:start position:0% appear to be the leftover fragments from catastrophic<00:18:26.240> ancient<00:18:26.720> impacts<00:18:27.120> that 17:18.665 --> 17:18.675 align:start position:0% catastrophic ancient impacts that 17:18.675 --> 17:21.225 align:start position:0% catastrophic ancient impacts that happened<00:18:27.760> as<00:18:28.080> Mars<00:18:28.480> was<00:18:28.720> just<00:18:29.039> forming<00:18:29.679> over 17:21.225 --> 17:21.235 align:start position:0% happened as Mars was just forming over 17:21.235 --> 17:24.105 align:start position:0% happened as Mars was just forming over 4.5<00:18:30.799> billion<00:18:31.120> years<00:18:31.360> ago.<00:18:32.160> These<00:18:32.480> could<00:18:32.720> have 17:24.105 --> 17:24.115 align:start position:0% 4.5 billion years ago. These could have 17:24.115 --> 17:27.625 align:start position:0% 4.5 billion years ago. These could have been<00:18:33.280> giant<00:18:33.760> asteroids,<00:18:34.880> large<00:18:35.360> protolanets, 17:27.625 --> 17:27.635 align:start position:0% been giant asteroids, large protolanets, 17:27.635 --> 17:30.264 align:start position:0% been giant asteroids, large protolanets, or<00:18:36.640> some<00:18:36.880> other<00:18:37.120> type<00:18:37.360> of<00:18:37.600> rocky<00:18:38.000> debris.<00:18:38.880> The 17:30.264 --> 17:30.274 align:start position:0% or some other type of rocky debris. The 17:30.274 --> 17:32.904 align:start position:0% or some other type of rocky debris. The early<00:18:39.360> solar<00:18:39.679> system<00:18:40.000> was<00:18:40.400> full<00:18:40.640> of<00:18:40.720> it. 17:32.904 --> 17:32.914 align:start position:0% early solar system was full of it. 17:32.914 --> 17:34.665 align:start position:0% early solar system was full of it. There's<00:18:42.000> no<00:18:42.240> way<00:18:42.400> to<00:18:42.640> know<00:18:42.799> which<00:18:43.039> of<00:18:43.200> these 17:34.665 --> 17:34.675 align:start position:0% There's no way to know which of these 17:34.675 --> 17:36.665 align:start position:0% There's no way to know which of these sources<00:18:43.840> they<00:18:44.080> came<00:18:44.240> from,<00:18:44.880> but<00:18:45.120> their 17:36.665 --> 17:36.675 align:start position:0% sources they came from, but their 17:36.675 --> 17:39.545 align:start position:0% sources they came from, but their remains<00:18:46.240> definitely<00:18:46.880> still<00:18:47.120> exist,<00:18:47.919> trapped 17:39.545 --> 17:39.555 align:start position:0% remains definitely still exist, trapped 17:39.555 --> 17:42.264 align:start position:0% remains definitely still exist, trapped in<00:18:48.640> the<00:18:48.799> Martian<00:18:49.280> mantle,<00:18:49.919> some<00:18:50.160> as<00:18:50.400> large<00:18:50.640> as 17:42.264 --> 17:42.274 align:start position:0% in the Martian mantle, some as large as 17:42.274 --> 17:45.945 align:start position:0% in the Martian mantle, some as large as 4<00:18:51.360> km<00:18:51.919> across.<00:18:53.120> The<00:18:53.280> paper's<00:18:53.760> lead<00:18:54.000> author, 17:45.945 --> 17:45.955 align:start position:0% 4 km across. The paper's lead author, 17:45.955 --> 17:49.065 align:start position:0% 4 km across. The paper's lead author, Constantinos<00:18:56.000> Haralamus<00:18:56.960> of<00:18:57.200> Imperial 17:49.065 --> 17:49.075 align:start position:0% Constantinos Haralamus of Imperial 17:49.075 --> 17:50.985 align:start position:0% Constantinos Haralamus of Imperial College<00:18:58.240> London,<00:18:58.960> said<00:18:59.200> the<00:18:59.360> pattern<00:18:59.600> of 17:50.985 --> 17:50.995 align:start position:0% College London, said the pattern of 17:50.995 --> 17:53.385 align:start position:0% College London, said the pattern of these<00:19:00.000> lumps<00:19:00.400> was<00:19:00.799> kind<00:19:01.039> of<00:19:01.200> like<00:19:01.600> shattered 17:53.385 --> 17:53.395 align:start position:0% these lumps was kind of like shattered 17:53.395 --> 17:56.585 align:start position:0% these lumps was kind of like shattered glass<00:19:02.960> with<00:19:03.120> a<00:19:03.360> few<00:19:03.600> large<00:19:04.000> shards<00:19:04.720> and<00:19:05.039> many 17:56.585 --> 17:56.595 align:start position:0% glass with a few large shards and many 17:56.595 --> 17:58.985 align:start position:0% glass with a few large shards and many small<00:19:05.600> ones.<00:19:06.480> These<00:19:06.799> ancient<00:19:07.200> impacts<00:19:07.600> would 17:58.985 --> 17:58.995 align:start position:0% small ones. These ancient impacts would 17:58.995 --> 18:00.745 align:start position:0% small ones. These ancient impacts would have<00:19:07.919> released<00:19:08.240> enough<00:19:08.480> energy<00:19:08.799> to<00:19:09.039> melt 18:00.745 --> 18:00.755 align:start position:0% have released enough energy to melt 18:00.755 --> 18:03.385 align:start position:0% have released enough energy to melt whole<00:19:10.000> continentsized<00:19:10.880> swaths<00:19:11.440> of<00:19:11.679> the<00:19:11.840> early 18:03.385 --> 18:03.395 align:start position:0% whole continentsized swaths of the early 18:03.395 --> 18:06.024 align:start position:0% whole continentsized swaths of the early crust<00:19:12.559> and<00:19:12.640> mantle<00:19:13.039> into<00:19:13.440> oceans<00:19:13.840> of<00:19:14.000> magma. 18:06.024 --> 18:06.034 align:start position:0% crust and mantle into oceans of magma. 18:06.034 --> 18:08.185 align:start position:0% crust and mantle into oceans of magma. Those<00:19:15.280> impact<00:19:15.679> fragments<00:19:16.080> and<00:19:16.480> Martian 18:08.185 --> 18:08.195 align:start position:0% Those impact fragments and Martian 18:08.195 --> 18:10.505 align:start position:0% Those impact fragments and Martian debris<00:19:17.360> got<00:19:17.520> injected<00:19:18.000> deep<00:19:18.320> into<00:19:18.559> those<00:19:18.880> vast 18:10.505 --> 18:10.515 align:start position:0% debris got injected deep into those vast 18:10.515 --> 18:12.825 align:start position:0% debris got injected deep into those vast magma<00:19:19.679> oceans<00:19:20.320> which<00:19:20.640> later<00:19:20.960> cooled, 18:12.825 --> 18:12.835 align:start position:0% magma oceans which later cooled, 18:12.835 --> 18:15.144 align:start position:0% magma oceans which later cooled, trapping<00:19:22.000> the<00:19:22.160> ancient<00:19:22.480> debris<00:19:23.200> deep<00:19:23.520> in<00:19:23.760> the 18:15.144 --> 18:15.154 align:start position:0% trapping the ancient debris deep in the 18:15.154 --> 18:17.865 align:start position:0% trapping the ancient debris deep in the planet's<00:19:24.320> interior.<00:19:25.520> It<00:19:25.760> may<00:19:26.000> also<00:19:26.400> have 18:17.865 --> 18:17.875 align:start position:0% planet's interior. It may also have 18:17.875 --> 18:20.345 align:start position:0% planet's interior. It may also have implications<00:19:27.280> for<00:19:27.520> the<00:19:27.760> volcanism<00:19:28.400> on<00:19:28.559> Mars 18:20.345 --> 18:20.355 align:start position:0% implications for the volcanism on Mars 18:20.355 --> 18:21.945 align:start position:0% implications for the volcanism on Mars which<00:19:29.440> created<00:19:29.840> some<00:19:30.000> of<00:19:30.080> the<00:19:30.320> biggest 18:21.945 --> 18:21.955 align:start position:0% which created some of the biggest 18:21.955 --> 18:24.024 align:start position:0% which created some of the biggest volcanoes<00:19:31.360> in<00:19:31.600> our<00:19:31.760> solar<00:19:32.160> system<00:19:32.480> like 18:24.024 --> 18:24.034 align:start position:0% volcanoes in our solar system like 18:24.034 --> 18:28.185 align:start position:0% volcanoes in our solar system like Olympus<00:19:33.280> Mons<00:19:34.080> which<00:19:34.400> stands<00:19:34.799> nearly<00:19:35.440> 22<00:19:36.240> km 18:28.185 --> 18:28.195 align:start position:0% Olympus Mons which stands nearly 22 km 18:28.195 --> 18:30.665 align:start position:0% Olympus Mons which stands nearly 22 km above<00:19:37.360> the<00:19:37.679> surrounding<00:19:38.080> Martian<00:19:38.559> plains. 18:30.665 --> 18:30.675 align:start position:0% above the surrounding Martian plains. 18:30.675 --> 18:33.225 align:start position:0% above the surrounding Martian plains. Perhaps<00:19:39.919> an<00:19:40.240> uneven<00:19:40.880> distribution<00:19:41.360> of<00:19:41.679> heat 18:33.225 --> 18:33.235 align:start position:0% Perhaps an uneven distribution of heat 18:33.235 --> 18:35.225 align:start position:0% Perhaps an uneven distribution of heat producing<00:19:42.480> elements<00:19:43.120> helped<00:19:43.520> drive 18:35.225 --> 18:35.235 align:start position:0% producing elements helped drive 18:35.235 --> 18:37.865 align:start position:0% producing elements helped drive volcanism<00:19:44.720> in<00:19:44.960> certain<00:19:45.360> regions.<00:19:46.480> And 18:37.865 --> 18:37.875 align:start position:0% volcanism in certain regions. And 18:37.875 --> 18:39.625 align:start position:0% volcanism in certain regions. And because<00:19:46.960> Mars<00:19:47.360> doesn't<00:19:47.679> have<00:19:48.000> active 18:39.625 --> 18:39.635 align:start position:0% because Mars doesn't have active 18:39.635 --> 18:42.425 align:start position:0% because Mars doesn't have active tectonic<00:19:49.039> activity,<00:19:50.000> its<00:19:50.240> interior<00:19:50.720> has<00:19:51.039> been 18:42.425 --> 18:42.435 align:start position:0% tectonic activity, its interior has been 18:42.435 --> 18:44.425 align:start position:0% tectonic activity, its interior has been able<00:19:51.360> to<00:19:51.520> hold<00:19:51.760> onto<00:19:52.080> those<00:19:52.320> chunks<00:19:52.720> like<00:19:52.880> a 18:44.425 --> 18:44.435 align:start position:0% able to hold onto those chunks like a 18:44.435 --> 18:47.305 align:start position:0% able to hold onto those chunks like a planetary<00:19:53.679> time<00:19:54.000> capsule<00:19:54.880> waiting<00:19:55.360> 4.5 18:47.305 --> 18:47.315 align:start position:0% planetary time capsule waiting 4.5 18:47.315 --> 18:49.865 align:start position:0% planetary time capsule waiting 4.5 billion<00:19:56.480> years<00:19:56.720> for<00:19:56.960> insight<00:19:57.360> to<00:19:57.520> find<00:19:57.760> them. 18:49.865 --> 18:49.875 align:start position:0% billion years for insight to find them. 18:49.875 --> 18:51.705 align:start position:0% billion years for insight to find them. We<00:19:58.960> actually<00:19:59.360> have<00:19:59.679> another<00:20:00.080> piece<00:20:00.320> of 18:51.705 --> 18:51.715 align:start position:0% We actually have another piece of 18:51.715 --> 18:53.625 align:start position:0% We actually have another piece of evidence<00:20:00.799> that<00:20:01.039> points<00:20:01.360> towards<00:20:01.840> this<00:20:02.080> being 18:53.625 --> 18:53.635 align:start position:0% evidence that points towards this being 18:53.635 --> 18:56.585 align:start position:0% evidence that points towards this being true.<00:20:03.200> Usually<00:20:03.679> volcanoes<00:20:04.240> are<00:20:04.480> very<00:20:04.720> dense, 18:56.585 --> 18:56.595 align:start position:0% true. Usually volcanoes are very dense, 18:56.595 --> 18:58.985 align:start position:0% true. Usually volcanoes are very dense, but<00:20:05.679> gravity<00:20:06.160> studies<00:20:06.559> of<00:20:06.799> the<00:20:07.039> area<00:20:07.360> around 18:58.985 --> 18:58.995 align:start position:0% but gravity studies of the area around 18:58.995 --> 19:01.144 align:start position:0% but gravity studies of the area around Olympus<00:20:08.320> Mons<00:20:08.720> shows<00:20:08.960> that<00:20:09.200> the<00:20:09.360> entire 19:01.144 --> 19:01.154 align:start position:0% Olympus Mons shows that the entire 19:01.154 --> 19:05.065 align:start position:0% Olympus Mons shows that the entire surrounding<00:20:10.480> region<00:20:11.120> known<00:20:11.440> as<00:20:11.919> Thus<00:20:12.640> Rise<00:20:13.440> is 19:05.065 --> 19:05.075 align:start position:0% surrounding region known as Thus Rise is 19:05.075 --> 19:08.024 align:start position:0% surrounding region known as Thus Rise is unusually<00:20:14.720> high<00:20:15.280> and<00:20:15.600> surrounded<00:20:16.000> by<00:20:16.160> an<00:20:16.480> area 19:08.024 --> 19:08.034 align:start position:0% unusually high and surrounded by an area 19:08.034 --> 19:11.385 align:start position:0% unusually high and surrounded by an area of<00:20:17.200> comparatively<00:20:18.160> weak<00:20:18.640> gravity.<00:20:19.760> For<00:20:20.000> a 19:11.385 --> 19:11.395 align:start position:0% of comparatively weak gravity. For a 19:11.395 --> 19:14.024 align:start position:0% of comparatively weak gravity. For a while,<00:20:20.480> this<00:20:20.880> baffled<00:20:21.440> scientists,<00:20:22.320> but<00:20:22.559> in 19:14.024 --> 19:14.034 align:start position:0% while, this baffled scientists, but in 19:14.034 --> 19:16.505 align:start position:0% while, this baffled scientists, but in 2024,<00:20:23.600> a<00:20:23.840> multi-m<00:20:24.160> mission<00:20:24.480> study<00:20:24.720> led<00:20:25.039> by 19:16.505 --> 19:16.515 align:start position:0% 2024, a multi-m mission study led by 19:16.515 --> 19:18.904 align:start position:0% 2024, a multi-m mission study led by Bart<00:20:25.760> Root<00:20:26.240> of<00:20:26.480> Delft<00:20:26.960> University<00:20:27.440> of 19:18.904 --> 19:18.914 align:start position:0% Bart Root of Delft University of 19:18.914 --> 19:21.865 align:start position:0% Bart Root of Delft University of Technology<00:20:28.559> came<00:20:28.799> up<00:20:28.960> with<00:20:29.120> the<00:20:29.440> answer.<00:20:30.320> They 19:21.865 --> 19:21.875 align:start position:0% Technology came up with the answer. They 19:21.875 --> 19:24.745 align:start position:0% Technology came up with the answer. They found<00:20:30.960> a<00:20:31.280> mass<00:20:31.840> 1,750 19:24.745 --> 19:24.755 align:start position:0% found a mass 1,750 19:24.755 --> 19:28.585 align:start position:0% found a mass 1,750 km<00:20:34.000> across<00:20:34.400> and<00:20:34.720> around<00:20:35.039> 1,100<00:20:36.159> km<00:20:36.720> below<00:20:37.120> the 19:28.585 --> 19:28.595 align:start position:0% km across and around 1,100 km below the 19:28.595 --> 19:31.384 align:start position:0% km across and around 1,100 km below the surface.<00:20:38.320> It's<00:20:38.640> incredibly<00:20:39.280> light,<00:20:39.760> which<00:20:40.000> is 19:31.384 --> 19:31.394 align:start position:0% surface. It's incredibly light, which is 19:31.394 --> 19:34.745 align:start position:0% surface. It's incredibly light, which is giving<00:20:40.559> the<00:20:40.880> entire<00:20:41.440> Thesis<00:20:42.080> region<00:20:42.720> a<00:20:43.039> boost 19:34.745 --> 19:34.755 align:start position:0% giving the entire Thesis region a boost 19:34.755 --> 19:38.345 align:start position:0% giving the entire Thesis region a boost upwards.<00:20:44.799> They<00:20:45.120> believe<00:20:45.520> it<00:20:45.760> could<00:20:46.000> be<00:20:46.240> a<00:20:46.640> huge 19:38.345 --> 19:38.355 align:start position:0% upwards. They believe it could be a huge 19:38.355 --> 19:41.465 align:start position:0% upwards. They believe it could be a huge lava<00:20:47.520> plume<00:20:48.080> traveling<00:20:48.640> up<00:20:48.799> to<00:20:49.039> the<00:20:49.200> surface. 19:41.465 --> 19:41.475 align:start position:0% lava plume traveling up to the surface. 19:41.475 --> 19:43.945 align:start position:0% lava plume traveling up to the surface. Perhaps<00:20:50.559> this<00:20:50.799> volcano<00:20:51.600> isn't<00:20:52.000> as<00:20:52.159> dormant<00:20:52.559> as 19:43.945 --> 19:43.955 align:start position:0% Perhaps this volcano isn't as dormant as 19:43.955 --> 19:46.985 align:start position:0% Perhaps this volcano isn't as dormant as we<00:20:52.960> thought.<00:20:54.080> They<00:20:54.559> don't<00:20:54.880> know<00:20:55.120> what<00:20:55.440> caused 19:46.985 --> 19:46.995 align:start position:0% we thought. They don't know what caused 19:46.995 --> 19:49.945 align:start position:0% we thought. They don't know what caused it,<00:20:56.240> but<00:20:56.480> Mars's<00:20:56.960> chunky<00:20:57.520> interior<00:20:58.400> could 19:49.945 --> 19:49.955 align:start position:0% it, but Mars's chunky interior could 19:49.955 --> 19:52.904 align:start position:0% it, but Mars's chunky interior could play<00:20:58.960> a<00:20:59.200> part.<00:21:00.080> But<00:21:00.240> the<00:21:00.480> bigger<00:21:00.720> question<00:21:01.039> is, 19:52.904 --> 19:52.914 align:start position:0% play a part. But the bigger question is, 19:52.914 --> 19:55.465 align:start position:0% play a part. But the bigger question is, what<00:21:01.919> does<00:21:02.080> all<00:21:02.320> this<00:21:02.559> mean<00:21:02.799> for<00:21:03.039> us?<00:21:04.000> These 19:55.465 --> 19:55.475 align:start position:0% what does all this mean for us? These 19:55.475 --> 19:57.465 align:start position:0% what does all this mean for us? These studies<00:21:04.640> show<00:21:04.799> that<00:21:05.039> Mars<00:21:05.440> had<00:21:05.600> a<00:21:05.760> violent 19:57.465 --> 19:57.475 align:start position:0% studies show that Mars had a violent 19:57.475 --> 19:59.545 align:start position:0% studies show that Mars had a violent early<00:21:06.640> history<00:21:07.200> and<00:21:07.440> that<00:21:07.600> its<00:21:07.840> mantle 19:59.545 --> 19:59.555 align:start position:0% early history and that its mantle 19:59.555 --> 20:01.625 align:start position:0% early history and that its mantle evolved<00:21:08.799> sluggishly<00:21:09.520> over<00:21:09.840> billions<00:21:10.240> of 20:01.625 --> 20:01.635 align:start position:0% evolved sluggishly over billions of 20:01.635 --> 20:03.625 align:start position:0% evolved sluggishly over billions of years.<00:21:11.200> It's<00:21:11.520> likely<00:21:11.760> that<00:21:12.080> something 20:03.625 --> 20:03.635 align:start position:0% years. It's likely that something 20:03.635 --> 20:05.784 align:start position:0% years. It's likely that something similar<00:21:12.880> happened<00:21:13.280> early<00:21:13.600> in<00:21:13.840> our<00:21:14.159> planet's 20:05.784 --> 20:05.794 align:start position:0% similar happened early in our planet's 20:05.794 --> 20:08.345 align:start position:0% similar happened early in our planet's history,<00:21:14.960> too.<00:21:15.679> We<00:21:16.000> just<00:21:16.320> can't<00:21:16.640> see<00:21:16.880> the 20:08.345 --> 20:08.355 align:start position:0% history, too. We just can't see the 20:08.355 --> 20:11.384 align:start position:0% history, too. We just can't see the scars<00:21:17.760> with<00:21:18.000> our<00:21:18.320> churning<00:21:18.799> interior.<00:21:20.000> This 20:11.384 --> 20:11.394 align:start position:0% scars with our churning interior. This 20:11.394 --> 20:13.305 align:start position:0% scars with our churning interior. This finding<00:21:20.559> is<00:21:20.799> also<00:21:21.039> forcing<00:21:21.440> scientists<00:21:21.919> to 20:13.305 --> 20:13.315 align:start position:0% finding is also forcing scientists to 20:13.315 --> 20:15.305 align:start position:0% finding is also forcing scientists to rethink<00:21:22.559> their<00:21:22.799> models<00:21:23.200> of<00:21:23.520> planetary 20:15.305 --> 20:15.315 align:start position:0% rethink their models of planetary 20:15.315 --> 20:17.784 align:start position:0% rethink their models of planetary evolution<00:21:24.640> in<00:21:24.880> general.<00:21:25.840> They<00:21:26.080> now<00:21:26.320> think 20:17.784 --> 20:17.794 align:start position:0% evolution in general. They now think 20:17.794 --> 20:19.865 align:start position:0% evolution in general. They now think that<00:21:26.880> other<00:21:27.280> planets<00:21:27.679> without<00:21:28.080> active<00:21:28.400> plate 20:19.865 --> 20:19.875 align:start position:0% that other planets without active plate 20:19.875 --> 20:22.665 align:start position:0% that other planets without active plate tectonics<00:21:29.280> like<00:21:29.520> Mercury<00:21:29.919> and<00:21:30.159> Venus<00:21:31.039> may 20:22.665 --> 20:22.675 align:start position:0% tectonics like Mercury and Venus may 20:22.675 --> 20:25.705 align:start position:0% tectonics like Mercury and Venus may also<00:21:32.000> have<00:21:32.400> lumpy<00:21:32.880> interiors.<00:21:33.919> Only<00:21:34.240> time 20:25.705 --> 20:25.715 align:start position:0% also have lumpy interiors. Only time 20:25.715 --> 20:28.985 align:start position:0% also have lumpy interiors. Only time will<00:21:34.720> tell.<00:21:35.679> Beyond<00:21:36.080> that,<00:21:36.640> this<00:21:36.960> has,<00:21:37.440> as 20:28.985 --> 20:28.995 align:start position:0% will tell. Beyond that, this has, as 20:28.995 --> 20:31.625 align:start position:0% will tell. Beyond that, this has, as ever,<00:21:38.559> raised<00:21:38.960> more<00:21:39.360> questions<00:21:39.840> than<00:21:40.080> it's 20:31.625 --> 20:31.635 align:start position:0% ever, raised more questions than it's 20:31.635 --> 20:34.024 align:start position:0% ever, raised more questions than it's answered.<00:21:41.280> How<00:21:41.520> is<00:21:41.600> it<00:21:41.760> that<00:21:42.000> these<00:21:42.320> clumps 20:34.024 --> 20:34.034 align:start position:0% answered. How is it that these clumps 20:34.034 --> 20:36.585 align:start position:0% answered. How is it that these clumps remain<00:21:43.039> in<00:21:43.200> the<00:21:43.360> mantle?<00:21:44.240> And<00:21:44.400> what<00:21:44.799> impact<00:21:45.200> do 20:36.585 --> 20:36.595 align:start position:0% remain in the mantle? And what impact do 20:36.595 --> 20:39.225 align:start position:0% remain in the mantle? And what impact do they<00:21:45.600> have<00:21:45.840> on<00:21:46.000> the<00:21:46.240> planet's<00:21:46.640> future?<00:21:47.679> Why<00:21:47.840> is 20:39.225 --> 20:39.235 align:start position:0% they have on the planet's future? Why is 20:39.235 --> 20:41.545 align:start position:0% they have on the planet's future? Why is it<00:21:48.159> that<00:21:48.640> Earth's<00:21:49.039> mantle<00:21:49.440> kept<00:21:49.679> churning 20:41.545 --> 20:41.555 align:start position:0% it that Earth's mantle kept churning 20:41.555 --> 20:44.904 align:start position:0% it that Earth's mantle kept churning where<00:21:50.640> others<00:21:51.039> didn't?<00:21:52.320> Is<00:21:52.559> that<00:21:52.960> key<00:21:53.360> to 20:44.904 --> 20:44.914 align:start position:0% where others didn't? Is that key to 20:44.914 --> 20:47.705 align:start position:0% where others didn't? Is that key to making<00:21:54.000> a<00:21:54.240> planet<00:21:54.640> habitable?<00:21:55.840> The<00:21:56.080> Martian 20:47.705 --> 20:47.715 align:start position:0% making a planet habitable? The Martian 20:47.715 --> 20:49.865 align:start position:0% making a planet habitable? The Martian lumpiness<00:21:57.039> is<00:21:57.200> like<00:21:57.360> a<00:21:57.679> fossil<00:21:58.080> record<00:21:58.400> of 20:49.865 --> 20:49.875 align:start position:0% lumpiness is like a fossil record of 20:49.875 --> 20:52.425 align:start position:0% lumpiness is like a fossil record of early<00:21:59.039> planetary<00:21:59.520> formation<00:22:00.000> and<00:22:00.240> processes 20:52.425 --> 20:52.435 align:start position:0% early planetary formation and processes 20:52.435 --> 20:54.904 align:start position:0% early planetary formation and processes and<00:22:01.440> a<00:22:01.679> valuable<00:22:02.000> lesson<00:22:02.480> about<00:22:02.799> a<00:22:03.200> period<00:22:03.440> of 20:54.904 --> 20:54.914 align:start position:0% and a valuable lesson about a period of 20:54.914 --> 20:56.904 align:start position:0% and a valuable lesson about a period of development<00:22:04.080> that<00:22:04.400> other<00:22:04.640> rocky<00:22:05.039> planets<00:22:05.440> may 20:56.904 --> 20:56.914 align:start position:0% development that other rocky planets may 20:56.914 --> 20:59.305 align:start position:0% development that other rocky planets may have<00:22:05.919> also<00:22:06.480> experienced. 20:59.305 --> 20:59.315 align:start position:0% have also experienced. 20:59.315 --> 21:01.465 align:start position:0% have also experienced. Now,<00:22:08.480> we<00:22:08.720> can<00:22:08.880> use<00:22:09.039> this<00:22:09.200> data<00:22:09.520> in<00:22:09.760> history<00:22:10.000> as 21:01.465 --> 21:01.475 align:start position:0% Now, we can use this data in history as 21:01.475 --> 21:03.305 align:start position:0% Now, we can use this data in history as a<00:22:10.400> reference<00:22:10.799> point<00:22:11.039> for<00:22:11.360> understanding 21:03.305 --> 21:03.315 align:start position:0% a reference point for understanding 21:03.315 --> 21:05.784 align:start position:0% a reference point for understanding other<00:22:12.400> planets<00:22:12.799> that<00:22:13.120> we<00:22:13.280> may<00:22:13.760> never<00:22:14.240> be<00:22:14.400> able 21:05.784 --> 21:05.794 align:start position:0% other planets that we may never be able 21:05.794 --> 21:08.105 align:start position:0% other planets that we may never be able to<00:22:14.640> put<00:22:14.880> landers<00:22:15.280> on.<00:22:16.000> If<00:22:16.240> we<00:22:16.400> can<00:22:16.559> better 21:08.105 --> 21:08.115 align:start position:0% to put landers on. If we can better 21:08.115 --> 21:10.024 align:start position:0% to put landers on. If we can better understand<00:22:17.280> what<00:22:17.600> processes<00:22:18.159> created<00:22:18.559> the 21:10.024 --> 21:10.034 align:start position:0% understand what processes created the 21:10.034 --> 21:12.345 align:start position:0% understand what processes created the chunks<00:22:19.120> inside<00:22:19.440> of<00:22:19.600> Mars,<00:22:20.320> then<00:22:20.559> we<00:22:20.720> can<00:22:20.799> build 21:12.345 --> 21:12.355 align:start position:0% chunks inside of Mars, then we can build 21:12.355 --> 21:14.985 align:start position:0% chunks inside of Mars, then we can build models<00:22:21.520> of<00:22:21.760> those<00:22:22.000> processes<00:22:22.960> and<00:22:23.280> hopefully 21:14.985 --> 21:14.995 align:start position:0% models of those processes and hopefully 21:14.995 --> 21:16.585 align:start position:0% models of those processes and hopefully start<00:22:24.000> to<00:22:24.240> answer<00:22:24.480> some<00:22:24.720> of<00:22:24.799> the<00:22:24.960> questions 21:16.585 --> 21:16.595 align:start position:0% start to answer some of the questions 21:16.595 --> 21:19.625 align:start position:0% start to answer some of the questions this<00:22:25.679> discovery<00:22:26.240> has<00:22:26.480> created.<00:22:27.679> Insight<00:22:28.159> has 21:19.625 --> 21:19.635 align:start position:0% this discovery has created. Insight has 21:19.635 --> 21:22.425 align:start position:0% this discovery has created. Insight has given<00:22:28.640> us<00:22:28.960> a<00:22:29.280> remarkable<00:22:30.000> start<00:22:30.640> and<00:22:30.960> more 21:22.425 --> 21:22.435 align:start position:0% given us a remarkable start and more 21:22.435 --> 21:24.904 align:start position:0% given us a remarkable start and more discoveries<00:22:31.840> are<00:22:32.080> yet<00:22:32.320> to<00:22:32.480> come.<00:22:33.280> As<00:22:33.520> for 21:24.904 --> 21:24.914 align:start position:0% discoveries are yet to come. As for 21:24.914 --> 21:27.225 align:start position:0% discoveries are yet to come. As for other<00:22:33.919> planets<00:22:34.400> and<00:22:34.720> habitability<00:22:35.600> beyond 21:27.225 --> 21:27.235 align:start position:0% other planets and habitability beyond 21:27.235 --> 21:30.105 align:start position:0% other planets and habitability beyond Earth,<00:22:36.880> well,<00:22:37.440> first<00:22:37.760> we<00:22:37.919> need<00:22:38.080> to<00:22:38.240> get<00:22:38.400> probes 21:30.105 --> 21:30.115 align:start position:0% Earth, well, first we need to get probes 21:30.115 --> 21:32.505 align:start position:0% Earth, well, first we need to get probes on<00:22:39.120> other<00:22:39.360> planets<00:22:39.760> in<00:22:39.919> the<00:22:40.080> solar<00:22:40.400> system. 21:32.505 --> 21:32.515 align:start position:0% on other planets in the solar system. 21:32.515 --> 21:34.505 align:start position:0% on other planets in the solar system. Beyond<00:22:41.679> that,<00:22:42.240> who<00:22:42.480> knows<00:22:42.799> if<00:22:43.039> there's 21:34.505 --> 21:34.515 align:start position:0% Beyond that, who knows if there's 21:34.515 --> 21:36.665 align:start position:0% Beyond that, who knows if there's another<00:22:43.679> remote<00:22:44.000> sensing<00:22:44.480> method<00:22:44.799> we<00:22:45.200> could 21:36.665 --> 21:36.675 align:start position:0% another remote sensing method we could 21:36.675 --> 21:39.144 align:start position:0% another remote sensing method we could use<00:22:45.679> to<00:22:46.000> test<00:22:46.559> what<00:22:46.880> the<00:22:47.120> interiors<00:22:47.679> of 21:39.144 --> 21:39.154 align:start position:0% use to test what the interiors of 21:39.154 --> 21:42.105 align:start position:0% use to test what the interiors of exoplanets<00:22:48.640> may<00:22:48.799> look<00:22:49.039> like.<00:22:49.760> Maybe<00:22:50.080> one<00:22:50.320> day 21:42.105 --> 21:42.115 align:start position:0% exoplanets may look like. Maybe one day 21:42.115 --> 21:44.105 align:start position:0% exoplanets may look like. Maybe one day it<00:22:51.120> could<00:22:51.360> be<00:22:51.520> a<00:22:51.760> way<00:22:51.840> to<00:22:52.080> work<00:22:52.320> out<00:22:52.559> which 21:44.105 --> 21:44.115 align:start position:0% it could be a way to work out which 21:44.115 --> 21:47.305 align:start position:0% it could be a way to work out which planets<00:22:53.600> are<00:22:53.840> most<00:22:54.080> likely<00:22:54.400> to<00:22:54.640> host<00:22:54.960> life. 21:47.305 --> 21:47.315 align:start position:0% planets are most likely to host life. 21:47.315 --> 21:50.185 align:start position:0% planets are most likely to host life. But<00:22:56.400> not<00:22:56.720> quite<00:22:57.039> yet.<00:22:57.840> For<00:22:58.080> now,<00:22:58.320> I'm<00:22:58.640> content 21:50.185 --> 21:50.195 align:start position:0% But not quite yet. For now, I'm content 21:50.195 --> 21:52.825 align:start position:0% But not quite yet. For now, I'm content with<00:22:59.280> imagining<00:22:59.840> Mars<00:23:00.480> as<00:23:00.799> more<00:23:01.039> like<00:23:01.360> a 21:52.825 --> 21:52.835 align:start position:0% with imagining Mars as more like a 21:52.835 --> 21:55.625 align:start position:0% with imagining Mars as more like a Snickers<00:23:02.240> than<00:23:02.480> its<00:23:02.799> chocolate<00:23:03.120> namesake.<00:23:04.240> In 21:55.625 --> 21:55.635 align:start position:0% Snickers than its chocolate namesake. In 21:55.635 --> 22:02.745 align:start position:0% Snickers than its chocolate namesake. In other<00:23:04.640> words,<00:23:05.360> we've<00:23:05.840> got<00:23:06.159> a<00:23:06.400> long<00:23:06.720> way<00:23:06.960> to<00:23:07.200> go. 21:59.560 --> 21:59.570 align:start position:0% Patreon today and be part of where we're 21:59.570 --> 22:02.530 align:start position:0% Patreon today and be part of where we're headed.