WEBVTT 00:00.240 --> 00:02.790 align:start position:0% Two<00:00:00.560> years<00:00:00.800> ago,<00:00:01.360> something<00:00:01.839> strange<00:00:02.320> started 00:02.790 --> 00:02.800 align:start position:0% Two years ago, something strange started 00:02.800 --> 00:05.590 align:start position:0% Two years ago, something strange started happening<00:00:03.120> to<00:00:03.360> our<00:00:03.600> sun.<00:00:04.799> It<00:00:05.120> started 00:05.590 --> 00:05.600 align:start position:0% happening to our sun. It started 00:05.600 --> 00:09.270 align:start position:0% happening to our sun. It started unleashing<00:00:06.560> gargantuan<00:00:07.520> geomagnetic<00:00:08.480> storms 00:09.270 --> 00:09.280 align:start position:0% unleashing gargantuan geomagnetic storms 00:09.280 --> 00:12.470 align:start position:0% unleashing gargantuan geomagnetic storms no<00:00:09.599> one<00:00:09.840> was<00:00:10.080> prepared<00:00:10.400> for.<00:00:11.679> Auroras<00:00:12.320> were 00:12.470 --> 00:12.480 align:start position:0% no one was prepared for. Auroras were 00:12.480 --> 00:14.950 align:start position:0% no one was prepared for. Auroras were seen<00:00:12.719> as<00:00:13.040> far<00:00:13.280> south<00:00:13.679> as<00:00:14.000> Florida<00:00:14.559> and<00:00:14.799> the 00:14.950 --> 00:14.960 align:start position:0% seen as far south as Florida and the 00:14.960 --> 00:18.070 align:start position:0% seen as far south as Florida and the Bahamas,<00:00:16.000> the<00:00:16.320> most<00:00:16.560> powerful<00:00:17.119> recorded<00:00:17.680> in 00:18.070 --> 00:18.080 align:start position:0% Bahamas, the most powerful recorded in 00:18.080 --> 00:21.510 align:start position:0% Bahamas, the most powerful recorded in 500<00:00:18.640> years.<00:00:19.760> And<00:00:20.080> satellites<00:00:20.960> stopped 00:21.510 --> 00:21.520 align:start position:0% 500 years. And satellites stopped 00:21.520 --> 00:24.310 align:start position:0% 500 years. And satellites stopped working.<00:00:22.960> But<00:00:23.119> this<00:00:23.359> wasn't<00:00:23.600> a<00:00:23.840> glitch<00:00:24.000> in<00:00:24.160> the 00:24.310 --> 00:24.320 align:start position:0% working. But this wasn't a glitch in the 00:24.320 --> 00:27.029 align:start position:0% working. But this wasn't a glitch in the matrix.<00:00:25.119> our<00:00:25.519> sun<00:00:25.760> was<00:00:26.000> entering<00:00:26.400> its<00:00:26.720> most 00:27.029 --> 00:27.039 align:start position:0% matrix. our sun was entering its most 00:27.039 --> 00:30.150 align:start position:0% matrix. our sun was entering its most active<00:00:27.519> and<00:00:27.840> fiery<00:00:28.400> phase,<00:00:29.199> the<00:00:29.519> solar 00:30.150 --> 00:30.160 align:start position:0% active and fiery phase, the solar 00:30.160 --> 00:33.350 align:start position:0% active and fiery phase, the solar maximum.<00:00:31.519> This<00:00:31.920> particular<00:00:32.399> solar<00:00:32.719> maximum, 00:33.350 --> 00:33.360 align:start position:0% maximum. This particular solar maximum, 00:33.360 --> 00:36.229 align:start position:0% maximum. This particular solar maximum, however,<00:00:34.160> was<00:00:34.480> almost<00:00:34.880> twice<00:00:35.280> as<00:00:35.600> strong<00:00:36.000> as 00:36.229 --> 00:36.239 align:start position:0% however, was almost twice as strong as 00:36.239 --> 00:38.150 align:start position:0% however, was almost twice as strong as scientists<00:00:36.719> predicted,<00:00:37.440> and<00:00:37.680> we've<00:00:38.000> been 00:38.150 --> 00:38.160 align:start position:0% scientists predicted, and we've been 00:38.160 --> 00:41.030 align:start position:0% scientists predicted, and we've been scrambling<00:00:38.640> to<00:00:38.879> understand<00:00:39.280> why<00:00:39.760> ever<00:00:40.079> since. 00:41.030 --> 00:41.040 align:start position:0% scrambling to understand why ever since. 00:41.040 --> 00:43.510 align:start position:0% scrambling to understand why ever since. What<00:00:41.360> we<00:00:41.600> found<00:00:42.320> has<00:00:42.559> shaken<00:00:42.960> some<00:00:43.120> of<00:00:43.280> our 00:43.510 --> 00:43.520 align:start position:0% What we found has shaken some of our 00:43.520 --> 00:45.670 align:start position:0% What we found has shaken some of our most<00:00:43.840> fundamental<00:00:44.559> assumptions<00:00:45.200> about<00:00:45.440> the 00:45.670 --> 00:45.680 align:start position:0% most fundamental assumptions about the 00:45.680 --> 00:48.389 align:start position:0% most fundamental assumptions about the sun,<00:00:46.399> where<00:00:46.640> its<00:00:46.960> magnetic<00:00:47.440> engine<00:00:47.760> lives, 00:48.389 --> 00:48.399 align:start position:0% sun, where its magnetic engine lives, 00:48.399 --> 00:50.869 align:start position:0% sun, where its magnetic engine lives, how<00:00:48.719> accurately<00:00:49.200> we've<00:00:49.520> been<00:00:49.760> measuring<00:00:50.160> it, 00:50.869 --> 00:50.879 align:start position:0% how accurately we've been measuring it, 00:50.879 --> 00:52.869 align:start position:0% how accurately we've been measuring it, and<00:00:51.120> what's<00:00:51.600> actually<00:00:52.079> happening<00:00:52.399> at<00:00:52.640> its 00:52.869 --> 00:52.879 align:start position:0% and what's actually happening at its 00:52.879 --> 00:56.869 align:start position:0% and what's actually happening at its poles.<00:00:54.160> So,<00:00:54.800> what's<00:00:55.280> really<00:00:55.680> going<00:00:55.920> on<00:00:56.399> inside 00:56.869 --> 00:56.879 align:start position:0% poles. So, what's really going on inside 00:56.879 --> 00:59.830 align:start position:0% poles. So, what's really going on inside our<00:00:57.280> star?<00:00:58.239> I'm<00:00:58.480> Alex<00:00:58.800> Mccoan<00:00:59.440> and<00:00:59.600> you're 00:59.830 --> 00:59.840 align:start position:0% our star? I'm Alex Mccoan and you're 00:59.840 --> 01:02.229 align:start position:0% our star? I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching<00:01:00.079> Astramm.<00:01:00.960> Join<00:01:01.199> me<00:01:01.440> as<00:01:01.680> we<00:01:01.840> explore 01:02.229 --> 01:02.239 align:start position:0% watching Astramm. Join me as we explore 01:02.239 --> 01:05.590 align:start position:0% watching Astramm. Join me as we explore why<00:01:02.640> solar<00:01:03.039> cycle<00:01:03.600> 25<00:01:04.400> caught<00:01:04.720> us<00:01:04.960> completely 01:05.590 --> 01:05.600 align:start position:0% why solar cycle 25 caught us completely 01:05.600 --> 01:07.990 align:start position:0% why solar cycle 25 caught us completely offguard.<00:01:06.560> How<00:01:06.799> getting<00:01:07.119> closer<00:01:07.439> to<00:01:07.600> the<00:01:07.760> sun 01:07.990 --> 01:08.000 align:start position:0% offguard. How getting closer to the sun 01:08.000 --> 01:11.109 align:start position:0% offguard. How getting closer to the sun than<00:01:08.240> ever<00:01:08.560> before<00:01:09.439> led<00:01:09.760> to<00:01:10.159> modelbreaking 01:11.109 --> 01:11.119 align:start position:0% than ever before led to modelbreaking 01:11.119 --> 01:13.830 align:start position:0% than ever before led to modelbreaking discoveries<00:01:12.080> and<00:01:12.320> why<00:01:12.560> the<00:01:12.799> next<00:01:13.119> big<00:01:13.439> solar 01:13.830 --> 01:13.840 align:start position:0% discoveries and why the next big solar 01:13.840 --> 01:16.710 align:start position:0% discoveries and why the next big solar storm<00:01:14.400> could<00:01:14.720> spell<00:01:15.119> disaster<00:01:15.920> for<00:01:16.159> us<00:01:16.479> here 01:16.710 --> 01:16.720 align:start position:0% storm could spell disaster for us here 01:16.720 --> 01:19.350 align:start position:0% storm could spell disaster for us here on<00:01:17.040> Earth. 01:19.350 --> 01:19.360 align:start position:0% on Earth. 01:19.360 --> 01:21.990 align:start position:0% on Earth. Every<00:01:19.840> 11<00:01:20.240> years,<00:01:20.640> the<00:01:20.880> sun<00:01:21.119> goes<00:01:21.360> through<00:01:21.680> a 01:21.990 --> 01:22.000 align:start position:0% Every 11 years, the sun goes through a 01:22.000 --> 01:25.270 align:start position:0% Every 11 years, the sun goes through a solar<00:01:22.479> cycle.<00:01:23.280> fluctuating<00:01:23.920> between<00:01:24.320> a<00:01:24.640> calm 01:25.270 --> 01:25.280 align:start position:0% solar cycle. fluctuating between a calm 01:25.280 --> 01:27.270 align:start position:0% solar cycle. fluctuating between a calm dormant<00:01:25.759> period<00:01:26.159> known<00:01:26.479> as<00:01:26.640> the<00:01:26.880> solar 01:27.270 --> 01:27.280 align:start position:0% dormant period known as the solar 01:27.280 --> 01:30.789 align:start position:0% dormant period known as the solar minimum<00:01:28.080> and<00:01:28.400> an<00:01:28.640> explosive<00:01:29.600> fiery<00:01:30.159> period, 01:30.789 --> 01:30.799 align:start position:0% minimum and an explosive fiery period, 01:30.799 --> 01:33.990 align:start position:0% minimum and an explosive fiery period, the<00:01:31.040> solar<00:01:31.520> maximum.<00:01:32.799> Usually,<00:01:33.280> we<00:01:33.520> can<00:01:33.680> tell 01:33.990 --> 01:34.000 align:start position:0% the solar maximum. Usually, we can tell 01:34.000 --> 01:36.550 align:start position:0% the solar maximum. Usually, we can tell where<00:01:34.320> in<00:01:34.479> its<00:01:34.720> cycle<00:01:35.040> our<00:01:35.280> sun<00:01:35.520> is<00:01:35.920> based<00:01:36.240> on 01:36.550 --> 01:36.560 align:start position:0% where in its cycle our sun is based on 01:36.560 --> 01:39.270 align:start position:0% where in its cycle our sun is based on how<00:01:36.799> many<00:01:37.119> sunspots<00:01:37.759> appear<00:01:38.079> on<00:01:38.320> its<00:01:38.560> surface 01:39.270 --> 01:39.280 align:start position:0% how many sunspots appear on its surface 01:39.280 --> 01:41.190 align:start position:0% how many sunspots appear on its surface with<00:01:39.520> numbers<00:01:40.000> rising<00:01:40.400> and<00:01:40.720> falling 01:41.190 --> 01:41.200 align:start position:0% with numbers rising and falling 01:41.200 --> 01:43.990 align:start position:0% with numbers rising and falling alongside<00:01:41.920> magnetic<00:01:42.479> activity.<00:01:43.680> More 01:43.990 --> 01:44.000 align:start position:0% alongside magnetic activity. More 01:44.000 --> 01:46.789 align:start position:0% alongside magnetic activity. More magnetic<00:01:44.560> activity<00:01:45.119> means<00:01:45.520> more<00:01:45.840> sunspots, 01:46.789 --> 01:46.799 align:start position:0% magnetic activity means more sunspots, 01:46.799 --> 01:49.030 align:start position:0% magnetic activity means more sunspots, which<00:01:47.119> also<00:01:47.439> then<00:01:47.759> leads<00:01:48.079> to<00:01:48.320> more<00:01:48.640> frequent 01:49.030 --> 01:49.040 align:start position:0% which also then leads to more frequent 01:49.040 --> 01:51.910 align:start position:0% which also then leads to more frequent solar<00:01:49.360> flares<00:01:49.759> and<00:01:50.079> chronal<00:01:50.560> mass<00:01:50.880> ejections. 01:51.910 --> 01:51.920 align:start position:0% solar flares and chronal mass ejections. 01:51.920 --> 01:54.710 align:start position:0% solar flares and chronal mass ejections. In<00:01:52.159> other<00:01:52.320> words,<00:01:52.880> solar<00:01:53.280> storms.<00:01:54.320> But<00:01:54.479> for 01:54.710 --> 01:54.720 align:start position:0% In other words, solar storms. But for 01:54.720 --> 01:56.710 align:start position:0% In other words, solar storms. But for the<00:01:54.880> last<00:01:55.040> few<00:01:55.280> years,<00:01:55.680> our<00:01:55.920> star<00:01:56.240> has<00:01:56.560> been 01:56.710 --> 01:56.720 align:start position:0% the last few years, our star has been 01:56.720 --> 02:00.630 align:start position:0% the last few years, our star has been acting<00:01:57.200> a<00:01:57.520> bit<00:01:57.920> weird.<00:01:59.119> In<00:01:59.439> 2020,<00:02:00.159> the<00:02:00.320> sun 02:00.630 --> 02:00.640 align:start position:0% acting a bit weird. In 2020, the sun 02:00.640 --> 02:03.910 align:start position:0% acting a bit weird. In 2020, the sun entered<00:02:01.040> solar<00:02:01.439> cycle<00:02:02.000> 25,<00:02:03.119> which<00:02:03.439> turned<00:02:03.680> out 02:03.910 --> 02:03.920 align:start position:0% entered solar cycle 25, which turned out 02:03.920 --> 02:06.389 align:start position:0% entered solar cycle 25, which turned out to<00:02:04.079> be<00:02:04.399> significantly<00:02:05.360> more<00:02:05.600> violent<00:02:06.079> and 02:06.389 --> 02:06.399 align:start position:0% to be significantly more violent and 02:06.399 --> 02:09.270 align:start position:0% to be significantly more violent and turbulent<00:02:06.960> than<00:02:07.200> anyone<00:02:07.759> expected.<00:02:08.800> At<00:02:09.039> its 02:09.270 --> 02:09.280 align:start position:0% turbulent than anyone expected. At its 02:09.280 --> 02:13.110 align:start position:0% turbulent than anyone expected. At its peak,<00:02:10.399> 216<00:02:11.680> sunspots<00:02:12.239> were<00:02:12.400> observed<00:02:12.800> in 02:13.110 --> 02:13.120 align:start position:0% peak, 216 sunspots were observed in 02:13.120 --> 02:17.190 align:start position:0% peak, 216 sunspots were observed in August<00:02:13.599> 2024<00:02:14.480> alone,<00:02:15.520> almost<00:02:16.080> double<00:02:16.720> initial 02:17.190 --> 02:17.200 align:start position:0% August 2024 alone, almost double initial 02:17.200 --> 02:20.309 align:start position:0% August 2024 alone, almost double initial predictions<00:02:18.080> and<00:02:18.319> the<00:02:18.560> highest<00:02:19.040> number<00:02:19.360> in<00:02:19.760> 23 02:20.309 --> 02:20.319 align:start position:0% predictions and the highest number in 23 02:20.319 --> 02:21.510 align:start position:0% predictions and the highest number in 23 years. 02:21.510 --> 02:21.520 align:start position:0% years. 02:21.520 --> 02:25.190 align:start position:0% years. The<00:02:21.680> milliondoll<00:02:22.480> question<00:02:22.800> is<00:02:23.760> why?<00:02:25.040> To 02:25.190 --> 02:25.200 align:start position:0% The milliondoll question is why? To 02:25.200 --> 02:27.670 align:start position:0% The milliondoll question is why? To predict<00:02:25.599> how<00:02:25.840> strong<00:02:26.239> a<00:02:26.480> solar<00:02:26.879> cycle<00:02:27.360> could 02:27.670 --> 02:27.680 align:start position:0% predict how strong a solar cycle could 02:27.680 --> 02:30.070 align:start position:0% predict how strong a solar cycle could be,<00:02:28.319> scientists<00:02:28.800> rely<00:02:29.120> on<00:02:29.280> something<00:02:29.680> called 02:30.070 --> 02:30.080 align:start position:0% be, scientists rely on something called 02:30.080 --> 02:33.589 align:start position:0% be, scientists rely on something called the<00:02:30.480> polar<00:02:30.959> field<00:02:31.440> precursor.<00:02:32.720> Here's<00:02:33.120> how<00:02:33.360> it 02:33.589 --> 02:33.599 align:start position:0% the polar field precursor. Here's how it 02:33.599 --> 02:36.630 align:start position:0% the polar field precursor. Here's how it works.<00:02:34.720> As<00:02:35.040> sunspots<00:02:35.680> decay<00:02:36.000> over<00:02:36.239> the<00:02:36.480> course 02:36.630 --> 02:36.640 align:start position:0% works. As sunspots decay over the course 02:36.640 --> 02:39.190 align:start position:0% works. As sunspots decay over the course of<00:02:36.800> each<00:02:37.040> cycle,<00:02:37.680> their<00:02:38.000> residual<00:02:38.640> magnetic 02:39.190 --> 02:39.200 align:start position:0% of each cycle, their residual magnetic 02:39.200 --> 02:42.390 align:start position:0% of each cycle, their residual magnetic flux<00:02:39.760> drifts<00:02:40.319> towards<00:02:40.800> the<00:02:40.959> poles,<00:02:41.840> slowly 02:42.390 --> 02:42.400 align:start position:0% flux drifts towards the poles, slowly 02:42.400 --> 02:44.949 align:start position:0% flux drifts towards the poles, slowly building<00:02:42.720> up<00:02:42.959> a<00:02:43.200> strong,<00:02:43.760> coherent<00:02:44.480> magnetic 02:44.949 --> 02:44.959 align:start position:0% building up a strong, coherent magnetic 02:44.959 --> 02:48.150 align:start position:0% building up a strong, coherent magnetic field<00:02:45.280> there.<00:02:46.239> That<00:02:46.640> polar<00:02:47.040> field<00:02:47.440> at<00:02:47.760> solar 02:48.150 --> 02:48.160 align:start position:0% field there. That polar field at solar 02:48.160 --> 02:50.070 align:start position:0% field there. That polar field at solar minimum<00:02:48.640> is<00:02:48.879> where<00:02:49.120> the<00:02:49.280> next<00:02:49.599> cycle's 02:50.070 --> 02:50.080 align:start position:0% minimum is where the next cycle's 02:50.080 --> 02:52.390 align:start position:0% minimum is where the next cycle's activity<00:02:50.480> comes<00:02:50.720> from.<00:02:51.519> To<00:02:51.760> measure<00:02:52.000> it, 02:52.390 --> 02:52.400 align:start position:0% activity comes from. To measure it, 02:52.400 --> 02:54.229 align:start position:0% activity comes from. To measure it, scientists<00:02:52.959> rely<00:02:53.280> on<00:02:53.440> instruments<00:02:53.920> like 02:54.229 --> 02:54.239 align:start position:0% scientists rely on instruments like 02:54.239 --> 02:57.110 align:start position:0% scientists rely on instruments like NASA's<00:02:54.800> helioismic<00:02:55.760> and<00:02:56.000> magnetic<00:02:56.480> imager, 02:57.110 --> 02:57.120 align:start position:0% NASA's helioismic and magnetic imager, 02:57.120 --> 03:00.150 align:start position:0% NASA's helioismic and magnetic imager, the<00:02:57.440> HMI,<00:02:58.640> an<00:02:58.800> instrument<00:02:59.200> aboard<00:02:59.599> the<00:02:59.760> Solar 03:00.150 --> 03:00.160 align:start position:0% the HMI, an instrument aboard the Solar 03:00.160 --> 03:01.990 align:start position:0% the HMI, an instrument aboard the Solar Dynamics<00:03:00.640> Observatory,<00:03:01.440> which<00:03:01.680> has<00:03:01.840> been 03:01.990 --> 03:02.000 align:start position:0% Dynamics Observatory, which has been 03:02.000 --> 03:04.550 align:start position:0% Dynamics Observatory, which has been observing<00:03:02.400> the<00:03:02.560> sun<00:03:02.800> from<00:03:03.040> Earth's<00:03:03.440> orbit<00:03:04.000> and 03:04.550 --> 03:04.560 align:start position:0% observing the sun from Earth's orbit and 03:04.560 --> 03:06.630 align:start position:0% observing the sun from Earth's orbit and sending<00:03:04.959> back<00:03:05.360> countless<00:03:06.000> spectacular 03:06.630 --> 03:06.640 align:start position:0% sending back countless spectacular 03:06.640 --> 03:09.670 align:start position:0% sending back countless spectacular images<00:03:07.440> since<00:03:08.000> 2010. 03:09.670 --> 03:09.680 align:start position:0% images since 2010. 03:09.680 --> 03:11.670 align:start position:0% images since 2010. So,<00:03:09.920> if<00:03:10.159> you<00:03:10.319> can<00:03:10.400> measure<00:03:10.720> the<00:03:10.959> sun's<00:03:11.280> polar 03:11.670 --> 03:11.680 align:start position:0% So, if you can measure the sun's polar 03:11.680 --> 03:14.149 align:start position:0% So, if you can measure the sun's polar fields<00:03:12.080> accurately,<00:03:12.959> you<00:03:13.200> can<00:03:13.360> predict<00:03:13.760> how 03:14.149 --> 03:14.159 align:start position:0% fields accurately, you can predict how 03:14.159 --> 03:16.070 align:start position:0% fields accurately, you can predict how strong<00:03:14.480> the<00:03:14.720> next<00:03:14.879> solar<00:03:15.280> cycle<00:03:15.599> is<00:03:15.840> going<00:03:16.000> to 03:16.070 --> 03:16.080 align:start position:0% strong the next solar cycle is going to 03:16.080 --> 03:18.949 align:start position:0% strong the next solar cycle is going to be.<00:03:16.800> The<00:03:17.040> method<00:03:17.360> isn't<00:03:17.760> perfect,<00:03:18.560> but<00:03:18.720> it's 03:18.949 --> 03:18.959 align:start position:0% be. The method isn't perfect, but it's 03:18.959 --> 03:21.270 align:start position:0% be. The method isn't perfect, but it's the<00:03:19.120> most<00:03:19.360> reliable<00:03:19.920> forecasting<00:03:20.640> method<00:03:21.040> we 03:21.270 --> 03:21.280 align:start position:0% the most reliable forecasting method we 03:21.280 --> 03:25.190 align:start position:0% the most reliable forecasting method we have.<00:03:22.640> In<00:03:22.879> 2019,<00:03:23.599> an<00:03:23.920> international<00:03:24.560> panel<00:03:24.959> of 03:25.190 --> 03:25.200 align:start position:0% have. In 2019, an international panel of 03:25.200 --> 03:28.229 align:start position:0% have. In 2019, an international panel of experts<00:03:25.680> convened<00:03:26.400> by<00:03:26.640> NASA<00:03:27.200> and<00:03:27.519> Noah 03:28.229 --> 03:28.239 align:start position:0% experts convened by NASA and Noah 03:28.239 --> 03:30.470 align:start position:0% experts convened by NASA and Noah reviewed<00:03:28.879> multiple<00:03:29.440> separate<00:03:29.840> forecasts 03:30.470 --> 03:30.480 align:start position:0% reviewed multiple separate forecasts 03:30.480 --> 03:32.710 align:start position:0% reviewed multiple separate forecasts based<00:03:30.799> on<00:03:30.959> the<00:03:31.200> previous<00:03:31.599> cycle's<00:03:32.080> minimum 03:32.710 --> 03:32.720 align:start position:0% based on the previous cycle's minimum 03:32.720 --> 03:36.390 align:start position:0% based on the previous cycle's minimum and<00:03:32.959> concluded<00:03:33.519> cycle<00:03:34.000> 25<00:03:34.480> would<00:03:34.720> peak<00:03:35.120> at<00:03:35.680> 115 03:36.390 --> 03:36.400 align:start position:0% and concluded cycle 25 would peak at 115 03:36.400 --> 03:40.309 align:start position:0% and concluded cycle 25 would peak at 115 sunspots,<00:03:37.440> a<00:03:37.920> weak,<00:03:38.799> unremarkable, 03:40.309 --> 03:40.319 align:start position:0% sunspots, a weak, unremarkable, 03:40.319 --> 03:43.270 align:start position:0% sunspots, a weak, unremarkable, what<00:03:40.560> you<00:03:40.720> might<00:03:40.959> call<00:03:41.599> below<00:03:42.239> average<00:03:42.799> solar 03:43.270 --> 03:43.280 align:start position:0% what you might call below average solar 03:43.280 --> 03:47.990 align:start position:0% what you might call below average solar maximum.<00:03:44.560> Cycles<00:03:45.200> 22,<00:03:46.080> 23,<00:03:46.640> and<00:03:46.879> 24<00:03:47.440> were<00:03:47.760> each 03:47.990 --> 03:48.000 align:start position:0% maximum. Cycles 22, 23, and 24 were each 03:48.000 --> 03:50.630 align:start position:0% maximum. Cycles 22, 23, and 24 were each weaker<00:03:48.400> than<00:03:48.560> the<00:03:48.720> last,<00:03:49.360> with<00:03:49.599> cycle<00:03:50.080> 24 03:50.630 --> 03:50.640 align:start position:0% weaker than the last, with cycle 24 03:50.640 --> 03:53.670 align:start position:0% weaker than the last, with cycle 24 being<00:03:50.879> the<00:03:51.040> weakest<00:03:51.440> in<00:03:51.680> the<00:03:51.840> last<00:03:52.239> 100<00:03:52.799> years. 03:53.670 --> 03:53.680 align:start position:0% being the weakest in the last 100 years. 03:53.680 --> 03:56.070 align:start position:0% being the weakest in the last 100 years. So,<00:03:53.920> such<00:03:54.239> a<00:03:54.400> prediction<00:03:55.120> didn't<00:03:55.440> seem<00:03:55.680> out<00:03:55.920> of 03:56.070 --> 03:56.080 align:start position:0% So, such a prediction didn't seem out of 03:56.080 --> 03:59.350 align:start position:0% So, such a prediction didn't seem out of place.<00:03:57.200> But<00:03:57.840> all<00:03:58.080> that<00:03:58.400> changed<00:03:58.799> with<00:03:59.040> a 03:59.350 --> 03:59.360 align:start position:0% place. But all that changed with a 03:59.360 --> 04:02.470 align:start position:0% place. But all that changed with a shocking<00:03:59.840> realization<00:04:00.640> in<00:04:00.959> 2025. 04:02.470 --> 04:02.480 align:start position:0% shocking realization in 2025. 04:02.480 --> 04:05.830 align:start position:0% shocking realization in 2025. By<00:04:02.879> building<00:04:03.439> a<00:04:03.760> virtual<00:04:04.239> model<00:04:04.640> of<00:04:04.799> the<00:04:04.959> HMI 04:05.830 --> 04:05.840 align:start position:0% By building a virtual model of the HMI 04:05.840 --> 04:07.830 align:start position:0% By building a virtual model of the HMI and<00:04:06.159> running<00:04:06.560> synthetic<00:04:07.120> magnetic<00:04:07.519> field 04:07.830 --> 04:07.840 align:start position:0% and running synthetic magnetic field 04:07.840 --> 04:10.070 align:start position:0% and running synthetic magnetic field data<00:04:08.159> through<00:04:08.400> it,<00:04:09.120> researchers<00:04:09.680> at<00:04:09.920> the 04:10.070 --> 04:10.080 align:start position:0% data through it, researchers at the 04:10.080 --> 04:12.390 align:start position:0% data through it, researchers at the National<00:04:10.480> Solar<00:04:10.799> Observatory<00:04:11.760> discovered 04:12.390 --> 04:12.400 align:start position:0% National Solar Observatory discovered 04:12.400 --> 04:15.589 align:start position:0% National Solar Observatory discovered the<00:04:12.720> real<00:04:13.200> HMI<00:04:14.159> had<00:04:14.480> only<00:04:14.799> been<00:04:15.040> detecting 04:15.589 --> 04:15.599 align:start position:0% the real HMI had only been detecting 04:15.599 --> 04:17.830 align:start position:0% the real HMI had only been detecting about<00:04:16.000> half<00:04:16.479> of<00:04:16.639> the<00:04:16.880> sun's<00:04:17.199> true<00:04:17.440> magnetic 04:17.830 --> 04:17.840 align:start position:0% about half of the sun's true magnetic 04:17.840 --> 04:20.469 align:start position:0% about half of the sun's true magnetic field<00:04:18.079> strength<00:04:18.400> at<00:04:18.560> the<00:04:18.639> poles.<00:04:19.840> If<00:04:20.079> this<00:04:20.239> is 04:20.469 --> 04:20.479 align:start position:0% field strength at the poles. If this is 04:20.479 --> 04:23.030 align:start position:0% field strength at the poles. If this is true,<00:04:21.280> it's<00:04:21.519> no<00:04:21.840> wonder<00:04:22.160> our<00:04:22.560> predictions 04:23.030 --> 04:23.040 align:start position:0% true, it's no wonder our predictions 04:23.040 --> 04:26.710 align:start position:0% true, it's no wonder our predictions were<00:04:23.280> off<00:04:23.600> by<00:04:23.919> a<00:04:24.240> long<00:04:24.560> shot.<00:04:25.759> But<00:04:26.000> solar<00:04:26.320> cycle 04:26.710 --> 04:26.720 align:start position:0% were off by a long shot. But solar cycle 04:26.720 --> 04:30.150 align:start position:0% were off by a long shot. But solar cycle 25<00:04:27.440> still<00:04:27.840> came<00:04:28.080> in<00:04:28.800> far<00:04:29.280> stronger<00:04:29.759> than<00:04:29.919> it 04:30.150 --> 04:30.160 align:start position:0% 25 still came in far stronger than it 04:30.160 --> 04:32.710 align:start position:0% 25 still came in far stronger than it should<00:04:30.400> have,<00:04:31.120> suggesting<00:04:31.680> something<00:04:32.240> deeper 04:32.710 --> 04:32.720 align:start position:0% should have, suggesting something deeper 04:32.720 --> 04:34.950 align:start position:0% should have, suggesting something deeper was<00:04:32.960> at<00:04:33.199> play. 04:34.950 --> 04:34.960 align:start position:0% was at play. 04:34.960 --> 04:36.790 align:start position:0% was at play. Since<00:04:35.199> the<00:04:35.360> time<00:04:35.520> of<00:04:35.680> Galileo,<00:04:36.400> scientists 04:36.790 --> 04:36.800 align:start position:0% Since the time of Galileo, scientists 04:36.800 --> 04:38.390 align:start position:0% Since the time of Galileo, scientists have<00:04:37.040> been<00:04:37.199> trying<00:04:37.440> to<00:04:37.600> understand<00:04:38.080> what 04:38.390 --> 04:38.400 align:start position:0% have been trying to understand what 04:38.400 --> 04:40.870 align:start position:0% have been trying to understand what drives<00:04:38.960> solar<00:04:39.360> activity.<00:04:40.320> Our<00:04:40.639> leading 04:40.870 --> 04:40.880 align:start position:0% drives solar activity. Our leading 04:40.880 --> 04:42.870 align:start position:0% drives solar activity. Our leading theory<00:04:41.280> places<00:04:41.680> the<00:04:41.840> answer<00:04:42.320> more<00:04:42.560> than 04:42.870 --> 04:42.880 align:start position:0% theory places the answer more than 04:42.880 --> 04:45.990 align:start position:0% theory places the answer more than 200,000<00:04:43.680> km<00:04:44.320> below<00:04:44.639> the<00:04:44.800> surface<00:04:45.600> at<00:04:45.840> a 04:45.990 --> 04:46.000 align:start position:0% 200,000 km below the surface at a 04:46.000 --> 04:49.110 align:start position:0% 200,000 km below the surface at a boundary<00:04:46.560> layer<00:04:46.960> called<00:04:47.600> the<00:04:47.680> tacoline.<00:04:48.880> The 04:49.110 --> 04:49.120 align:start position:0% boundary layer called the tacoline. The 04:49.120 --> 04:51.590 align:start position:0% boundary layer called the tacoline. The core<00:04:49.440> idea<00:04:49.919> was<00:04:50.160> that<00:04:50.479> differential<00:04:51.199> rotation 04:51.590 --> 04:51.600 align:start position:0% core idea was that differential rotation 04:51.600 --> 04:54.150 align:start position:0% core idea was that differential rotation at<00:04:51.840> the<00:04:51.919> taco<00:04:52.880> wound<00:04:53.280> up<00:04:53.440> magnetic<00:04:53.919> field 04:54.150 --> 04:54.160 align:start position:0% at the taco wound up magnetic field 04:54.160 --> 04:56.550 align:start position:0% at the taco wound up magnetic field lines<00:04:54.479> like<00:04:54.720> coiled<00:04:55.199> springs<00:04:55.919> generating<00:04:56.320> the 04:56.550 --> 04:56.560 align:start position:0% lines like coiled springs generating the 04:56.560 --> 04:58.550 align:start position:0% lines like coiled springs generating the dynamo<00:04:57.120> that<00:04:57.280> drives<00:04:57.600> everything<00:04:58.000> we<00:04:58.240> see<00:04:58.400> on 04:58.550 --> 04:58.560 align:start position:0% dynamo that drives everything we see on 04:58.560 --> 05:01.590 align:start position:0% dynamo that drives everything we see on the<00:04:58.720> sun's<00:04:59.040> surface.<00:05:00.080> But<00:05:00.240> in<00:05:00.479> 2024, 05:01.590 --> 05:01.600 align:start position:0% the sun's surface. But in 2024, 05:01.600 --> 05:04.150 align:start position:0% the sun's surface. But in 2024, researchers<00:05:02.160> from<00:05:02.400> MIT,<00:05:03.360> Northwestern, 05:04.150 --> 05:04.160 align:start position:0% researchers from MIT, Northwestern, 05:04.160 --> 05:06.870 align:start position:0% researchers from MIT, Northwestern, Edinburgh,<00:05:04.800> and<00:05:05.040> elsewhere<00:05:06.080> challenged<00:05:06.560> that 05:06.870 --> 05:06.880 align:start position:0% Edinburgh, and elsewhere challenged that 05:06.880 --> 05:10.070 align:start position:0% Edinburgh, and elsewhere challenged that assumption.<00:05:07.919> By<00:05:08.240> using<00:05:08.479> a<00:05:08.639> NASA<00:05:09.039> supercomput, 05:10.070 --> 05:10.080 align:start position:0% assumption. By using a NASA supercomput, 05:10.080 --> 05:11.909 align:start position:0% assumption. By using a NASA supercomput, they<00:05:10.320> ran<00:05:10.560> the<00:05:10.800> most<00:05:11.039> detailed<00:05:11.520> solar 05:11.909 --> 05:11.919 align:start position:0% they ran the most detailed solar 05:11.919 --> 05:14.790 align:start position:0% they ran the most detailed solar simulations<00:05:13.039> ever<00:05:13.440> attempted<00:05:14.400> and<00:05:14.639> found 05:14.790 --> 05:14.800 align:start position:0% simulations ever attempted and found 05:14.800 --> 05:17.430 align:start position:0% simulations ever attempted and found that<00:05:15.039> the<00:05:15.199> sun's<00:05:15.600> magnetic<00:05:16.240> dynamo<00:05:16.960> actually 05:17.430 --> 05:17.440 align:start position:0% that the sun's magnetic dynamo actually 05:17.440 --> 05:20.950 align:start position:0% that the sun's magnetic dynamo actually originates<00:05:18.080> just<00:05:18.639> 32,000<00:05:19.919> km<00:05:20.479> below<00:05:20.800> the 05:20.950 --> 05:20.960 align:start position:0% originates just 32,000 km below the 05:20.960 --> 05:24.710 align:start position:0% originates just 32,000 km below the surface.<00:05:22.080> Why<00:05:22.479> does<00:05:22.720> this<00:05:22.960> matter?<00:05:24.000> Well,<00:05:24.479> if 05:24.710 --> 05:24.720 align:start position:0% surface. Why does this matter? Well, if 05:24.720 --> 05:27.670 align:start position:0% surface. Why does this matter? Well, if this<00:05:24.960> is<00:05:25.199> truly<00:05:25.600> the<00:05:25.840> case,<00:05:26.560> a<00:05:26.880> near<00:05:27.199> surface 05:27.670 --> 05:27.680 align:start position:0% this is truly the case, a near surface 05:27.680 --> 05:30.150 align:start position:0% this is truly the case, a near surface dynamo<00:05:28.240> would<00:05:28.560> be<00:05:28.720> driven<00:05:29.039> by<00:05:29.440> magneetto 05:30.150 --> 05:30.160 align:start position:0% dynamo would be driven by magneetto 05:30.160 --> 05:32.469 align:start position:0% dynamo would be driven by magneetto rotational<00:05:30.720> instability,<00:05:31.759> a<00:05:32.000> phenomenon 05:32.469 --> 05:32.479 align:start position:0% rotational instability, a phenomenon 05:32.479 --> 05:34.629 align:start position:0% rotational instability, a phenomenon that<00:05:32.639> occurs<00:05:32.960> when<00:05:33.120> a<00:05:33.280> weak<00:05:33.520> magnetic<00:05:34.080> field 05:34.629 --> 05:34.639 align:start position:0% that occurs when a weak magnetic field 05:34.639 --> 05:37.029 align:start position:0% that occurs when a weak magnetic field connects<00:05:35.039> two<00:05:35.440> layers<00:05:35.600> of<00:05:35.840> plasma<00:05:36.400> rotating 05:37.029 --> 05:37.039 align:start position:0% connects two layers of plasma rotating 05:37.039 --> 05:39.110 align:start position:0% connects two layers of plasma rotating at<00:05:37.280> different<00:05:37.600> speeds.<00:05:38.560> Instead<00:05:38.880> of 05:39.110 --> 05:39.120 align:start position:0% at different speeds. Instead of 05:39.120 --> 05:41.670 align:start position:0% at different speeds. Instead of stabilizing<00:05:39.759> them,<00:05:40.320> it<00:05:40.720> amplifies<00:05:41.440> the 05:41.670 --> 05:41.680 align:start position:0% stabilizing them, it amplifies the 05:41.680 --> 05:43.830 align:start position:0% stabilizing them, it amplifies the difference,<00:05:42.479> driving<00:05:42.960> turbulence<00:05:43.600> that 05:43.830 --> 05:43.840 align:start position:0% difference, driving turbulence that 05:43.840 --> 05:45.670 align:start position:0% difference, driving turbulence that generates<00:05:44.320> and<00:05:44.560> sustains<00:05:45.039> the<00:05:45.199> magnetic 05:45.670 --> 05:45.680 align:start position:0% generates and sustains the magnetic 05:45.680 --> 05:48.870 align:start position:0% generates and sustains the magnetic dynamo.<00:05:46.639> Such<00:05:46.960> a<00:05:47.199> mechanism<00:05:47.919> could<00:05:48.400> explain 05:48.870 --> 05:48.880 align:start position:0% dynamo. Such a mechanism could explain 05:48.880 --> 05:51.110 align:start position:0% dynamo. Such a mechanism could explain why<00:05:49.440> consecutive<00:05:50.080> solar<00:05:50.479> cycles<00:05:50.880> can 05:51.110 --> 05:51.120 align:start position:0% why consecutive solar cycles can 05:51.120 --> 05:54.070 align:start position:0% why consecutive solar cycles can sometimes<00:05:51.680> vary<00:05:52.160> so<00:05:52.560> much<00:05:52.720> in<00:05:53.039> strength<00:05:53.759> and 05:54.070 --> 05:54.080 align:start position:0% sometimes vary so much in strength and 05:54.080 --> 05:56.390 align:start position:0% sometimes vary so much in strength and would<00:05:54.400> produce<00:05:54.880> clear<00:05:55.280> predictions<00:05:55.840> that<00:05:56.160> can 05:56.390 --> 05:56.400 align:start position:0% would produce clear predictions that can 05:56.400 --> 05:59.029 align:start position:0% would produce clear predictions that can actually<00:05:56.720> be<00:05:56.960> tested<00:05:57.759> unlike<00:05:58.080> the<00:05:58.320> old<00:05:58.560> taco 05:59.029 --> 05:59.039 align:start position:0% actually be tested unlike the old taco 05:59.039 --> 06:01.350 align:start position:0% actually be tested unlike the old taco climb<00:05:59.360> models<00:05:59.919> which<00:06:00.160> relied<00:06:00.560> on<00:06:00.880> poorly 06:01.350 --> 06:01.360 align:start position:0% climb models which relied on poorly 06:01.360 --> 06:03.430 align:start position:0% climb models which relied on poorly constrained<00:06:01.840> assumptions 06:03.430 --> 06:03.440 align:start position:0% constrained assumptions 06:03.440 --> 06:08.469 align:start position:0% constrained assumptions and<00:06:04.160> tested<00:06:04.560> them.<00:06:04.960> We<00:06:05.360> have<00:06:06.800> in<00:06:07.120> 2018<00:06:08.000> NASA 06:08.469 --> 06:08.479 align:start position:0% and tested them. We have in 2018 NASA 06:08.479 --> 06:11.189 align:start position:0% and tested them. We have in 2018 NASA launched<00:06:08.880> the<00:06:09.120> Parker<00:06:09.680> Solar<00:06:10.080> Probe<00:06:10.720> which 06:11.189 --> 06:11.199 align:start position:0% launched the Parker Solar Probe which 06:11.199 --> 06:13.749 align:start position:0% launched the Parker Solar Probe which among<00:06:11.520> its<00:06:11.759> mission<00:06:12.080> aims<00:06:12.720> was<00:06:12.960> to<00:06:13.199> study<00:06:13.520> the 06:13.749 --> 06:13.759 align:start position:0% among its mission aims was to study the 06:13.759 --> 06:16.469 align:start position:0% among its mission aims was to study the solar<00:06:14.160> dynamo<00:06:14.880> firsthand. 06:16.469 --> 06:16.479 align:start position:0% solar dynamo firsthand. 06:16.479 --> 06:19.830 align:start position:0% solar dynamo firsthand. After<00:06:16.800> a<00:06:17.120> nearly<00:06:17.600> 3-year<00:06:18.319> voyage,<00:06:19.199> it<00:06:19.440> finally 06:19.830 --> 06:19.840 align:start position:0% After a nearly 3-year voyage, it finally 06:19.840 --> 06:23.510 align:start position:0% After a nearly 3-year voyage, it finally arrived<00:06:20.319> in<00:06:20.639> April<00:06:21.199> 2021,<00:06:22.560> just<00:06:22.880> as<00:06:23.039> the<00:06:23.280> sun 06:23.510 --> 06:23.520 align:start position:0% arrived in April 2021, just as the sun 06:23.520 --> 06:26.150 align:start position:0% arrived in April 2021, just as the sun began<00:06:23.919> ramping<00:06:24.400> up<00:06:24.639> towards<00:06:24.960> its<00:06:25.199> maximum. 06:26.150 --> 06:26.160 align:start position:0% began ramping up towards its maximum. 06:26.160 --> 06:28.550 align:start position:0% began ramping up towards its maximum. What<00:06:26.400> it's<00:06:26.639> seen<00:06:27.039> since<00:06:27.360> then<00:06:27.919> from<00:06:28.160> within 06:28.550 --> 06:28.560 align:start position:0% What it's seen since then from within 06:28.560 --> 06:30.870 align:start position:0% What it's seen since then from within the<00:06:28.800> solar<00:06:29.120> atmosphere<00:06:29.600> itself<00:06:30.400> has 06:30.870 --> 06:30.880 align:start position:0% the solar atmosphere itself has 06:30.880 --> 06:32.950 align:start position:0% the solar atmosphere itself has transformed<00:06:31.680> our<00:06:32.080> understanding<00:06:32.560> of<00:06:32.800> the 06:32.950 --> 06:32.960 align:start position:0% transformed our understanding of the 06:32.960 --> 06:36.309 align:start position:0% transformed our understanding of the sun's<00:06:33.360> active<00:06:33.840> phase.<00:06:35.120> On<00:06:35.360> Christmas<00:06:35.759> Eve 06:36.309 --> 06:36.319 align:start position:0% sun's active phase. On Christmas Eve 06:36.319 --> 06:39.430 align:start position:0% sun's active phase. On Christmas Eve 2024,<00:06:37.360> the<00:06:37.600> Parker<00:06:38.080> Solar<00:06:38.400> Probe<00:06:38.800> made<00:06:39.039> its 06:39.430 --> 06:39.440 align:start position:0% 2024, the Parker Solar Probe made its 06:39.440 --> 06:42.070 align:start position:0% 2024, the Parker Solar Probe made its closest<00:06:40.080> ever<00:06:40.560> approach<00:06:40.960> to<00:06:41.120> the<00:06:41.280> sun, 06:42.070 --> 06:42.080 align:start position:0% closest ever approach to the sun, 06:42.080 --> 06:44.629 align:start position:0% closest ever approach to the sun, capturing<00:06:42.639> both<00:06:42.880> the<00:06:43.120> corona<00:06:43.600> and<00:06:43.840> solar<00:06:44.240> wind 06:44.629 --> 06:44.639 align:start position:0% capturing both the corona and solar wind 06:44.639 --> 06:47.830 align:start position:0% capturing both the corona and solar wind streaming<00:06:45.199> out<00:06:45.440> of<00:06:45.520> it<00:06:46.080> about<00:06:46.560> 6<00:06:46.880> million<00:06:47.280> km 06:47.830 --> 06:47.840 align:start position:0% streaming out of it about 6 million km 06:47.840 --> 06:51.029 align:start position:0% streaming out of it about 6 million km above<00:06:48.160> the<00:06:48.319> surface,<00:06:49.680> careening<00:06:50.400> past<00:06:50.800> at 06:51.029 --> 06:51.039 align:start position:0% above the surface, careening past at 06:51.039 --> 06:55.430 align:start position:0% above the surface, careening past at almost<00:06:51.520> 700,000<00:06:52.880> kmh.<00:06:54.319> It's<00:06:54.560> the<00:06:54.800> fastest 06:55.430 --> 06:55.440 align:start position:0% almost 700,000 kmh. It's the fastest 06:55.440 --> 06:58.710 align:start position:0% almost 700,000 kmh. It's the fastest human-made<00:06:56.160> object<00:06:56.800> in<00:06:57.199> history. 06:58.710 --> 06:58.720 align:start position:0% human-made object in history. 06:58.720 --> 07:00.950 align:start position:0% human-made object in history. But<00:06:58.880> these<00:06:59.120> headlines<00:06:59.680> aren't<00:07:00.080> even<00:07:00.479> the<00:07:00.720> most 07:00.950 --> 07:00.960 align:start position:0% But these headlines aren't even the most 07:00.960 --> 07:03.350 align:start position:0% But these headlines aren't even the most impressive<00:07:01.440> aspects<00:07:01.840> about<00:07:02.080> it.<00:07:02.800> Over<00:07:03.199> the 07:03.350 --> 07:03.360 align:start position:0% impressive aspects about it. Over the 07:03.360 --> 07:05.749 align:start position:0% impressive aspects about it. Over the course<00:07:03.520> of<00:07:03.759> 27<00:07:04.240> orbits,<00:07:04.880> the<00:07:05.039> Parker<00:07:05.440> probe 07:05.749 --> 07:05.759 align:start position:0% course of 27 orbits, the Parker probe 07:05.759 --> 07:07.749 align:start position:0% course of 27 orbits, the Parker probe slowly<00:07:06.240> pieced<00:07:06.560> together<00:07:06.880> data<00:07:07.280> that<00:07:07.520> might 07:07.749 --> 07:07.759 align:start position:0% slowly pieced together data that might 07:07.759 --> 07:10.469 align:start position:0% slowly pieced together data that might have<00:07:08.000> solved<00:07:08.319> a<00:07:08.720> decades<00:07:09.199> old<00:07:09.440> mystery<00:07:10.080> about 07:10.469 --> 07:10.479 align:start position:0% have solved a decades old mystery about 07:10.479 --> 07:13.990 align:start position:0% have solved a decades old mystery about our<00:07:10.800> sun's<00:07:11.360> outermost<00:07:11.919> atmosphere. 07:13.990 --> 07:14.000 align:start position:0% our sun's outermost atmosphere. 07:14.000 --> 07:19.589 align:start position:0% our sun's outermost atmosphere. The<00:07:14.240> sun's<00:07:14.560> surface<00:07:14.960> is<00:07:15.280> a<00:07:15.680> roasting<00:07:16.639> 5,500°. 07:19.589 --> 07:19.599 align:start position:0% The sun's surface is a roasting 5,500°. 07:19.599 --> 07:21.749 align:start position:0% The sun's surface is a roasting 5,500°. But<00:07:19.759> the<00:07:19.919> gaseous<00:07:20.560> outermost<00:07:21.280> layer<00:07:21.440> of<00:07:21.599> his 07:21.749 --> 07:21.759 align:start position:0% But the gaseous outermost layer of his 07:21.759 --> 07:25.029 align:start position:0% But the gaseous outermost layer of his atmosphere,<00:07:22.639> the<00:07:22.880> corona,<00:07:23.919> is<00:07:24.240> significantly 07:25.029 --> 07:25.039 align:start position:0% atmosphere, the corona, is significantly 07:25.039 --> 07:29.510 align:start position:0% atmosphere, the corona, is significantly hotter,<00:07:25.759> ranging<00:07:26.160> from<00:07:26.800> 1<00:07:27.280> million°<00:07:28.080> C<00:07:28.880> to<00:07:29.199> a 07:29.510 --> 07:29.520 align:start position:0% hotter, ranging from 1 million° C to a 07:29.520 --> 07:33.670 align:start position:0% hotter, ranging from 1 million° C to a mindmelting<00:07:30.800> 10<00:07:31.280> million°<00:07:32.160> in<00:07:32.400> some<00:07:32.639> regions. 07:33.670 --> 07:33.680 align:start position:0% mindmelting 10 million° in some regions. 07:33.680 --> 07:37.110 align:start position:0% mindmelting 10 million° in some regions. The<00:07:33.919> problem<00:07:34.240> was<00:07:35.039> no<00:07:35.280> one<00:07:35.520> really<00:07:35.759> knew<00:07:36.080> why. 07:37.110 --> 07:37.120 align:start position:0% The problem was no one really knew why. 07:37.120 --> 07:39.029 align:start position:0% The problem was no one really knew why. We<00:07:37.360> understood<00:07:37.759> magnetism<00:07:38.400> had<00:07:38.639> something<00:07:38.800> to 07:39.029 --> 07:39.039 align:start position:0% We understood magnetism had something to 07:39.039 --> 07:41.589 align:start position:0% We understood magnetism had something to do<00:07:39.120> with<00:07:39.280> it,<00:07:39.599> but<00:07:39.840> the<00:07:40.160> picture<00:07:40.479> was<00:07:40.800> fuzzy. 07:41.589 --> 07:41.599 align:start position:0% do with it, but the picture was fuzzy. 07:41.599 --> 07:43.670 align:start position:0% do with it, but the picture was fuzzy. We've<00:07:42.000> long<00:07:42.319> known<00:07:42.639> that<00:07:42.880> magnetic<00:07:43.360> fields 07:43.670 --> 07:43.680 align:start position:0% We've long known that magnetic fields 07:43.680 --> 07:45.909 align:start position:0% We've long known that magnetic fields accumulate,<00:07:44.639> concentrate,<00:07:45.199> and<00:07:45.520> strengthen 07:45.909 --> 07:45.919 align:start position:0% accumulate, concentrate, and strengthen 07:45.919 --> 07:47.670 align:start position:0% accumulate, concentrate, and strengthen at<00:07:46.160> the<00:07:46.240> boundaries<00:07:46.720> between<00:07:47.039> convective 07:47.670 --> 07:47.680 align:start position:0% at the boundaries between convective 07:47.680 --> 07:50.710 align:start position:0% at the boundaries between convective cells<00:07:48.160> called<00:07:48.720> super<00:07:49.039> granules.<00:07:50.160> And<00:07:50.400> when 07:50.710 --> 07:50.720 align:start position:0% cells called super granules. And when 07:50.720 --> 07:52.950 align:start position:0% cells called super granules. And when they<00:07:50.880> get<00:07:51.120> powerful<00:07:51.520> enough,<00:07:52.240> these<00:07:52.560> fields 07:52.950 --> 07:52.960 align:start position:0% they get powerful enough, these fields 07:52.960 --> 07:55.510 align:start position:0% they get powerful enough, these fields can<00:07:53.199> interact<00:07:53.680> with<00:07:53.919> solar<00:07:54.319> plasma<00:07:54.879> to<00:07:55.120> launch 07:55.510 --> 07:55.520 align:start position:0% can interact with solar plasma to launch 07:55.520 --> 07:58.869 align:start position:0% can interact with solar plasma to launch jets<00:07:56.080> and<00:07:56.319> nanoflares.<00:07:57.759> In<00:07:58.080> areas<00:07:58.479> where<00:07:58.720> the 07:58.869 --> 07:58.879 align:start position:0% jets and nanoflares. In areas where the 07:58.879 --> 08:01.510 align:start position:0% jets and nanoflares. In areas where the fields<00:07:59.280> are<00:07:59.599> especially<00:08:00.319> strong,<00:08:01.039> they<00:08:01.280> can 08:01.510 --> 08:01.520 align:start position:0% fields are especially strong, they can 08:01.520 --> 08:04.230 align:start position:0% fields are especially strong, they can tear<00:08:01.919> through<00:08:02.160> the<00:08:02.400> sun's<00:08:02.720> surface<00:08:03.199> entirely, 08:04.230 --> 08:04.240 align:start position:0% tear through the sun's surface entirely, 08:04.240 --> 08:06.869 align:start position:0% tear through the sun's surface entirely, producing<00:08:04.720> sunspots<00:08:05.520> and<00:08:05.840> giant<00:08:06.319> magnetic 08:06.869 --> 08:06.879 align:start position:0% producing sunspots and giant magnetic 08:06.879 --> 08:09.189 align:start position:0% producing sunspots and giant magnetic loops.<00:08:07.840> For<00:08:08.080> the<00:08:08.160> most<00:08:08.319> part,<00:08:08.560> these<00:08:08.879> loops 08:09.189 --> 08:09.199 align:start position:0% loops. For the most part, these loops 08:09.199 --> 08:11.350 align:start position:0% loops. For the most part, these loops are<00:08:09.360> closed<00:08:09.759> with<00:08:10.080> both<00:08:10.319> ends<00:08:10.800> attached<00:08:11.199> to 08:11.350 --> 08:11.360 align:start position:0% are closed with both ends attached to 08:11.360 --> 08:14.230 align:start position:0% are closed with both ends attached to the<00:08:11.520> sun.<00:08:12.400> However,<00:08:12.879> in<00:08:13.120> some<00:08:13.360> places,<00:08:13.919> the 08:14.230 --> 08:14.240 align:start position:0% the sun. However, in some places, the 08:14.240 --> 08:17.029 align:start position:0% the sun. However, in some places, the loops<00:08:14.639> are<00:08:14.960> ripped<00:08:15.360> open,<00:08:16.080> extending<00:08:16.639> to<00:08:16.800> the 08:17.029 --> 08:17.039 align:start position:0% loops are ripped open, extending to the 08:17.039 --> 08:19.830 align:start position:0% loops are ripped open, extending to the edge<00:08:17.280> of<00:08:17.440> the<00:08:17.599> heliosphere.<00:08:18.960> These<00:08:19.280> are<00:08:19.440> known 08:19.830 --> 08:19.840 align:start position:0% edge of the heliosphere. These are known 08:19.840 --> 08:24.469 align:start position:0% edge of the heliosphere. These are known as<00:08:20.319> open<00:08:20.800> magnetic<00:08:21.360> fields.<00:08:22.560> In<00:08:22.800> 1988,<00:08:23.919> Eugene 08:24.469 --> 08:24.479 align:start position:0% as open magnetic fields. In 1988, Eugene 08:24.479 --> 08:26.629 align:start position:0% as open magnetic fields. In 1988, Eugene Parker,<00:08:25.199> an<00:08:25.440> astrophysicist<00:08:26.319> at<00:08:26.479> the 08:26.629 --> 08:26.639 align:start position:0% Parker, an astrophysicist at the 08:26.639 --> 08:29.270 align:start position:0% Parker, an astrophysicist at the University<00:08:27.120> of<00:08:27.360> Chicago,<00:08:28.400> proposed<00:08:28.960> a 08:29.270 --> 08:29.280 align:start position:0% University of Chicago, proposed a 08:29.280 --> 08:33.029 align:start position:0% University of Chicago, proposed a radical<00:08:29.840> new<00:08:30.080> idea.<00:08:31.199> He<00:08:31.520> argued<00:08:31.919> that<00:08:32.240> perhaps 08:33.029 --> 08:33.039 align:start position:0% radical new idea. He argued that perhaps 08:33.039 --> 08:35.589 align:start position:0% radical new idea. He argued that perhaps the<00:08:33.360> churning<00:08:34.159> convective<00:08:34.800> super<00:08:35.120> granules 08:35.589 --> 08:35.599 align:start position:0% the churning convective super granules 08:35.599 --> 08:38.070 align:start position:0% the churning convective super granules on<00:08:35.760> the<00:08:35.919> surface<00:08:36.159> of<00:08:36.320> the<00:08:36.479> sun<00:08:37.120> could<00:08:37.440> not<00:08:37.760> only 08:38.070 --> 08:38.080 align:start position:0% on the surface of the sun could not only 08:38.080 --> 08:39.909 align:start position:0% on the surface of the sun could not only open<00:08:38.320> and<00:08:38.560> close<00:08:38.880> magnetic<00:08:39.360> fields<00:08:39.680> that 08:39.909 --> 08:39.919 align:start position:0% open and close magnetic fields that 08:39.919 --> 08:42.310 align:start position:0% open and close magnetic fields that stretched<00:08:40.399> into<00:08:40.640> the<00:08:40.800> corona,<00:08:41.680> but<00:08:42.000> could 08:42.310 --> 08:42.320 align:start position:0% stretched into the corona, but could 08:42.320 --> 08:44.710 align:start position:0% stretched into the corona, but could tangle<00:08:42.800> them.<00:08:43.599> This<00:08:43.839> would<00:08:44.080> build<00:08:44.480> up 08:44.710 --> 08:44.720 align:start position:0% tangle them. This would build up 08:44.720 --> 08:47.509 align:start position:0% tangle them. This would build up magnetic<00:08:45.279> energy<00:08:45.680> in<00:08:46.080> the<00:08:46.320> solar<00:08:46.640> atmosphere 08:47.509 --> 08:47.519 align:start position:0% magnetic energy in the solar atmosphere 08:47.519 --> 08:50.710 align:start position:0% magnetic energy in the solar atmosphere until<00:08:47.920> the<00:08:48.080> field<00:08:48.399> lines<00:08:48.880> buckle,<00:08:49.760> snap,<00:08:50.480> and 08:50.710 --> 08:50.720 align:start position:0% until the field lines buckle, snap, and 08:50.720 --> 08:52.870 align:start position:0% until the field lines buckle, snap, and reconnect,<00:08:51.680> transferring<00:08:52.240> that<00:08:52.480> stored 08:52.870 --> 08:52.880 align:start position:0% reconnect, transferring that stored 08:52.880 --> 08:55.190 align:start position:0% reconnect, transferring that stored energy<00:08:53.279> into<00:08:53.600> the<00:08:53.839> solar<00:08:54.160> atmosphere<00:08:54.800> as 08:55.190 --> 08:55.200 align:start position:0% energy into the solar atmosphere as 08:55.200 --> 08:56.470 align:start position:0% energy into the solar atmosphere as heat. 08:56.470 --> 08:56.480 align:start position:0% heat. 08:56.480 --> 08:59.750 align:start position:0% heat. For<00:08:56.720> the<00:08:56.959> most<00:08:57.200> part,<00:08:58.080> he<00:08:58.399> was<00:08:58.880> ridiculed<00:08:59.519> by 08:59.750 --> 08:59.760 align:start position:0% For the most part, he was ridiculed by 08:59.760 --> 09:02.389 align:start position:0% For the most part, he was ridiculed by his<00:09:00.000> contemporaries<00:09:01.040> and<00:09:01.360> his<00:09:01.600> theory<00:09:02.080> was 09:02.389 --> 09:02.399 align:start position:0% his contemporaries and his theory was 09:02.399 --> 09:04.470 align:start position:0% his contemporaries and his theory was dismissed.<00:09:03.600> But<00:09:03.760> it<00:09:03.920> wouldn't<00:09:04.160> be<00:09:04.320> long 09:04.470 --> 09:04.480 align:start position:0% dismissed. But it wouldn't be long 09:04.480 --> 09:07.110 align:start position:0% dismissed. But it wouldn't be long before<00:09:04.800> a<00:09:05.040> probe<00:09:05.519> bearing<00:09:05.920> his<00:09:06.240> name<00:09:06.880> would 09:07.110 --> 09:07.120 align:start position:0% before a probe bearing his name would 09:07.120 --> 09:09.829 align:start position:0% before a probe bearing his name would kiss<00:09:07.360> the<00:09:07.600> sun.<00:09:08.320> And<00:09:08.560> what<00:09:08.800> it<00:09:09.040> found 09:09.829 --> 09:09.839 align:start position:0% kiss the sun. And what it found 09:09.839 --> 09:12.790 align:start position:0% kiss the sun. And what it found vindicated<00:09:10.640> his<00:09:10.959> work<00:09:11.360> beyond<00:09:11.839> his<00:09:12.240> wildest 09:12.790 --> 09:12.800 align:start position:0% vindicated his work beyond his wildest 09:12.800 --> 09:15.829 align:start position:0% vindicated his work beyond his wildest dreams.<00:09:14.160> Still,<00:09:14.560> even<00:09:14.880> into<00:09:15.120> the<00:09:15.279> dawn<00:09:15.519> of<00:09:15.680> the 09:15.829 --> 09:15.839 align:start position:0% dreams. Still, even into the dawn of the 09:15.839 --> 09:18.949 align:start position:0% dreams. Still, even into the dawn of the 21st<00:09:16.320> century,<00:09:16.959> our<00:09:17.279> son's<00:09:17.680> magnetism<00:09:18.560> kept 09:18.949 --> 09:18.959 align:start position:0% 21st century, our son's magnetism kept 09:18.959 --> 09:21.829 align:start position:0% 21st century, our son's magnetism kept behaving<00:09:19.440> in<00:09:19.760> surprising,<00:09:20.800> unexplainable 09:21.829 --> 09:21.839 align:start position:0% behaving in surprising, unexplainable 09:21.839 --> 09:24.790 align:start position:0% behaving in surprising, unexplainable ways.<00:09:22.640> Data<00:09:23.040> from<00:09:23.279> ISSa's<00:09:23.839> SOHO<00:09:24.320> mission 09:24.790 --> 09:24.800 align:start position:0% ways. Data from ISSa's SOHO mission 09:24.800 --> 09:26.630 align:start position:0% ways. Data from ISSa's SOHO mission showed<00:09:25.040> us<00:09:25.200> that<00:09:25.360> the<00:09:25.519> solar<00:09:25.920> magnetic<00:09:26.320> field 09:26.630 --> 09:26.640 align:start position:0% showed us that the solar magnetic field 09:26.640 --> 09:29.110 align:start position:0% showed us that the solar magnetic field was<00:09:27.040> much<00:09:27.360> more<00:09:27.680> variable<00:09:28.080> than<00:09:28.320> we<00:09:28.560> thought, 09:29.110 --> 09:29.120 align:start position:0% was much more variable than we thought, 09:29.120 --> 09:31.350 align:start position:0% was much more variable than we thought, and<00:09:29.279> the<00:09:29.519> solar<00:09:29.839> wind<00:09:30.080> readings<00:09:30.640> taken<00:09:31.040> near 09:31.350 --> 09:31.360 align:start position:0% and the solar wind readings taken near 09:31.360 --> 09:34.790 align:start position:0% and the solar wind readings taken near Earth<00:09:32.240> didn't<00:09:32.560> make<00:09:32.800> sense.<00:09:33.920> The<00:09:34.240> particles 09:34.790 --> 09:34.800 align:start position:0% Earth didn't make sense. The particles 09:34.800 --> 09:36.710 align:start position:0% Earth didn't make sense. The particles showed<00:09:35.279> strange<00:09:35.680> compositional<00:09:36.399> patterns 09:36.710 --> 09:36.720 align:start position:0% showed strange compositional patterns 09:36.720 --> 09:38.310 align:start position:0% showed strange compositional patterns that<00:09:36.959> were<00:09:37.120> inconsistent<00:09:37.920> with<00:09:38.080> the 09:38.310 --> 09:38.320 align:start position:0% that were inconsistent with the 09:38.320 --> 09:41.110 align:start position:0% that were inconsistent with the prevailing<00:09:38.800> theory<00:09:39.120> of<00:09:39.279> the<00:09:39.519> time<00:09:40.000> that<00:09:40.320> said 09:41.110 --> 09:41.120 align:start position:0% prevailing theory of the time that said 09:41.120 --> 09:43.590 align:start position:0% prevailing theory of the time that said solar<00:09:41.519> wind<00:09:41.920> emanated<00:09:42.720> from<00:09:43.040> the<00:09:43.279> sun's 09:43.590 --> 09:43.600 align:start position:0% solar wind emanated from the sun's 09:43.600 --> 09:47.430 align:start position:0% solar wind emanated from the sun's surface.<00:09:45.040> Now,<00:09:45.680> in<00:09:45.920> the<00:09:46.080> last<00:09:46.320> few<00:09:46.560> years,<00:09:47.200> the 09:47.430 --> 09:47.440 align:start position:0% surface. Now, in the last few years, the 09:47.440 --> 09:49.590 align:start position:0% surface. Now, in the last few years, the Parker<00:09:47.920> Solar<00:09:48.240> Probe<00:09:48.560> has<00:09:48.800> helped<00:09:49.120> us<00:09:49.360> connect 09:49.590 --> 09:49.600 align:start position:0% Parker Solar Probe has helped us connect 09:49.600 --> 09:51.750 align:start position:0% Parker Solar Probe has helped us connect the<00:09:49.839> dots<00:09:50.240> between<00:09:50.560> these<00:09:50.959> seemingly 09:51.750 --> 09:51.760 align:start position:0% the dots between these seemingly 09:51.760 --> 09:54.150 align:start position:0% the dots between these seemingly disparate<00:09:52.480> observations. 09:54.150 --> 09:54.160 align:start position:0% disparate observations. 09:54.160 --> 09:56.630 align:start position:0% disparate observations. Data<00:09:54.480> collected<00:09:54.880> by<00:09:55.120> its<00:09:55.360> whisper<00:09:55.839> camera<00:09:56.320> has 09:56.630 --> 09:56.640 align:start position:0% Data collected by its whisper camera has 09:56.640 --> 09:58.389 align:start position:0% Data collected by its whisper camera has revealed<00:09:56.959> that<00:09:57.279> while<00:09:57.600> the<00:09:57.760> solar<00:09:58.080> wind 09:58.389 --> 09:58.399 align:start position:0% revealed that while the solar wind 09:58.399 --> 10:01.350 align:start position:0% revealed that while the solar wind appears<00:09:58.880> like<00:09:59.200> a<00:09:59.600> turbulent<00:10:00.160> fluid<00:10:00.640> from<00:10:00.959> near 10:01.350 --> 10:01.360 align:start position:0% appears like a turbulent fluid from near 10:01.360 --> 10:04.949 align:start position:0% appears like a turbulent fluid from near Earth,<00:10:02.240> from<00:10:02.560> up<00:10:02.880> close,<00:10:03.839> it<00:10:04.080> seems<00:10:04.399> to<00:10:04.560> flow 10:04.949 --> 10:04.959 align:start position:0% Earth, from up close, it seems to flow 10:04.959 --> 10:07.829 align:start position:0% Earth, from up close, it seems to flow outward<00:10:05.760> in<00:10:06.080> individual<00:10:06.800> streamlets<00:10:07.519> that 10:07.829 --> 10:07.839 align:start position:0% outward in individual streamlets that 10:07.839 --> 10:10.070 align:start position:0% outward in individual streamlets that mirror<00:10:08.240> the<00:10:08.480> sizes<00:10:08.880> of<00:10:09.040> the<00:10:09.200> super<00:10:09.600> granules 10:10.070 --> 10:10.080 align:start position:0% mirror the sizes of the super granules 10:10.080 --> 10:13.269 align:start position:0% mirror the sizes of the super granules on<00:10:10.320> the<00:10:10.480> sun's<00:10:10.800> surface.<00:10:11.920> With<00:10:12.240> every<00:10:12.560> orbit, 10:13.269 --> 10:13.279 align:start position:0% on the sun's surface. With every orbit, 10:13.279 --> 10:15.110 align:start position:0% on the sun's surface. With every orbit, the<00:10:13.519> probe<00:10:13.839> took<00:10:14.079> a<00:10:14.240> closer<00:10:14.560> look<00:10:14.720> at<00:10:14.880> these 10:15.110 --> 10:15.120 align:start position:0% the probe took a closer look at these 10:15.120 --> 10:17.509 align:start position:0% the probe took a closer look at these streams<00:10:15.519> of<00:10:15.760> particles<00:10:16.560> whooshing<00:10:17.120> out<00:10:17.360> from 10:17.509 --> 10:17.519 align:start position:0% streams of particles whooshing out from 10:17.519 --> 10:20.389 align:start position:0% streams of particles whooshing out from the<00:10:17.680> sun<00:10:18.320> and<00:10:18.640> found<00:10:19.120> something<00:10:19.920> rather 10:20.389 --> 10:20.399 align:start position:0% the sun and found something rather 10:20.399 --> 10:23.190 align:start position:0% the sun and found something rather peculiar.<00:10:21.839> The<00:10:22.079> streamlet<00:10:22.640> showed<00:10:22.959> the 10:23.190 --> 10:23.200 align:start position:0% peculiar. The streamlet showed the 10:23.200 --> 10:26.710 align:start position:0% peculiar. The streamlet showed the telltale<00:10:23.760> signs<00:10:24.240> of<00:10:24.640> magnetic<00:10:25.360> activity.<00:10:26.560> But 10:26.710 --> 10:26.720 align:start position:0% telltale signs of magnetic activity. But 10:26.720 --> 10:28.790 align:start position:0% telltale signs of magnetic activity. But in<00:10:26.959> the<00:10:27.120> field<00:10:27.440> lines,<00:10:27.920> they<00:10:28.160> formed<00:10:28.560> a 10:28.790 --> 10:28.800 align:start position:0% in the field lines, they formed a 10:28.800 --> 10:32.470 align:start position:0% in the field lines, they formed a strange<00:10:29.680> sshaped<00:10:30.640> structure<00:10:31.920> called 10:32.470 --> 10:32.480 align:start position:0% strange sshaped structure called 10:32.480 --> 10:34.630 align:start position:0% strange sshaped structure called switchbacks.<00:10:33.440> These<00:10:33.760> phenomena<00:10:34.240> are<00:10:34.480> thought 10:34.630 --> 10:34.640 align:start position:0% switchbacks. These phenomena are thought 10:34.640 --> 10:37.030 align:start position:0% switchbacks. These phenomena are thought to<00:10:34.880> occur<00:10:35.200> when<00:10:35.600> closed<00:10:36.079> magnetic<00:10:36.480> loops 10:37.030 --> 10:37.040 align:start position:0% to occur when closed magnetic loops 10:37.040 --> 10:40.069 align:start position:0% to occur when closed magnetic loops crash<00:10:37.440> into<00:10:38.240> and<00:10:38.640> connect<00:10:38.959> with<00:10:39.680> open 10:40.069 --> 10:40.079 align:start position:0% crash into and connect with open 10:40.079 --> 10:42.310 align:start position:0% crash into and connect with open magnetic<00:10:40.560> loops<00:10:41.040> in<00:10:41.279> what<00:10:41.519> is<00:10:41.680> known<00:10:41.920> as<00:10:42.079> an 10:42.310 --> 10:42.320 align:start position:0% magnetic loops in what is known as an 10:42.320 --> 10:44.949 align:start position:0% magnetic loops in what is known as an interchange<00:10:43.040> reconnection<00:10:43.600> event.<00:10:44.640> These 10:44.949 --> 10:44.959 align:start position:0% interchange reconnection event. These 10:44.959 --> 10:47.509 align:start position:0% interchange reconnection event. These events<00:10:45.440> generate<00:10:45.920> heat<00:10:46.399> and<00:10:46.640> eject<00:10:47.120> solar 10:47.509 --> 10:47.519 align:start position:0% events generate heat and eject solar 10:47.519 --> 10:50.230 align:start position:0% events generate heat and eject solar material<00:10:48.000> into<00:10:48.320> space,<00:10:49.040> warming<00:10:49.440> the<00:10:49.600> corona 10:50.230 --> 10:50.240 align:start position:0% material into space, warming the corona 10:50.240 --> 10:52.310 align:start position:0% material into space, warming the corona and<00:10:50.480> accelerating<00:10:51.200> particles<00:10:51.680> in<00:10:51.839> the<00:10:52.000> solar 10:52.310 --> 10:52.320 align:start position:0% and accelerating particles in the solar 10:52.320 --> 10:54.790 align:start position:0% and accelerating particles in the solar wind.<00:10:53.040> A<00:10:53.200> concept<00:10:53.600> not<00:10:53.839> that<00:10:54.079> far<00:10:54.320> off<00:10:54.560> from 10:54.790 --> 10:54.800 align:start position:0% wind. A concept not that far off from 10:54.800 --> 10:57.829 align:start position:0% wind. A concept not that far off from what<00:10:55.120> Eugene<00:10:55.680> Parker<00:10:56.160> described<00:10:56.800> almost<00:10:57.440> 40 10:57.829 --> 10:57.839 align:start position:0% what Eugene Parker described almost 40 10:57.839 --> 11:01.110 align:start position:0% what Eugene Parker described almost 40 years<00:10:58.160> ago.<00:10:59.440> Now,<00:10:59.839> until<00:11:00.160> recently,<00:11:00.720> our 11:01.110 --> 11:01.120 align:start position:0% years ago. Now, until recently, our 11:01.120 --> 11:04.069 align:start position:0% years ago. Now, until recently, our model<00:11:01.440> of<00:11:01.760> coronal<00:11:02.320> mass<00:11:02.640> ejections<00:11:03.519> assumed 11:04.069 --> 11:04.079 align:start position:0% model of coronal mass ejections assumed 11:04.079 --> 11:06.630 align:start position:0% model of coronal mass ejections assumed material<00:11:04.560> traveled<00:11:04.959> in<00:11:05.279> one<00:11:05.519> direction<00:11:06.320> from 11:06.630 --> 11:06.640 align:start position:0% material traveled in one direction from 11:06.640 --> 11:09.910 align:start position:0% material traveled in one direction from the<00:11:06.800> sun<00:11:07.440> outward.<00:11:08.720> However,<00:11:09.360> during<00:11:09.680> the 11:09.910 --> 11:09.920 align:start position:0% the sun outward. However, during the 11:09.920 --> 11:13.590 align:start position:0% the sun outward. However, during the December<00:11:10.480> 2024<00:11:11.279> flyby,<00:11:12.240> the<00:11:12.399> Parker<00:11:12.880> probe 11:13.590 --> 11:13.600 align:start position:0% December 2024 flyby, the Parker probe 11:13.600 --> 11:17.269 align:start position:0% December 2024 flyby, the Parker probe captured<00:11:14.160> something<00:11:14.560> else.<00:11:15.519> You<00:11:15.760> see<00:11:16.000> this?<00:11:17.040> A 11:17.269 --> 11:17.279 align:start position:0% captured something else. You see this? A 11:17.279 --> 11:19.750 align:start position:0% captured something else. You see this? A cloud<00:11:17.680> of<00:11:17.839> solar<00:11:18.240> material<00:11:18.800> bursts<00:11:19.200> out<00:11:19.440> from 11:19.750 --> 11:19.760 align:start position:0% cloud of solar material bursts out from 11:19.760 --> 11:23.030 align:start position:0% cloud of solar material bursts out from our<00:11:20.000> star<00:11:20.880> before<00:11:21.519> curling<00:11:22.000> inward<00:11:22.720> and 11:23.030 --> 11:23.040 align:start position:0% our star before curling inward and 11:23.040 --> 11:26.310 align:start position:0% our star before curling inward and falling<00:11:23.440> back<00:11:23.839> in<00:11:24.079> a<00:11:24.320> Uturn<00:11:24.959> formation. 11:26.310 --> 11:26.320 align:start position:0% falling back in a Uturn formation. 11:26.320 --> 11:28.150 align:start position:0% falling back in a Uturn formation. According<00:11:26.800> to<00:11:26.959> NASA,<00:11:27.360> the<00:11:27.600> material<00:11:27.920> that 11:28.150 --> 11:28.160 align:start position:0% According to NASA, the material that 11:28.160 --> 11:30.310 align:start position:0% According to NASA, the material that makes<00:11:28.399> it<00:11:28.560> back<00:11:28.800> to<00:11:28.880> the<00:11:29.040> sun<00:11:29.360> can<00:11:29.680> change<00:11:30.079> the 11:30.310 --> 11:30.320 align:start position:0% makes it back to the sun can change the 11:30.320 --> 11:33.350 align:start position:0% makes it back to the sun can change the solar<00:11:30.640> atmosphere<00:11:31.279> in<00:11:31.920> subtle<00:11:32.399> but<00:11:32.800> important 11:33.350 --> 11:33.360 align:start position:0% solar atmosphere in subtle but important 11:33.360 --> 11:35.829 align:start position:0% solar atmosphere in subtle but important ways,<00:11:34.079> which<00:11:34.320> can<00:11:34.480> influence<00:11:34.959> how<00:11:35.279> subsequent 11:35.829 --> 11:35.839 align:start position:0% ways, which can influence how subsequent 11:35.839 --> 11:38.630 align:start position:0% ways, which can influence how subsequent CMEs<00:11:36.480> erupt.<00:11:37.440> Even<00:11:37.680> though<00:11:37.839> we've<00:11:38.160> seen<00:11:38.320> hints 11:38.630 --> 11:38.640 align:start position:0% CMEs erupt. Even though we've seen hints 11:38.640 --> 11:41.430 align:start position:0% CMEs erupt. Even though we've seen hints of<00:11:38.720> these<00:11:38.959> inflows<00:11:39.519> before<00:11:40.240> through<00:11:40.560> the<00:11:40.800> SOHO 11:41.430 --> 11:41.440 align:start position:0% of these inflows before through the SOHO 11:41.440 --> 11:43.990 align:start position:0% of these inflows before through the SOHO and<00:11:41.760> stereo<00:11:42.240> missions,<00:11:42.959> we've<00:11:43.360> never<00:11:43.680> seen 11:43.990 --> 11:44.000 align:start position:0% and stereo missions, we've never seen 11:44.000 --> 11:46.949 align:start position:0% and stereo missions, we've never seen this<00:11:44.320> process<00:11:44.720> in<00:11:45.040> such<00:11:45.360> high<00:11:45.760> resolution. 11:46.949 --> 11:46.959 align:start position:0% this process in such high resolution. 11:46.959 --> 11:49.190 align:start position:0% this process in such high resolution. With<00:11:47.279> this<00:11:47.519> data,<00:11:48.160> scientists<00:11:48.640> will<00:11:48.880> be<00:11:49.040> able 11:49.190 --> 11:49.200 align:start position:0% With this data, scientists will be able 11:49.200 --> 11:51.350 align:start position:0% With this data, scientists will be able to<00:11:49.440> make<00:11:49.760> precise<00:11:50.320> measurements<00:11:50.800> about<00:11:51.120> these 11:51.350 --> 11:51.360 align:start position:0% to make precise measurements about these 11:51.360 --> 11:54.150 align:start position:0% to make precise measurements about these inflows<00:11:52.160> like<00:11:52.399> their<00:11:52.720> speed,<00:11:53.360> shape,<00:11:53.839> and 11:54.150 --> 11:54.160 align:start position:0% inflows like their speed, shape, and 11:54.160 --> 11:56.389 align:start position:0% inflows like their speed, shape, and size,<00:11:54.880> which<00:11:55.200> will<00:11:55.519> ultimately<00:11:56.000> help<00:11:56.240> us 11:56.389 --> 11:56.399 align:start position:0% size, which will ultimately help us 11:56.399 --> 11:58.630 align:start position:0% size, which will ultimately help us better<00:11:56.800> understand<00:11:57.360> and<00:11:57.680> predict<00:11:58.240> solar 11:58.630 --> 11:58.640 align:start position:0% better understand and predict solar 11:58.640 --> 12:01.670 align:start position:0% better understand and predict solar cycles<00:11:59.360> and<00:11:59.680> space<00:12:00.079> weather<00:12:00.399> events,<00:12:01.200> which 12:01.670 --> 12:01.680 align:start position:0% cycles and space weather events, which 12:01.680 --> 12:04.389 align:start position:0% cycles and space weather events, which could<00:12:02.079> impact<00:12:02.480> astronauts<00:12:03.120> in<00:12:03.279> space<00:12:04.000> as<00:12:04.240> well 12:04.389 --> 12:04.399 align:start position:0% could impact astronauts in space as well 12:04.399 --> 12:06.870 align:start position:0% could impact astronauts in space as well as<00:12:04.640> the<00:12:04.880> rest<00:12:05.040> of<00:12:05.120> us<00:12:05.360> here<00:12:05.519> on<00:12:05.760> Earth.<00:12:06.480> We'll 12:06.870 --> 12:06.880 align:start position:0% as the rest of us here on Earth. We'll 12:06.880 --> 12:09.590 align:start position:0% as the rest of us here on Earth. We'll get<00:12:07.120> back<00:12:07.279> to<00:12:07.519> that<00:12:07.760> in<00:12:08.000> a<00:12:08.160> bit.<00:12:08.880> But<00:12:09.120> Parker 12:09.590 --> 12:09.600 align:start position:0% get back to that in a bit. But Parker 12:09.600 --> 12:11.910 align:start position:0% get back to that in a bit. But Parker has<00:12:09.839> shown<00:12:10.000> us<00:12:10.160> the<00:12:10.399> sun<00:12:10.959> from<00:12:11.200> the<00:12:11.440> inside 12:11.910 --> 12:11.920 align:start position:0% has shown us the sun from the inside 12:11.920 --> 12:15.190 align:start position:0% has shown us the sun from the inside out.<00:12:12.880> How<00:12:13.040> its<00:12:13.440> magnetic<00:12:13.920> energy<00:12:14.399> builds, 12:15.190 --> 12:15.200 align:start position:0% out. How its magnetic energy builds, 12:15.200 --> 12:18.230 align:start position:0% out. How its magnetic energy builds, erupts,<00:12:15.680> and<00:12:16.240> ultimately<00:12:16.720> resets,<00:12:17.760> governing 12:18.230 --> 12:18.240 align:start position:0% erupts, and ultimately resets, governing 12:18.240 --> 12:21.910 align:start position:0% erupts, and ultimately resets, governing the<00:12:18.560> 11-year<00:12:19.279> solar<00:12:19.680> cycle.<00:12:20.880> But<00:12:21.040> its<00:12:21.440> orbit 12:21.910 --> 12:21.920 align:start position:0% the 11-year solar cycle. But its orbit 12:21.920 --> 12:23.350 align:start position:0% the 11-year solar cycle. But its orbit generally<00:12:22.399> keeps<00:12:22.639> it<00:12:22.800> in<00:12:22.959> line<00:12:23.120> with<00:12:23.200> the 12:23.350 --> 12:23.360 align:start position:0% generally keeps it in line with the 12:23.360 --> 12:26.470 align:start position:0% generally keeps it in line with the sun's<00:12:23.760> equatorial<00:12:24.480> plane.<00:12:25.440> To<00:12:25.839> truly 12:26.470 --> 12:26.480 align:start position:0% sun's equatorial plane. To truly 12:26.480 --> 12:29.110 align:start position:0% sun's equatorial plane. To truly understand<00:12:26.959> solar<00:12:27.360> cycles,<00:12:28.160> we<00:12:28.480> need<00:12:28.720> to<00:12:28.959> get 12:29.110 --> 12:29.120 align:start position:0% understand solar cycles, we need to get 12:29.120 --> 12:31.829 align:start position:0% understand solar cycles, we need to get a<00:12:29.440> closer<00:12:29.839> look<00:12:30.000> at<00:12:30.240> the<00:12:30.480> hubs<00:12:31.120> of<00:12:31.360> the<00:12:31.519> sun's 12:31.829 --> 12:31.839 align:start position:0% a closer look at the hubs of the sun's 12:31.839 --> 12:34.470 align:start position:0% a closer look at the hubs of the sun's magnetic<00:12:32.320> activity.<00:12:33.279> And<00:12:33.440> for<00:12:33.680> that,<00:12:34.160> we're 12:34.470 --> 12:34.480 align:start position:0% magnetic activity. And for that, we're 12:34.480 --> 12:38.710 align:start position:0% magnetic activity. And for that, we're venturing<00:12:35.200> to<00:12:35.440> the<00:12:35.600> poles. 12:38.710 --> 12:38.720 align:start position:0% 12:38.720 --> 12:41.110 align:start position:0% Now,<00:12:39.120> most<00:12:39.440> spacecraft<00:12:40.240> orbit<00:12:40.639> in<00:12:40.880> the 12:41.110 --> 12:41.120 align:start position:0% Now, most spacecraft orbit in the 12:41.120 --> 12:43.829 align:start position:0% Now, most spacecraft orbit in the ecliptic<00:12:41.680> plane,<00:12:42.320> the<00:12:42.560> flat<00:12:42.880> disc<00:12:43.279> traced<00:12:43.680> by 12:43.829 --> 12:43.839 align:start position:0% ecliptic plane, the flat disc traced by 12:43.839 --> 12:45.990 align:start position:0% ecliptic plane, the flat disc traced by the<00:12:44.000> planets<00:12:44.399> around<00:12:44.639> the<00:12:44.800> sun.<00:12:45.600> This<00:12:45.760> means 12:45.990 --> 12:46.000 align:start position:0% the planets around the sun. This means 12:46.000 --> 12:48.230 align:start position:0% the planets around the sun. This means that<00:12:46.320> for<00:12:46.560> the<00:12:46.800> entire<00:12:47.279> history<00:12:47.600> of<00:12:47.920> space 12:48.230 --> 12:48.240 align:start position:0% that for the entire history of space 12:48.240 --> 12:50.949 align:start position:0% that for the entire history of space exploration,<00:12:49.360> we've<00:12:49.760> only<00:12:50.160> ever<00:12:50.480> seen<00:12:50.800> the 12:50.949 --> 12:50.959 align:start position:0% exploration, we've only ever seen the 12:50.959 --> 12:53.990 align:start position:0% exploration, we've only ever seen the sun's<00:12:51.360> poles<00:12:51.839> edge<00:12:52.240> on,<00:12:52.880> like<00:12:53.279> trying<00:12:53.519> to<00:12:53.760> read 12:53.990 --> 12:54.000 align:start position:0% sun's poles edge on, like trying to read 12:54.000 --> 12:56.949 align:start position:0% sun's poles edge on, like trying to read a<00:12:54.320> clock<00:12:54.639> face<00:12:54.959> from<00:12:55.120> the<00:12:55.360> side. 12:56.949 --> 12:56.959 align:start position:0% a clock face from the side. 12:56.959 --> 12:59.829 align:start position:0% a clock face from the side. Solar<00:12:57.360> orbiter<00:12:57.760> was<00:12:58.000> designed<00:12:58.320> to<00:12:58.560> fix<00:12:58.880> that. 12:59.829 --> 12:59.839 align:start position:0% Solar orbiter was designed to fix that. 12:59.839 --> 13:02.150 align:start position:0% Solar orbiter was designed to fix that. Using<00:13:00.079> a<00:13:00.320> series<00:13:00.639> of<00:13:00.880> Venus<00:13:01.279> gravity<00:13:01.760> assists 13:02.150 --> 13:02.160 align:start position:0% Using a series of Venus gravity assists 13:02.160 --> 13:04.550 align:start position:0% Using a series of Venus gravity assists to<00:13:02.399> gradually<00:13:02.800> tilt<00:13:03.120> its<00:13:03.279> orbit,<00:13:04.000> it<00:13:04.240> has<00:13:04.399> been 13:04.550 --> 13:04.560 align:start position:0% to gradually tilt its orbit, it has been 13:04.560 --> 13:06.949 align:start position:0% to gradually tilt its orbit, it has been climbing<00:13:04.959> toward<00:13:05.360> a<00:13:05.680> higher<00:13:06.160> and<00:13:06.480> higher 13:06.949 --> 13:06.959 align:start position:0% climbing toward a higher and higher 13:06.959 --> 13:10.069 align:start position:0% climbing toward a higher and higher solar<00:13:07.360> latitude<00:13:07.920> with<00:13:08.240> every<00:13:08.639> pass.<00:13:09.760> On<00:13:09.920> the 13:10.069 --> 13:10.079 align:start position:0% solar latitude with every pass. On the 13:10.079 --> 13:13.750 align:start position:0% solar latitude with every pass. On the 23rd<00:13:10.480> of<00:13:10.639> March,<00:13:11.040> 2025,<00:13:12.240> it<00:13:12.639> finally<00:13:13.200> crossed 13:13.750 --> 13:13.760 align:start position:0% 23rd of March, 2025, it finally crossed 13:13.760 --> 13:17.110 align:start position:0% 23rd of March, 2025, it finally crossed 17°<00:13:14.639> below<00:13:14.959> the<00:13:15.120> solar<00:13:15.519> equator,<00:13:16.560> locked<00:13:16.880> its 13:17.110 --> 13:17.120 align:start position:0% 17° below the solar equator, locked its 13:17.120 --> 13:19.750 align:start position:0% 17° below the solar equator, locked its instruments<00:13:17.600> on<00:13:17.839> the<00:13:18.000> sun's<00:13:18.320> south<00:13:18.639> pole,<00:13:19.440> and 13:19.750 --> 13:19.760 align:start position:0% instruments on the sun's south pole, and 13:19.760 --> 13:22.629 align:start position:0% instruments on the sun's south pole, and snapped<00:13:20.240> the<00:13:20.560> first<00:13:20.959> images<00:13:21.600> we've<00:13:22.079> ever 13:22.629 --> 13:22.639 align:start position:0% snapped the first images we've ever 13:22.639 --> 13:24.629 align:start position:0% snapped the first images we've ever captured<00:13:23.120> of<00:13:23.279> it. 13:24.629 --> 13:24.639 align:start position:0% captured of it. 13:24.639 --> 13:27.590 align:start position:0% captured of it. And<00:13:24.880> it<00:13:25.120> turns<00:13:25.360> out<00:13:25.920> the<00:13:26.160> South<00:13:26.399> Pole<00:13:26.959> is<00:13:27.279> a 13:27.590 --> 13:27.600 align:start position:0% And it turns out the South Pole is a 13:27.600 --> 13:31.190 align:start position:0% And it turns out the South Pole is a crazy<00:13:28.399> messy<00:13:28.880> place<00:13:29.440> hiding<00:13:30.079> three<00:13:30.880> big 13:31.190 --> 13:31.200 align:start position:0% crazy messy place hiding three big 13:31.200 --> 13:33.829 align:start position:0% crazy messy place hiding three big surprises<00:13:32.079> we're<00:13:32.399> only<00:13:32.720> just<00:13:33.200> beginning<00:13:33.600> to 13:33.829 --> 13:33.839 align:start position:0% surprises we're only just beginning to 13:33.839 --> 13:37.110 align:start position:0% surprises we're only just beginning to understand.<00:13:35.040> A<00:13:35.279> normal<00:13:35.600> magnet<00:13:36.240> has<00:13:36.639> clear 13:37.110 --> 13:37.120 align:start position:0% understand. A normal magnet has clear 13:37.120 --> 13:39.509 align:start position:0% understand. A normal magnet has clear north<00:13:37.519> and<00:13:37.760> south<00:13:38.079> polarity.<00:13:38.959> But<00:13:39.120> Solar 13:39.509 --> 13:39.519 align:start position:0% north and south polarity. But Solar 13:39.519 --> 13:41.910 align:start position:0% north and south polarity. But Solar Orbiter<00:13:40.079> revealed<00:13:40.399> that<00:13:40.880> for<00:13:41.120> a<00:13:41.360> short<00:13:41.680> time 13:41.910 --> 13:41.920 align:start position:0% Orbiter revealed that for a short time 13:41.920 --> 13:44.870 align:start position:0% Orbiter revealed that for a short time during<00:13:42.160> the<00:13:42.320> solar<00:13:42.639> maximum,<00:13:43.519> both<00:13:43.920> north<00:13:44.480> and 13:44.870 --> 13:44.880 align:start position:0% during the solar maximum, both north and 13:44.880 --> 13:47.350 align:start position:0% during the solar maximum, both north and south<00:13:45.279> polarity<00:13:45.839> magnetic<00:13:46.399> fields<00:13:47.040> are 13:47.350 --> 13:47.360 align:start position:0% south polarity magnetic fields are 13:47.360 --> 13:50.150 align:start position:0% south polarity magnetic fields are present<00:13:47.760> at<00:13:48.079> the<00:13:48.320> south<00:13:48.560> pole<00:13:49.360> at<00:13:49.680> the<00:13:49.839> same 13:50.150 --> 13:50.160 align:start position:0% present at the south pole at the same 13:50.160 --> 13:53.910 align:start position:0% present at the south pole at the same time,<00:13:51.040> tangled<00:13:51.839> and<00:13:52.160> intermixed. 13:53.910 --> 13:53.920 align:start position:0% time, tangled and intermixed. 13:53.920 --> 13:56.790 align:start position:0% time, tangled and intermixed. To<00:13:54.240> emerge<00:13:54.639> from<00:13:54.880> this<00:13:55.200> bubbling<00:13:55.839> chaos,<00:13:56.560> the 13:56.790 --> 13:56.800 align:start position:0% To emerge from this bubbling chaos, the 13:56.800 --> 14:00.150 align:start position:0% To emerge from this bubbling chaos, the sun<00:13:57.120> flips<00:13:57.680> its<00:13:58.000> entire<00:13:58.480> magnetic<00:13:59.040> field.<00:13:59.920> The 14:00.150 --> 14:00.160 align:start position:0% sun flips its entire magnetic field. The 14:00.160 --> 14:02.710 align:start position:0% sun flips its entire magnetic field. The north<00:14:00.399> pole<00:14:00.959> becomes<00:14:01.360> the<00:14:01.600> south<00:14:02.079> and<00:14:02.399> vice 14:02.710 --> 14:02.720 align:start position:0% north pole becomes the south and vice 14:02.720 --> 14:05.509 align:start position:0% north pole becomes the south and vice versa.<00:14:03.680> It's<00:14:03.839> a<00:14:04.079> cycle<00:14:04.320> that<00:14:04.560> repeats<00:14:05.040> every 14:05.509 --> 14:05.519 align:start position:0% versa. It's a cycle that repeats every 14:05.519 --> 14:08.710 align:start position:0% versa. It's a cycle that repeats every 11<00:14:06.000> years,<00:14:06.800> meaning<00:14:07.120> it<00:14:07.279> takes<00:14:07.519> the<00:14:07.680> sun<00:14:08.160> 22 14:08.710 --> 14:08.720 align:start position:0% 11 years, meaning it takes the sun 22 14:08.720 --> 14:10.949 align:start position:0% 11 years, meaning it takes the sun 22 years<00:14:08.959> to<00:14:09.199> complete<00:14:09.600> an<00:14:09.839> entire<00:14:10.399> magnetic 14:10.949 --> 14:10.959 align:start position:0% years to complete an entire magnetic 14:10.959 --> 14:14.069 align:start position:0% years to complete an entire magnetic cycle,<00:14:11.600> also<00:14:11.920> known<00:14:12.160> as<00:14:12.320> the<00:14:12.560> hail<00:14:13.040> cycle. 14:14.069 --> 14:14.079 align:start position:0% cycle, also known as the hail cycle. 14:14.079 --> 14:16.470 align:start position:0% cycle, also known as the hail cycle. Once<00:14:14.320> the<00:14:14.560> magnetic<00:14:14.959> field<00:14:15.279> flips,<00:14:15.920> a<00:14:16.160> single 14:16.470 --> 14:16.480 align:start position:0% Once the magnetic field flips, a single 14:16.480 --> 14:19.189 align:start position:0% Once the magnetic field flips, a single polarity<00:14:17.279> would<00:14:17.600> slowly<00:14:18.079> build<00:14:18.320> up<00:14:18.720> and<00:14:18.959> take 14:19.189 --> 14:19.199 align:start position:0% polarity would slowly build up and take 14:19.199 --> 14:21.670 align:start position:0% polarity would slowly build up and take over<00:14:19.440> at<00:14:19.600> the<00:14:19.760> sun's<00:14:20.079> poles,<00:14:20.880> settling<00:14:21.360> into 14:21.670 --> 14:21.680 align:start position:0% over at the sun's poles, settling into 14:21.680 --> 14:23.829 align:start position:0% over at the sun's poles, settling into its<00:14:22.000> most<00:14:22.320> orderly<00:14:22.800> configuration<00:14:23.519> during 14:23.829 --> 14:23.839 align:start position:0% its most orderly configuration during 14:23.839 --> 14:26.230 align:start position:0% its most orderly configuration during the<00:14:24.000> solar<00:14:24.399> minimum<00:14:24.959> when<00:14:25.199> the<00:14:25.360> sun<00:14:25.600> is<00:14:25.839> least 14:26.230 --> 14:26.240 align:start position:0% the solar minimum when the sun is least 14:26.240 --> 14:28.949 align:start position:0% the solar minimum when the sun is least active.<00:14:27.440> Yet,<00:14:27.839> this<00:14:28.079> was<00:14:28.320> just<00:14:28.480> the<00:14:28.800> beginning 14:28.949 --> 14:28.959 align:start position:0% active. Yet, this was just the beginning 14:28.959 --> 14:31.670 align:start position:0% active. Yet, this was just the beginning of<00:14:29.199> the<00:14:29.440> story.<00:14:30.480> The<00:14:30.800> Solar<00:14:31.199> Orbiter's 14:31.670 --> 14:31.680 align:start position:0% of the story. The Solar Orbiter's 14:31.680 --> 14:33.990 align:start position:0% of the story. The Solar Orbiter's onboard<00:14:32.160> spectrometer,<00:14:33.279> the<00:14:33.519> spectral 14:33.990 --> 14:34.000 align:start position:0% onboard spectrometer, the spectral 14:34.000 --> 14:35.990 align:start position:0% onboard spectrometer, the spectral imaging<00:14:34.480> of<00:14:34.639> the<00:14:34.800> coronal<00:14:35.360> environment 14:35.990 --> 14:36.000 align:start position:0% imaging of the coronal environment 14:36.000 --> 14:38.949 align:start position:0% imaging of the coronal environment instrument<00:14:36.480> or<00:14:36.959> SPICE,<00:14:38.000> mapped<00:14:38.399> how<00:14:38.560> fast 14:38.949 --> 14:38.959 align:start position:0% instrument or SPICE, mapped how fast 14:38.959 --> 14:41.110 align:start position:0% instrument or SPICE, mapped how fast clumps<00:14:39.360> of<00:14:39.519> solar<00:14:39.920> material<00:14:40.399> were<00:14:40.720> moving 14:41.110 --> 14:41.120 align:start position:0% clumps of solar material were moving 14:41.120 --> 14:43.030 align:start position:0% clumps of solar material were moving around<00:14:41.440> the<00:14:41.680> transition<00:14:42.240> region<00:14:42.639> of<00:14:42.800> the 14:43.030 --> 14:43.040 align:start position:0% around the transition region of the 14:43.040 --> 14:46.069 align:start position:0% around the transition region of the polar<00:14:43.440> atmosphere,<00:14:44.399> a<00:14:44.720> thin,<00:14:45.279> irregular 14:46.069 --> 14:46.079 align:start position:0% polar atmosphere, a thin, irregular 14:46.079 --> 14:47.670 align:start position:0% polar atmosphere, a thin, irregular layer<00:14:46.240> of<00:14:46.399> the<00:14:46.560> sun's<00:14:46.880> atmosphere,<00:14:47.360> where 14:47.670 --> 14:47.680 align:start position:0% layer of the sun's atmosphere, where 14:47.680 --> 14:49.509 align:start position:0% layer of the sun's atmosphere, where temperatures<00:14:48.240> rapidly<00:14:48.959> increase<00:14:49.199> from 14:49.509 --> 14:49.519 align:start position:0% temperatures rapidly increase from 14:49.519 --> 14:53.030 align:start position:0% temperatures rapidly increase from 10,000°<00:14:50.480> C<00:14:51.279> to<00:14:51.680> hundreds<00:14:52.160> of<00:14:52.399> thousands<00:14:52.880> of 14:53.030 --> 14:53.040 align:start position:0% 10,000° C to hundreds of thousands of 14:53.040 --> 14:56.470 align:start position:0% 10,000° C to hundreds of thousands of degrees.<00:14:54.079> SPICE<00:14:55.360> captures<00:14:55.839> the<00:14:56.079> light 14:56.470 --> 14:56.480 align:start position:0% degrees. SPICE captures the light 14:56.480 --> 14:59.189 align:start position:0% degrees. SPICE captures the light different<00:14:56.800> elements<00:14:57.279> like<00:14:57.680> oxygen,<00:14:58.399> neon, 14:59.189 --> 14:59.199 align:start position:0% different elements like oxygen, neon, 14:59.199 --> 15:02.150 align:start position:0% different elements like oxygen, neon, carbon,<00:14:59.600> and<00:14:59.920> hydrogen<00:15:00.880> emit<00:15:01.279> at<00:15:01.600> specific 15:02.150 --> 15:02.160 align:start position:0% carbon, and hydrogen emit at specific 15:02.160 --> 15:04.389 align:start position:0% carbon, and hydrogen emit at specific temperatures<00:15:03.040> and<00:15:03.279> then<00:15:03.680> tracks<00:15:04.160> their 15:04.389 --> 15:04.399 align:start position:0% temperatures and then tracks their 15:04.399 --> 15:06.629 align:start position:0% temperatures and then tracks their movement<00:15:04.800> to<00:15:05.040> create<00:15:05.279> a<00:15:05.519> velocity<00:15:06.079> map<00:15:06.320> of<00:15:06.480> the 15:06.629 --> 15:06.639 align:start position:0% movement to create a velocity map of the 15:06.639 --> 15:09.030 align:start position:0% movement to create a velocity map of the South<00:15:06.959> Pole.<00:15:07.839> These<00:15:08.160> measurements<00:15:08.639> can<00:15:08.800> then 15:09.030 --> 15:09.040 align:start position:0% South Pole. These measurements can then 15:09.040 --> 15:11.030 align:start position:0% South Pole. These measurements can then show<00:15:09.279> how<00:15:09.600> particles<00:15:10.160> are<00:15:10.320> flung<00:15:10.720> out<00:15:10.880> from 15:11.030 --> 15:11.040 align:start position:0% show how particles are flung out from 15:11.040 --> 15:13.670 align:start position:0% show how particles are flung out from the<00:15:11.199> sun<00:15:11.519> in<00:15:11.760> the<00:15:11.920> form<00:15:12.160> of<00:15:12.399> solar<00:15:12.800> wind<00:15:13.440> and 15:13.670 --> 15:13.680 align:start position:0% the sun in the form of solar wind and 15:13.680 --> 15:15.430 align:start position:0% the sun in the form of solar wind and represent<00:15:14.079> the<00:15:14.399> first<00:15:14.560> time<00:15:14.800> we've<00:15:15.199> ever 15:15.430 --> 15:15.440 align:start position:0% represent the first time we've ever 15:15.440 --> 15:18.790 align:start position:0% represent the first time we've ever traced<00:15:16.000> solar<00:15:16.399> wind<00:15:16.800> to<00:15:17.120> its<00:15:17.440> source<00:15:18.399> rather 15:18.790 --> 15:18.800 align:start position:0% traced solar wind to its source rather 15:18.800 --> 15:20.389 align:start position:0% traced solar wind to its source rather than<00:15:18.959> inferring<00:15:19.440> it<00:15:19.600> from<00:15:19.920> measurements 15:20.389 --> 15:20.399 align:start position:0% than inferring it from measurements 15:20.399 --> 15:23.509 align:start position:0% than inferring it from measurements taken<00:15:20.880> millions<00:15:21.360> of<00:15:21.519> kilometers<00:15:22.079> downstream. 15:23.509 --> 15:23.519 align:start position:0% taken millions of kilometers downstream. 15:23.519 --> 15:26.550 align:start position:0% taken millions of kilometers downstream. Now,<00:15:24.079> the<00:15:24.320> third<00:15:24.639> and<00:15:25.120> final<00:15:25.600> finding<00:15:26.160> ties 15:26.550 --> 15:26.560 align:start position:0% Now, the third and final finding ties 15:26.560 --> 15:30.470 align:start position:0% Now, the third and final finding ties back<00:15:26.720> to<00:15:27.120> solar<00:15:27.519> cycle<00:15:28.000> 25<00:15:28.959> and<00:15:29.279> why<00:15:29.600> it<00:15:29.920> was<00:15:30.160> so 15:30.470 --> 15:30.480 align:start position:0% back to solar cycle 25 and why it was so 15:30.480 --> 15:33.189 align:start position:0% back to solar cycle 25 and why it was so much<00:15:30.720> stronger<00:15:31.199> than<00:15:31.440> anticipated. 15:33.189 --> 15:33.199 align:start position:0% much stronger than anticipated. 15:33.199 --> 15:36.710 align:start position:0% much stronger than anticipated. In<00:15:33.519> a<00:15:33.760> November<00:15:34.320> 2025<00:15:35.040> paper,<00:15:35.839> solar<00:15:36.240> orbiter 15:36.710 --> 15:36.720 align:start position:0% In a November 2025 paper, solar orbiter 15:36.720 --> 15:38.790 align:start position:0% In a November 2025 paper, solar orbiter data<00:15:37.040> showed<00:15:37.360> the<00:15:37.600> migration<00:15:38.000> of<00:15:38.240> sunspot 15:38.790 --> 15:38.800 align:start position:0% data showed the migration of sunspot 15:38.800 --> 15:41.030 align:start position:0% data showed the migration of sunspot magnetic<00:15:39.199> fields<00:15:39.519> towards<00:15:39.920> the<00:15:40.079> poles<00:15:40.800> might 15:41.030 --> 15:41.040 align:start position:0% magnetic fields towards the poles might 15:41.040 --> 15:43.110 align:start position:0% magnetic fields towards the poles might have<00:15:41.199> been<00:15:41.440> happening<00:15:41.839> much<00:15:42.160> faster<00:15:42.639> than<00:15:42.880> we 15:43.110 --> 15:43.120 align:start position:0% have been happening much faster than we 15:43.120 --> 15:46.069 align:start position:0% have been happening much faster than we expected.<00:15:44.160> This<00:15:44.399> has<00:15:44.639> huge<00:15:45.120> implications<00:15:45.680> for 15:46.069 --> 15:46.079 align:start position:0% expected. This has huge implications for 15:46.079 --> 15:48.389 align:start position:0% expected. This has huge implications for forecasting<00:15:46.720> future<00:15:47.120> solar<00:15:47.519> cycles. 15:48.389 --> 15:48.399 align:start position:0% forecasting future solar cycles. 15:48.399 --> 15:51.829 align:start position:0% forecasting future solar cycles. Remember<00:15:49.279> the<00:15:49.759> polar<00:15:50.240> field<00:15:50.480> precursor?<00:15:51.600> The 15:51.829 --> 15:51.839 align:start position:0% Remember the polar field precursor? The 15:51.839 --> 15:54.069 align:start position:0% Remember the polar field precursor? The speed<00:15:52.160> and<00:15:52.399> strength<00:15:52.800> of<00:15:53.120> one's<00:15:53.519> cycle's 15:54.069 --> 15:54.079 align:start position:0% speed and strength of one's cycle's 15:54.079 --> 15:56.389 align:start position:0% speed and strength of one's cycle's poleward<00:15:54.639> drift<00:15:55.360> determines<00:15:55.839> the<00:15:56.079> polar 15:56.389 --> 15:56.399 align:start position:0% poleward drift determines the polar 15:56.399 --> 15:58.230 align:start position:0% poleward drift determines the polar field<00:15:56.720> strength<00:15:57.120> at<00:15:57.360> the<00:15:57.600> next<00:15:57.839> solar 15:58.230 --> 15:58.240 align:start position:0% field strength at the next solar 15:58.240 --> 16:01.030 align:start position:0% field strength at the next solar minimum,<00:15:59.120> which<00:15:59.360> in<00:15:59.600> turn<00:16:00.320> determines<00:16:00.800> the 16:01.030 --> 16:01.040 align:start position:0% minimum, which in turn determines the 16:01.040 --> 16:03.829 align:start position:0% minimum, which in turn determines the strength<00:16:01.360> of<00:16:01.519> the<00:16:01.759> next<00:16:02.000> solar<00:16:02.399> cycle.<00:16:03.360> If<00:16:03.600> the 16:03.829 --> 16:03.839 align:start position:0% strength of the next solar cycle. If the 16:03.839 --> 16:06.069 align:start position:0% strength of the next solar cycle. If the magnetic<00:16:04.320> flux<00:16:04.720> is<00:16:04.880> arriving<00:16:05.279> at<00:16:05.519> the<00:16:05.600> poles 16:06.069 --> 16:06.079 align:start position:0% magnetic flux is arriving at the poles 16:06.079 --> 16:08.550 align:start position:0% magnetic flux is arriving at the poles faster<00:16:06.560> than<00:16:06.720> our<00:16:06.959> models<00:16:07.279> predict,<00:16:08.160> our 16:08.550 --> 16:08.560 align:start position:0% faster than our models predict, our 16:08.560 --> 16:11.509 align:start position:0% faster than our models predict, our estimates<00:16:09.040> of<00:16:09.279> future<00:16:09.600> cycles<00:16:10.480> are<00:16:10.800> way<00:16:11.040> off 16:11.509 --> 16:11.519 align:start position:0% estimates of future cycles are way off 16:11.519 --> 16:15.350 align:start position:0% estimates of future cycles are way off before<00:16:11.839> we<00:16:12.320> even<00:16:12.639> started.<00:16:13.920> To<00:16:14.240> summarize,<00:16:15.120> it 16:15.350 --> 16:15.360 align:start position:0% before we even started. To summarize, it 16:15.360 --> 16:17.509 align:start position:0% before we even started. To summarize, it seems<00:16:15.600> we<00:16:15.839> may<00:16:16.079> have<00:16:16.320> underestimated<00:16:17.120> solar 16:17.509 --> 16:17.519 align:start position:0% seems we may have underestimated solar 16:17.519 --> 16:20.949 align:start position:0% seems we may have underestimated solar cycle<00:16:17.920> 25<00:16:18.399> for<00:16:18.800> a<00:16:19.120> few<00:16:19.360> reasons.<00:16:20.240> Our<00:16:20.480> dynamo 16:20.949 --> 16:20.959 align:start position:0% cycle 25 for a few reasons. Our dynamo 16:20.959 --> 16:23.430 align:start position:0% cycle 25 for a few reasons. Our dynamo model<00:16:21.199> was<00:16:21.440> flawed.<00:16:22.240> Our<00:16:22.560> instruments<00:16:23.199> only 16:23.430 --> 16:23.440 align:start position:0% model was flawed. Our instruments only 16:23.440 --> 16:25.749 align:start position:0% model was flawed. Our instruments only detected<00:16:23.920> a<00:16:24.240> fraction<00:16:24.560> of<00:16:24.720> the<00:16:24.880> sun's<00:16:25.360> actual 16:25.749 --> 16:25.759 align:start position:0% detected a fraction of the sun's actual 16:25.759 --> 16:28.230 align:start position:0% detected a fraction of the sun's actual magnetism,<00:16:26.639> and<00:16:26.800> the<00:16:27.040> rate<00:16:27.279> of<00:16:27.519> flux<00:16:27.920> at<00:16:28.079> the 16:28.230 --> 16:28.240 align:start position:0% magnetism, and the rate of flux at the 16:28.240 --> 16:30.550 align:start position:0% magnetism, and the rate of flux at the poles<00:16:28.880> is<00:16:29.199> potentially<00:16:29.759> higher<00:16:30.160> than<00:16:30.399> we 16:30.550 --> 16:30.560 align:start position:0% poles is potentially higher than we 16:30.560 --> 16:33.910 align:start position:0% poles is potentially higher than we thought.<00:16:31.839> Luckily,<00:16:32.720> no<00:16:33.120> massive<00:16:33.600> solar 16:33.910 --> 16:33.920 align:start position:0% thought. Luckily, no massive solar 16:33.920 --> 16:37.509 align:start position:0% thought. Luckily, no massive solar flares<00:16:34.240> or<00:16:34.399> CMEs<00:16:35.120> came<00:16:35.440> our<00:16:35.839> way.<00:16:36.800> But<00:16:37.040> if<00:16:37.279> they 16:37.509 --> 16:37.519 align:start position:0% flares or CMEs came our way. But if they 16:37.519 --> 16:40.550 align:start position:0% flares or CMEs came our way. But if they did,<00:16:38.480> what<00:16:38.800> would<00:16:39.040> that<00:16:39.279> mean<00:16:39.519> for<00:16:39.680> us?<00:16:40.240> Just 16:40.550 --> 16:40.560 align:start position:0% did, what would that mean for us? Just 16:40.560 --> 16:42.870 align:start position:0% did, what would that mean for us? Just how<00:16:40.880> devastating<00:16:41.680> would<00:16:42.240> a<00:16:42.560> massive 16:42.870 --> 16:42.880 align:start position:0% how devastating would a massive 16:42.880 --> 16:45.509 align:start position:0% how devastating would a massive geomagnetic<00:16:43.759> storm<00:16:44.240> be<00:16:44.560> for<00:16:44.800> us<00:16:45.040> here<00:16:45.279> on 16:45.509 --> 16:45.519 align:start position:0% geomagnetic storm be for us here on 16:45.519 --> 16:48.790 align:start position:0% geomagnetic storm be for us here on Earth<00:16:46.079> or<00:16:46.399> our<00:16:46.720> astronauts<00:16:47.279> in<00:16:47.519> space?<00:16:48.560> How 16:48.790 --> 16:48.800 align:start position:0% Earth or our astronauts in space? How 16:48.800 --> 16:52.470 align:start position:0% Earth or our astronauts in space? How can<00:16:49.120> we<00:16:49.680> prepare<00:16:50.079> for<00:16:50.240> one? 16:52.470 --> 16:52.480 align:start position:0% can we prepare for one? 16:52.480 --> 16:55.910 align:start position:0% can we prepare for one? On<00:16:52.720> the<00:16:52.800> 10th<00:16:53.120> of<00:16:53.279> May<00:16:53.839> 2024,<00:16:55.040> a<00:16:55.360> huge 16:55.910 --> 16:55.920 align:start position:0% On the 10th of May 2024, a huge 16:55.920 --> 16:58.870 align:start position:0% On the 10th of May 2024, a huge geomagnetic<00:16:56.800> storm<00:16:57.199> struck<00:16:57.680> Earth.<00:16:58.560> These 16:58.870 --> 16:58.880 align:start position:0% geomagnetic storm struck Earth. These 16:58.880 --> 17:01.350 align:start position:0% geomagnetic storm struck Earth. These happen<00:16:59.199> when<00:16:59.360> the<00:16:59.519> sun<00:16:59.759> releases<00:17:00.240> a<00:17:00.480> CME 17:01.350 --> 17:01.360 align:start position:0% happen when the sun releases a CME 17:01.360 --> 17:04.309 align:start position:0% happen when the sun releases a CME hurling<00:17:01.920> a<00:17:02.320> billion<00:17:02.800> tons<00:17:03.279> of<00:17:03.600> magnetized 17:04.309 --> 17:04.319 align:start position:0% hurling a billion tons of magnetized 17:04.319 --> 17:07.270 align:start position:0% hurling a billion tons of magnetized plasma<00:17:04.880> towards<00:17:05.439> our<00:17:05.760> planet.<00:17:06.640> It<00:17:06.959> can<00:17:07.039> take 17:07.270 --> 17:07.280 align:start position:0% plasma towards our planet. It can take 17:07.280 --> 17:10.069 align:start position:0% plasma towards our planet. It can take this<00:17:07.520> material<00:17:08.079> several<00:17:08.559> days<00:17:08.959> to<00:17:09.199> arrive, 17:10.069 --> 17:10.079 align:start position:0% this material several days to arrive, 17:10.079 --> 17:12.949 align:start position:0% this material several days to arrive, but<00:17:10.240> once<00:17:10.559> it<00:17:10.720> does,<00:17:11.360> it<00:17:11.760> slams<00:17:12.400> into<00:17:12.640> Earth's 17:12.949 --> 17:12.959 align:start position:0% but once it does, it slams into Earth's 17:12.959 --> 17:15.909 align:start position:0% but once it does, it slams into Earth's magneettosphere,<00:17:14.240> triggering<00:17:14.640> a<00:17:14.959> rapid<00:17:15.600> and 17:15.909 --> 17:15.919 align:start position:0% magneettosphere, triggering a rapid and 17:15.919 --> 17:18.069 align:start position:0% magneettosphere, triggering a rapid and often<00:17:16.319> violent<00:17:16.880> exchange<00:17:17.280> of<00:17:17.439> energy<00:17:17.760> between 17:18.069 --> 17:18.079 align:start position:0% often violent exchange of energy between 17:18.079 --> 17:20.230 align:start position:0% often violent exchange of energy between the<00:17:18.319> solar<00:17:18.640> wind<00:17:19.039> and<00:17:19.199> the<00:17:19.439> space<00:17:19.760> environment 17:20.230 --> 17:20.240 align:start position:0% the solar wind and the space environment 17:20.240 --> 17:23.909 align:start position:0% the solar wind and the space environment around<00:17:20.559> us.<00:17:21.520> Aurora<00:17:22.240> blazed<00:17:22.880> as<00:17:23.120> far<00:17:23.360> south<00:17:23.679> as 17:23.909 --> 17:23.919 align:start position:0% around us. Aurora blazed as far south as 17:23.919 --> 17:26.870 align:start position:0% around us. Aurora blazed as far south as the<00:17:24.079> Florida<00:17:24.559> Keys,<00:17:25.439> the<00:17:25.600> Yucatan<00:17:26.240> Peninsula 17:26.870 --> 17:26.880 align:start position:0% the Florida Keys, the Yucatan Peninsula 17:26.880 --> 17:30.870 align:start position:0% the Florida Keys, the Yucatan Peninsula in<00:17:27.120> Mexico,<00:17:28.079> the<00:17:28.319> Bahamas,<00:17:29.440> Jamaica,<00:17:30.480> Puerto 17:30.870 --> 17:30.880 align:start position:0% in Mexico, the Bahamas, Jamaica, Puerto 17:30.880 --> 17:33.590 align:start position:0% in Mexico, the Bahamas, Jamaica, Puerto Rico,<00:17:31.679> and<00:17:31.919> Hawaii. 17:33.590 --> 17:33.600 align:start position:0% Rico, and Hawaii. 17:33.600 --> 17:35.750 align:start position:0% Rico, and Hawaii. Just<00:17:33.840> a<00:17:34.000> month<00:17:34.240> later,<00:17:34.640> the<00:17:34.880> sky<00:17:35.280> turned 17:35.750 --> 17:35.760 align:start position:0% Just a month later, the sky turned 17:35.760 --> 17:38.230 align:start position:0% Just a month later, the sky turned faintly<00:17:36.320> red<00:17:36.559> in<00:17:36.720> Japan<00:17:37.200> with<00:17:37.360> an<00:17:37.600> aurora<00:17:38.080> that 17:38.230 --> 17:38.240 align:start position:0% faintly red in Japan with an aurora that 17:38.240 --> 17:40.470 align:start position:0% faintly red in Japan with an aurora that scientists<00:17:38.799> have<00:17:39.039> since<00:17:39.360> found<00:17:39.840> stretched 17:40.470 --> 17:40.480 align:start position:0% scientists have since found stretched 17:40.480 --> 17:42.390 align:start position:0% scientists have since found stretched far<00:17:40.880> higher<00:17:41.200> into<00:17:41.520> Earth's<00:17:41.760> atmosphere<00:17:42.240> than 17:42.390 --> 17:42.400 align:start position:0% far higher into Earth's atmosphere than 17:42.400 --> 17:46.310 align:start position:0% far higher into Earth's atmosphere than we<00:17:42.640> expected,<00:17:43.520> as<00:17:43.760> high<00:17:44.000> as<00:17:44.400> 800<00:17:44.960> m.<00:17:45.919> A<00:17:46.080> sign 17:46.310 --> 17:46.320 align:start position:0% we expected, as high as 800 m. A sign 17:46.320 --> 17:48.630 align:start position:0% we expected, as high as 800 m. A sign that<00:17:46.720> charged<00:17:47.200> particles<00:17:47.840> may<00:17:48.080> carry<00:17:48.400> more 17:48.630 --> 17:48.640 align:start position:0% that charged particles may carry more 17:48.640 --> 17:51.430 align:start position:0% that charged particles may carry more energy<00:17:48.960> than<00:17:49.200> we<00:17:49.440> initially<00:17:49.840> thought.<00:17:51.120> But 17:51.430 --> 17:51.440 align:start position:0% energy than we initially thought. But 17:51.440 --> 17:53.909 align:start position:0% energy than we initially thought. But despite<00:17:52.000> the<00:17:52.320> breathtaking<00:17:52.960> light<00:17:53.280> show, 17:53.909 --> 17:53.919 align:start position:0% despite the breathtaking light show, 17:53.919 --> 17:56.230 align:start position:0% despite the breathtaking light show, geomagnetic<00:17:54.720> storms<00:17:55.120> can<00:17:55.360> also<00:17:55.679> be<00:17:55.919> very 17:56.230 --> 17:56.240 align:start position:0% geomagnetic storms can also be very 17:56.240 --> 17:58.310 align:start position:0% geomagnetic storms can also be very dangerous<00:17:56.960> because<00:17:57.200> they<00:17:57.520> affect<00:17:57.919> Earth's 17:58.310 --> 17:58.320 align:start position:0% dangerous because they affect Earth's 17:58.320 --> 18:01.029 align:start position:0% dangerous because they affect Earth's magneettosphere.<00:17:59.760> See,<00:18:00.240> our<00:18:00.559> planet<00:18:00.880> is 18:01.029 --> 18:01.039 align:start position:0% magneettosphere. See, our planet is 18:01.039 --> 18:03.750 align:start position:0% magneettosphere. See, our planet is surrounded<00:18:01.520> by<00:18:01.760> a<00:18:02.080> plasmosphere,<00:18:03.200> a<00:18:03.440> bubble 18:03.750 --> 18:03.760 align:start position:0% surrounded by a plasmosphere, a bubble 18:03.760 --> 18:06.070 align:start position:0% surrounded by a plasmosphere, a bubble of<00:18:03.919> charged<00:18:04.320> plasma<00:18:04.960> that<00:18:05.280> helps<00:18:05.600> deflect 18:06.070 --> 18:06.080 align:start position:0% of charged plasma that helps deflect 18:06.080 --> 18:08.630 align:start position:0% of charged plasma that helps deflect oncoming<00:18:06.720> solar<00:18:07.120> material.<00:18:08.160> When<00:18:08.480> a 18:08.630 --> 18:08.640 align:start position:0% oncoming solar material. When a 18:08.640 --> 18:10.789 align:start position:0% oncoming solar material. When a geomagnetic<00:18:09.360> storm<00:18:09.679> hits,<00:18:10.240> the<00:18:10.480> pressure 18:10.789 --> 18:10.799 align:start position:0% geomagnetic storm hits, the pressure 18:10.799 --> 18:12.470 align:start position:0% geomagnetic storm hits, the pressure from<00:18:11.039> the<00:18:11.200> solar<00:18:11.520> wind<00:18:11.840> squeezes<00:18:12.320> the 18:12.470 --> 18:12.480 align:start position:0% from the solar wind squeezes the 18:12.480 --> 18:15.270 align:start position:0% from the solar wind squeezes the plasmosphere<00:18:13.280> inward,<00:18:14.240> compressing<00:18:14.799> towards 18:15.270 --> 18:15.280 align:start position:0% plasmosphere inward, compressing towards 18:15.280 --> 18:17.750 align:start position:0% plasmosphere inward, compressing towards Earth<00:18:15.600> like<00:18:15.840> a<00:18:16.000> deflating<00:18:16.559> balloon.<00:18:17.440> After 18:17.750 --> 18:17.760 align:start position:0% Earth like a deflating balloon. After 18:17.760 --> 18:20.070 align:start position:0% Earth like a deflating balloon. After the<00:18:18.000> storm<00:18:18.320> passes,<00:18:19.039> the<00:18:19.200> plasmosphere<00:18:19.840> is 18:20.070 --> 18:20.080 align:start position:0% the storm passes, the plasmosphere is 18:20.080 --> 18:21.909 align:start position:0% the storm passes, the plasmosphere is replenished<00:18:20.559> by<00:18:20.880> charged<00:18:21.280> particles<00:18:21.760> from 18:21.909 --> 18:21.919 align:start position:0% replenished by charged particles from 18:21.919 --> 18:24.070 align:start position:0% replenished by charged particles from the<00:18:22.160> ionosphere<00:18:22.799> below,<00:18:23.360> which<00:18:23.600> is<00:18:23.760> filled 18:24.070 --> 18:24.080 align:start position:0% the ionosphere below, which is filled 18:24.080 --> 18:25.909 align:start position:0% the ionosphere below, which is filled with<00:18:24.400> ions<00:18:24.880> created<00:18:25.280> when<00:18:25.440> the<00:18:25.600> sun's 18:25.909 --> 18:25.919 align:start position:0% with ions created when the sun's 18:25.919 --> 18:28.470 align:start position:0% with ions created when the sun's radiation<00:18:26.559> strips<00:18:27.039> particles<00:18:27.600> in<00:18:27.919> our<00:18:28.160> upper 18:28.470 --> 18:28.480 align:start position:0% radiation strips particles in our upper 18:28.480 --> 18:31.669 align:start position:0% radiation strips particles in our upper atmosphere<00:18:29.039> of<00:18:29.360> electrons.<00:18:30.480> The<00:18:30.720> May<00:18:31.039> 2024 18:31.669 --> 18:31.679 align:start position:0% atmosphere of electrons. The May 2024 18:31.679 --> 18:35.110 align:start position:0% atmosphere of electrons. The May 2024 geomagnetic<00:18:32.480> storm<00:18:33.120> as<00:18:33.520> part<00:18:33.760> of<00:18:34.000> cycle<00:18:34.559> 25 18:35.110 --> 18:35.120 align:start position:0% geomagnetic storm as part of cycle 25 18:35.120 --> 18:37.750 align:start position:0% geomagnetic storm as part of cycle 25 solar<00:18:35.520> maximum<00:18:36.400> was<00:18:36.640> the<00:18:36.880> strongest<00:18:37.280> in<00:18:37.600> the 18:37.750 --> 18:37.760 align:start position:0% solar maximum was the strongest in the 18:37.760 --> 18:42.710 align:start position:0% solar maximum was the strongest in the last<00:18:38.160> 21<00:18:38.799> years.<00:18:40.080> Lucky<00:18:40.559> for<00:18:40.799> us,<00:18:41.520> Jax's<00:18:42.240> array 18:42.710 --> 18:42.720 align:start position:0% last 21 years. Lucky for us, Jax's array 18:42.720 --> 18:45.029 align:start position:0% last 21 years. Lucky for us, Jax's array satellite<00:18:43.679> happened<00:18:44.000> to<00:18:44.160> be<00:18:44.400> in<00:18:44.640> the<00:18:44.799> right 18:45.029 --> 18:45.039 align:start position:0% satellite happened to be in the right 18:45.039 --> 18:47.510 align:start position:0% satellite happened to be in the right place<00:18:45.440> at<00:18:45.679> the<00:18:45.840> right<00:18:46.000> time<00:18:46.559> to<00:18:46.799> capture<00:18:47.200> its 18:47.510 --> 18:47.520 align:start position:0% place at the right time to capture its 18:47.520 --> 18:50.070 align:start position:0% place at the right time to capture its effects<00:18:47.919> on<00:18:48.240> our<00:18:48.640> protected<00:18:49.200> magneettosphere 18:50.070 --> 18:50.080 align:start position:0% effects on our protected magneettosphere 18:50.080 --> 18:53.909 align:start position:0% effects on our protected magneettosphere like<00:18:50.480> never<00:18:50.880> before.<00:18:52.240> A<00:18:52.480> team<00:18:52.799> led<00:18:53.120> by<00:18:53.520> Dr. 18:53.909 --> 18:53.919 align:start position:0% like never before. A team led by Dr. 18:53.919 --> 18:57.430 align:start position:0% like never before. A team led by Dr. Atsuki<00:18:54.559> Shimbori<00:18:55.280> of<00:18:55.760> Nagoya<00:18:56.559> University's 18:57.430 --> 18:57.440 align:start position:0% Atsuki Shimbori of Nagoya University's 18:57.440 --> 18:59.510 align:start position:0% Atsuki Shimbori of Nagoya University's Institute<00:18:57.919> for<00:18:58.160> Space<00:18:58.559> Earth<00:18:58.799> Environmental 18:59.510 --> 18:59.520 align:start position:0% Institute for Space Earth Environmental 18:59.520 --> 19:02.310 align:start position:0% Institute for Space Earth Environmental Research<00:19:00.400> collected<00:19:00.799> the<00:19:01.039> first<00:19:01.520> continuous 19:02.310 --> 19:02.320 align:start position:0% Research collected the first continuous 19:02.320 --> 19:04.390 align:start position:0% Research collected the first continuous direct<00:19:02.720> readings<00:19:03.120> of<00:19:03.280> the<00:19:03.520> plasmosphere 19:04.390 --> 19:04.400 align:start position:0% direct readings of the plasmosphere 19:04.400 --> 19:06.870 align:start position:0% direct readings of the plasmosphere collapsing<00:19:05.120> to<00:19:05.360> low<00:19:05.679> altitude<00:19:06.240> during<00:19:06.640> a 19:06.870 --> 19:06.880 align:start position:0% collapsing to low altitude during a 19:06.880 --> 19:09.510 align:start position:0% collapsing to low altitude during a supertorrm.<00:19:08.000> The<00:19:08.240> team<00:19:08.640> watched<00:19:08.960> the<00:19:09.120> outer 19:09.510 --> 19:09.520 align:start position:0% supertorrm. The team watched the outer 19:09.520 --> 19:11.350 align:start position:0% supertorrm. The team watched the outer boundary<00:19:09.919> of<00:19:10.160> the<00:19:10.320> plasmosphere<00:19:10.960> collapse 19:11.350 --> 19:11.360 align:start position:0% boundary of the plasmosphere collapse 19:11.360 --> 19:17.270 align:start position:0% boundary of the plasmosphere collapse from<00:19:11.919> 44,000<00:19:13.120> km<00:19:14.000> down<00:19:14.320> to<00:19:14.559> just<00:19:15.039> 9,600<00:19:16.400> km<00:19:17.039> in 19:17.270 --> 19:17.280 align:start position:0% from 44,000 km down to just 9,600 km in 19:17.280 --> 19:21.029 align:start position:0% from 44,000 km down to just 9,600 km in under<00:19:17.679> 9<00:19:18.000> hours,<00:19:18.799> roughly<00:19:19.760> 15th<00:19:20.240> of<00:19:20.400> its<00:19:20.640> usual 19:21.029 --> 19:21.039 align:start position:0% under 9 hours, roughly 15th of its usual 19:21.039 --> 19:24.230 align:start position:0% under 9 hours, roughly 15th of its usual size.<00:19:22.160> This<00:19:22.400> was<00:19:22.559> the<00:19:22.799> lowest<00:19:23.200> altitude<00:19:23.840> ever 19:24.230 --> 19:24.240 align:start position:0% size. This was the lowest altitude ever 19:24.240 --> 19:26.310 align:start position:0% size. This was the lowest altitude ever recorded<00:19:24.799> for<00:19:25.039> the<00:19:25.200> plasmosphere's<00:19:26.000> outer 19:26.310 --> 19:26.320 align:start position:0% recorded for the plasmosphere's outer 19:26.320 --> 19:29.270 align:start position:0% recorded for the plasmosphere's outer edge<00:19:26.799> in<00:19:27.039> the<00:19:27.280> entire<00:19:27.840> Arz<00:19:28.480> mission<00:19:28.880> era, 19:29.270 --> 19:29.280 align:start position:0% edge in the entire Arz mission era, 19:29.280 --> 19:32.150 align:start position:0% edge in the entire Arz mission era, which<00:19:29.520> began<00:19:29.919> in<00:19:30.320> 2017.<00:19:31.679> And<00:19:31.919> this 19:32.150 --> 19:32.160 align:start position:0% which began in 2017. And this 19:32.160 --> 19:34.630 align:start position:0% which began in 2017. And this compression<00:19:33.039> left<00:19:33.440> all<00:19:33.840> satellites<00:19:34.400> in 19:34.630 --> 19:34.640 align:start position:0% compression left all satellites in 19:34.640 --> 19:37.830 align:start position:0% compression left all satellites in geostationary<00:19:35.520> orbit<00:19:36.160> and<00:19:36.480> most<00:19:36.880> in<00:19:37.360> medium 19:37.830 --> 19:37.840 align:start position:0% geostationary orbit and most in medium 19:37.840 --> 19:41.190 align:start position:0% geostationary orbit and most in medium earth<00:19:38.160> orbit<00:19:38.559> altitude<00:19:39.679> severely<00:19:40.480> exposed<00:19:41.120> to 19:41.190 --> 19:41.200 align:start position:0% earth orbit altitude severely exposed to 19:41.200 --> 19:43.750 align:start position:0% earth orbit altitude severely exposed to the<00:19:41.440> full<00:19:41.760> force<00:19:42.080> of<00:19:42.240> the<00:19:42.400> storm.<00:19:43.360> These 19:43.750 --> 19:43.760 align:start position:0% the full force of the storm. These 19:43.760 --> 19:46.310 align:start position:0% the full force of the storm. These include<00:19:44.320> most<00:19:44.559> of<00:19:44.799> our<00:19:45.039> weather<00:19:45.440> monitoring, 19:46.310 --> 19:46.320 align:start position:0% include most of our weather monitoring, 19:46.320 --> 19:48.630 align:start position:0% include most of our weather monitoring, TV<00:19:46.880> broadcasting,<00:19:47.919> communication 19:48.630 --> 19:48.640 align:start position:0% TV broadcasting, communication 19:48.640 --> 19:51.909 align:start position:0% TV broadcasting, communication satellites,<00:19:49.760> and<00:19:50.160> our<00:19:50.559> global<00:19:51.200> navigation 19:51.909 --> 19:51.919 align:start position:0% satellites, and our global navigation 19:51.919 --> 19:54.470 align:start position:0% satellites, and our global navigation satellite<00:19:52.400> system.<00:19:53.360> The<00:19:53.600> peak<00:19:53.840> of<00:19:54.000> the<00:19:54.160> storm 19:54.470 --> 19:54.480 align:start position:0% satellite system. The peak of the storm 19:54.480 --> 19:56.789 align:start position:0% satellite system. The peak of the storm interfered<00:19:55.120> directly<00:19:55.520> with<00:19:55.760> GPS<00:19:56.320> frequency 19:56.789 --> 19:56.799 align:start position:0% interfered directly with GPS frequency 19:56.799 --> 19:59.669 align:start position:0% interfered directly with GPS frequency bands,<00:19:57.440> causing<00:19:58.080> position<00:19:58.720> errors,<00:19:59.360> data 19:59.669 --> 19:59.679 align:start position:0% bands, causing position errors, data 19:59.679 --> 20:02.310 align:start position:0% bands, causing position errors, data gaps,<00:20:00.240> and<00:20:00.559> tracking<00:20:00.960> failures<00:20:01.679> across 20:02.310 --> 20:02.320 align:start position:0% gaps, and tracking failures across 20:02.320 --> 20:04.470 align:start position:0% gaps, and tracking failures across global<00:20:02.799> airspace<00:20:03.600> with<00:20:03.919> hundreds<00:20:04.320> of 20:04.470 --> 20:04.480 align:start position:0% global airspace with hundreds of 20:04.480 --> 20:07.590 align:start position:0% global airspace with hundreds of spacecraft<00:20:05.200> affected<00:20:05.679> in<00:20:05.919> Europe<00:20:06.240> alone.<00:20:07.200> The 20:07.590 --> 20:07.600 align:start position:0% spacecraft affected in Europe alone. The 20:07.600 --> 20:10.230 align:start position:0% spacecraft affected in Europe alone. The ionospheric<00:20:08.320> disturbances<00:20:08.960> were<00:20:09.280> so<00:20:09.600> severe 20:10.230 --> 20:10.240 align:start position:0% ionospheric disturbances were so severe 20:10.240 --> 20:12.230 align:start position:0% ionospheric disturbances were so severe that<00:20:10.559> sudden<00:20:10.960> jumps<00:20:11.280> and<00:20:11.520> deviations 20:12.230 --> 20:12.240 align:start position:0% that sudden jumps and deviations 20:12.240 --> 20:15.270 align:start position:0% that sudden jumps and deviations appeared<00:20:12.720> in<00:20:13.039> aircraft<00:20:13.600> flight<00:20:13.840> tracks.<00:20:14.960> Open 20:15.270 --> 20:15.280 align:start position:0% appeared in aircraft flight tracks. Open 20:15.280 --> 20:17.510 align:start position:0% appeared in aircraft flight tracks. Open access<00:20:15.679> data<00:20:16.000> from<00:20:16.160> the<00:20:16.400> US<00:20:16.640> Space<00:20:16.960> Force 20:17.510 --> 20:17.520 align:start position:0% access data from the US Space Force 20:17.520 --> 20:20.470 align:start position:0% access data from the US Space Force revealed<00:20:18.000> more<00:20:18.240> than<00:20:18.559> 5,000<00:20:19.520> satellites<00:20:20.160> had 20:20.470 --> 20:20.480 align:start position:0% revealed more than 5,000 satellites had 20:20.480 --> 20:22.789 align:start position:0% revealed more than 5,000 satellites had to<00:20:20.640> alter<00:20:20.880> their<00:20:21.200> position<00:20:21.840> to<00:20:22.080> avoid 20:22.789 --> 20:22.799 align:start position:0% to alter their position to avoid 20:22.799 --> 20:26.310 align:start position:0% to alter their position to avoid deorbiting<00:20:24.000> or<00:20:24.400> crashing<00:20:25.360> during<00:20:25.760> the<00:20:26.000> solar 20:26.310 --> 20:26.320 align:start position:0% deorbiting or crashing during the solar 20:26.320 --> 20:29.510 align:start position:0% deorbiting or crashing during the solar storm.<00:20:27.360> This<00:20:27.520> is<00:20:27.760> especially<00:20:28.320> dangerous<00:20:28.960> as<00:20:29.280> a 20:29.510 --> 20:29.520 align:start position:0% storm. This is especially dangerous as a 20:29.520 --> 20:31.669 align:start position:0% storm. This is especially dangerous as a single<00:20:29.919> crash<00:20:30.400> can<00:20:30.559> lead<00:20:30.799> to<00:20:31.039> thousands<00:20:31.520> of 20:31.669 --> 20:31.679 align:start position:0% single crash can lead to thousands of 20:31.679 --> 20:33.990 align:start position:0% single crash can lead to thousands of pieces<00:20:32.000> of<00:20:32.240> space<00:20:32.559> debris<00:20:33.200> that<00:20:33.440> can<00:20:33.600> persist 20:33.990 --> 20:34.000 align:start position:0% pieces of space debris that can persist 20:34.000 --> 20:38.149 align:start position:0% pieces of space debris that can persist for<00:20:34.320> decades.<00:20:35.679> These<00:20:36.480> in<00:20:36.720> turn<00:20:37.600> increase<00:20:37.919> the 20:38.149 --> 20:38.159 align:start position:0% for decades. These in turn increase the 20:38.159 --> 20:40.470 align:start position:0% for decades. These in turn increase the risk<00:20:38.400> of<00:20:38.640> further<00:20:38.960> crashes,<00:20:39.760> creating<00:20:40.159> a 20:40.470 --> 20:40.480 align:start position:0% risk of further crashes, creating a 20:40.480 --> 20:43.350 align:start position:0% risk of further crashes, creating a vicious<00:20:40.960> cycle.<00:20:42.159> But<00:20:42.400> the<00:20:42.640> most<00:20:42.799> dramatic 20:43.350 --> 20:43.360 align:start position:0% vicious cycle. But the most dramatic 20:43.360 --> 20:45.990 align:start position:0% vicious cycle. But the most dramatic finding<00:20:43.840> of<00:20:44.080> all<00:20:44.640> was<00:20:44.960> what<00:20:45.280> happened<00:20:45.679> after 20:45.990 --> 20:46.000 align:start position:0% finding of all was what happened after 20:46.000 --> 20:48.470 align:start position:0% finding of all was what happened after the<00:20:46.320> storm. 20:48.470 --> 20:48.480 align:start position:0% the storm. 20:48.480 --> 20:50.789 align:start position:0% the storm. Normally<00:20:48.880> it<00:20:49.120> takes<00:20:49.600> 1<00:20:49.840> to<00:20:50.080> two<00:20:50.320> days<00:20:50.559> to 20:50.789 --> 20:50.799 align:start position:0% Normally it takes 1 to two days to 20:50.799 --> 20:52.630 align:start position:0% Normally it takes 1 to two days to replenish<00:20:51.280> the<00:20:51.440> plasmosphere<00:20:52.080> after<00:20:52.400> a 20:52.630 --> 20:52.640 align:start position:0% replenish the plasmosphere after a 20:52.640 --> 20:56.070 align:start position:0% replenish the plasmosphere after a storm.<00:20:53.600> But<00:20:53.840> this<00:20:54.159> one<00:20:54.559> hit<00:20:54.799> our<00:20:55.120> plasmosphere 20:56.070 --> 20:56.080 align:start position:0% storm. But this one hit our plasmosphere 20:56.080 --> 20:59.350 align:start position:0% storm. But this one hit our plasmosphere so<00:20:56.640> hard<00:20:57.440> it<00:20:57.679> took<00:20:58.000> more<00:20:58.240> than<00:20:58.480> 4<00:20:58.799> days<00:20:59.120> to 20:59.350 --> 20:59.360 align:start position:0% so hard it took more than 4 days to 20:59.360 --> 21:02.390 align:start position:0% so hard it took more than 4 days to bounce<00:20:59.679> back.<00:21:00.400> So<00:21:00.559> what<00:21:00.799> happened<00:21:01.120> there? 21:02.390 --> 21:02.400 align:start position:0% bounce back. So what happened there? 21:02.400 --> 21:04.390 align:start position:0% bounce back. So what happened there? About<00:21:02.720> an<00:21:02.960> hour<00:21:03.280> after<00:21:03.600> the<00:21:03.760> solar<00:21:04.080> wind 21:04.390 --> 21:04.400 align:start position:0% About an hour after the solar wind 21:04.400 --> 21:06.789 align:start position:0% About an hour after the solar wind struck,<00:21:05.039> intense<00:21:05.600> heating<00:21:06.000> near<00:21:06.240> the<00:21:06.400> poles 21:06.789 --> 21:06.799 align:start position:0% struck, intense heating near the poles 21:06.799 --> 21:08.950 align:start position:0% struck, intense heating near the poles drove<00:21:07.120> a<00:21:07.440> surge<00:21:07.840> of<00:21:08.000> charged<00:21:08.400> particles 21:08.950 --> 21:08.960 align:start position:0% drove a surge of charged particles 21:08.960 --> 21:11.830 align:start position:0% drove a surge of charged particles towards<00:21:09.360> the<00:21:09.600> polar<00:21:09.919> caps.<00:21:10.880> This<00:21:11.200> intense 21:11.830 --> 21:11.840 align:start position:0% towards the polar caps. This intense 21:11.840 --> 21:13.909 align:start position:0% towards the polar caps. This intense heating<00:21:12.640> churned<00:21:12.960> the<00:21:13.120> upper<00:21:13.360> atmosphere 21:13.909 --> 21:13.919 align:start position:0% heating churned the upper atmosphere 21:13.919 --> 21:16.310 align:start position:0% heating churned the upper atmosphere like<00:21:14.159> a<00:21:14.480> massive<00:21:15.039> convective<00:21:15.600> engine, 21:16.310 --> 21:16.320 align:start position:0% like a massive convective engine, 21:16.320 --> 21:19.270 align:start position:0% like a massive convective engine, dredging<00:21:16.799> up<00:21:17.200> heavier<00:21:17.760> molecular<00:21:18.320> gases<00:21:18.960> like 21:19.270 --> 21:19.280 align:start position:0% dredging up heavier molecular gases like 21:19.280 --> 21:22.149 align:start position:0% dredging up heavier molecular gases like nitrogen<00:21:19.840> and<00:21:20.240> molecular<00:21:20.799> oxygen<00:21:21.520> from<00:21:21.840> lower 21:22.149 --> 21:22.159 align:start position:0% nitrogen and molecular oxygen from lower 21:22.159 --> 21:24.630 align:start position:0% nitrogen and molecular oxygen from lower altitudes<00:21:22.960> into<00:21:23.280> regions<00:21:23.679> where<00:21:24.000> they<00:21:24.320> don't 21:24.630 --> 21:24.640 align:start position:0% altitudes into regions where they don't 21:24.640 --> 21:27.029 align:start position:0% altitudes into regions where they don't normally<00:21:25.120> exist<00:21:25.360> in<00:21:25.600> large<00:21:25.919> quantities. 21:27.029 --> 21:27.039 align:start position:0% normally exist in large quantities. 21:27.039 --> 21:28.710 align:start position:0% normally exist in large quantities. Under<00:21:27.360> normal<00:21:27.760> conditions,<00:21:28.240> the<00:21:28.400> upper 21:28.710 --> 21:28.720 align:start position:0% Under normal conditions, the upper 21:28.720 --> 21:31.669 align:start position:0% Under normal conditions, the upper ionosphere<00:21:29.280> is<00:21:29.440> dominated<00:21:29.919> by<00:21:30.240> atomic<00:21:30.960> oxygen 21:31.669 --> 21:31.679 align:start position:0% ionosphere is dominated by atomic oxygen 21:31.679 --> 21:34.310 align:start position:0% ionosphere is dominated by atomic oxygen ions.<00:21:32.400> But<00:21:32.559> when<00:21:32.799> nitrogen<00:21:33.440> and<00:21:33.760> molecular 21:34.310 --> 21:34.320 align:start position:0% ions. But when nitrogen and molecular 21:34.320 --> 21:36.710 align:start position:0% ions. But when nitrogen and molecular oxygen<00:21:34.880> flood<00:21:35.200> into<00:21:35.440> the<00:21:35.600> upper<00:21:35.760> atmosphere, 21:36.710 --> 21:36.720 align:start position:0% oxygen flood into the upper atmosphere, 21:36.720 --> 21:39.590 align:start position:0% oxygen flood into the upper atmosphere, they<00:21:37.039> react<00:21:37.360> with<00:21:37.520> the<00:21:37.760> atomic<00:21:38.159> oxygen<00:21:38.880> ions, 21:39.590 --> 21:39.600 align:start position:0% they react with the atomic oxygen ions, 21:39.600 --> 21:41.990 align:start position:0% they react with the atomic oxygen ions, reducing<00:21:40.080> the<00:21:40.320> concentration<00:21:40.960> of<00:21:41.280> those<00:21:41.760> ions 21:41.990 --> 21:42.000 align:start position:0% reducing the concentration of those ions 21:42.000 --> 21:45.590 align:start position:0% reducing the concentration of those ions in<00:21:42.240> the<00:21:42.559> ionosphere.<00:21:44.000> This<00:21:44.240> is<00:21:44.400> known<00:21:44.880> as<00:21:45.280> a 21:45.590 --> 21:45.600 align:start position:0% in the ionosphere. This is known as a 21:45.600 --> 21:49.110 align:start position:0% in the ionosphere. This is known as a negative<00:21:46.480> ionospheric<00:21:47.120> storm.<00:21:48.240> And<00:21:48.640> it's<00:21:48.880> a 21:49.110 --> 21:49.120 align:start position:0% negative ionospheric storm. And it's a 21:49.120 --> 21:52.310 align:start position:0% negative ionospheric storm. And it's a problem.<00:21:50.000> Oxygen<00:21:50.799> ions<00:21:51.200> play<00:21:51.440> a<00:21:51.760> necessary 21:52.310 --> 21:52.320 align:start position:0% problem. Oxygen ions play a necessary 21:52.320 --> 21:54.630 align:start position:0% problem. Oxygen ions play a necessary part<00:21:52.559> in<00:21:52.880> repopulating<00:21:53.600> the<00:21:53.760> plasmosphere 21:54.630 --> 21:54.640 align:start position:0% part in repopulating the plasmosphere 21:54.640 --> 21:57.110 align:start position:0% part in repopulating the plasmosphere after<00:21:54.880> a<00:21:55.039> geomagnetic<00:21:55.840> storm<00:21:56.080> like<00:21:56.320> this. 21:57.110 --> 21:57.120 align:start position:0% after a geomagnetic storm like this. 21:57.120 --> 21:59.909 align:start position:0% after a geomagnetic storm like this. When<00:21:57.440> a<00:21:57.840> positive<00:21:58.400> oxygen<00:21:59.120> ion<00:21:59.360> collides<00:21:59.760> with 21:59.909 --> 21:59.919 align:start position:0% When a positive oxygen ion collides with 21:59.919 --> 22:01.750 align:start position:0% When a positive oxygen ion collides with a<00:22:00.159> neutral<00:22:00.559> hydrogen<00:22:01.120> atom<00:22:01.360> in<00:22:01.520> the 22:01.750 --> 22:01.760 align:start position:0% a neutral hydrogen atom in the 22:01.760 --> 22:03.909 align:start position:0% a neutral hydrogen atom in the ionosphere,<00:22:02.640> it<00:22:02.880> takes<00:22:03.120> the<00:22:03.360> hydrogen's 22:03.909 --> 22:03.919 align:start position:0% ionosphere, it takes the hydrogen's 22:03.919 --> 22:06.390 align:start position:0% ionosphere, it takes the hydrogen's electron<00:22:04.640> since<00:22:04.880> it<00:22:05.200> has<00:22:05.600> higher<00:22:05.919> affinity 22:06.390 --> 22:06.400 align:start position:0% electron since it has higher affinity 22:06.400 --> 22:08.950 align:start position:0% electron since it has higher affinity for<00:22:06.640> electrons.<00:22:07.840> This<00:22:08.320> ionizes<00:22:08.720> the 22:08.950 --> 22:08.960 align:start position:0% for electrons. This ionizes the 22:08.960 --> 22:11.669 align:start position:0% for electrons. This ionizes the hydrogen,<00:22:09.679> which<00:22:10.000> then<00:22:10.400> rises<00:22:11.039> along<00:22:11.520> the 22:11.669 --> 22:11.679 align:start position:0% hydrogen, which then rises along the 22:11.679 --> 22:13.350 align:start position:0% hydrogen, which then rises along the magnetic<00:22:12.159> field<00:22:12.400> lines<00:22:12.880> into<00:22:13.200> the 22:13.350 --> 22:13.360 align:start position:0% magnetic field lines into the 22:13.360 --> 22:16.630 align:start position:0% magnetic field lines into the plasmosphere.<00:22:14.720> But<00:22:14.880> with<00:22:15.120> fewer<00:22:15.679> oxygen<00:22:16.400> ions 22:16.630 --> 22:16.640 align:start position:0% plasmosphere. But with fewer oxygen ions 22:16.640 --> 22:18.710 align:start position:0% plasmosphere. But with fewer oxygen ions around<00:22:16.880> it,<00:22:17.440> the<00:22:17.679> production<00:22:18.159> line<00:22:18.480> of 22:18.710 --> 22:18.720 align:start position:0% around it, the production line of 22:18.720 --> 22:21.669 align:start position:0% around it, the production line of hydrogen<00:22:19.360> ions<00:22:19.600> was<00:22:19.919> cut<00:22:20.159> off<00:22:20.400> at<00:22:20.640> the<00:22:20.880> source, 22:21.669 --> 22:21.679 align:start position:0% hydrogen ions was cut off at the source, 22:21.679 --> 22:24.310 align:start position:0% hydrogen ions was cut off at the source, slowing<00:22:22.159> the<00:22:22.400> upward<00:22:22.799> flux<00:22:23.120> of<00:22:23.360> plasma<00:22:24.080> into 22:24.310 --> 22:24.320 align:start position:0% slowing the upward flux of plasma into 22:24.320 --> 22:27.510 align:start position:0% slowing the upward flux of plasma into the<00:22:24.480> plasmosphere<00:22:25.360> to<00:22:25.600> a<00:22:25.919> trickle.<00:22:27.120> This<00:22:27.360> was 22:27.510 --> 22:27.520 align:start position:0% the plasmosphere to a trickle. This was 22:27.520 --> 22:30.149 align:start position:0% the plasmosphere to a trickle. This was the<00:22:27.840> first<00:22:28.159> time<00:22:28.480> the<00:22:28.720> link<00:22:29.039> between<00:22:29.520> negative 22:30.149 --> 22:30.159 align:start position:0% the first time the link between negative 22:30.159 --> 22:32.230 align:start position:0% the first time the link between negative ionospheric<00:22:30.799> storms<00:22:31.520> and<00:22:31.760> delayed 22:32.230 --> 22:32.240 align:start position:0% ionospheric storms and delayed 22:32.240 --> 22:35.110 align:start position:0% ionospheric storms and delayed plasmosphere<00:22:32.960> recovery<00:22:33.760> had<00:22:34.080> been<00:22:34.400> directly 22:35.110 --> 22:35.120 align:start position:0% plasmosphere recovery had been directly 22:35.120 --> 22:37.750 align:start position:0% plasmosphere recovery had been directly and<00:22:35.440> conclusively<00:22:36.159> established.<00:22:37.360> But<00:22:37.600> the 22:37.750 --> 22:37.760 align:start position:0% and conclusively established. But the 22:37.760 --> 22:39.430 align:start position:0% and conclusively established. But the sun<00:22:38.000> wasn't<00:22:38.320> done<00:22:38.640> battering<00:22:39.200> our 22:39.430 --> 22:39.440 align:start position:0% sun wasn't done battering our 22:39.440 --> 22:42.070 align:start position:0% sun wasn't done battering our magneettosphere<00:22:40.320> just<00:22:40.559> yet.<00:22:41.280> A<00:22:41.600> few<00:22:41.840> days 22:42.070 --> 22:42.080 align:start position:0% magneettosphere just yet. A few days 22:42.080 --> 22:45.830 align:start position:0% magneettosphere just yet. A few days after<00:22:42.320> the<00:22:42.559> May<00:22:42.799> 10th<00:22:43.200> storm,<00:22:43.919> a<00:22:44.240> huge<00:22:45.120> X-class 22:45.830 --> 22:45.840 align:start position:0% after the May 10th storm, a huge X-class 22:45.840 --> 22:48.390 align:start position:0% after the May 10th storm, a huge X-class solar<00:22:46.159> flare<00:22:46.640> erupted,<00:22:47.440> the<00:22:47.760> strongest 22:48.390 --> 22:48.400 align:start position:0% solar flare erupted, the strongest 22:48.400 --> 22:50.870 align:start position:0% solar flare erupted, the strongest category<00:22:48.880> of<00:22:49.039> solar<00:22:49.440> flare.<00:22:50.240> Despite<00:22:50.559> its 22:50.870 --> 22:50.880 align:start position:0% category of solar flare. Despite its 22:50.880 --> 22:53.430 align:start position:0% category of solar flare. Despite its effects<00:22:51.200> on<00:22:51.440> our<00:22:51.760> Earthbased<00:22:52.320> technology,<00:22:53.200> it 22:53.430 --> 22:53.440 align:start position:0% effects on our Earthbased technology, it 22:53.440 --> 22:55.990 align:start position:0% effects on our Earthbased technology, it was<00:22:53.600> only<00:22:53.919> ranked<00:22:54.240> an<00:22:54.559> 8.7<00:22:55.360> on<00:22:55.600> the<00:22:55.679> solar 22:55.990 --> 22:56.000 align:start position:0% was only ranked an 8.7 on the solar 22:56.000 --> 22:58.149 align:start position:0% was only ranked an 8.7 on the solar flare<00:22:56.320> classification<00:22:56.960> chart.<00:22:57.919> The 22:58.149 --> 22:58.159 align:start position:0% flare classification chart. The 22:58.159 --> 22:59.990 align:start position:0% flare classification chart. The strongest<00:22:58.720> flare<00:22:59.039> on<00:22:59.200> record,<00:22:59.760> which 22:59.990 --> 23:00.000 align:start position:0% strongest flare on record, which 23:00.000 --> 23:04.870 align:start position:0% strongest flare on record, which occurred<00:23:00.320> in<00:23:00.640> 2003,<00:23:01.840> was<00:23:02.080> estimated<00:23:02.799> at<00:23:03.440> 45, 23:04.870 --> 23:04.880 align:start position:0% occurred in 2003, was estimated at 45, 23:04.880 --> 23:07.510 align:start position:0% occurred in 2003, was estimated at 45, about<00:23:05.360> five<00:23:05.679> times<00:23:06.080> stronger.<00:23:07.039> Yet,<00:23:07.360> the 23:07.510 --> 23:07.520 align:start position:0% about five times stronger. Yet, the 23:07.520 --> 23:09.669 align:start position:0% about five times stronger. Yet, the strongest<00:23:07.919> geomagnetic<00:23:08.720> storm<00:23:09.039> ever<00:23:09.280> was<00:23:09.520> the 23:09.669 --> 23:09.679 align:start position:0% strongest geomagnetic storm ever was the 23:09.679 --> 23:13.190 align:start position:0% strongest geomagnetic storm ever was the Carrington<00:23:10.240> event<00:23:10.559> in<00:23:10.880> 1859,<00:23:12.320> for<00:23:12.559> which<00:23:12.799> we 23:13.190 --> 23:13.200 align:start position:0% Carrington event in 1859, for which we 23:13.200 --> 23:14.950 align:start position:0% Carrington event in 1859, for which we don't<00:23:13.440> have<00:23:13.679> a<00:23:13.919> measured<00:23:14.320> solar<00:23:14.640> flare 23:14.950 --> 23:14.960 align:start position:0% don't have a measured solar flare 23:14.960 --> 23:17.590 align:start position:0% don't have a measured solar flare ranking.<00:23:15.760> However,<00:23:16.159> the<00:23:16.320> storm<00:23:16.720> hit<00:23:16.960> Earth<00:23:17.280> so 23:17.590 --> 23:17.600 align:start position:0% ranking. However, the storm hit Earth so 23:17.600 --> 23:20.549 align:start position:0% ranking. However, the storm hit Earth so violently<00:23:18.400> that<00:23:18.720> telegraph<00:23:19.280> wires<00:23:20.000> burst 23:20.549 --> 23:20.559 align:start position:0% violently that telegraph wires burst 23:20.559 --> 23:23.830 align:start position:0% violently that telegraph wires burst into<00:23:21.039> flames.<00:23:22.480> Today,<00:23:22.880> studies<00:23:23.360> estimate 23:23.830 --> 23:23.840 align:start position:0% into flames. Today, studies estimate 23:23.840 --> 23:25.830 align:start position:0% into flames. Today, studies estimate that<00:23:24.080> if<00:23:24.320> an<00:23:24.480> equivalent<00:23:25.039> event<00:23:25.360> were<00:23:25.520> to<00:23:25.679> hit 23:25.830 --> 23:25.840 align:start position:0% that if an equivalent event were to hit 23:25.840 --> 23:28.870 align:start position:0% that if an equivalent event were to hit the<00:23:26.080> United<00:23:26.320> States<00:23:26.799> alone,<00:23:27.840> it<00:23:28.080> would<00:23:28.240> cause 23:28.870 --> 23:28.880 align:start position:0% the United States alone, it would cause 23:28.880 --> 23:33.590 align:start position:0% the United States alone, it would cause $600<00:23:29.760> billion<00:23:30.880> to<00:23:31.280> $2.6<00:23:31.919> $6<00:23:32.320> trillion<00:23:33.280> in 23:33.590 --> 23:33.600 align:start position:0% $600 billion to $2.6 $6 trillion in 23:33.600 --> 23:35.190 align:start position:0% $600 billion to $2.6 $6 trillion in damages. 23:35.190 --> 23:35.200 align:start position:0% damages. 23:35.200 --> 23:37.990 align:start position:0% damages. 20<00:23:35.600> to<00:23:36.000> 40<00:23:36.480> million<00:23:36.880> Americans<00:23:37.440> would<00:23:37.760> lose 23:37.990 --> 23:38.000 align:start position:0% 20 to 40 million Americans would lose 23:38.000 --> 23:40.230 align:start position:0% 20 to 40 million Americans would lose power,<00:23:38.720> though<00:23:38.960> it's<00:23:39.120> hard<00:23:39.280> to<00:23:39.440> say<00:23:39.679> how<00:23:40.000> long 23:40.230 --> 23:40.240 align:start position:0% power, though it's hard to say how long 23:40.240 --> 23:42.870 align:start position:0% power, though it's hard to say how long for.<00:23:40.880> Estimates<00:23:41.440> range<00:23:41.840> anywhere<00:23:42.159> from<00:23:42.480> 16 23:42.870 --> 23:42.880 align:start position:0% for. Estimates range anywhere from 16 23:42.880 --> 23:45.909 align:start position:0% for. Estimates range anywhere from 16 days<00:23:43.120> to<00:23:43.440> 2<00:23:43.760> years.<00:23:44.720> It<00:23:44.960> really<00:23:45.200> depends<00:23:45.600> how 23:45.909 --> 23:45.919 align:start position:0% days to 2 years. It really depends how 23:45.919 --> 23:48.070 align:start position:0% days to 2 years. It really depends how quickly<00:23:46.240> we<00:23:46.480> can<00:23:46.640> fix<00:23:46.880> our<00:23:47.120> transformers<00:23:47.760> and 23:48.070 --> 23:48.080 align:start position:0% quickly we can fix our transformers and 23:48.080 --> 23:50.390 align:start position:0% quickly we can fix our transformers and power<00:23:48.400> grid<00:23:48.720> infrastructure.<00:23:49.919> And<00:23:50.080> if 23:50.390 --> 23:50.400 align:start position:0% power grid infrastructure. And if 23:50.400 --> 23:53.270 align:start position:0% power grid infrastructure. And if something<00:23:50.720> like<00:23:51.039> this<00:23:51.440> were<00:23:51.840> headed<00:23:52.240> our<00:23:52.559> way, 23:53.270 --> 23:53.280 align:start position:0% something like this were headed our way, 23:53.280 --> 23:56.310 align:start position:0% something like this were headed our way, the<00:23:53.600> scariest<00:23:54.080> part<00:23:54.640> is<00:23:54.960> how<00:23:55.360> little<00:23:55.840> warning 23:56.310 --> 23:56.320 align:start position:0% the scariest part is how little warning 23:56.320 --> 23:58.710 align:start position:0% the scariest part is how little warning we'd<00:23:56.720> have.<00:23:57.760> The<00:23:58.000> key<00:23:58.159> factor<00:23:58.480> which 23:58.710 --> 23:58.720 align:start position:0% we'd have. The key factor which 23:58.720 --> 24:01.270 align:start position:0% we'd have. The key factor which determines<00:23:59.360> how<00:23:59.679> devastating<00:24:00.320> a<00:24:00.480> CME<00:24:01.039> would 24:01.270 --> 24:01.280 align:start position:0% determines how devastating a CME would 24:01.280 --> 24:03.750 align:start position:0% determines how devastating a CME would be<00:24:01.360> to<00:24:01.600> us<00:24:01.760> on<00:24:01.919> Earth<00:24:02.400> is<00:24:02.640> the<00:24:02.880> orientation<00:24:03.520> of 24:03.750 --> 24:03.760 align:start position:0% be to us on Earth is the orientation of 24:03.760 --> 24:06.149 align:start position:0% be to us on Earth is the orientation of its<00:24:04.000> magnetic<00:24:04.480> field.<00:24:05.200> If<00:24:05.520> it<00:24:05.760> points 24:06.149 --> 24:06.159 align:start position:0% its magnetic field. If it points 24:06.159 --> 24:08.390 align:start position:0% its magnetic field. If it points southward,<00:24:06.960> that<00:24:07.200> gives<00:24:07.440> it<00:24:07.600> the<00:24:07.919> highest 24:08.390 --> 24:08.400 align:start position:0% southward, that gives it the highest 24:08.400 --> 24:10.549 align:start position:0% southward, that gives it the highest probability<00:24:09.039> of<00:24:09.280> connecting<00:24:09.760> with<00:24:10.240> and 24:10.549 --> 24:10.559 align:start position:0% probability of connecting with and 24:10.559 --> 24:13.669 align:start position:0% probability of connecting with and disrupting<00:24:11.200> our<00:24:11.520> own<00:24:11.760> magnetic<00:24:12.240> field. 24:13.669 --> 24:13.679 align:start position:0% disrupting our own magnetic field. 24:13.679 --> 24:16.310 align:start position:0% disrupting our own magnetic field. The<00:24:13.919> issue<00:24:14.240> is<00:24:15.120> we<00:24:15.440> can't<00:24:15.679> measure<00:24:16.000> that 24:16.310 --> 24:16.320 align:start position:0% The issue is we can't measure that 24:16.320 --> 24:18.789 align:start position:0% The issue is we can't measure that magnetic<00:24:16.799> orientation<00:24:17.760> until<00:24:18.159> the<00:24:18.400> solar 24:18.789 --> 24:18.799 align:start position:0% magnetic orientation until the solar 24:18.799 --> 24:22.070 align:start position:0% magnetic orientation until the solar plasma<00:24:19.440> reaches<00:24:19.840> the<00:24:20.080> L1<00:24:20.559> Lrange<00:24:21.200> point,<00:24:21.760> a 24:22.070 --> 24:22.080 align:start position:0% plasma reaches the L1 Lrange point, a 24:22.080 --> 24:24.390 align:start position:0% plasma reaches the L1 Lrange point, a gravitationally<00:24:22.799> stable<00:24:23.200> location<00:24:23.679> 1.5 24:24.390 --> 24:24.400 align:start position:0% gravitationally stable location 1.5 24:24.400 --> 24:26.390 align:start position:0% gravitationally stable location 1.5 million<00:24:24.640> km<00:24:25.120> from<00:24:25.360> Earth<00:24:25.760> in<00:24:26.000> the<00:24:26.159> direction 24:26.390 --> 24:26.400 align:start position:0% million km from Earth in the direction 24:26.400 --> 24:28.710 align:start position:0% million km from Earth in the direction of<00:24:26.559> the<00:24:26.720> sun,<00:24:27.279> where<00:24:27.679> spacecraft<00:24:28.240> can<00:24:28.480> remain 24:28.710 --> 24:28.720 align:start position:0% of the sun, where spacecraft can remain 24:28.720 --> 24:31.269 align:start position:0% of the sun, where spacecraft can remain in<00:24:28.960> a<00:24:29.279> hovering<00:24:29.840> position<00:24:30.320> relative<00:24:30.799> to<00:24:30.960> both 24:31.269 --> 24:31.279 align:start position:0% in a hovering position relative to both 24:31.279 --> 24:34.950 align:start position:0% in a hovering position relative to both bodies.<00:24:32.159> And<00:24:32.400> by<00:24:32.640> then,<00:24:33.279> we'd<00:24:33.679> only<00:24:34.000> have<00:24:34.480> 15 24:34.950 --> 24:34.960 align:start position:0% bodies. And by then, we'd only have 15 24:34.960 --> 24:38.310 align:start position:0% bodies. And by then, we'd only have 15 to<00:24:35.279> 60<00:24:35.760> minutes<00:24:36.080> to<00:24:36.320> respond.<00:24:37.600> And<00:24:37.919> while 24:38.310 --> 24:38.320 align:start position:0% to 60 minutes to respond. And while 24:38.320 --> 24:40.549 align:start position:0% to 60 minutes to respond. And while thanks<00:24:38.640> to<00:24:38.799> our<00:24:39.039> thick<00:24:39.279> atmosphere,<00:24:40.159> us 24:40.549 --> 24:40.559 align:start position:0% thanks to our thick atmosphere, us 24:40.559 --> 24:42.470 align:start position:0% thanks to our thick atmosphere, us Earth-based<00:24:41.200> humans<00:24:41.600> would<00:24:41.760> be<00:24:41.919> relatively 24:42.470 --> 24:42.480 align:start position:0% Earth-based humans would be relatively 24:42.480 --> 24:44.789 align:start position:0% Earth-based humans would be relatively protected<00:24:42.880> from<00:24:43.039> the<00:24:43.279> lethal<00:24:43.679> radiation, 24:44.789 --> 24:44.799 align:start position:0% protected from the lethal radiation, 24:44.799 --> 24:46.789 align:start position:0% protected from the lethal radiation, those<00:24:45.120> who<00:24:45.440> would<00:24:45.760> suffer<00:24:46.080> most<00:24:46.480> are 24:46.789 --> 24:46.799 align:start position:0% those who would suffer most are 24:46.799 --> 24:49.669 align:start position:0% those who would suffer most are astronauts.<00:24:48.000> If<00:24:48.159> a<00:24:48.480> significant<00:24:48.960> solar<00:24:49.360> event 24:49.669 --> 24:49.679 align:start position:0% astronauts. If a significant solar event 24:49.679 --> 24:52.789 align:start position:0% astronauts. If a significant solar event occurs<00:24:50.080> when<00:24:50.240> a<00:24:50.480> crew<00:24:50.799> is<00:24:50.960> in<00:24:51.279> space,<00:24:52.240> it<00:24:52.480> could 24:52.789 --> 24:52.799 align:start position:0% occurs when a crew is in space, it could 24:52.799 --> 24:54.710 align:start position:0% occurs when a crew is in space, it could raise<00:24:53.200> radiation<00:24:53.679> levels<00:24:54.000> inside<00:24:54.400> their 24:54.710 --> 24:54.720 align:start position:0% raise radiation levels inside their 24:54.720 --> 24:57.430 align:start position:0% raise radiation levels inside their spacecraft.<00:24:55.840> Too<00:24:56.080> much<00:24:56.320> exposure<00:24:56.960> over<00:24:57.279> a 24:57.430 --> 24:57.440 align:start position:0% spacecraft. Too much exposure over a 24:57.440 --> 24:59.909 align:start position:0% spacecraft. Too much exposure over a lifetime<00:24:58.159> can<00:24:58.480> increase<00:24:58.720> the<00:24:58.960> risk<00:24:59.120> of<00:24:59.279> cancer 24:59.909 --> 24:59.919 align:start position:0% lifetime can increase the risk of cancer 24:59.919 --> 25:01.909 align:start position:0% lifetime can increase the risk of cancer or<00:25:00.240> other<00:25:00.480> health<00:25:00.799> disorders<00:25:01.279> that<00:25:01.600> could 25:01.909 --> 25:01.919 align:start position:0% or other health disorders that could 25:01.919 --> 25:04.070 align:start position:0% or other health disorders that could negatively<00:25:02.559> impact<00:25:02.960> cognition<00:25:03.760> and 25:04.070 --> 25:04.080 align:start position:0% negatively impact cognition and 25:04.080 --> 25:07.190 align:start position:0% negatively impact cognition and performance.<00:25:05.360> For<00:25:05.440> example,<00:25:06.240> this<00:25:06.480> was<00:25:06.640> a<00:25:06.880> key 25:07.190 --> 25:07.200 align:start position:0% performance. For example, this was a key 25:07.200 --> 25:09.750 align:start position:0% performance. For example, this was a key consideration<00:25:07.840> in<00:25:08.159> NASA's<00:25:08.799> recent<00:25:09.200> Aretimus 25:09.750 --> 25:09.760 align:start position:0% consideration in NASA's recent Aretimus 25:09.760 --> 25:12.149 align:start position:0% consideration in NASA's recent Aretimus 2<00:25:09.919> mission<00:25:10.640> with<00:25:10.960> each<00:25:11.279> astronaut<00:25:11.919> being 25:12.149 --> 25:12.159 align:start position:0% 2 mission with each astronaut being 25:12.159 --> 25:15.029 align:start position:0% 2 mission with each astronaut being given<00:25:12.480> a<00:25:12.799> personal<00:25:13.279> radiation<00:25:13.919> tracker. 25:15.029 --> 25:15.039 align:start position:0% given a personal radiation tracker. 25:15.039 --> 25:17.669 align:start position:0% given a personal radiation tracker. Inside<00:25:15.440> the<00:25:15.600> Orion<00:25:16.080> capsule,<00:25:16.799> the<00:25:17.120> hybrid 25:17.669 --> 25:17.679 align:start position:0% Inside the Orion capsule, the hybrid 25:17.679 --> 25:20.149 align:start position:0% Inside the Orion capsule, the hybrid electronic<00:25:18.320> radiation<00:25:18.960> assessor<00:25:19.440> system 25:20.149 --> 25:20.159 align:start position:0% electronic radiation assessor system 25:20.159 --> 25:22.789 align:start position:0% electronic radiation assessor system contains<00:25:20.720> six<00:25:21.200> radiation<00:25:21.760> sensors,<00:25:22.559> which 25:22.789 --> 25:22.799 align:start position:0% contains six radiation sensors, which 25:22.799 --> 25:24.710 align:start position:0% contains six radiation sensors, which measured<00:25:23.279> dose<00:25:23.679> rates<00:25:24.000> in<00:25:24.240> different<00:25:24.480> parts 25:24.710 --> 25:24.720 align:start position:0% measured dose rates in different parts 25:24.720 --> 25:26.950 align:start position:0% measured dose rates in different parts of<00:25:24.880> the<00:25:25.039> cabin.<00:25:25.840> If<00:25:26.080> radiation<00:25:26.640> levels 25:26.950 --> 25:26.960 align:start position:0% of the cabin. If radiation levels 25:26.960 --> 25:29.430 align:start position:0% of the cabin. If radiation levels increased,<00:25:27.760> Orion's<00:25:28.320> onboard<00:25:28.880> systems 25:29.430 --> 25:29.440 align:start position:0% increased, Orion's onboard systems 25:29.440 --> 25:31.510 align:start position:0% increased, Orion's onboard systems displayed<00:25:29.919> warnings<00:25:30.400> accompanied<00:25:30.960> by<00:25:31.279> an 25:31.510 --> 25:31.520 align:start position:0% displayed warnings accompanied by an 25:31.520 --> 25:34.630 align:start position:0% displayed warnings accompanied by an audible<00:25:32.080> alarm.<00:25:33.360> So,<00:25:33.679> what<00:25:33.919> are<00:25:34.080> we<00:25:34.240> building 25:34.630 --> 25:34.640 align:start position:0% audible alarm. So, what are we building 25:34.640 --> 25:36.630 align:start position:0% audible alarm. So, what are we building to<00:25:34.960> better<00:25:35.279> prepare<00:25:35.600> for<00:25:35.840> extreme<00:25:36.240> solar 25:36.630 --> 25:36.640 align:start position:0% to better prepare for extreme solar 25:36.640 --> 25:39.430 align:start position:0% to better prepare for extreme solar events<00:25:36.960> that<00:25:37.279> may<00:25:37.520> happen<00:25:37.760> in<00:25:38.000> the<00:25:38.159> future?<00:25:39.279> On 25:39.430 --> 25:39.440 align:start position:0% events that may happen in the future? On 25:39.440 --> 25:44.310 align:start position:0% events that may happen in the future? On the<00:25:39.600> 23rd<00:25:40.080> of<00:25:40.240> January<00:25:40.720> 2026,<00:25:41.919> Noah's<00:25:42.559> SWF<00:25:43.919> L1 25:44.310 --> 25:44.320 align:start position:0% the 23rd of January 2026, Noah's SWF L1 25:44.320 --> 25:47.750 align:start position:0% the 23rd of January 2026, Noah's SWF L1 satellite<00:25:45.200> arrived<00:25:45.600> at<00:25:45.760> the<00:25:45.919> L1<00:25:46.400> point.<00:25:47.520> The 25:47.750 --> 25:47.760 align:start position:0% satellite arrived at the L1 point. The 25:47.760 --> 25:49.830 align:start position:0% satellite arrived at the L1 point. The spacecraft<00:25:48.320> will<00:25:48.559> use<00:25:48.960> topofthe-line 25:49.830 --> 25:49.840 align:start position:0% spacecraft will use topofthe-line 25:49.840 --> 25:51.350 align:start position:0% spacecraft will use topofthe-line instruments<00:25:50.400> to<00:25:50.559> make<00:25:50.799> realtime 25:51.350 --> 25:51.360 align:start position:0% instruments to make realtime 25:51.360 --> 25:53.430 align:start position:0% instruments to make realtime measurements<00:25:51.760> of<00:25:51.840> the<00:25:52.000> solar<00:25:52.400> wind,<00:25:53.039> thermal 25:53.430 --> 25:53.440 align:start position:0% measurements of the solar wind, thermal 25:53.440 --> 25:55.909 align:start position:0% measurements of the solar wind, thermal plasma,<00:25:54.240> and<00:25:54.400> the<00:25:54.640> magnetic<00:25:55.120> field. 25:55.909 --> 25:55.919 align:start position:0% plasma, and the magnetic field. 25:55.919 --> 25:58.710 align:start position:0% plasma, and the magnetic field. Alongside<00:25:56.559> this,<00:25:57.279> it<00:25:57.600> also<00:25:57.919> carries<00:25:58.400> a 25:58.710 --> 25:58.720 align:start position:0% Alongside this, it also carries a 25:58.720 --> 26:01.350 align:start position:0% Alongside this, it also carries a compact<00:25:59.360> chronograph<00:26:00.080> instrument<00:26:00.960> designed 26:01.350 --> 26:01.360 align:start position:0% compact chronograph instrument designed 26:01.360 --> 26:03.909 align:start position:0% compact chronograph instrument designed to<00:26:01.520> detect<00:26:01.919> coronal<00:26:02.400> mass<00:26:02.559> ejections.<00:26:03.679> It's 26:03.909 --> 26:03.919 align:start position:0% to detect coronal mass ejections. It's 26:03.919 --> 26:06.310 align:start position:0% to detect coronal mass ejections. It's the<00:26:04.240> first<00:26:04.480> satellite<00:26:05.120> Noah<00:26:05.520> has<00:26:05.840> fully 26:06.310 --> 26:06.320 align:start position:0% the first satellite Noah has fully 26:06.320 --> 26:09.190 align:start position:0% the first satellite Noah has fully dedicated<00:26:06.880> to<00:26:07.279> continuous<00:26:08.320> operational 26:09.190 --> 26:09.200 align:start position:0% dedicated to continuous operational 26:09.200 --> 26:12.070 align:start position:0% dedicated to continuous operational space<00:26:09.760> weather<00:26:10.240> monitoring.<00:26:11.440> In<00:26:11.679> addition<00:26:11.919> to 26:12.070 --> 26:12.080 align:start position:0% space weather monitoring. In addition to 26:12.080 --> 26:15.350 align:start position:0% space weather monitoring. In addition to the<00:26:12.320> SWF<00:26:13.279> L1,<00:26:14.159> NASA<00:26:14.640> launched<00:26:15.120> the 26:15.350 --> 26:15.360 align:start position:0% the SWF L1, NASA launched the 26:15.360 --> 26:17.430 align:start position:0% the SWF L1, NASA launched the interstellar<00:26:16.080> mapping<00:26:16.480> and<00:26:16.799> acceleration 26:17.430 --> 26:17.440 align:start position:0% interstellar mapping and acceleration 26:17.440 --> 26:20.789 align:start position:0% interstellar mapping and acceleration probe<00:26:17.840> or<00:26:18.320> IMAP<00:26:19.279> which<00:26:19.520> is<00:26:19.760> also<00:26:20.240> stationed<00:26:20.640> at 26:20.789 --> 26:20.799 align:start position:0% probe or IMAP which is also stationed at 26:20.799 --> 26:23.350 align:start position:0% probe or IMAP which is also stationed at the<00:26:20.960> L1<00:26:21.440> point.<00:26:22.159> Its<00:26:22.480> mission<00:26:22.640> is<00:26:22.799> to<00:26:23.039> deepen 26:23.350 --> 26:23.360 align:start position:0% the L1 point. Its mission is to deepen 26:23.360 --> 26:25.510 align:start position:0% the L1 point. Its mission is to deepen our<00:26:23.679> understanding<00:26:24.159> of<00:26:24.320> how<00:26:24.720> space<00:26:25.039> storms 26:25.510 --> 26:25.520 align:start position:0% our understanding of how space storms 26:25.520 --> 26:28.470 align:start position:0% our understanding of how space storms develop<00:26:25.919> and<00:26:26.159> dissipate,<00:26:27.200> enabling<00:26:27.919> improved 26:28.470 --> 26:28.480 align:start position:0% develop and dissipate, enabling improved 26:28.480 --> 26:30.710 align:start position:0% develop and dissipate, enabling improved preparedness<00:26:29.200> for<00:26:29.520> adverse<00:26:30.000> weather<00:26:30.320> in<00:26:30.559> the 26:30.710 --> 26:30.720 align:start position:0% preparedness for adverse weather in the 26:30.720 --> 26:32.870 align:start position:0% preparedness for adverse weather in the future<00:26:31.279> by<00:26:31.600> providing<00:26:32.240> real-time 26:32.870 --> 26:32.880 align:start position:0% future by providing real-time 26:32.880 --> 26:36.470 align:start position:0% future by providing real-time observations<00:26:33.600> of<00:26:33.919> the<00:26:34.080> solar<00:26:34.480> wind.<00:26:35.919> Vigil 26:36.470 --> 26:36.480 align:start position:0% observations of the solar wind. Vigil 26:36.480 --> 26:38.549 align:start position:0% observations of the solar wind. Vigil mission<00:26:36.720> will<00:26:36.960> go<00:26:37.120> further<00:26:37.440> still.<00:26:38.159> Set<00:26:38.400> to 26:38.549 --> 26:38.559 align:start position:0% mission will go further still. Set to 26:38.559 --> 26:41.190 align:start position:0% mission will go further still. Set to launch<00:26:38.799> in<00:26:39.039> 2031,<00:26:40.159> it<00:26:40.400> will<00:26:40.559> be<00:26:40.720> positioned<00:26:41.039> at 26:41.190 --> 26:41.200 align:start position:0% launch in 2031, it will be positioned at 26:41.200 --> 26:44.230 align:start position:0% launch in 2031, it will be positioned at the<00:26:41.440> L5<00:26:42.000> Lrange<00:26:42.559> point<00:26:43.120> off<00:26:43.360> to<00:26:43.520> the<00:26:43.679> side<00:26:44.080> of 26:44.230 --> 26:44.240 align:start position:0% the L5 Lrange point off to the side of 26:44.240 --> 26:46.870 align:start position:0% the L5 Lrange point off to the side of the<00:26:44.480> Earth's<00:26:44.799> sun<00:26:45.120> line.<00:26:45.919> From<00:26:46.240> this<00:26:46.480> vantage 26:46.870 --> 26:46.880 align:start position:0% the Earth's sun line. From this vantage 26:46.880 --> 26:49.190 align:start position:0% the Earth's sun line. From this vantage point,<00:26:47.440> it<00:26:47.679> will<00:26:47.840> be<00:26:47.919> able<00:26:48.080> to<00:26:48.320> watch<00:26:48.720> active 26:49.190 --> 26:49.200 align:start position:0% point, it will be able to watch active 26:49.200 --> 26:51.830 align:start position:0% point, it will be able to watch active sun<00:26:49.440> regions<00:26:49.919> rotating<00:26:50.559> towards<00:26:51.120> Earth 26:51.830 --> 26:51.840 align:start position:0% sun regions rotating towards Earth 26:51.840 --> 26:54.230 align:start position:0% sun regions rotating towards Earth before<00:26:52.320> they<00:26:52.640> face<00:26:52.880> us,<00:26:53.600> potentially 26:54.230 --> 26:54.240 align:start position:0% before they face us, potentially 26:54.240 --> 26:56.950 align:start position:0% before they face us, potentially extending<00:26:54.799> warning<00:26:55.200> times<00:26:55.840> from<00:26:56.080> minutes<00:26:56.640> to 26:56.950 --> 26:56.960 align:start position:0% extending warning times from minutes to 26:56.960 --> 26:59.830 align:start position:0% extending warning times from minutes to days.<00:26:58.240> On<00:26:58.480> the<00:26:58.640> ground,<00:26:59.039> strides<00:26:59.440> are<00:26:59.600> being 26:59.830 --> 26:59.840 align:start position:0% days. On the ground, strides are being 26:59.840 --> 27:01.750 align:start position:0% days. On the ground, strides are being made<00:27:00.000> to<00:27:00.240> reduce<00:27:00.480> the<00:27:00.720> risks<00:27:01.039> of<00:27:01.279> blackouts 27:01.750 --> 27:01.760 align:start position:0% made to reduce the risks of blackouts 27:01.760 --> 27:03.590 align:start position:0% made to reduce the risks of blackouts and<00:27:02.000> communication<00:27:02.559> failures<00:27:03.039> in<00:27:03.279> the<00:27:03.440> face 27:03.590 --> 27:03.600 align:start position:0% and communication failures in the face 27:03.600 --> 27:06.390 align:start position:0% and communication failures in the face of<00:27:03.840> future<00:27:04.159> solar<00:27:04.480> flares.<00:27:05.440> For<00:27:05.520> example, 27:06.390 --> 27:06.400 align:start position:0% of future solar flares. For example, 27:06.400 --> 27:08.870 align:start position:0% of future solar flares. For example, implementing<00:27:07.120> smart<00:27:07.520> grid<00:27:07.840> technologies<00:27:08.480> and 27:08.870 --> 27:08.880 align:start position:0% implementing smart grid technologies and 27:08.880 --> 27:11.029 align:start position:0% implementing smart grid technologies and high<00:27:09.120> voltage<00:27:09.600> search<00:27:10.000> protectors<00:27:10.480> in<00:27:10.720> power 27:11.029 --> 27:11.039 align:start position:0% high voltage search protectors in power 27:11.039 --> 27:13.830 align:start position:0% high voltage search protectors in power grids.<00:27:11.919> building<00:27:12.559> strategic<00:27:13.200> transformer 27:13.830 --> 27:13.840 align:start position:0% grids. building strategic transformer 27:13.840 --> 27:15.909 align:start position:0% grids. building strategic transformer reserves<00:27:14.320> to<00:27:14.640> quickly<00:27:15.039> replace<00:27:15.440> damaged 27:15.909 --> 27:15.919 align:start position:0% reserves to quickly replace damaged 27:15.919 --> 27:18.470 align:start position:0% reserves to quickly replace damaged infrastructure<00:27:17.039> and<00:27:17.440> investing<00:27:18.000> in<00:27:18.240> new 27:18.470 --> 27:18.480 align:start position:0% infrastructure and investing in new 27:18.480 --> 27:20.789 align:start position:0% infrastructure and investing in new materials<00:27:18.960> like<00:27:19.279> Faraday<00:27:19.840> cages<00:27:20.400> around 27:20.789 --> 27:20.799 align:start position:0% materials like Faraday cages around 27:20.799 --> 27:22.950 align:start position:0% materials like Faraday cages around critical<00:27:21.360> electronic<00:27:21.919> components<00:27:22.720> to 27:22.950 --> 27:22.960 align:start position:0% critical electronic components to 27:22.960 --> 27:25.350 align:start position:0% critical electronic components to deflect<00:27:23.440> electromagnetic<00:27:24.320> pulses<00:27:24.880> induced 27:25.350 --> 27:25.360 align:start position:0% deflect electromagnetic pulses induced 27:25.360 --> 27:29.110 align:start position:0% deflect electromagnetic pulses induced by<00:27:25.520> large<00:27:25.840> storms.<00:27:27.039> Slowly<00:27:27.520> but<00:27:27.760> surely,<00:27:28.640> we 27:29.110 --> 27:29.120 align:start position:0% by large storms. Slowly but surely, we 27:29.120 --> 27:31.830 align:start position:0% by large storms. Slowly but surely, we are<00:27:29.440> preparing. 27:31.830 --> 27:31.840 align:start position:0% are preparing. 27:31.840 --> 27:35.110 align:start position:0% are preparing. Solar<00:27:32.240> cycle<00:27:32.640> 25<00:27:33.200> exposed<00:27:33.919> how<00:27:34.320> much<00:27:34.640> we<00:27:34.960> still 27:35.110 --> 27:35.120 align:start position:0% Solar cycle 25 exposed how much we still 27:35.120 --> 27:37.269 align:start position:0% Solar cycle 25 exposed how much we still don't<00:27:35.279> know<00:27:35.440> about<00:27:35.679> our<00:27:36.000> sun,<00:27:36.559> but<00:27:36.799> it<00:27:36.960> also 27:37.269 --> 27:37.279 align:start position:0% don't know about our sun, but it also 27:37.279 --> 27:39.750 align:start position:0% don't know about our sun, but it also brought<00:27:37.600> us<00:27:37.840> several<00:27:38.320> breakthroughs.<00:27:39.520> the 27:39.750 --> 27:39.760 align:start position:0% brought us several breakthroughs. the 27:39.760 --> 27:42.390 align:start position:0% brought us several breakthroughs. the first<00:27:40.000> photons<00:27:40.480> of<00:27:40.640> the<00:27:40.799> sun's<00:27:41.200> poles,<00:27:42.080> a 27:42.390 --> 27:42.400 align:start position:0% first photons of the sun's poles, a 27:42.400 --> 27:44.950 align:start position:0% first photons of the sun's poles, a revisited<00:27:43.039> theory<00:27:43.360> of<00:27:43.520> its<00:27:43.760> dynamo,<00:27:44.720> the 27:44.950 --> 27:44.960 align:start position:0% revisited theory of its dynamo, the 27:44.960 --> 27:47.029 align:start position:0% revisited theory of its dynamo, the discovery<00:27:45.440> of<00:27:45.760> switchbacks<00:27:46.480> and<00:27:46.640> how<00:27:46.799> they 27:47.029 --> 27:47.039 align:start position:0% discovery of switchbacks and how they 27:47.039 --> 27:50.789 align:start position:0% discovery of switchbacks and how they heat<00:27:47.279> the<00:27:47.440> corona,<00:27:48.320> and<00:27:48.559> so<00:27:48.960> much<00:27:49.360> more.<00:27:50.320> Cycle 27:50.789 --> 27:50.799 align:start position:0% heat the corona, and so much more. Cycle 27:50.799 --> 27:54.310 align:start position:0% heat the corona, and so much more. Cycle 26<00:27:51.440> is<00:27:51.679> set<00:27:51.840> to<00:27:52.080> start<00:27:52.400> anytime<00:27:52.960> between<00:27:53.360> 2029 27:54.310 --> 27:54.320 align:start position:0% 26 is set to start anytime between 2029 27:54.320 --> 27:56.230 align:start position:0% 26 is set to start anytime between 2029 and<00:27:54.640> 2032. 27:56.230 --> 27:56.240 align:start position:0% and 2032. 27:56.240 --> 27:59.190 align:start position:0% and 2032. What<00:27:56.480> it<00:27:56.720> will<00:27:56.960> bring,<00:27:57.679> only<00:27:57.919> time<00:27:58.159> will<00:27:58.399> tell. 27:59.190 --> 27:59.200 align:start position:0% What it will bring, only time will tell. 27:59.200 --> 28:01.029 align:start position:0% What it will bring, only time will tell. But<00:27:59.360> what's<00:27:59.679> certain<00:28:00.000> is<00:28:00.240> we'll<00:28:00.480> have<00:28:00.720> even 28:01.029 --> 28:01.039 align:start position:0% But what's certain is we'll have even 28:01.039 --> 28:03.590 align:start position:0% But what's certain is we'll have even more<00:28:01.279> missions<00:28:01.600> in<00:28:01.840> space,<00:28:02.640> even<00:28:03.120> better 28:03.590 --> 28:03.600 align:start position:0% more missions in space, even better 28:03.600 --> 28:07.110 align:start position:0% more missions in space, even better instrumentation<00:28:05.039> ready<00:28:05.679> and<00:28:06.000> waiting<00:28:06.320> to<00:28:06.559> see 28:07.110 --> 28:07.120 align:start position:0% instrumentation ready and waiting to see 28:07.120 --> 28:14.389 align:start position:0% instrumentation ready and waiting to see what<00:28:07.360> we<00:28:07.600> can<00:28:07.760> learn<00:28:08.159> this<00:28:08.480> time<00:28:08.720> around. 28:09.027 --> 28:09.037 align:start position:0% enjoy what we do, come join the Astramm 28:09.037 --> 28:12.437 align:start position:0% enjoy what we do, come join the Astramm community<00:28:46.640> today.