WEBVTT

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taking<00:00:01.360><c> flight.</c><00:00:02.240><c> It's</c><00:00:02.480><c> the</c><00:00:02.720><c> stuff</c><00:00:03.200><c> dreams</c><00:00:03.760><c> are</c>

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taking flight. It's the stuff dreams are
 

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taking flight. It's the stuff dreams are
made<00:00:04.319><c> of.</c><00:00:04.960><c> And</c><00:00:05.120><c> it</c><00:00:05.359><c> says</c><00:00:05.600><c> something</c><00:00:05.839><c> about</c><00:00:06.080><c> us</c>

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made of. And it says something about us
 

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made of. And it says something about us
as<00:00:06.480><c> a</c><00:00:06.720><c> species</c><00:00:07.520><c> that</c><00:00:07.759><c> we</c><00:00:08.000><c> once</c><00:00:08.320><c> looked</c><00:00:08.559><c> at</c><00:00:08.720><c> the</c>

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as a species that we once looked at the
 

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as a species that we once looked at the
birds<00:00:09.280><c> soaring</c><00:00:09.599><c> in</c><00:00:09.760><c> the</c><00:00:09.920><c> sky</c><00:00:10.160><c> and</c><00:00:10.400><c> said,</c><00:00:10.800><c> "Bet</c>

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birds soaring in the sky and said, "Bet
 

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birds soaring in the sky and said, "Bet
we<00:00:11.360><c> could</c><00:00:11.599><c> do</c><00:00:11.759><c> that."</c><00:00:12.880><c> But</c><00:00:13.280><c> in</c><00:00:13.519><c> spite</c><00:00:13.840><c> of</c><00:00:14.000><c> our</c>

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we could do that." But in spite of our
 

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we could do that." But in spite of our
lack<00:00:14.480><c> of</c><00:00:14.639><c> wings</c><00:00:15.120><c> and</c><00:00:15.440><c> feathers,</c><00:00:16.240><c> we</c><00:00:16.560><c> did.</c><00:00:17.440><c> And</c>

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lack of wings and feathers, we did. And
 

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lack of wings and feathers, we did. And
we<00:00:17.920><c> didn't</c><00:00:18.080><c> stop</c><00:00:18.400><c> there.</c><00:00:19.199><c> Once</c><00:00:19.439><c> in</c><00:00:19.680><c> the</c><00:00:19.760><c> sky,</c>

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we didn't stop there. Once in the sky,
 

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we didn't stop there. Once in the sky,
we<00:00:20.320><c> found</c><00:00:20.640><c> a</c><00:00:20.880><c> new</c><00:00:21.119><c> limitation</c><00:00:21.600><c> above</c><00:00:22.000><c> us.</c>

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we found a new limitation above us.
 

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we found a new limitation above us.
Space.<00:00:23.600><c> A</c><00:00:23.760><c> place</c><00:00:24.000><c> where</c><00:00:24.400><c> all</c><00:00:24.720><c> the</c><00:00:25.039><c> air</c><00:00:25.359><c> ran</c>

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Space. A place where all the air ran
 

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Space. A place where all the air ran
out.<00:00:26.560><c> And</c><00:00:26.800><c> in</c><00:00:27.039><c> spite</c><00:00:27.199><c> of</c><00:00:27.359><c> our</c><00:00:27.680><c> very</c><00:00:28.080><c> real</c><00:00:28.400><c> need</c>

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out. And in spite of our very real need
 

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out. And in spite of our very real need
to<00:00:28.880><c> breathe,</c><00:00:29.679><c> we</c><00:00:29.920><c> thought,</c><00:00:30.640><c> "Bet</c><00:00:31.199><c> we</c><00:00:31.439><c> could</c><00:00:31.599><c> go</c>

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to breathe, we thought, "Bet we could go
 

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to breathe, we thought, "Bet we could go
there."<00:00:33.040><c> And</c><00:00:33.520><c> we</c><00:00:33.840><c> did,</c><00:00:34.640><c> sitting</c><00:00:35.040><c> on</c><00:00:35.280><c> top</c><00:00:35.600><c> of</c>

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there." And we did, sitting on top of
 

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there." And we did, sitting on top of
controlled<00:00:36.480><c> explosions</c><00:00:37.040><c> that</c><00:00:37.280><c> we</c><00:00:37.520><c> named</c>

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controlled explosions that we named
 

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controlled explosions that we named
rockets<00:00:39.120><c> all</c><00:00:39.440><c> the</c><00:00:39.680><c> way</c><00:00:39.920><c> to</c><00:00:40.160><c> the</c><00:00:40.399><c> moon.</c><00:00:41.600><c> Humans</c>

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rockets all the way to the moon. Humans
 

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rockets all the way to the moon. Humans
apparently<00:00:43.040><c> don't</c><00:00:43.280><c> like</c><00:00:43.600><c> being</c><00:00:43.920><c> told</c><00:00:44.399><c> we</c><00:00:44.719><c> have</c>

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apparently don't like being told we have
 

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apparently don't like being told we have
limits.

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limits.
 

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limits.
But<00:00:46.800><c> soon,</c><00:00:47.200><c> the</c><00:00:47.440><c> age</c><00:00:47.680><c> of</c><00:00:47.840><c> combustion</c><00:00:48.399><c> rockets</c>

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But soon, the age of combustion rockets
 

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But soon, the age of combustion rockets
will<00:00:49.360><c> be</c><00:00:49.440><c> over,</c><00:00:49.760><c> too.</c><00:00:50.559><c> They</c><00:00:50.800><c> burn</c><00:00:51.039><c> up</c><00:00:51.200><c> their</c>

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will be over, too. They burn up their
 

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will be over, too. They burn up their
fuel<00:00:51.760><c> too</c><00:00:52.079><c> quickly</c><00:00:52.640><c> and</c><00:00:52.960><c> using</c><00:00:53.280><c> them</c><00:00:53.440><c> for</c>

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fuel too quickly and using them for
 

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fuel too quickly and using them for
travel<00:00:54.160><c> to</c><00:00:54.399><c> the</c><00:00:54.559><c> places</c><00:00:54.960><c> we're</c><00:00:55.360><c> thinking</c><00:00:55.680><c> of</c>

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travel to the places we're thinking of
 

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travel to the places we're thinking of
going<00:00:56.320><c> like</c><00:00:56.719><c> Mars</c><00:00:57.600><c> or</c><00:00:58.000><c> even</c><00:00:58.480><c> other</c><00:00:58.960><c> stars</c><00:00:59.920><c> will</c>

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going like Mars or even other stars will
 

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going like Mars or even other stars will
simply<00:01:00.559><c> take</c><00:01:00.960><c> too</c><00:01:01.359><c> long.</c><00:01:02.559><c> And</c><00:01:02.800><c> so</c><00:01:03.440><c> new</c>

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simply take too long. And so new
 

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simply take too long. And so new
technologies<00:01:04.400><c> are</c><00:01:04.559><c> needed.</c><00:01:05.680><c> But</c><00:01:05.920><c> what</c><00:01:06.240><c> will</c>

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technologies are needed. But what will
 

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technologies are needed. But what will
get<00:01:06.720><c> us</c><00:01:06.960><c> there</c><00:01:07.360><c> this</c><00:01:07.600><c> time</c><00:01:08.400><c> for</c><00:01:08.720><c> journeys</c><00:01:09.040><c> that</c>

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get us there this time for journeys that
 

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get us there this time for journeys that
could<00:01:09.439><c> take</c><00:01:09.840><c> months</c><00:01:10.400><c> or</c><00:01:10.720><c> even</c><00:01:11.119><c> generations</c><00:01:11.760><c> to</c>

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could take months or even generations to
 

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could take months or even generations to
complete?<00:01:13.040><c> What</c><00:01:13.360><c> solutions</c><00:01:13.920><c> could</c><00:01:14.159><c> help</c><00:01:14.320><c> us</c>

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complete? What solutions could help us
 

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complete? What solutions could help us
bridge<00:01:15.119><c> such</c><00:01:15.520><c> gaps?</c><00:01:16.799><c> The</c><00:01:17.040><c> exciting</c><00:01:17.439><c> part</c><00:01:17.680><c> is</c>

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bridge such gaps? The exciting part is
 

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bridge such gaps? The exciting part is
the<00:01:18.560><c> answers</c><00:01:19.040><c> are</c><00:01:19.360><c> in</c><00:01:19.680><c> development.</c><00:01:20.799><c> And</c><00:01:20.960><c> it</c>

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the answers are in development. And it
 

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the answers are in development. And it
turns<00:01:21.439><c> out</c><00:01:21.840><c> these</c><00:01:22.240><c> new</c><00:01:22.479><c> ideas</c><00:01:22.880><c> are</c><00:01:23.439><c> even</c>

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turns out these new ideas are even
 

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turns out these new ideas are even
crazier<00:01:24.479><c> than</c><00:01:24.799><c> rockets.</c><00:01:26.000><c> I'm</c><00:01:26.320><c> Alex</c><00:01:26.640><c> Mccoan</c>

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crazier than rockets. I'm Alex Mccoan
 

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crazier than rockets. I'm Alex Mccoan
and<00:01:27.520><c> you're</c><00:01:27.759><c> watching</c><00:01:28.000><c> Astramm.</c><00:01:28.799><c> Join</c><00:01:29.040><c> me</c><00:01:29.200><c> in</c>

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and you're watching Astramm. Join me in
 

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and you're watching Astramm. Join me in
this<00:01:29.520><c> video</c><00:01:29.759><c> as</c><00:01:30.000><c> we</c><00:01:30.240><c> explore</c><00:01:30.720><c> the</c><00:01:30.960><c> future</c><00:01:31.360><c> of</c>

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this video as we explore the future of
 

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this video as we explore the future of
space<00:01:32.000><c> travel.</c><00:01:32.720><c> From</c><00:01:32.960><c> the</c><00:01:33.119><c> next</c><00:01:33.360><c> generation</c>

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space travel. From the next generation
 

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space travel. From the next generation
solutions<00:01:34.479><c> that</c><00:01:34.720><c> are</c><00:01:34.960><c> just</c><00:01:35.200><c> around</c><00:01:35.439><c> the</c>

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solutions that are just around the
 

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solutions that are just around the
corner<00:01:36.159><c> to</c><00:01:36.400><c> the</c><00:01:36.640><c> proposals</c><00:01:37.119><c> that</c><00:01:37.360><c> feel</c>

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corner to the proposals that feel
 

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corner to the proposals that feel
science<00:01:38.479><c> fiction</c><00:01:39.200><c> but</c><00:01:39.920><c> could</c><00:01:40.479><c> one</c><00:01:40.720><c> day</c><00:01:41.119><c> become</c>

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science fiction but could one day become
 

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science fiction but could one day become
science<00:01:42.320><c> reality.</c>

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science reality.
 

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science reality.
It's<00:01:44.960><c> only</c><00:01:45.119><c> in</c><00:01:45.360><c> the</c><00:01:45.520><c> last</c><00:01:45.840><c> 100</c><00:01:46.240><c> years</c><00:01:46.479><c> that</c>

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It's only in the last 100 years that
 

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It's only in the last 100 years that
humanity<00:01:47.280><c> has</c><00:01:47.680><c> truly</c><00:01:48.159><c> begun</c><00:01:48.479><c> to</c><00:01:48.640><c> venture</c><00:01:49.040><c> into</c>

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humanity has truly begun to venture into
 

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humanity has truly begun to venture into
space.<00:01:50.159><c> On</c><00:01:50.320><c> the</c><00:01:50.479><c> 16th</c><00:01:50.880><c> of</c><00:01:51.040><c> March</c><00:01:51.439><c> 1926,</c><00:01:52.479><c> Robert</c>

01:52.870 --> 01:52.880 align:start position:0%
space. On the 16th of March 1926, Robert
 

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space. On the 16th of March 1926, Robert
Godard,<00:01:53.520><c> the</c><00:01:53.680><c> father</c><00:01:54.079><c> of</c><00:01:54.479><c> American</c><00:01:54.880><c> rocketry,</c>

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Godard, the father of American rocketry,
 

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Godard, the father of American rocketry,
launched<00:01:56.240><c> the</c><00:01:56.479><c> world's</c><00:01:57.040><c> first</c><00:01:57.600><c> liquidfueled</c>

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launched the world's first liquidfueled
 

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launched the world's first liquidfueled
rocket<00:01:58.799><c> on</c><00:01:58.960><c> a</c><00:01:59.119><c> farm</c><00:01:59.360><c> in</c><00:01:59.600><c> Orbin,</c>

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rocket on a farm in Orbin,
 

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rocket on a farm in Orbin,
Massachusetts.<00:02:01.520><c> It</c><00:02:01.759><c> may</c><00:02:02.000><c> have</c><00:02:02.159><c> only</c><00:02:02.399><c> reached</c>

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Massachusetts. It may have only reached
 

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Massachusetts. It may have only reached
about<00:02:03.200><c> 12</c><00:02:03.680><c> 1/2</c><00:02:03.920><c> m</c><00:02:04.640><c> and</c><00:02:04.880><c> was</c><00:02:05.040><c> done</c><00:02:05.360><c> to</c><00:02:05.680><c> little</c>

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about 12 1/2 m and was done to little
 

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about 12 1/2 m and was done to little
fanfare,<00:02:07.040><c> but</c><00:02:07.360><c> this</c><00:02:07.520><c> moment</c><00:02:07.840><c> was</c><00:02:08.080><c> the</c>

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fanfare, but this moment was the
 

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fanfare, but this moment was the
beginning<00:02:08.720><c> of</c><00:02:09.360><c> 100</c><00:02:10.000><c> years</c><00:02:10.239><c> of</c>

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beginning of 100 years of
 

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beginning of 100 years of
chemicalpowered<00:02:11.680><c> rocketry</c><00:02:12.560><c> that</c><00:02:12.959><c> ultimately</c>

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chemicalpowered rocketry that ultimately
 

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chemicalpowered rocketry that ultimately
let<00:02:13.840><c> man</c><00:02:14.239><c> walk</c><00:02:14.480><c> on</c><00:02:14.720><c> the</c><00:02:14.879><c> moon.</c><00:02:15.840><c> Understanding</c>

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let man walk on the moon. Understanding
 

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let man walk on the moon. Understanding
where<00:02:16.560><c> we</c><00:02:16.800><c> came</c><00:02:16.959><c> from</c><00:02:17.360><c> is</c><00:02:17.760><c> important</c><00:02:18.239><c> in</c>

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where we came from is important in
 

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where we came from is important in
understanding<00:02:19.280><c> where</c><00:02:19.599><c> we're</c><00:02:19.840><c> going.</c><00:02:20.879><c> So,</c>

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understanding where we're going. So,
 

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understanding where we're going. So,
let's<00:02:21.440><c> take</c><00:02:21.599><c> a</c><00:02:21.760><c> closer</c><00:02:22.080><c> look</c><00:02:22.319><c> at</c><00:02:22.800><c> chemical</c>

02:23.270 --> 02:23.280 align:start position:0%
let's take a closer look at chemical
 

02:23.280 --> 02:26.309 align:start position:0%
let's take a closer look at chemical
rockets.<00:02:24.319><c> Here</c><00:02:24.959><c> thrust</c><00:02:25.360><c> is</c><00:02:25.599><c> generated</c><00:02:26.080><c> by</c>

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rockets. Here thrust is generated by
 

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rockets. Here thrust is generated by
mixing<00:02:26.800><c> some</c><00:02:27.120><c> kind</c><00:02:27.360><c> of</c><00:02:27.599><c> fuel</c><00:02:28.000><c> source</c><00:02:28.640><c> often</c>

02:29.350 --> 02:29.360 align:start position:0%
mixing some kind of fuel source often
 

02:29.360 --> 02:33.110 align:start position:0%
mixing some kind of fuel source often
RP1<00:02:30.480><c> kerosene</c><00:02:31.440><c> or</c><00:02:31.760><c> other</c><00:02:32.080><c> variations</c><00:02:32.720><c> refined</c>

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RP1 kerosene or other variations refined
 

02:33.120 --> 02:35.830 align:start position:0%
RP1 kerosene or other variations refined
from<00:02:33.360><c> crude</c><00:02:33.760><c> oil</c><00:02:34.160><c> with</c><00:02:34.560><c> some</c><00:02:34.879><c> kind</c><00:02:35.120><c> of</c><00:02:35.280><c> oxygen</c>

02:35.830 --> 02:35.840 align:start position:0%
from crude oil with some kind of oxygen
 

02:35.840 --> 02:38.550 align:start position:0%
from crude oil with some kind of oxygen
source.<00:02:36.560><c> For</c><00:02:36.800><c> instance,</c><00:02:37.440><c> pure</c><00:02:37.840><c> oxygen</c><00:02:38.319><c> in</c>

02:38.550 --> 02:38.560 align:start position:0%
source. For instance, pure oxygen in
 

02:38.560 --> 02:40.949 align:start position:0%
source. For instance, pure oxygen in
liquid<00:02:38.879><c> form</c><00:02:39.280><c> in</c><00:02:39.440><c> a</c><00:02:39.680><c> combustion</c><00:02:40.080><c> chamber</c><00:02:40.720><c> and</c>

02:40.949 --> 02:40.959 align:start position:0%
liquid form in a combustion chamber and
 

02:40.959 --> 02:44.229 align:start position:0%
liquid form in a combustion chamber and
then<00:02:41.440><c> igniting</c><00:02:41.920><c> them.</c><00:02:42.720><c> Hot</c><00:02:43.040><c> things</c><00:02:43.280><c> expand</c>

02:44.229 --> 02:44.239 align:start position:0%
then igniting them. Hot things expand
 

02:44.239 --> 02:46.949 align:start position:0%
then igniting them. Hot things expand
and<00:02:44.560><c> in</c><00:02:44.800><c> such</c><00:02:45.040><c> an</c><00:02:45.280><c> explosion</c><00:02:45.680><c> as</c><00:02:45.920><c> this,</c><00:02:46.640><c> they</c>

02:46.949 --> 02:46.959 align:start position:0%
and in such an explosion as this, they
 

02:46.959 --> 02:49.830 align:start position:0%
and in such an explosion as this, they
expand<00:02:47.440><c> a</c><00:02:47.760><c> lot.</c><00:02:48.480><c> A</c><00:02:48.720><c> chemical</c><00:02:49.120><c> rocket</c><00:02:49.519><c> points</c>

02:49.830 --> 02:49.840 align:start position:0%
expand a lot. A chemical rocket points
 

02:49.840 --> 02:52.390 align:start position:0%
expand a lot. A chemical rocket points
that<00:02:50.080><c> explosion</c><00:02:50.720><c> downwards.</c><00:02:51.760><c> Then,</c><00:02:52.160><c> thanks</c>

02:52.390 --> 02:52.400 align:start position:0%
that explosion downwards. Then, thanks
 

02:52.400 --> 02:54.309 align:start position:0%
that explosion downwards. Then, thanks
to<00:02:52.640><c> Newton's</c><00:02:53.120><c> third</c><00:02:53.360><c> law,</c><00:02:53.840><c> where</c><00:02:54.080><c> every</c>

02:54.309 --> 02:54.319 align:start position:0%
to Newton's third law, where every
 

02:54.319 --> 02:56.070 align:start position:0%
to Newton's third law, where every
action<00:02:54.640><c> has</c><00:02:54.879><c> an</c><00:02:55.040><c> equal</c><00:02:55.360><c> and</c><00:02:55.680><c> opposite</c>

02:56.070 --> 02:56.080 align:start position:0%
action has an equal and opposite
 

02:56.080 --> 03:00.150 align:start position:0%
action has an equal and opposite
reaction,<00:02:57.120><c> the</c><00:02:57.360><c> rocket</c><00:02:57.840><c> as</c><00:02:58.080><c> a</c><00:02:58.239><c> whole</c><00:02:58.640><c> goes</c><00:02:59.040><c> up.</c>

03:00.150 --> 03:00.160 align:start position:0%
reaction, the rocket as a whole goes up.
 

03:00.160 --> 03:01.990 align:start position:0%
reaction, the rocket as a whole goes up.
Chemical<00:03:00.640><c> rockets</c><00:03:01.040><c> have</c><00:03:01.280><c> been</c><00:03:01.440><c> the</c><00:03:01.760><c> key</c>

03:01.990 --> 03:02.000 align:start position:0%
Chemical rockets have been the key
 

03:02.000 --> 03:04.470 align:start position:0%
Chemical rockets have been the key
driving<00:03:02.400><c> factor</c><00:03:02.720><c> in</c><00:03:03.040><c> more</c><00:03:03.280><c> than</c><00:03:03.680><c> 7,000</c>

03:04.470 --> 03:04.480 align:start position:0%
driving factor in more than 7,000
 

03:04.480 --> 03:06.309 align:start position:0%
driving factor in more than 7,000
launches<00:03:04.959><c> globally</c><00:03:05.440><c> since</c><00:03:05.680><c> the</c><00:03:05.840><c> dawn</c><00:03:06.080><c> of</c><00:03:06.159><c> the</c>

03:06.309 --> 03:06.319 align:start position:0%
launches globally since the dawn of the
 

03:06.319 --> 03:09.430 align:start position:0%
launches globally since the dawn of the
space<00:03:06.560><c> race</c><00:03:06.800><c> in</c><00:03:07.120><c> 1957.</c><00:03:08.319><c> And</c><00:03:08.560><c> even</c><00:03:08.800><c> in</c><00:03:09.120><c> space</c>

03:09.430 --> 03:09.440 align:start position:0%
space race in 1957. And even in space
 

03:09.440 --> 03:11.910 align:start position:0%
space race in 1957. And even in space
itself,<00:03:10.319><c> chemical</c><00:03:10.800><c> propulsion</c><00:03:11.280><c> methods,</c>

03:11.910 --> 03:11.920 align:start position:0%
itself, chemical propulsion methods,
 

03:11.920 --> 03:14.470 align:start position:0%
itself, chemical propulsion methods,
whether<00:03:12.560><c> burning</c><00:03:12.959><c> fuel</c><00:03:13.200><c> in</c><00:03:13.440><c> thrusters</c><00:03:14.239><c> or</c>

03:14.470 --> 03:14.480 align:start position:0%
whether burning fuel in thrusters or
 

03:14.480 --> 03:16.550 align:start position:0%
whether burning fuel in thrusters or
just<00:03:14.720><c> spraying</c><00:03:15.200><c> compressed</c><00:03:15.680><c> coal</c><00:03:16.000><c> gas</c><00:03:16.319><c> out</c><00:03:16.480><c> of</c>

03:16.550 --> 03:16.560 align:start position:0%
just spraying compressed coal gas out of
 

03:16.560 --> 03:18.550 align:start position:0%
just spraying compressed coal gas out of
a<00:03:16.720><c> nozzle</c><00:03:17.040><c> to</c><00:03:17.200><c> get</c><00:03:17.280><c> a</c><00:03:17.519><c> little</c><00:03:17.680><c> extra</c><00:03:18.159><c> oomph</c><00:03:18.400><c> at</c>

03:18.550 --> 03:18.560 align:start position:0%
a nozzle to get a little extra oomph at
 

03:18.560 --> 03:20.470 align:start position:0%
a nozzle to get a little extra oomph at
the<00:03:18.720><c> right</c><00:03:18.879><c> moment,</c><00:03:19.599><c> are</c><00:03:19.760><c> the</c><00:03:20.000><c> primary</c><00:03:20.319><c> way</c>

03:20.470 --> 03:20.480 align:start position:0%
the right moment, are the primary way
 

03:20.480 --> 03:22.630 align:start position:0%
the right moment, are the primary way
that<00:03:20.720><c> probes</c><00:03:21.120><c> and</c><00:03:21.360><c> spacecraft</c><00:03:22.000><c> have</c><00:03:22.239><c> explored</c>

03:22.630 --> 03:22.640 align:start position:0%
that probes and spacecraft have explored
 

03:22.640 --> 03:24.630 align:start position:0%
that probes and spacecraft have explored
the<00:03:22.879><c> various</c><00:03:23.280><c> planets,</c><00:03:23.920><c> moons,</c><00:03:24.400><c> and</c>

03:24.630 --> 03:24.640 align:start position:0%
the various planets, moons, and
 

03:24.640 --> 03:27.430 align:start position:0%
the various planets, moons, and
asteroids<00:03:25.120><c> that</c><00:03:25.360><c> make</c><00:03:25.519><c> up</c><00:03:25.680><c> our</c><00:03:25.920><c> solar</c><00:03:26.239><c> system.</c>

03:27.430 --> 03:27.440 align:start position:0%
asteroids that make up our solar system.
 

03:27.440 --> 03:29.910 align:start position:0%
asteroids that make up our solar system.
But<00:03:27.840><c> chemical</c><00:03:28.400><c> propulsion</c><00:03:28.959><c> has</c><00:03:29.280><c> a</c><00:03:29.519><c> big</c>

03:29.910 --> 03:29.920 align:start position:0%
But chemical propulsion has a big
 

03:29.920 --> 03:32.630 align:start position:0%
But chemical propulsion has a big
problem.<00:03:31.200><c> While</c><00:03:31.440><c> it's</c><00:03:31.760><c> very</c><00:03:32.080><c> good</c><00:03:32.239><c> at</c><00:03:32.480><c> the</c>

03:32.630 --> 03:32.640 align:start position:0%
problem. While it's very good at the
 

03:32.640 --> 03:35.110 align:start position:0%
problem. While it's very good at the
short-term<00:03:33.280><c> challenge</c><00:03:33.599><c> of</c><00:03:34.080><c> punching</c><00:03:34.560><c> its</c><00:03:34.879><c> way</c>

03:35.110 --> 03:35.120 align:start position:0%
short-term challenge of punching its way
 

03:35.120 --> 03:37.430 align:start position:0%
short-term challenge of punching its way
free<00:03:35.360><c> of</c><00:03:35.519><c> the</c><00:03:35.599><c> Earth's</c><00:03:35.920><c> gravity,</c><00:03:36.720><c> a</c><00:03:36.879><c> task</c><00:03:37.200><c> that</c>

03:37.430 --> 03:37.440 align:start position:0%
free of the Earth's gravity, a task that
 

03:37.440 --> 03:39.350 align:start position:0%
free of the Earth's gravity, a task that
requires<00:03:37.840><c> a</c><00:03:38.159><c> large</c><00:03:38.400><c> amount</c><00:03:38.640><c> of</c><00:03:38.799><c> force</c><00:03:39.040><c> to</c><00:03:39.280><c> be</c>

03:39.350 --> 03:39.360 align:start position:0%
requires a large amount of force to be
 

03:39.360 --> 03:41.589 align:start position:0%
requires a large amount of force to be
applied<00:03:39.760><c> over</c><00:03:40.000><c> the</c><00:03:40.159><c> course</c><00:03:40.400><c> of</c><00:03:40.640><c> just</c><00:03:40.879><c> 8</c><00:03:41.120><c> or</c><00:03:41.360><c> so</c>

03:41.589 --> 03:41.599 align:start position:0%
applied over the course of just 8 or so
 

03:41.599 --> 03:43.670 align:start position:0%
applied over the course of just 8 or so
minutes<00:03:42.239><c> and</c><00:03:42.480><c> a</c><00:03:42.720><c> little</c><00:03:42.959><c> light</c><00:03:43.280><c> maneuvering</c>

03:43.670 --> 03:43.680 align:start position:0%
minutes and a little light maneuvering
 

03:43.680 --> 03:46.390 align:start position:0%
minutes and a little light maneuvering
to<00:03:43.840><c> enter</c><00:03:44.159><c> orbit</c><00:03:44.560><c> around</c><00:03:44.799><c> a</c><00:03:44.959><c> planet,</c><00:03:45.840><c> they</c><00:03:46.080><c> are</c>

03:46.390 --> 03:46.400 align:start position:0%
to enter orbit around a planet, they are
 

03:46.400 --> 03:49.350 align:start position:0%
to enter orbit around a planet, they are
just<00:03:46.879><c> not</c><00:03:47.360><c> efficient</c><00:03:48.080><c> and</c><00:03:48.400><c> so</c><00:03:48.799><c> run</c><00:03:49.040><c> out</c><00:03:49.200><c> of</c>

03:49.350 --> 03:49.360 align:start position:0%
just not efficient and so run out of
 

03:49.360 --> 03:51.910 align:start position:0%
just not efficient and so run out of
fuel<00:03:49.760><c> quickly.</c><00:03:50.799><c> For</c><00:03:50.959><c> instance,</c><00:03:51.360><c> let's</c><00:03:51.599><c> take</c><00:03:51.760><c> a</c>

03:51.910 --> 03:51.920 align:start position:0%
fuel quickly. For instance, let's take a
 

03:51.920 --> 03:54.470 align:start position:0%
fuel quickly. For instance, let's take a
look<00:03:52.000><c> at</c><00:03:52.239><c> this</c><00:03:52.640><c> Falcon</c><00:03:53.120><c> 9</c><00:03:53.360><c> rocket,</c><00:03:54.000><c> the</c><00:03:54.239><c> kind</c>

03:54.470 --> 03:54.480 align:start position:0%
look at this Falcon 9 rocket, the kind
 

03:54.480 --> 03:56.710 align:start position:0%
look at this Falcon 9 rocket, the kind
favored<00:03:54.879><c> by</c><00:03:55.120><c> SpaceX</c><00:03:55.680><c> in</c><00:03:55.920><c> their</c><00:03:56.159><c> hundreds</c><00:03:56.560><c> of</c>

03:56.710 --> 03:56.720 align:start position:0%
favored by SpaceX in their hundreds of
 

03:56.720 --> 03:59.750 align:start position:0%
favored by SpaceX in their hundreds of
launches.<00:03:57.840><c> While</c><00:03:58.080><c> a</c><00:03:58.239><c> Falcon</c><00:03:58.640><c> 9</c><00:03:58.879><c> rocket</c><00:03:59.280><c> has</c>

03:59.750 --> 03:59.760 align:start position:0%
launches. While a Falcon 9 rocket has
 

03:59.760 --> 04:02.229 align:start position:0%
launches. While a Falcon 9 rocket has
549,054

04:02.229 --> 04:02.239 align:start position:0%
549,054
 

04:02.239 --> 04:05.030 align:start position:0%
549,054
kg<00:04:02.799><c> of</c><00:04:02.959><c> mass</c><00:04:03.200><c> at</c><00:04:03.439><c> launch,</c>

04:05.030 --> 04:05.040 align:start position:0%
kg of mass at launch,
 

04:05.040 --> 04:08.229 align:start position:0%
kg of mass at launch,
395,700

04:08.229 --> 04:08.239 align:start position:0%
 
 

04:08.239 --> 04:11.750 align:start position:0%
 
kg<00:04:08.799><c> of</c><00:04:08.959><c> this</c><00:04:09.200><c> mass</c><00:04:09.519><c> is</c><00:04:10.000><c> fuel.</c><00:04:11.120><c> This</c><00:04:11.360><c> leaves</c>

04:11.750 --> 04:11.760 align:start position:0%
kg of this mass is fuel. This leaves
 

04:11.760 --> 04:13.830 align:start position:0%
kg of this mass is fuel. This leaves
very<00:04:12.080><c> little</c><00:04:12.319><c> room</c><00:04:12.560><c> on</c><00:04:12.799><c> any</c><00:04:13.040><c> rocket</c><00:04:13.439><c> for</c><00:04:13.599><c> the</c>

04:13.830 --> 04:13.840 align:start position:0%
very little room on any rocket for the
 

04:13.840 --> 04:15.990 align:start position:0%
very little room on any rocket for the
payload<00:04:14.560><c> or</c><00:04:14.720><c> the</c><00:04:14.959><c> part</c><00:04:15.120><c> of</c><00:04:15.200><c> the</c><00:04:15.360><c> rocket</c><00:04:15.680><c> you're</c>

04:15.990 --> 04:16.000 align:start position:0%
payload or the part of the rocket you're
 

04:16.000 --> 04:18.550 align:start position:0%
payload or the part of the rocket you're
actually<00:04:16.400><c> trying</c><00:04:16.639><c> to</c><00:04:16.880><c> get</c><00:04:17.199><c> into</c><00:04:17.600><c> space</c><00:04:18.079><c> in</c><00:04:18.400><c> the</c>

04:18.550 --> 04:18.560 align:start position:0%
actually trying to get into space in the
 

04:18.560 --> 04:22.230 align:start position:0%
actually trying to get into space in the
first<00:04:18.799><c> place.</c><00:04:19.840><c> Why</c><00:04:20.160><c> is</c><00:04:20.400><c> so</c><00:04:20.639><c> much</c><00:04:20.880><c> fuel</c><00:04:21.199><c> needed?</c>

04:22.230 --> 04:22.240 align:start position:0%
first place. Why is so much fuel needed?
 

04:22.240 --> 04:24.550 align:start position:0%
first place. Why is so much fuel needed?
The<00:04:22.479><c> answer</c><00:04:22.800><c> is</c><00:04:23.040><c> in</c><00:04:23.360><c> a</c><00:04:23.600><c> chemical</c><00:04:24.000><c> rocket's</c>

04:24.550 --> 04:24.560 align:start position:0%
The answer is in a chemical rocket's
 

04:24.560 --> 04:27.030 align:start position:0%
The answer is in a chemical rocket's
specific<00:04:25.120><c> impulse,</c><00:04:25.840><c> which</c><00:04:26.080><c> is</c><00:04:26.160><c> a</c><00:04:26.400><c> measure</c><00:04:26.720><c> in</c>

04:27.030 --> 04:27.040 align:start position:0%
specific impulse, which is a measure in
 

04:27.040 --> 04:29.110 align:start position:0%
specific impulse, which is a measure in
seconds<00:04:27.440><c> of</c><00:04:27.680><c> how</c><00:04:27.919><c> much</c><00:04:28.080><c> thrust</c><00:04:28.479><c> you</c><00:04:28.639><c> get</c><00:04:28.880><c> for</c>

04:29.110 --> 04:29.120 align:start position:0%
seconds of how much thrust you get for
 

04:29.120 --> 04:31.350 align:start position:0%
seconds of how much thrust you get for
each<00:04:29.440><c> unit</c><00:04:29.759><c> of</c><00:04:29.919><c> propellant.</c><00:04:30.800><c> Think</c><00:04:31.040><c> of</c><00:04:31.199><c> it</c>

04:31.350 --> 04:31.360 align:start position:0%
each unit of propellant. Think of it
 

04:31.360 --> 04:34.230 align:start position:0%
each unit of propellant. Think of it
like<00:04:31.600><c> the</c><00:04:31.840><c> fuel</c><00:04:32.160><c> economy</c><00:04:32.639><c> of</c><00:04:32.800><c> a</c><00:04:33.040><c> spacecraft.</c>

04:34.230 --> 04:34.240 align:start position:0%
like the fuel economy of a spacecraft.
 

04:34.240 --> 04:36.469 align:start position:0%
like the fuel economy of a spacecraft.
While<00:04:34.560><c> rockets</c><00:04:34.960><c> are</c><00:04:35.120><c> able</c><00:04:35.280><c> to</c><00:04:35.440><c> generate</c><00:04:35.919><c> a</c><00:04:36.320><c> lot</c>

04:36.469 --> 04:36.479 align:start position:0%
While rockets are able to generate a lot
 

04:36.479 --> 04:38.870 align:start position:0%
While rockets are able to generate a lot
of<00:04:36.720><c> thrust,</c><00:04:37.520><c> their</c><00:04:37.759><c> specific</c><00:04:38.160><c> impulse</c><00:04:38.639><c> is</c>

04:38.870 --> 04:38.880 align:start position:0%
of thrust, their specific impulse is
 

04:38.880 --> 04:41.830 align:start position:0%
of thrust, their specific impulse is
quite<00:04:39.199><c> low,</c><00:04:39.919><c> never</c><00:04:40.240><c> much</c><00:04:40.479><c> higher</c><00:04:40.800><c> than</c><00:04:41.280><c> 500</c>

04:41.830 --> 04:41.840 align:start position:0%
quite low, never much higher than 500
 

04:41.840 --> 04:45.189 align:start position:0%
quite low, never much higher than 500
seconds.<00:04:43.040><c> They</c><00:04:43.360><c> are</c><00:04:43.600><c> like</c><00:04:44.240><c> lightning</c><00:04:44.880><c> fast</c>

04:45.189 --> 04:45.199 align:start position:0%
seconds. They are like lightning fast
 

04:45.199 --> 04:47.990 align:start position:0%
seconds. They are like lightning fast
sports<00:04:45.680><c> cars</c><00:04:46.240><c> with</c><00:04:46.560><c> really</c><00:04:46.880><c> bad</c><00:04:47.280><c> mileage.</c>

04:47.990 --> 04:48.000 align:start position:0%
sports cars with really bad mileage.
 

04:48.000 --> 04:50.150 align:start position:0%
sports cars with really bad mileage.
They<00:04:48.240><c> can</c><00:04:48.400><c> do</c><00:04:48.560><c> very</c><00:04:48.880><c> powerful</c><00:04:49.280><c> bursts,</c><00:04:49.919><c> but</c>

04:50.150 --> 04:50.160 align:start position:0%
They can do very powerful bursts, but
 

04:50.160 --> 04:52.310 align:start position:0%
They can do very powerful bursts, but
will<00:04:50.479><c> then</c><00:04:50.720><c> quickly</c><00:04:51.120><c> need</c><00:04:51.360><c> to</c><00:04:51.600><c> top</c><00:04:51.840><c> up</c><00:04:52.000><c> at</c><00:04:52.160><c> the</c>

04:52.310 --> 04:52.320 align:start position:0%
will then quickly need to top up at the
 

04:52.320 --> 04:54.790 align:start position:0%
will then quickly need to top up at the
nearest<00:04:52.639><c> fuel</c><00:04:52.960><c> station.</c><00:04:53.919><c> Sadly,</c><00:04:54.400><c> we</c><00:04:54.639><c> don't</c>

04:54.790 --> 04:54.800 align:start position:0%
nearest fuel station. Sadly, we don't
 

04:54.800 --> 04:57.510 align:start position:0%
nearest fuel station. Sadly, we don't
have<00:04:55.040><c> many</c><00:04:55.280><c> of</c><00:04:55.440><c> those</c><00:04:55.680><c> in</c><00:04:55.919><c> space</c><00:04:56.160><c> yet.</c><00:04:57.360><c> Which</c>

04:57.510 --> 04:57.520 align:start position:0%
have many of those in space yet. Which
 

04:57.520 --> 04:59.990 align:start position:0%
have many of those in space yet. Which
brings<00:04:57.840><c> us</c><00:04:58.000><c> to</c><00:04:58.160><c> the</c><00:04:58.400><c> next</c><00:04:58.880><c> currently</c><00:04:59.520><c> existing</c>

04:59.990 --> 05:00.000 align:start position:0%
brings us to the next currently existing
 

05:00.000 --> 05:02.469 align:start position:0%
brings us to the next currently existing
technology,<00:05:00.960><c> one</c><00:05:01.199><c> which</c><00:05:01.520><c> has</c><00:05:01.840><c> almost</c><00:05:02.240><c> the</c>

05:02.469 --> 05:02.479 align:start position:0%
technology, one which has almost the
 

05:02.479 --> 05:04.950 align:start position:0%
technology, one which has almost the
complete<00:05:02.880><c> opposite</c><00:05:03.280><c> problem.</c><00:05:04.400><c> Electric</c>

05:04.950 --> 05:04.960 align:start position:0%
complete opposite problem. Electric
 

05:04.960 --> 05:06.790 align:start position:0%
complete opposite problem. Electric
thrusters.

05:06.790 --> 05:06.800 align:start position:0%
thrusters.
 

05:06.800 --> 05:08.950 align:start position:0%
thrusters.
While<00:05:07.120><c> not</c><00:05:07.360><c> as</c><00:05:07.680><c> commonly</c><00:05:08.160><c> used</c><00:05:08.400><c> as</c><00:05:08.639><c> chemical</c>

05:08.950 --> 05:08.960 align:start position:0%
While not as commonly used as chemical
 

05:08.960 --> 05:11.110 align:start position:0%
While not as commonly used as chemical
thrusters,<00:05:09.840><c> electric</c><00:05:10.160><c> thrusters</c><00:05:10.720><c> have</c><00:05:10.880><c> seen</c>

05:11.110 --> 05:11.120 align:start position:0%
thrusters, electric thrusters have seen
 

05:11.120 --> 05:13.590 align:start position:0%
thrusters, electric thrusters have seen
use<00:05:11.360><c> in</c><00:05:11.600><c> missions</c><00:05:11.919><c> like</c><00:05:12.320><c> NASA</c><00:05:12.960><c> mission</c><00:05:13.280><c> to</c><00:05:13.440><c> the</c>

05:13.590 --> 05:13.600 align:start position:0%
use in missions like NASA mission to the
 

05:13.600 --> 05:16.390 align:start position:0%
use in missions like NASA mission to the
asteroid<00:05:14.000><c> belt</c><00:05:14.560><c> and</c><00:05:14.800><c> by</c><00:05:15.120><c> SpaceX's</c><00:05:15.840><c> Starling</c>

05:16.390 --> 05:16.400 align:start position:0%
asteroid belt and by SpaceX's Starling
 

05:16.400 --> 05:19.189 align:start position:0%
asteroid belt and by SpaceX's Starling
satellites.<00:05:17.520><c> And</c><00:05:17.759><c> by</c><00:05:18.080><c> some</c><00:05:18.240><c> metrics,</c><00:05:18.880><c> these</c>

05:19.189 --> 05:19.199 align:start position:0%
satellites. And by some metrics, these
 

05:19.199 --> 05:22.150 align:start position:0%
satellites. And by some metrics, these
engines<00:05:19.600><c> are</c><00:05:19.919><c> impressive.</c><00:05:21.039><c> Electrical</c><00:05:21.600><c> or</c>

05:22.150 --> 05:22.160 align:start position:0%
engines are impressive. Electrical or
 

05:22.160 --> 05:24.310 align:start position:0%
engines are impressive. Electrical or
ion<00:05:22.400><c> thrusters</c><00:05:23.120><c> can</c><00:05:23.360><c> have</c><00:05:23.520><c> a</c><00:05:23.759><c> specific</c>

05:24.310 --> 05:24.320 align:start position:0%
ion thrusters can have a specific
 

05:24.320 --> 05:26.710 align:start position:0%
ion thrusters can have a specific
impulse<00:05:24.880><c> up</c><00:05:25.039><c> to</c><00:05:25.280><c> 10</c><00:05:25.600><c> times</c><00:05:26.000><c> higher</c><00:05:26.479><c> than</c>

05:26.710 --> 05:26.720 align:start position:0%
impulse up to 10 times higher than
 

05:26.720 --> 05:29.189 align:start position:0%
impulse up to 10 times higher than
chemical<00:05:27.199><c> propulsion,</c><00:05:28.160><c> allowing</c><00:05:28.479><c> for</c><00:05:28.800><c> far</c>

05:29.189 --> 05:29.199 align:start position:0%
chemical propulsion, allowing for far
 

05:29.199 --> 05:31.430 align:start position:0%
chemical propulsion, allowing for far
longer<00:05:29.600><c> journeys</c><00:05:30.240><c> or</c><00:05:30.560><c> greater</c><00:05:30.960><c> overall</c>

05:31.430 --> 05:31.440 align:start position:0%
longer journeys or greater overall
 

05:31.440 --> 05:33.350 align:start position:0%
longer journeys or greater overall
acceleration<00:05:32.160><c> compared</c><00:05:32.479><c> to</c><00:05:32.639><c> their</c><00:05:32.880><c> chemical</c>

05:33.350 --> 05:33.360 align:start position:0%
acceleration compared to their chemical
 

05:33.360 --> 05:35.909 align:start position:0%
acceleration compared to their chemical
counterparts.<00:05:34.479><c> Electric</c><00:05:34.880><c> thrusters</c><00:05:35.440><c> come</c><00:05:35.680><c> in</c>

05:35.909 --> 05:35.919 align:start position:0%
counterparts. Electric thrusters come in
 

05:35.919 --> 05:38.310 align:start position:0%
counterparts. Electric thrusters come in
many<00:05:36.240><c> different</c><00:05:36.479><c> types,</c><00:05:37.199><c> but</c><00:05:37.440><c> all</c><00:05:37.759><c> work</c><00:05:38.000><c> via</c>

05:38.310 --> 05:38.320 align:start position:0%
many different types, but all work via
 

05:38.320 --> 05:40.390 align:start position:0%
many different types, but all work via
Newton's<00:05:38.800><c> third</c><00:05:39.120><c> law,</c><00:05:39.520><c> just</c><00:05:39.680><c> like</c><00:05:40.000><c> chemical</c>

05:40.390 --> 05:40.400 align:start position:0%
Newton's third law, just like chemical
 

05:40.400 --> 05:43.350 align:start position:0%
Newton's third law, just like chemical
rockets,<00:05:41.199><c> pushing</c><00:05:41.600><c> propellant</c><00:05:42.160><c> out</c><00:05:42.800><c> to</c><00:05:43.039><c> push</c>

05:43.350 --> 05:43.360 align:start position:0%
rockets, pushing propellant out to push
 

05:43.360 --> 05:46.150 align:start position:0%
rockets, pushing propellant out to push
the<00:05:43.680><c> rocket</c><00:05:44.160><c> in</c><00:05:44.400><c> the</c><00:05:44.560><c> opposite</c><00:05:44.880><c> direction.</c>

05:46.150 --> 05:46.160 align:start position:0%
the rocket in the opposite direction.
 

05:46.160 --> 05:47.749 align:start position:0%
the rocket in the opposite direction.
However,<00:05:46.560><c> while</c><00:05:46.880><c> chemical</c><00:05:47.280><c> propulsion</c>

05:47.749 --> 05:47.759 align:start position:0%
However, while chemical propulsion
 

05:47.759 --> 05:49.830 align:start position:0%
However, while chemical propulsion
relies<00:05:48.160><c> on</c><00:05:48.400><c> hot</c><00:05:48.720><c> reactions</c><00:05:49.120><c> to</c><00:05:49.280><c> produce</c><00:05:49.600><c> their</c>

05:49.830 --> 05:49.840 align:start position:0%
relies on hot reactions to produce their
 

05:49.840 --> 05:52.230 align:start position:0%
relies on hot reactions to produce their
thrust,<00:05:50.400><c> electrical</c><00:05:50.960><c> thrusters</c><00:05:51.600><c> like</c><00:05:51.840><c> the</c>

05:52.230 --> 05:52.240 align:start position:0%
thrust, electrical thrusters like the
 

05:52.240 --> 05:54.950 align:start position:0%
thrust, electrical thrusters like the
Hall<00:05:52.560><c> effect</c><00:05:52.880><c> thruster</c><00:05:53.440><c> or</c><00:05:53.759><c> the</c><00:05:54.080><c> grided</c><00:05:54.800><c> ion</c>

05:54.950 --> 05:54.960 align:start position:0%
Hall effect thruster or the grided ion
 

05:54.960 --> 05:57.749 align:start position:0%
Hall effect thruster or the grided ion
thruster<00:05:55.840><c> work</c><00:05:56.080><c> by</c><00:05:56.400><c> creating</c><00:05:56.880><c> electric</c><00:05:57.440><c> or</c>

05:57.749 --> 05:57.759 align:start position:0%
thruster work by creating electric or
 

05:57.759 --> 06:00.469 align:start position:0%
thruster work by creating electric or
magnetic<00:05:58.320><c> fields.</c><00:05:59.360><c> Particles</c><00:05:59.840><c> of</c><00:06:00.080><c> noble</c>

06:00.469 --> 06:00.479 align:start position:0%
magnetic fields. Particles of noble
 

06:00.479 --> 06:03.270 align:start position:0%
magnetic fields. Particles of noble
gases<00:06:00.880><c> like</c><00:06:01.360><c> xenon</c><00:06:01.919><c> or</c><00:06:02.320><c> krypton</c><00:06:03.039><c> are</c>

06:03.270 --> 06:03.280 align:start position:0%
gases like xenon or krypton are
 

06:03.280 --> 06:05.590 align:start position:0%
gases like xenon or krypton are
accelerated<00:06:03.840><c> in</c><00:06:04.000><c> these</c><00:06:04.240><c> fields</c><00:06:04.800><c> up</c><00:06:04.960><c> to</c><00:06:05.199><c> speeds</c>

06:05.590 --> 06:05.600 align:start position:0%
accelerated in these fields up to speeds
 

06:05.600 --> 06:10.230 align:start position:0%
accelerated in these fields up to speeds
of<00:06:06.800><c> 140,000</c><00:06:07.759><c> km</c><00:06:08.240><c> an</c><00:06:08.479><c> hour</c><00:06:08.720><c> in</c><00:06:09.120><c> ion</c><00:06:09.360><c> thrusters,</c>

06:10.230 --> 06:10.240 align:start position:0%
of 140,000 km an hour in ion thrusters,
 

06:10.240 --> 06:12.870 align:start position:0%
of 140,000 km an hour in ion thrusters,
though<00:06:10.560><c> less</c><00:06:10.880><c> for</c><00:06:11.039><c> hall</c><00:06:11.360><c> thrusters</c><00:06:12.319><c> and</c><00:06:12.639><c> are</c>

06:12.870 --> 06:12.880 align:start position:0%
though less for hall thrusters and are
 

06:12.880 --> 06:15.909 align:start position:0%
though less for hall thrusters and are
sent<00:06:13.440><c> flying</c><00:06:14.080><c> off</c><00:06:14.319><c> into</c><00:06:14.720><c> space.</c><00:06:15.440><c> When</c><00:06:15.680><c> the</c>

06:15.909 --> 06:15.919 align:start position:0%
sent flying off into space. When the
 

06:15.919 --> 06:17.830 align:start position:0%
sent flying off into space. When the
particles<00:06:16.319><c> accelerate</c><00:06:16.880><c> one</c><00:06:17.120><c> way,</c><00:06:17.600><c> the</c>

06:17.830 --> 06:17.840 align:start position:0%
particles accelerate one way, the
 

06:17.840 --> 06:20.710 align:start position:0%
particles accelerate one way, the
spacecraft<00:06:18.400><c> is</c><00:06:18.720><c> pushed</c><00:06:18.960><c> the</c><00:06:19.280><c> other</c><00:06:19.440><c> way.</c><00:06:20.400><c> This</c>

06:20.710 --> 06:20.720 align:start position:0%
spacecraft is pushed the other way. This
 

06:20.720 --> 06:22.629 align:start position:0%
spacecraft is pushed the other way. This
is<00:06:20.800><c> the</c><00:06:21.120><c> advantage</c><00:06:21.520><c> of</c><00:06:21.840><c> electric</c><00:06:22.160><c> thrusters</c>

06:22.629 --> 06:22.639 align:start position:0%
is the advantage of electric thrusters
 

06:22.639 --> 06:24.710 align:start position:0%
is the advantage of electric thrusters
in<00:06:22.880><c> general.</c><00:06:23.520><c> If</c><00:06:23.680><c> you're</c><00:06:23.919><c> accelerating</c><00:06:24.400><c> your</c>

06:24.710 --> 06:24.720 align:start position:0%
in general. If you're accelerating your
 

06:24.720 --> 06:29.029 align:start position:0%
in general. If you're accelerating your
fuel<00:06:25.039><c> up</c><00:06:25.199><c> to</c><00:06:26.160><c> 140,000</c><00:06:27.120><c> kmh,</c><00:06:28.560><c> you're</c><00:06:28.800><c> getting</c>

06:29.029 --> 06:29.039 align:start position:0%
fuel up to 140,000 kmh, you're getting
 

06:29.039 --> 06:31.590 align:start position:0%
fuel up to 140,000 kmh, you're getting
some<00:06:29.360><c> really</c><00:06:29.759><c> good</c><00:06:30.000><c> mileage</c><00:06:30.639><c> for</c><00:06:30.880><c> each</c><00:06:31.199><c> atom</c>

06:31.590 --> 06:31.600 align:start position:0%
some really good mileage for each atom
 

06:31.600 --> 06:33.110 align:start position:0%
some really good mileage for each atom
accelerated.

06:31.600 --> 06:34.391 align:start position:0%
momentum, too. Now, back to the pros and
cons<00:07:52.960><c> of</c><00:07:53.199><c> electric</c><00:07:53.599><c> thrusters.</c><00:07:54.960><c> With</c><00:07:55.280><c> all</c>

06:33.634 --> 06:33.644 align:start position:0%
cons of electric thrusters. With all
 

06:33.644 --> 06:35.953 align:start position:0%
cons of electric thrusters. With all
that<00:07:55.680><c> acceleration,</c><00:07:56.800><c> surely</c><00:07:57.360><c> electric</c>

06:35.953 --> 06:35.963 align:start position:0%
that acceleration, surely electric
 

06:35.963 --> 06:39.154 align:start position:0%
that acceleration, surely electric
thrusters<00:07:58.240><c> are</c><00:07:58.400><c> just</c><00:07:58.639><c> better</c><00:07:58.960><c> then.</c><00:07:59.840><c> Well,</c>

06:39.154 --> 06:39.164 align:start position:0%
thrusters are just better then. Well,
 

06:39.164 --> 06:42.113 align:start position:0%
thrusters are just better then. Well,
actually,<00:08:01.599><c> no.</c><00:08:02.319><c> There</c><00:08:02.560><c> is</c><00:08:02.720><c> a</c><00:08:02.879><c> downside,</c><00:08:03.680><c> a</c>

06:42.113 --> 06:42.123 align:start position:0%
actually, no. There is a downside, a
 

06:42.123 --> 06:44.673 align:start position:0%
actually, no. There is a downside, a
significant<00:08:04.479><c> one.</c><00:08:05.280><c> You</c><00:08:05.520><c> see,</c><00:08:06.080><c> electric</c>

06:44.673 --> 06:44.683 align:start position:0%
significant one. You see, electric
 

06:44.683 --> 06:48.034 align:start position:0%
significant one. You see, electric
thrusters<00:08:07.039><c> actually</c><00:08:07.440><c> have</c><00:08:08.160><c> terrible</c><00:08:08.720><c> thrust.</c>

06:48.034 --> 06:48.044 align:start position:0%
thrusters actually have terrible thrust.
 

06:48.044 --> 06:50.113 align:start position:0%
thrusters actually have terrible thrust.
Think<00:08:10.080><c> of</c><00:08:10.160><c> it</c><00:08:10.400><c> like</c><00:08:10.720><c> putting</c><00:08:11.039><c> your</c><00:08:11.280><c> thumb</c><00:08:11.599><c> over</c>

06:50.113 --> 06:50.123 align:start position:0%
Think of it like putting your thumb over
 

06:50.123 --> 06:52.434 align:start position:0%
Think of it like putting your thumb over
the<00:08:12.080><c> nozzle</c><00:08:12.479><c> of</c><00:08:12.720><c> a</c><00:08:12.879><c> hose.</c><00:08:13.520><c> By</c><00:08:13.759><c> limiting</c><00:08:14.080><c> the</c>

06:52.434 --> 06:52.444 align:start position:0%
the nozzle of a hose. By limiting the
 

06:52.444 --> 06:54.434 align:start position:0%
the nozzle of a hose. By limiting the
hole<00:08:14.479><c> the</c><00:08:14.720><c> water</c><00:08:14.960><c> is</c><00:08:15.199><c> coming</c><00:08:15.440><c> through,</c><00:08:16.000><c> the</c>

06:54.434 --> 06:54.444 align:start position:0%
hole the water is coming through, the
 

06:54.444 --> 06:56.354 align:start position:0%
hole the water is coming through, the
stream<00:08:16.479><c> of</c><00:08:16.639><c> water</c><00:08:16.960><c> coming</c><00:08:17.280><c> out</c><00:08:17.440><c> of</c><00:08:17.599><c> the</c><00:08:17.759><c> hose</c>

06:56.354 --> 06:56.364 align:start position:0%
stream of water coming out of the hose
 

06:56.364 --> 06:59.154 align:start position:0%
stream of water coming out of the hose
turns<00:08:18.479><c> into</c><00:08:18.639><c> a</c><00:08:18.879><c> powerful</c><00:08:19.280><c> jet.</c><00:08:20.240><c> But</c><00:08:20.560><c> removing</c>

06:59.154 --> 06:59.164 align:start position:0%
turns into a powerful jet. But removing
 

06:59.164 --> 07:00.914 align:start position:0%
turns into a powerful jet. But removing
your<00:08:21.199><c> thumb</c><00:08:21.440><c> to</c><00:08:21.599><c> create</c><00:08:21.840><c> a</c><00:08:22.000><c> bigger</c><00:08:22.240><c> hole</c><00:08:22.560><c> does</c>

07:00.914 --> 07:00.924 align:start position:0%
your thumb to create a bigger hole does
 

07:00.924 --> 07:03.793 align:start position:0%
your thumb to create a bigger hole does
not<00:08:22.879><c> mean</c><00:08:23.039><c> you</c><00:08:23.199><c> get</c><00:08:23.360><c> an</c><00:08:23.599><c> even</c><00:08:23.919><c> bigger</c><00:08:24.240><c> jet.</c><00:08:25.280><c> You</c>

07:03.793 --> 07:03.803 align:start position:0%
not mean you get an even bigger jet. You
 

07:03.803 --> 07:06.513 align:start position:0%
not mean you get an even bigger jet. You
only<00:08:26.000><c> have</c><00:08:26.240><c> so</c><00:08:26.479><c> much</c><00:08:26.720><c> water</c><00:08:26.960><c> to</c><00:08:27.199><c> work</c><00:08:27.360><c> with.</c>

07:06.513 --> 07:06.523 align:start position:0%
only have so much water to work with.
 

07:06.523 --> 07:08.513 align:start position:0%
only have so much water to work with.
For<00:08:28.560><c> electric</c><00:08:28.960><c> thrusters,</c><00:08:29.680><c> the</c><00:08:29.919><c> problem</c><00:08:30.080><c> is</c>

07:08.513 --> 07:08.523 align:start position:0%
For electric thrusters, the problem is
 

07:08.523 --> 07:11.153 align:start position:0%
For electric thrusters, the problem is
similar,<00:08:31.039><c> except</c><00:08:31.440><c> instead</c><00:08:31.840><c> of</c><00:08:32.000><c> water,</c><00:08:32.640><c> it's</c>

07:11.153 --> 07:11.163 align:start position:0%
similar, except instead of water, it's
 

07:11.163 --> 07:13.314 align:start position:0%
similar, except instead of water, it's
electricity.<00:08:34.159><c> Electric</c><00:08:34.640><c> thrusters</c>

07:13.314 --> 07:13.324 align:start position:0%
electricity. Electric thrusters
 

07:13.324 --> 07:14.754 align:start position:0%
electricity. Electric thrusters
connected<00:08:35.440><c> to</c><00:08:35.519><c> a</c><00:08:35.680><c> solar</c><00:08:36.000><c> panel</c><00:08:36.240><c> can</c><00:08:36.399><c> get</c>

07:14.754 --> 07:14.764 align:start position:0%
connected to a solar panel can get
 

07:14.764 --> 07:16.834 align:start position:0%
connected to a solar panel can get
plenty<00:08:36.880><c> of</c><00:08:37.039><c> energy</c><00:08:37.599><c> if</c><00:08:37.839><c> you</c><00:08:38.000><c> leave</c><00:08:38.240><c> them</c><00:08:38.399><c> to</c>

07:16.834 --> 07:16.844 align:start position:0%
plenty of energy if you leave them to
 

07:16.844 --> 07:18.353 align:start position:0%
plenty of energy if you leave them to
run<00:08:38.880><c> for</c><00:08:39.120><c> long</c><00:08:39.279><c> enough</c><00:08:39.519><c> in</c><00:08:39.760><c> sufficient</c>

07:18.353 --> 07:18.363 align:start position:0%
run for long enough in sufficient
 

07:18.363 --> 07:20.514 align:start position:0%
run for long enough in sufficient
sunlight,<00:08:41.039><c> but</c><00:08:41.200><c> you</c><00:08:41.440><c> don't</c><00:08:41.599><c> get</c><00:08:41.760><c> that</c><00:08:42.000><c> energy</c>

07:20.514 --> 07:20.524 align:start position:0%
sunlight, but you don't get that energy
 

07:20.524 --> 07:23.234 align:start position:0%
sunlight, but you don't get that energy
all<00:08:42.560><c> at</c><00:08:42.719><c> once.</c><00:08:43.519><c> You</c><00:08:43.760><c> have</c><00:08:43.839><c> a</c><00:08:44.080><c> limit</c><00:08:44.399><c> on</c><00:08:44.720><c> how</c>

07:23.234 --> 07:23.244 align:start position:0%
all at once. You have a limit on how
 

07:23.244 --> 07:25.153 align:start position:0%
all at once. You have a limit on how
much<00:08:45.200><c> fuel</c><00:08:45.600><c> can</c><00:08:45.760><c> be</c><00:08:45.839><c> accelerated</c><00:08:46.480><c> based</c><00:08:46.800><c> on</c>

07:25.153 --> 07:25.163 align:start position:0%
much fuel can be accelerated based on
 

07:25.163 --> 07:26.994 align:start position:0%
much fuel can be accelerated based on
the<00:08:47.200><c> electricity</c><00:08:47.839><c> you</c><00:08:48.080><c> get</c><00:08:48.240><c> in</c><00:08:48.399><c> a</c><00:08:48.560><c> given</c>

07:26.994 --> 07:27.004 align:start position:0%
the electricity you get in a given
 

07:27.004 --> 07:30.514 align:start position:0%
the electricity you get in a given
moment.<00:08:50.160><c> So,</c><00:08:50.800><c> how</c><00:08:51.200><c> little</c><00:08:51.519><c> thrust</c><00:08:51.920><c> are</c><00:08:52.080><c> we</c>

07:30.514 --> 07:30.524 align:start position:0%
moment. So, how little thrust are we
 

07:30.524 --> 07:33.074 align:start position:0%
moment. So, how little thrust are we
talking<00:08:52.640><c> about</c><00:08:52.880><c> here?</c><00:08:53.839><c> How</c><00:08:54.080><c> much</c><00:08:54.399><c> can</c>

07:33.074 --> 07:33.084 align:start position:0%
talking about here? How much can
 

07:33.084 --> 07:35.634 align:start position:0%
talking about here? How much can
electric<00:08:55.279><c> thrusters</c><00:08:55.760><c> generate?</c><00:08:56.880><c> It</c><00:08:57.200><c> turns</c>

07:35.634 --> 07:35.644 align:start position:0%
electric thrusters generate? It turns
 

07:35.644 --> 07:38.114 align:start position:0%
electric thrusters generate? It turns
out<00:08:58.240><c> about</c><00:08:58.480><c> the</c><00:08:58.800><c> same</c><00:08:59.040><c> amount</c><00:08:59.279><c> of</c><00:08:59.440><c> force</c><00:08:59.760><c> as</c>

07:38.114 --> 07:38.124 align:start position:0%
out about the same amount of force as
 

07:38.124 --> 07:40.274 align:start position:0%
out about the same amount of force as
you'd<00:09:00.240><c> feel</c><00:09:00.480><c> from</c><00:09:00.720><c> the</c><00:09:00.880><c> gravity</c><00:09:01.360><c> of</c><00:09:01.600><c> a</c><00:09:01.839><c> piece</c>

07:40.274 --> 07:40.284 align:start position:0%
you'd feel from the gravity of a piece
 

07:40.284 --> 07:44.033 align:start position:0%
you'd feel from the gravity of a piece
of<00:09:02.320><c> paper</c><00:09:02.959><c> lying</c><00:09:03.440><c> flat</c><00:09:03.760><c> on</c><00:09:04.000><c> your</c><00:09:04.240><c> hand.</c><00:09:05.440><c> It</c><00:09:05.680><c> can</c>

07:44.033 --> 07:44.043 align:start position:0%
of paper lying flat on your hand. It can
 

07:44.043 --> 07:46.674 align:start position:0%
of paper lying flat on your hand. It can
take<00:09:06.560><c> days</c><00:09:07.120><c> for</c><00:09:07.360><c> an</c><00:09:07.519><c> electric</c><00:09:07.920><c> thruster</c><00:09:08.320><c> to</c>

07:46.674 --> 07:46.684 align:start position:0%
take days for an electric thruster to
 

07:46.684 --> 07:50.033 align:start position:0%
take days for an electric thruster to
accelerate<00:09:08.880><c> a</c><00:09:09.120><c> spacecraft</c><00:09:09.519><c> to</c><00:09:09.760><c> just</c><00:09:10.000><c> 90</c><00:09:10.320><c> kmh.</c>

07:50.033 --> 07:50.043 align:start position:0%
accelerate a spacecraft to just 90 kmh.
 

07:50.043 --> 07:53.634 align:start position:0%
accelerate a spacecraft to just 90 kmh.
And<00:09:12.080><c> while</c><00:09:12.320><c> it</c><00:09:12.480><c> can</c><00:09:12.640><c> get</c><00:09:12.880><c> up</c><00:09:13.120><c> to</c><00:09:13.519><c> 320,000</c>

07:53.634 --> 07:53.644 align:start position:0%
And while it can get up to 320,000
 

07:53.644 --> 07:57.074 align:start position:0%
And while it can get up to 320,000
km/h<00:09:16.399><c> eventually,</c><00:09:17.279><c> as</c><00:09:17.600><c> NASA</c><00:09:18.080><c> had</c><00:09:18.480><c> considered</c>

07:57.074 --> 07:57.084 align:start position:0%
km/h eventually, as NASA had considered
 

07:57.084 --> 07:59.473 align:start position:0%
km/h eventually, as NASA had considered
doing<00:09:19.120><c> on</c><00:09:19.360><c> future</c><00:09:19.680><c> missions</c><00:09:19.920><c> to</c><00:09:20.160><c> Mars,</c><00:09:21.040><c> if</c>

07:59.473 --> 07:59.483 align:start position:0%
doing on future missions to Mars, if
 

07:59.483 --> 08:01.874 align:start position:0%
doing on future missions to Mars, if
there's<00:09:21.680><c> any</c><00:09:22.000><c> friction</c><00:09:22.640><c> or</c><00:09:23.040><c> opposition</c><00:09:23.519><c> to</c>

08:01.874 --> 08:01.884 align:start position:0%
there's any friction or opposition to
 

08:01.884 --> 08:04.593 align:start position:0%
there's any friction or opposition to
its<00:09:24.000><c> movement,</c><00:09:24.640><c> an</c><00:09:24.880><c> electric</c><00:09:25.279><c> thruster</c><00:09:26.000><c> won't</c>

08:04.593 --> 08:04.603 align:start position:0%
its movement, an electric thruster won't
 

08:04.603 --> 08:07.314 align:start position:0%
its movement, an electric thruster won't
ever<00:09:26.800><c> get</c><00:09:27.040><c> off</c><00:09:27.200><c> the</c><00:09:27.440><c> ground.</c><00:09:28.320><c> Don't</c><00:09:28.640><c> use</c><00:09:28.880><c> one</c>

08:07.314 --> 08:07.324 align:start position:0%
ever get off the ground. Don't use one
 

08:07.324 --> 08:09.473 align:start position:0%
ever get off the ground. Don't use one
of<00:09:29.200><c> these</c><00:09:29.440><c> to</c><00:09:29.600><c> try</c><00:09:29.760><c> and</c><00:09:29.920><c> launch</c><00:09:30.240><c> a</c><00:09:30.480><c> rocket.</c>

08:09.473 --> 08:09.483 align:start position:0%
of these to try and launch a rocket.
 

08:09.483 --> 08:11.153 align:start position:0%
of these to try and launch a rocket.
Electric<00:09:31.760><c> thrusters</c><00:09:32.320><c> are</c><00:09:32.480><c> good</c><00:09:32.720><c> in</c>

08:11.153 --> 08:11.163 align:start position:0%
Electric thrusters are good in
 

08:11.163 --> 08:14.354 align:start position:0%
Electric thrusters are good in
marathons,<00:09:34.160><c> not</c><00:09:34.480><c> sprints.</c>

08:14.354 --> 08:14.364 align:start position:0%
marathons, not sprints.
 

08:14.364 --> 08:16.434 align:start position:0%
marathons, not sprints.
Still,<00:09:36.560><c> neither</c><00:09:36.959><c> of</c><00:09:37.120><c> these</c><00:09:37.360><c> technologies</c><00:09:38.000><c> are</c>

08:16.434 --> 08:16.444 align:start position:0%
Still, neither of these technologies are
 

08:16.444 --> 08:17.874 align:start position:0%
Still, neither of these technologies are
currently<00:09:38.640><c> suitable</c><00:09:38.959><c> for</c><00:09:39.200><c> the</c><00:09:39.360><c> types</c><00:09:39.519><c> of</c>

08:17.874 --> 08:17.884 align:start position:0%
currently suitable for the types of
 

08:17.884 --> 08:20.194 align:start position:0%
currently suitable for the types of
travel<00:09:39.920><c> that</c><00:09:40.240><c> humanity</c><00:09:41.040><c> wants</c><00:09:41.279><c> to</c><00:09:41.519><c> eventually</c>

08:20.194 --> 08:20.204 align:start position:0%
travel that humanity wants to eventually
 

08:20.204 --> 08:22.274 align:start position:0%
travel that humanity wants to eventually
do<00:09:42.240><c> around</c><00:09:42.480><c> the</c><00:09:42.640><c> solar</c><00:09:42.880><c> system</c><00:09:43.120><c> and</c><00:09:43.360><c> beyond.</c>

08:22.274 --> 08:22.284 align:start position:0%
do around the solar system and beyond.
 

08:22.284 --> 08:23.794 align:start position:0%
do around the solar system and beyond.
Because<00:09:44.399><c> chemical</c><00:09:44.800><c> rockets</c><00:09:45.120><c> use</c><00:09:45.279><c> up</c><00:09:45.440><c> their</c>

08:23.794 --> 08:23.804 align:start position:0%
Because chemical rockets use up their
 

08:23.804 --> 08:25.794 align:start position:0%
Because chemical rockets use up their
fuel<00:09:45.839><c> so</c><00:09:46.080><c> quickly,</c><00:09:46.720><c> they</c><00:09:47.040><c> can't</c><00:09:47.279><c> actually</c>

08:25.794 --> 08:25.804 align:start position:0%
fuel so quickly, they can't actually
 

08:25.804 --> 08:27.713 align:start position:0%
fuel so quickly, they can't actually
accelerate<00:09:48.000><c> for</c><00:09:48.240><c> very</c><00:09:48.399><c> long</c><00:09:48.640><c> and</c><00:09:48.880><c> thus</c><00:09:49.200><c> don't</c>

08:27.713 --> 08:27.723 align:start position:0%
accelerate for very long and thus don't
 

08:27.723 --> 08:30.194 align:start position:0%
accelerate for very long and thus don't
attain<00:09:49.839><c> a</c><00:09:50.080><c> good</c><00:09:50.240><c> top</c><00:09:50.560><c> speed.</c><00:09:51.519><c> Electric</c>

08:30.194 --> 08:30.204 align:start position:0%
attain a good top speed. Electric
 

08:30.204 --> 08:32.434 align:start position:0%
attain a good top speed. Electric
thrusters<00:09:52.480><c> have</c><00:09:52.640><c> a</c><00:09:52.880><c> good</c><00:09:53.040><c> top</c><00:09:53.279><c> speed,</c><00:09:53.920><c> but</c>

08:32.434 --> 08:32.444 align:start position:0%
thrusters have a good top speed, but
 

08:32.444 --> 08:35.554 align:start position:0%
thrusters have a good top speed, but
accelerating<00:09:54.959><c> is</c><00:09:55.200><c> a</c><00:09:55.440><c> slow</c><00:09:55.920><c> process.</c><00:09:56.880><c> And</c><00:09:57.120><c> once</c>

08:35.554 --> 08:35.564 align:start position:0%
accelerating is a slow process. And once
 

08:35.564 --> 08:37.794 align:start position:0%
accelerating is a slow process. And once
humans<00:09:57.760><c> start</c><00:09:58.000><c> fing</c><00:09:58.720><c> large</c><00:09:59.040><c> numbers</c><00:09:59.440><c> of</c>

08:37.794 --> 08:37.804 align:start position:0%
humans start fing large numbers of
 

08:37.804 --> 08:40.434 align:start position:0%
humans start fing large numbers of
crews,<00:10:00.240><c> machinery,</c><00:10:01.040><c> and</c><00:10:01.279><c> raw</c><00:10:01.600><c> materials</c><00:10:02.000><c> to</c>

08:40.434 --> 08:40.444 align:start position:0%
crews, machinery, and raw materials to
 

08:40.444 --> 08:43.074 align:start position:0%
crews, machinery, and raw materials to
places<00:10:02.480><c> like</c><00:10:02.800><c> Mars,</c><00:10:03.680><c> the</c><00:10:03.920><c> amount</c><00:10:04.240><c> of</c><00:10:04.399><c> mass</c>

08:43.074 --> 08:43.084 align:start position:0%
places like Mars, the amount of mass
 

08:43.084 --> 08:45.713 align:start position:0%
places like Mars, the amount of mass
needing<00:10:05.279><c> to</c><00:10:05.440><c> be</c><00:10:05.600><c> accelerated</c><00:10:06.320><c> is</c><00:10:06.720><c> just</c><00:10:07.120><c> too</c>

08:45.713 --> 08:45.723 align:start position:0%
needing to be accelerated is just too
 

08:45.723 --> 08:48.354 align:start position:0%
needing to be accelerated is just too
much.<00:10:08.320><c> And</c><00:10:08.480><c> of</c><00:10:08.720><c> course,</c><00:10:09.279><c> electric</c><00:10:09.680><c> thrusters</c>

08:48.354 --> 08:48.364 align:start position:0%
much. And of course, electric thrusters
 

08:48.364 --> 08:51.153 align:start position:0%
much. And of course, electric thrusters
will<00:10:10.399><c> eventually</c><00:10:10.880><c> run</c><00:10:11.040><c> out</c><00:10:11.200><c> of</c><00:10:11.279><c> fuel,</c><00:10:11.680><c> too.</c>

08:51.153 --> 08:51.163 align:start position:0%
will eventually run out of fuel, too.
 

08:51.163 --> 08:54.194 align:start position:0%
will eventually run out of fuel, too.
So,<00:10:13.680><c> what</c><00:10:13.920><c> is</c><00:10:14.079><c> the</c><00:10:14.320><c> future</c><00:10:14.480><c> of</c><00:10:14.720><c> space</c><00:10:15.040><c> travel?</c>

08:54.194 --> 08:54.204 align:start position:0%
So, what is the future of space travel?
 

08:54.204 --> 08:56.033 align:start position:0%
So, what is the future of space travel?
It's<00:10:16.240><c> time</c><00:10:16.480><c> to</c><00:10:16.720><c> look</c><00:10:17.040><c> at</c><00:10:17.279><c> some</c><00:10:17.519><c> of</c><00:10:17.680><c> the</c>

08:56.033 --> 08:56.043 align:start position:0%
It's time to look at some of the
 

08:56.043 --> 08:58.593 align:start position:0%
It's time to look at some of the
contenders.

08:58.593 --> 08:58.603 align:start position:0%
contenders.
 

08:58.603 --> 09:00.354 align:start position:0%
contenders.
Before<00:10:20.640><c> I</c><00:10:20.880><c> show</c><00:10:21.040><c> you</c><00:10:21.200><c> what</c><00:10:21.440><c> NASA</c><00:10:21.920><c> is</c>

09:00.354 --> 09:00.364 align:start position:0%
Before I show you what NASA is
 

09:00.364 --> 09:02.434 align:start position:0%
Before I show you what NASA is
developing,<00:10:22.880><c> I</c><00:10:23.120><c> want</c><00:10:23.200><c> to</c><00:10:23.360><c> give</c><00:10:23.519><c> an</c><00:10:23.760><c> honorable</c>

09:02.434 --> 09:02.444 align:start position:0%
developing, I want to give an honorable
 

09:02.444 --> 09:04.754 align:start position:0%
developing, I want to give an honorable
mention<00:10:24.480><c> to</c><00:10:24.640><c> a</c><00:10:24.880><c> technology</c><00:10:25.360><c> that</c><00:10:25.680><c> I</c><00:10:26.000><c> find</c>

09:04.754 --> 09:04.764 align:start position:0%
mention to a technology that I find
 

09:04.764 --> 09:08.754 align:start position:0%
mention to a technology that I find
really<00:10:26.959><c> cool.</c><00:10:28.079><c> Japanese</c><00:10:28.720><c> company</c><00:10:29.279><c> Oayashi</c><00:10:30.160><c> is</c>

09:08.754 --> 09:08.764 align:start position:0%
really cool. Japanese company Oayashi is
 

09:08.764 --> 09:11.713 align:start position:0%
really cool. Japanese company Oayashi is
planning<00:10:30.959><c> on</c><00:10:31.279><c> finishing</c><00:10:31.760><c> off</c><00:10:32.160><c> a</c><00:10:32.560><c> reall</c><00:10:33.120><c> life</c>

09:11.713 --> 09:11.723 align:start position:0%
planning on finishing off a reall life
 

09:11.723 --> 09:15.713 align:start position:0%
planning on finishing off a reall life
space<00:10:33.920><c> elevator</c><00:10:34.640><c> by</c><00:10:34.880><c> as</c><00:10:35.120><c> soon</c><00:10:35.440><c> as</c><00:10:35.760><c> 2050.</c><00:10:37.200><c> While</c>

09:15.713 --> 09:15.723 align:start position:0%
space elevator by as soon as 2050. While
 

09:15.723 --> 09:17.554 align:start position:0%
space elevator by as soon as 2050. While
not<00:10:37.760><c> strictly</c><00:10:38.240><c> a</c><00:10:38.560><c> means</c><00:10:38.720><c> of</c><00:10:38.959><c> traveling</c>

09:17.554 --> 09:17.564 align:start position:0%
not strictly a means of traveling
 

09:17.564 --> 09:20.273 align:start position:0%
not strictly a means of traveling
through<00:10:39.680><c> space,</c><00:10:40.320><c> a</c><00:10:40.640><c> space</c><00:10:40.959><c> elevator</c><00:10:41.519><c> is</c><00:10:41.760><c> a</c>

09:20.273 --> 09:20.283 align:start position:0%
through space, a space elevator is a
 

09:20.283 --> 09:22.273 align:start position:0%
through space, a space elevator is a
fascinating<00:10:42.800><c> alternative</c><00:10:43.360><c> way</c><00:10:43.600><c> to</c><00:10:43.839><c> get</c>

09:22.273 --> 09:22.283 align:start position:0%
fascinating alternative way to get
 

09:22.283 --> 09:24.593 align:start position:0%
fascinating alternative way to get
something<00:10:44.399><c> into</c><00:10:44.800><c> space</c><00:10:45.279><c> with</c><00:10:45.519><c> a</c><00:10:45.839><c> fraction</c><00:10:46.240><c> of</c>

09:24.593 --> 09:24.603 align:start position:0%
something into space with a fraction of
 

09:24.603 --> 09:26.754 align:start position:0%
something into space with a fraction of
the<00:10:46.640><c> energy</c><00:10:46.959><c> cost</c><00:10:47.279><c> that</c><00:10:47.519><c> a</c><00:10:47.760><c> chemical</c><00:10:48.160><c> rocket</c>

09:26.754 --> 09:26.764 align:start position:0%
the energy cost that a chemical rocket
 

09:26.764 --> 09:29.473 align:start position:0%
the energy cost that a chemical rocket
has<00:10:48.720><c> to</c><00:10:48.880><c> expend.</c><00:10:50.000><c> The</c><00:10:50.320><c> principle</c><00:10:50.640><c> behind</c><00:10:51.040><c> them</c>

09:29.473 --> 09:29.483 align:start position:0%
has to expend. The principle behind them
 

09:29.483 --> 09:31.874 align:start position:0%
has to expend. The principle behind them
is<00:10:51.600><c> simple.</c><00:10:52.480><c> All</c><00:10:52.720><c> you</c><00:10:52.880><c> would</c><00:10:53.040><c> need</c><00:10:53.200><c> is</c><00:10:53.440><c> some</c>

09:31.874 --> 09:31.884 align:start position:0%
is simple. All you would need is some
 

09:31.884 --> 09:34.593 align:start position:0%
is simple. All you would need is some
kind<00:10:53.839><c> of</c><00:10:54.000><c> anchor,</c><00:10:54.800><c> a</c><00:10:55.120><c> space</c><00:10:55.360><c> station</c><00:10:55.839><c> or</c><00:10:56.160><c> an</c>

09:34.593 --> 09:34.603 align:start position:0%
kind of anchor, a space station or an
 

09:34.603 --> 09:36.834 align:start position:0%
kind of anchor, a space station or an
asteroid<00:10:56.959><c> that</c><00:10:57.200><c> was</c><00:10:57.360><c> orbiting</c><00:10:57.760><c> the</c><00:10:57.920><c> Earth</c><00:10:58.399><c> in</c>

09:36.834 --> 09:36.844 align:start position:0%
asteroid that was orbiting the Earth in
 

09:36.844 --> 09:40.514 align:start position:0%
asteroid that was orbiting the Earth in
a<00:10:58.959><c> perfect</c><00:10:59.600><c> geostationary</c><00:11:00.560><c> orbit.</c><00:11:01.680><c> Then</c><00:11:01.920><c> you</c>

09:40.514 --> 09:40.524 align:start position:0%
a perfect geostationary orbit. Then you
 

09:40.524 --> 09:42.434 align:start position:0%
a perfect geostationary orbit. Then you
dangle<00:11:02.720><c> the</c><00:11:02.880><c> cable</c><00:11:03.200><c> down</c><00:11:03.440><c> from</c><00:11:03.680><c> that</c><00:11:03.839><c> anchor</c>

09:42.434 --> 09:42.444 align:start position:0%
dangle the cable down from that anchor
 

09:42.444 --> 09:45.153 align:start position:0%
dangle the cable down from that anchor
until<00:11:04.560><c> it</c><00:11:04.720><c> reaches</c><00:11:05.040><c> the</c><00:11:05.200><c> ground.</c><00:11:06.079><c> Finally,</c>

09:45.153 --> 09:45.163 align:start position:0%
until it reaches the ground. Finally,
 

09:45.163 --> 09:47.314 align:start position:0%
until it reaches the ground. Finally,
just<00:11:07.279><c> put</c><00:11:07.519><c> an</c><00:11:07.680><c> elevator</c><00:11:08.079><c> on</c><00:11:08.320><c> it.</c><00:11:08.800><c> With</c><00:11:08.959><c> the</c>

09:47.314 --> 09:47.324 align:start position:0%
just put an elevator on it. With the
 

09:47.324 --> 09:49.473 align:start position:0%
just put an elevator on it. With the
right<00:11:09.360><c> counterweight</c><00:11:09.920><c> in</c><00:11:10.079><c> place,</c><00:11:10.640><c> a</c><00:11:10.880><c> space</c>

09:49.473 --> 09:49.483 align:start position:0%
right counterweight in place, a space
 

09:49.483 --> 09:51.554 align:start position:0%
right counterweight in place, a space
elevator<00:11:11.760><c> would</c><00:11:12.079><c> require</c><00:11:12.640><c> very</c><00:11:13.120><c> little</c>

09:51.554 --> 09:51.564 align:start position:0%
elevator would require very little
 

09:51.564 --> 09:53.394 align:start position:0%
elevator would require very little
energy<00:11:13.760><c> to</c><00:11:13.920><c> be</c><00:11:14.000><c> able</c><00:11:14.160><c> to</c><00:11:14.320><c> lift</c><00:11:14.560><c> things</c><00:11:14.880><c> into</c>

09:53.394 --> 09:53.404 align:start position:0%
energy to be able to lift things into
 

09:53.404 --> 09:55.554 align:start position:0%
energy to be able to lift things into
orbit.<00:11:16.000><c> You</c><00:11:16.240><c> just</c><00:11:16.480><c> have</c><00:11:16.640><c> to</c><00:11:16.800><c> hope</c><00:11:17.040><c> that</c>

09:55.554 --> 09:55.564 align:start position:0%
orbit. You just have to hope that
 

09:55.564 --> 09:58.914 align:start position:0%
orbit. You just have to hope that
nothing<00:11:17.680><c> snaps</c><00:11:18.079><c> the</c><00:11:18.320><c> cable.</c><00:11:19.519><c> Obiashi</c><00:11:20.399><c> wants</c>

09:58.914 --> 09:58.924 align:start position:0%
nothing snaps the cable. Obiashi wants
 

09:58.924 --> 10:01.634 align:start position:0%
nothing snaps the cable. Obiashi wants
to<00:11:20.959><c> build</c><00:11:21.279><c> their</c><00:11:21.920><c> 96,000</c>

10:01.634 --> 10:01.644 align:start position:0%
to build their 96,000
 

10:01.644 --> 10:04.754 align:start position:0%
to build their 96,000
km<00:11:24.000><c> cable</c><00:11:24.560><c> out</c><00:11:24.800><c> of</c><00:11:25.040><c> carbon</c><00:11:25.440><c> nanot</c><00:11:25.839><c> tube</c><00:11:26.320><c> and</c>

10:04.754 --> 10:04.764 align:start position:0%
km cable out of carbon nanot tube and
 

10:04.764 --> 10:08.273 align:start position:0%
km cable out of carbon nanot tube and
aim<00:11:26.880><c> to</c><00:11:27.040><c> attach</c><00:11:27.360><c> it</c><00:11:27.519><c> to</c><00:11:27.760><c> a</c><00:11:28.240><c> 12,000</c>

10:08.273 --> 10:08.283 align:start position:0%
aim to attach it to a 12,000
 

10:08.283 --> 10:10.674 align:start position:0%
aim to attach it to a 12,000
ton<00:11:30.480><c> spaceport</c><00:11:31.200><c> counterweight.</c><00:11:32.079><c> It</c><00:11:32.320><c> will</c>

10:10.674 --> 10:10.684 align:start position:0%
ton spaceport counterweight. It will
 

10:10.684 --> 10:12.754 align:start position:0%
ton spaceport counterweight. It will
take<00:11:32.720><c> around</c><00:11:33.120><c> 20</c><00:11:33.440><c> years</c><00:11:33.600><c> to</c><00:11:33.839><c> build</c><00:11:34.000><c> the</c><00:11:34.240><c> cable</c>

10:12.754 --> 10:12.764 align:start position:0%
take around 20 years to build the cable
 

10:12.764 --> 10:15.473 align:start position:0%
take around 20 years to build the cable
and<00:11:34.959><c> reinforce</c><00:11:35.519><c> it,</c><00:11:36.000><c> but</c><00:11:36.240><c> they</c><00:11:36.560><c> say</c><00:11:36.880><c> work</c>

10:15.473 --> 10:15.483 align:start position:0%
and reinforce it, but they say work
 

10:15.483 --> 10:18.593 align:start position:0%
and reinforce it, but they say work
should<00:11:37.600><c> start</c><00:11:38.000><c> in</c><00:11:38.320><c> 2030.</c><00:11:39.360><c> If</c><00:11:39.600><c> all</c><00:11:39.839><c> goes</c><00:11:40.160><c> as</c>

10:18.593 --> 10:18.603 align:start position:0%
should start in 2030. If all goes as
 

10:18.603 --> 10:21.074 align:start position:0%
should start in 2030. If all goes as
planned,<00:11:41.040><c> we</c><00:11:41.360><c> could</c><00:11:41.760><c> witness</c><00:11:42.160><c> a</c><00:11:42.480><c> space</c>

10:21.074 --> 10:21.084 align:start position:0%
planned, we could witness a space
 

10:21.084 --> 10:24.514 align:start position:0%
planned, we could witness a space
elevator<00:11:43.519><c> on</c><00:11:43.839><c> Earth</c><00:11:44.399><c> that</c><00:11:44.720><c> can</c><00:11:44.880><c> carry</c><00:11:45.440><c> 100</c><00:11:46.000><c> ton</c>

10:24.514 --> 10:24.524 align:start position:0%
elevator on Earth that can carry 100 ton
 

10:24.524 --> 10:28.434 align:start position:0%
elevator on Earth that can carry 100 ton
climbers<00:11:47.120><c> by</c><00:11:47.440><c> 2050.</c><00:11:48.640><c> That</c><00:11:48.880><c> would</c><00:11:49.120><c> open</c><00:11:49.600><c> a</c><00:11:49.920><c> lot</c>

10:28.434 --> 10:28.444 align:start position:0%
climbers by 2050. That would open a lot
 

10:28.444 --> 10:30.834 align:start position:0%
climbers by 2050. That would open a lot
of<00:11:50.480><c> doors</c><00:11:50.800><c> for</c><00:11:51.040><c> space</c><00:11:51.360><c> exploration,</c><00:11:52.240><c> and</c><00:11:52.480><c> I</c>

10:30.834 --> 10:30.844 align:start position:0%
of doors for space exploration, and I
 

10:30.844 --> 10:32.914 align:start position:0%
of doors for space exploration, and I
imagine<00:11:52.959><c> that</c><00:11:53.360><c> lifting</c><00:11:53.760><c> that</c><00:11:54.000><c> cable</c><00:11:54.399><c> into</c>

10:32.914 --> 10:32.924 align:start position:0%
imagine that lifting that cable into
 

10:32.924 --> 10:36.114 align:start position:0%
imagine that lifting that cable into
space<00:11:55.360><c> would</c><00:11:55.600><c> be</c><00:11:55.760><c> quite</c><00:11:56.000><c> the</c><00:11:56.240><c> sight.</c><00:11:57.519><c> In</c><00:11:57.760><c> the</c>

10:36.114 --> 10:36.124 align:start position:0%
space would be quite the sight. In the
 

10:36.124 --> 10:38.114 align:start position:0%
space would be quite the sight. In the
meantime,<00:11:58.320><c> NASA</c><00:11:58.800><c> has</c><00:11:59.040><c> been</c><00:11:59.200><c> contemplating</c>

10:38.114 --> 10:38.124 align:start position:0%
meantime, NASA has been contemplating
 

10:38.124 --> 10:40.434 align:start position:0%
meantime, NASA has been contemplating
more<00:12:00.240><c> immediate</c><00:12:00.720><c> problems.</c><00:12:01.600><c> They</c><00:12:01.839><c> are</c><00:12:02.000><c> hoping</c>

10:40.434 --> 10:40.444 align:start position:0%
more immediate problems. They are hoping
 

10:40.444 --> 10:42.674 align:start position:0%
more immediate problems. They are hoping
to<00:12:02.480><c> send</c><00:12:02.640><c> the</c><00:12:02.800><c> first</c><00:12:03.040><c> astronauts</c><00:12:03.600><c> to</c><00:12:03.839><c> Mars</c><00:12:04.240><c> as</c>

10:42.674 --> 10:42.684 align:start position:0%
to send the first astronauts to Mars as
 

10:42.684 --> 10:45.634 align:start position:0%
to send the first astronauts to Mars as
early<00:12:04.640><c> as</c><00:12:04.880><c> the</c><00:12:05.120><c> 2030s.</c><00:12:06.240><c> So,</c><00:12:06.480><c> new</c><00:12:06.800><c> technology</c>

10:45.634 --> 10:45.644 align:start position:0%
early as the 2030s. So, new technology
 

10:45.644 --> 10:48.273 align:start position:0%
early as the 2030s. So, new technology
will<00:12:07.760><c> be</c><00:12:07.920><c> needed</c><00:12:08.240><c> by</c><00:12:08.480><c> then,</c><00:12:09.519><c> and</c><00:12:09.760><c> they</c><00:12:09.920><c> have</c>

10:48.273 --> 10:48.283 align:start position:0%
will be needed by then, and they have
 

10:48.283 --> 10:50.914 align:start position:0%
will be needed by then, and they have
come<00:12:10.240><c> up</c><00:12:10.399><c> with</c><00:12:10.560><c> a</c><00:12:10.800><c> solution.</c><00:12:11.760><c> It</c><00:12:12.079><c> turns</c><00:12:12.320><c> out</c>

10:50.914 --> 10:50.924 align:start position:0%
come up with a solution. It turns out
 

10:50.924 --> 10:54.914 align:start position:0%
come up with a solution. It turns out
the<00:12:13.040><c> future</c><00:12:13.600><c> might</c><00:12:14.160><c> be</c><00:12:14.560><c> nuclear.</c>

10:54.914 --> 10:54.924 align:start position:0%
the future might be nuclear.
 

10:54.924 --> 10:57.473 align:start position:0%
the future might be nuclear.
The<00:12:16.959><c> heat</c><00:12:17.279><c> from</c><00:12:17.680><c> nuclear</c><00:12:18.240><c> fusion</c><00:12:18.720><c> can</c><00:12:18.959><c> be</c><00:12:19.040><c> used</c>

10:57.473 --> 10:57.483 align:start position:0%
The heat from nuclear fusion can be used
 

10:57.483 --> 11:00.114 align:start position:0%
The heat from nuclear fusion can be used
to<00:12:19.519><c> heat</c><00:12:19.760><c> up</c><00:12:19.920><c> a</c><00:12:20.240><c> flowing</c><00:12:20.639><c> liquid</c><00:12:21.040><c> propellant,</c>

11:00.114 --> 11:00.124 align:start position:0%
to heat up a flowing liquid propellant,
 

11:00.124 --> 11:01.954 align:start position:0%
to heat up a flowing liquid propellant,
turning<00:12:22.240><c> it</c><00:12:22.399><c> into</c><00:12:22.560><c> an</c><00:12:22.800><c> expanding</c><00:12:23.200><c> gas</c><00:12:23.519><c> and</c>

11:01.954 --> 11:01.964 align:start position:0%
turning it into an expanding gas and
 

11:01.964 --> 11:03.713 align:start position:0%
turning it into an expanding gas and
jettisoning<00:12:24.399><c> it</c><00:12:24.560><c> out</c><00:12:24.720><c> of</c><00:12:24.880><c> the</c><00:12:25.040><c> back</c><00:12:25.200><c> of</c><00:12:25.360><c> the</c>

11:03.713 --> 11:03.723 align:start position:0%
jettisoning it out of the back of the
 

11:03.723 --> 11:06.033 align:start position:0%
jettisoning it out of the back of the
rocket<00:12:25.760><c> at</c><00:12:25.920><c> a</c><00:12:26.160><c> rate</c><00:12:26.320><c> that</c><00:12:26.560><c> is</c><00:12:26.959><c> twice</c><00:12:27.519><c> as</c>

11:06.033 --> 11:06.043 align:start position:0%
rocket at a rate that is twice as
 

11:06.043 --> 11:08.754 align:start position:0%
rocket at a rate that is twice as
efficient<00:12:28.240><c> as</c><00:12:28.399><c> a</c><00:12:28.639><c> chemical</c><00:12:28.959><c> rocket.</c><00:12:30.079><c> This</c><00:12:30.320><c> is</c>

11:08.754 --> 11:08.764 align:start position:0%
efficient as a chemical rocket. This is
 

11:08.764 --> 11:11.153 align:start position:0%
efficient as a chemical rocket. This is
called<00:12:31.200><c> thermal</c><00:12:31.760><c> propulsion.</c>

11:11.153 --> 11:11.163 align:start position:0%
called thermal propulsion.
 

11:11.163 --> 11:14.273 align:start position:0%
called thermal propulsion.
Alternatively,<00:12:34.160><c> nuclear</c><00:12:35.120><c> electric</c><00:12:35.600><c> rockets</c>

11:14.273 --> 11:14.283 align:start position:0%
Alternatively, nuclear electric rockets
 

11:14.283 --> 11:16.354 align:start position:0%
Alternatively, nuclear electric rockets
would<00:12:36.320><c> work</c><00:12:36.480><c> by</c><00:12:36.720><c> making</c><00:12:37.040><c> electricity</c><00:12:37.760><c> through</c>

11:16.354 --> 11:16.364 align:start position:0%
would work by making electricity through
 

11:16.364 --> 11:19.074 align:start position:0%
would work by making electricity through
nuclear<00:12:38.639><c> fusion.</c><00:12:39.519><c> Essentially,</c><00:12:40.240><c> putting</c><00:12:40.639><c> a</c>

11:19.074 --> 11:19.084 align:start position:0%
nuclear fusion. Essentially, putting a
 

11:19.084 --> 11:21.473 align:start position:0%
nuclear fusion. Essentially, putting a
nuclear<00:12:41.360><c> power</c><00:12:41.600><c> plant</c><00:12:41.839><c> on</c><00:12:42.079><c> a</c><00:12:42.240><c> rocket</c><00:12:42.880><c> and</c><00:12:43.120><c> then</c>

11:21.473 --> 11:21.483 align:start position:0%
nuclear power plant on a rocket and then
 

11:21.483 --> 11:23.394 align:start position:0%
nuclear power plant on a rocket and then
using<00:12:43.600><c> it</c><00:12:43.760><c> to</c><00:12:44.000><c> make</c><00:12:44.160><c> the</c><00:12:44.399><c> electric</c><00:12:44.800><c> fields</c>

11:23.394 --> 11:23.404 align:start position:0%
using it to make the electric fields
 

11:23.404 --> 11:25.794 align:start position:0%
using it to make the electric fields
that<00:12:45.519><c> are</c><00:12:45.680><c> the</c><00:12:46.000><c> basis</c><00:12:46.480><c> of</c><00:12:46.800><c> normal</c><00:12:47.200><c> electric</c>

11:25.794 --> 11:25.804 align:start position:0%
that are the basis of normal electric
 

11:25.804 --> 11:28.833 align:start position:0%
that are the basis of normal electric
thrusters.<00:12:48.880><c> Nuclear</c><00:12:49.360><c> energy</c><00:12:49.760><c> would</c><00:12:50.079><c> provide</c>

11:28.833 --> 11:28.843 align:start position:0%
thrusters. Nuclear energy would provide
 

11:28.843 --> 11:31.153 align:start position:0%
thrusters. Nuclear energy would provide
more<00:12:51.120><c> immediate</c><00:12:51.680><c> electricity.</c><00:12:52.639><c> So,</c><00:12:52.800><c> you</c>

11:31.153 --> 11:31.163 align:start position:0%
more immediate electricity. So, you
 

11:31.163 --> 11:33.473 align:start position:0%
more immediate electricity. So, you
could<00:12:53.120><c> outpace</c><00:12:53.760><c> normal</c><00:12:54.320><c> ion</c><00:12:54.480><c> thrusters</c><00:12:55.040><c> with</c>

11:33.473 --> 11:33.483 align:start position:0%
could outpace normal ion thrusters with
 

11:33.483 --> 11:36.273 align:start position:0%
could outpace normal ion thrusters with
a<00:12:55.440><c> large</c><00:12:55.680><c> enough</c><00:12:55.920><c> nuclear</c><00:12:56.399><c> rocket.</c><00:12:57.600><c> NASA</c>

11:36.273 --> 11:36.283 align:start position:0%
a large enough nuclear rocket. NASA
 

11:36.283 --> 11:38.114 align:start position:0%
a large enough nuclear rocket. NASA
hopes<00:12:58.320><c> that</c><00:12:58.639><c> nuclear</c><00:12:59.120><c> rockets</c><00:12:59.440><c> will</c><00:12:59.600><c> be</c><00:12:59.760><c> able</c>

11:38.114 --> 11:38.124 align:start position:0%
hopes that nuclear rockets will be able
 

11:38.124 --> 11:40.114 align:start position:0%
hopes that nuclear rockets will be able
to<00:13:00.320><c> have</c><00:13:00.560><c> the</c><00:13:00.800><c> journey</c><00:13:01.120><c> time</c><00:13:01.440><c> that</c><00:13:01.680><c> is</c>

11:40.114 --> 11:40.124 align:start position:0%
to have the journey time that is
 

11:40.124 --> 11:42.434 align:start position:0%
to have the journey time that is
currently<00:13:02.240><c> projected</c><00:13:02.720><c> for</c><00:13:03.040><c> a</c><00:13:03.200><c> trip</c><00:13:03.440><c> to</c><00:13:03.600><c> Mars</c>

11:42.434 --> 11:42.444 align:start position:0%
currently projected for a trip to Mars
 

11:42.444 --> 11:45.554 align:start position:0%
currently projected for a trip to Mars
by<00:13:04.560><c> doubling</c><00:13:05.120><c> the</c><00:13:05.360><c> specific</c><00:13:05.839><c> impulse.</c><00:13:07.040><c> These</c>

11:45.554 --> 11:45.564 align:start position:0%
by doubling the specific impulse. These
 

11:45.564 --> 11:47.554 align:start position:0%
by doubling the specific impulse. These
rockets<00:13:07.839><c> wouldn't</c><00:13:08.240><c> necessarily</c><00:13:08.880><c> be</c><00:13:09.040><c> launched</c>

11:47.554 --> 11:47.564 align:start position:0%
rockets wouldn't necessarily be launched
 

11:47.564 --> 11:49.554 align:start position:0%
rockets wouldn't necessarily be launched
directly<00:13:09.680><c> from</c><00:13:09.920><c> Earth's</c><00:13:10.320><c> surface.</c><00:13:10.959><c> You'll</c>

11:49.554 --> 11:49.564 align:start position:0%
directly from Earth's surface. You'll
 

11:49.564 --> 11:52.273 align:start position:0%
directly from Earth's surface. You'll
perhaps<00:13:11.839><c> be</c><00:13:12.000><c> glad</c><00:13:12.240><c> to</c><00:13:12.399><c> know.</c><00:13:13.200><c> Although</c><00:13:13.600><c> NASA</c>

11:52.273 --> 11:52.283 align:start position:0%
perhaps be glad to know. Although NASA
 

11:52.283 --> 11:54.434 align:start position:0%
perhaps be glad to know. Although NASA
toyed<00:13:14.399><c> with</c><00:13:14.560><c> that</c><00:13:14.720><c> idea</c><00:13:15.040><c> back</c><00:13:15.200><c> in</c><00:13:15.360><c> the</c><00:13:15.519><c> 1960s</c>

11:54.434 --> 11:54.444 align:start position:0%
toyed with that idea back in the 1960s
 

11:54.444 --> 11:57.234 align:start position:0%
toyed with that idea back in the 1960s
with<00:13:16.560><c> Project</c><00:13:17.040><c> Orion,</c><00:13:18.079><c> these</c><00:13:18.399><c> rockets</c><00:13:18.800><c> were</c>

11:57.234 --> 11:57.244 align:start position:0%
with Project Orion, these rockets were
 

11:57.244 --> 12:00.033 align:start position:0%
with Project Orion, these rockets were
intended<00:13:19.360><c> to</c><00:13:19.600><c> work</c><00:13:19.839><c> by</c><00:13:20.079><c> pulsing</c><00:13:20.560><c> out</c><00:13:20.959><c> repeated</c>

12:00.033 --> 12:00.043 align:start position:0%
intended to work by pulsing out repeated
 

12:00.043 --> 12:02.593 align:start position:0%
intended to work by pulsing out repeated
nuclear<00:13:22.399><c> detonations</c><00:13:23.200><c> behind</c><00:13:23.519><c> the</c><00:13:23.760><c> rocket</c>

12:02.593 --> 12:02.603 align:start position:0%
nuclear detonations behind the rocket
 

12:02.603 --> 12:04.593 align:start position:0%
nuclear detonations behind the rocket
and<00:13:24.560><c> then</c><00:13:24.800><c> just</c><00:13:25.120><c> riding</c><00:13:25.519><c> the</c><00:13:25.760><c> shock</c><00:13:26.079><c> waves</c>

12:04.593 --> 12:04.603 align:start position:0%
and then just riding the shock waves
 

12:04.603 --> 12:07.234 align:start position:0%
and then just riding the shock waves
into<00:13:26.720><c> space.</c><00:13:27.680><c> That</c><00:13:27.839><c> would</c><00:13:28.000><c> have</c><00:13:28.160><c> been</c><00:13:28.639><c> quite</c>

12:07.234 --> 12:07.244 align:start position:0%
into space. That would have been quite
 

12:07.244 --> 12:09.554 align:start position:0%
into space. That would have been quite
the<00:13:29.279><c> radioactive</c><00:13:29.920><c> mess.</c><00:13:30.639><c> It's</c><00:13:30.880><c> probably</c><00:13:31.200><c> for</c>

12:09.554 --> 12:09.564 align:start position:0%
the radioactive mess. It's probably for
 

12:09.564 --> 12:12.194 align:start position:0%
the radioactive mess. It's probably for
the<00:13:31.519><c> best</c><00:13:31.680><c> that</c><00:13:31.920><c> NASA</c><00:13:32.320><c> scrapped</c><00:13:32.720><c> that</c><00:13:32.959><c> idea.</c>

12:12.194 --> 12:12.204 align:start position:0%
the best that NASA scrapped that idea.
 

12:12.204 --> 12:14.674 align:start position:0%
the best that NASA scrapped that idea.
But<00:13:34.160><c> if</c><00:13:34.320><c> you</c><00:13:34.480><c> start</c><00:13:34.720><c> in</c><00:13:35.040><c> orbit,</c><00:13:36.000><c> nuclear</c>

12:14.674 --> 12:14.684 align:start position:0%
But if you start in orbit, nuclear
 

12:14.684 --> 12:16.593 align:start position:0%
But if you start in orbit, nuclear
rockets<00:13:36.880><c> are</c><00:13:37.120><c> generally</c><00:13:37.600><c> safer</c><00:13:38.000><c> for</c><00:13:38.160><c> the</c>

12:16.593 --> 12:16.603 align:start position:0%
rockets are generally safer for the
 

12:16.603 --> 12:19.234 align:start position:0%
rockets are generally safer for the
population<00:13:38.720><c> of</c><00:13:38.959><c> Earth.</c><00:13:39.839><c> Even</c><00:13:40.079><c> if</c><00:13:40.320><c> there's</c><00:13:40.639><c> a</c>

12:19.234 --> 12:19.244 align:start position:0%
population of Earth. Even if there's a
 

12:19.244 --> 12:21.314 align:start position:0%
population of Earth. Even if there's a
catastrophic<00:13:41.920><c> problem</c><00:13:42.240><c> and</c><00:13:42.560><c> the</c><00:13:42.720><c> reactor</c>

12:21.314 --> 12:21.324 align:start position:0%
catastrophic problem and the reactor
 

12:21.324 --> 12:23.794 align:start position:0%
catastrophic problem and the reactor
melts<00:13:43.519><c> down,</c><00:13:44.240><c> there's</c><00:13:44.639><c> no</c><00:13:44.800><c> one</c><00:13:44.959><c> nearby</c><00:13:45.360><c> to</c>

12:23.794 --> 12:23.804 align:start position:0%
melts down, there's no one nearby to
 

12:23.804 --> 12:25.554 align:start position:0%
melts down, there's no one nearby to
suffer<00:13:45.839><c> from</c><00:13:46.000><c> the</c><00:13:46.160><c> negative</c><00:13:46.560><c> consequences</c><00:13:47.200><c> of</c>

12:25.554 --> 12:25.564 align:start position:0%
suffer from the negative consequences of
 

12:25.564 --> 12:28.114 align:start position:0%
suffer from the negative consequences of
the<00:13:47.519><c> fallout</c><00:13:48.079><c> spreading,</c><00:13:49.120><c> except</c><00:13:49.519><c> those</c>

12:28.114 --> 12:28.124 align:start position:0%
the fallout spreading, except those
 

12:28.124 --> 12:30.033 align:start position:0%
the fallout spreading, except those
unlucky<00:13:50.399><c> enough</c><00:13:50.560><c> to</c><00:13:50.720><c> be</c><00:13:50.800><c> on</c><00:13:50.959><c> the</c><00:13:51.120><c> rocket,</c><00:13:51.600><c> of</c>

12:30.033 --> 12:30.043 align:start position:0%
unlucky enough to be on the rocket, of
 

12:30.043 --> 12:33.153 align:start position:0%
unlucky enough to be on the rocket, of
course.<00:13:53.279><c> Still,</c><00:13:53.680><c> radiation</c><00:13:54.160><c> in</c><00:13:54.399><c> space</c><00:13:54.639><c> is</c>

12:33.153 --> 12:33.163 align:start position:0%
course. Still, radiation in space is
 

12:33.163 --> 12:35.074 align:start position:0%
course. Still, radiation in space is
already<00:13:55.360><c> a</c><00:13:55.600><c> problem</c><00:13:55.839><c> for</c><00:13:56.000><c> astronauts</c><00:13:56.560><c> that</c>

12:35.074 --> 12:35.084 align:start position:0%
already a problem for astronauts that
 

12:35.084 --> 12:37.473 align:start position:0%
already a problem for astronauts that
needs<00:13:57.120><c> to</c><00:13:57.279><c> be</c><00:13:57.360><c> overcome.</c><00:13:58.320><c> Just</c><00:13:58.639><c> one</c><00:13:58.880><c> trip</c><00:13:59.120><c> to</c>

12:37.473 --> 12:37.483 align:start position:0%
needs to be overcome. Just one trip to
 

12:37.483 --> 12:40.354 align:start position:0%
needs to be overcome. Just one trip to
Mars<00:13:59.600><c> could</c><00:13:59.839><c> subject</c><00:14:00.240><c> astronauts</c><00:14:00.880><c> to</c><00:14:01.199><c> 60%</c><00:14:01.920><c> of</c>

12:40.354 --> 12:40.364 align:start position:0%
Mars could subject astronauts to 60% of
 

12:40.364 --> 12:42.033 align:start position:0%
Mars could subject astronauts to 60% of
the<00:14:02.320><c> radiation</c><00:14:02.800><c> limit</c><00:14:03.120><c> that's</c><00:14:03.440><c> recommended</c>

12:42.033 --> 12:42.043 align:start position:0%
the radiation limit that's recommended
 

12:42.043 --> 12:44.273 align:start position:0%
the radiation limit that's recommended
for<00:14:04.160><c> their</c><00:14:04.399><c> entire</c><00:14:04.959><c> career.</c><00:14:05.760><c> And</c><00:14:05.839><c> that's</c>

12:44.273 --> 12:44.283 align:start position:0%
for their entire career. And that's
 

12:44.283 --> 12:46.033 align:start position:0%
for their entire career. And that's
assuming<00:14:06.480><c> the</c><00:14:06.720><c> journey</c><00:14:07.040><c> only</c><00:14:07.279><c> lasts</c><00:14:07.680><c> 6</c>

12:46.033 --> 12:46.043 align:start position:0%
assuming the journey only lasts 6
 

12:46.043 --> 12:48.514 align:start position:0%
assuming the journey only lasts 6
months.<00:14:08.800><c> Some</c><00:14:09.040><c> NASA</c><00:14:09.440><c> plans</c><00:14:09.680><c> see</c><00:14:09.839><c> the</c><00:14:10.000><c> round</c>

12:48.514 --> 12:48.524 align:start position:0%
months. Some NASA plans see the round
 

12:48.524 --> 12:52.194 align:start position:0%
months. Some NASA plans see the round
trip<00:14:10.880><c> taking</c><00:14:11.440><c> 2</c><00:14:11.680><c> to</c><00:14:11.920><c> 3</c><00:14:12.240><c> years.</c><00:14:13.199><c> Because</c><00:14:13.519><c> when</c>

12:52.194 --> 12:52.204 align:start position:0%
trip taking 2 to 3 years. Because when
 

12:52.204 --> 12:54.273 align:start position:0%
trip taking 2 to 3 years. Because when
flying<00:14:14.399><c> from</c><00:14:14.800><c> one</c><00:14:15.199><c> moving</c><00:14:15.600><c> planet</c><00:14:15.920><c> to</c>

12:54.273 --> 12:54.283 align:start position:0%
flying from one moving planet to
 

12:54.283 --> 12:56.434 align:start position:0%
flying from one moving planet to
another,<00:14:16.880><c> there's</c><00:14:17.120><c> a</c><00:14:17.360><c> lot</c><00:14:17.440><c> of</c><00:14:17.600><c> wiggle</c><00:14:18.000><c> room</c>

12:56.434 --> 12:56.444 align:start position:0%
another, there's a lot of wiggle room
 

12:56.444 --> 12:58.754 align:start position:0%
another, there's a lot of wiggle room
when<00:14:18.399><c> it</c><00:14:18.560><c> comes</c><00:14:18.720><c> to</c><00:14:18.880><c> preferred</c><00:14:19.360><c> trip</c><00:14:19.600><c> length.</c>

12:58.754 --> 12:58.764 align:start position:0%
when it comes to preferred trip length.
 

12:58.764 --> 13:00.914 align:start position:0%
when it comes to preferred trip length.
Anything<00:14:20.959><c> that</c><00:14:21.199><c> reduces</c><00:14:21.680><c> the</c><00:14:21.920><c> time</c><00:14:22.240><c> spent</c><00:14:22.480><c> in</c>

13:00.914 --> 13:00.924 align:start position:0%
Anything that reduces the time spent in
 

13:00.924 --> 13:02.994 align:start position:0%
Anything that reduces the time spent in
space<00:14:23.199><c> will</c><00:14:23.440><c> mean</c><00:14:23.680><c> less</c><00:14:24.000><c> radiation</c><00:14:24.399><c> for</c><00:14:24.639><c> the</c>

13:02.994 --> 13:03.004 align:start position:0%
space will mean less radiation for the
 

13:03.004 --> 13:06.354 align:start position:0%
space will mean less radiation for the
crew<00:14:25.199><c> and</c><00:14:25.440><c> the</c><00:14:25.600><c> passengers.</c><00:14:26.959><c> That</c><00:14:27.279><c> said,</c><00:14:27.839><c> less</c>

13:06.354 --> 13:06.364 align:start position:0%
crew and the passengers. That said, less
 

13:06.364 --> 13:08.354 align:start position:0%
crew and the passengers. That said, less
radiation<00:14:28.560><c> from</c><00:14:28.880><c> space</c><00:14:29.120><c> is</c><00:14:29.360><c> only</c><00:14:29.600><c> good</c><00:14:29.760><c> if</c><00:14:30.000><c> you</c>

13:08.354 --> 13:08.364 align:start position:0%
radiation from space is only good if you
 

13:08.364 --> 13:10.354 align:start position:0%
radiation from space is only good if you
can<00:14:30.240><c> avoid</c><00:14:30.639><c> getting</c><00:14:30.959><c> radiation</c><00:14:31.519><c> from</c><00:14:31.839><c> your</c>

13:10.354 --> 13:10.364 align:start position:0%
can avoid getting radiation from your
 

13:10.364 --> 13:12.994 align:start position:0%
can avoid getting radiation from your
nuclear<00:14:32.639><c> rocket.</c><00:14:33.519><c> And</c><00:14:33.760><c> nuclear</c><00:14:34.160><c> rockets</c><00:14:34.560><c> will</c>

13:12.994 --> 13:13.004 align:start position:0%
nuclear rocket. And nuclear rockets will
 

13:13.004 --> 13:15.074 align:start position:0%
nuclear rocket. And nuclear rockets will
need<00:14:34.959><c> to</c><00:14:35.120><c> be</c><00:14:35.279><c> careful</c><00:14:35.839><c> when</c><00:14:36.160><c> accelerating</c>

13:15.074 --> 13:15.084 align:start position:0%
need to be careful when accelerating
 

13:15.084 --> 13:17.794 align:start position:0%
need to be careful when accelerating
near<00:14:37.279><c> a</c><00:14:37.600><c> planet's</c><00:14:37.920><c> atmosphere,</c><00:14:38.800><c> as</c><00:14:39.199><c> due</c><00:14:39.440><c> to</c>

13:17.794 --> 13:17.804 align:start position:0%
near a planet's atmosphere, as due to
 

13:17.804 --> 13:19.473 align:start position:0%
near a planet's atmosphere, as due to
the<00:14:39.760><c> process</c><00:14:40.079><c> of</c><00:14:40.320><c> heating</c><00:14:40.639><c> their</c><00:14:40.800><c> propellant</c>

13:19.473 --> 13:19.483 align:start position:0%
the process of heating their propellant
 

13:19.483 --> 13:22.273 align:start position:0%
the process of heating their propellant
with<00:14:41.600><c> nuclear</c><00:14:42.079><c> sources,</c><00:14:42.959><c> that</c><00:14:43.279><c> propellant</c>

13:22.273 --> 13:22.283 align:start position:0%
with nuclear sources, that propellant
 

13:22.283 --> 13:24.914 align:start position:0%
with nuclear sources, that propellant
will<00:14:44.560><c> be</c><00:14:44.800><c> irradiated,</c><00:14:45.839><c> which</c><00:14:46.160><c> could</c><00:14:46.399><c> over</c>

13:24.914 --> 13:24.924 align:start position:0%
will be irradiated, which could over
 

13:24.924 --> 13:27.794 align:start position:0%
will be irradiated, which could over
time<00:14:46.959><c> lead</c><00:14:47.199><c> to</c><00:14:47.440><c> environmental</c><00:14:48.160><c> problems.</c><00:14:49.199><c> So,</c>

13:27.794 --> 13:27.804 align:start position:0%
time lead to environmental problems. So,
 

13:27.804 --> 13:29.473 align:start position:0%
time lead to environmental problems. So,
while<00:14:49.920><c> it's</c><00:14:50.240><c> exciting</c><00:14:50.800><c> that</c><00:14:51.040><c> these</c>

13:29.473 --> 13:29.483 align:start position:0%
while it's exciting that these
 

13:29.483 --> 13:32.354 align:start position:0%
while it's exciting that these
spacecraft<00:14:51.839><c> will</c><00:14:52.079><c> be</c><00:14:52.320><c> so</c><00:14:52.720><c> big</c><00:14:53.040><c> and</c><00:14:53.360><c> powerful,</c>

13:32.354 --> 13:32.364 align:start position:0%
spacecraft will be so big and powerful,
 

13:32.364 --> 13:34.194 align:start position:0%
spacecraft will be so big and powerful,
great<00:14:54.480><c> care</c><00:14:54.880><c> will</c><00:14:55.120><c> need</c><00:14:55.279><c> to</c><00:14:55.440><c> be</c><00:14:55.519><c> taken</c><00:14:55.839><c> with</c>

13:34.194 --> 13:34.204 align:start position:0%
great care will need to be taken with
 

13:34.204 --> 13:36.114 align:start position:0%
great care will need to be taken with
this<00:14:56.240><c> technology,</c>

13:36.114 --> 13:36.124 align:start position:0%
this technology,
 

13:36.124 --> 13:38.754 align:start position:0%
this technology,
but<00:14:58.160><c> what</c><00:14:58.399><c> of</c><00:14:58.800><c> further</c><00:14:59.199><c> journeys?</c><00:15:00.160><c> Even</c>

13:38.754 --> 13:38.764 align:start position:0%
but what of further journeys? Even
 

13:38.764 --> 13:42.593 align:start position:0%
but what of further journeys? Even
nuclear<00:15:01.040><c> power</c><00:15:01.360><c> can</c><00:15:01.519><c> only</c><00:15:01.760><c> get</c><00:15:01.920><c> us</c><00:15:02.160><c> so</c><00:15:02.399><c> far.</c>

13:42.593 --> 13:42.603 align:start position:0%
nuclear power can only get us so far.
 

13:42.603 --> 13:44.593 align:start position:0%
nuclear power can only get us so far.
It<00:15:04.639><c> may</c><00:15:04.959><c> surprise</c><00:15:05.279><c> you</c><00:15:05.440><c> to</c><00:15:05.600><c> learn</c><00:15:05.839><c> that</c><00:15:06.000><c> NASA</c>

13:44.593 --> 13:44.603 align:start position:0%
It may surprise you to learn that NASA
 

13:44.603 --> 13:46.593 align:start position:0%
It may surprise you to learn that NASA
has<00:15:06.639><c> been</c><00:15:06.800><c> exploring</c><00:15:07.440><c> something</c><00:15:07.839><c> called</c>

13:46.593 --> 13:46.603 align:start position:0%
has been exploring something called
 

13:46.603 --> 13:49.713 align:start position:0%
has been exploring something called
propellantless<00:15:09.440><c> propulsion.</c><00:15:10.800><c> And</c><00:15:10.959><c> I</c><00:15:11.199><c> think</c>

13:49.713 --> 13:49.723 align:start position:0%
propellantless propulsion. And I think
 

13:49.723 --> 13:51.794 align:start position:0%
propellantless propulsion. And I think
two<00:15:11.760><c> of</c><00:15:11.920><c> their</c><00:15:12.079><c> projects</c><00:15:12.480><c> in</c><00:15:12.720><c> particular</c><00:15:13.199><c> are</c>

13:51.794 --> 13:51.804 align:start position:0%
two of their projects in particular are
 

13:51.804 --> 13:55.713 align:start position:0%
two of their projects in particular are
very<00:15:14.000><c> cool.</c><00:15:14.880><c> I'm</c><00:15:15.279><c> talking</c><00:15:15.920><c> about</c><00:15:16.240><c> solar</c><00:15:16.639><c> sails</c>

13:55.713 --> 13:55.723 align:start position:0%
very cool. I'm talking about solar sails
 

13:55.723 --> 13:58.033 align:start position:0%
very cool. I'm talking about solar sails
and<00:15:17.920><c> space</c><00:15:18.320><c> tethers.</c>

13:58.033 --> 13:58.043 align:start position:0%
and space tethers.
 

13:58.043 --> 14:00.033 align:start position:0%
and space tethers.
NASA<00:15:20.240><c> has</c><00:15:20.480><c> deployed</c><00:15:20.880><c> solar</c><00:15:21.199><c> sails</c><00:15:21.519><c> a</c><00:15:21.760><c> few</c>

14:00.033 --> 14:00.043 align:start position:0%
NASA has deployed solar sails a few
 

14:00.043 --> 14:02.434 align:start position:0%
NASA has deployed solar sails a few
times<00:15:22.079><c> now,</c><00:15:22.639><c> though</c><00:15:22.959><c> mostly</c><00:15:23.360><c> for</c><00:15:23.760><c> proof</c><00:15:24.079><c> of</c>

14:02.434 --> 14:02.444 align:start position:0%
times now, though mostly for proof of
 

14:02.444 --> 14:04.833 align:start position:0%
times now, though mostly for proof of
concept<00:15:24.720><c> rather</c><00:15:24.959><c> than</c><00:15:25.199><c> actual</c><00:15:25.600><c> missions.</c>

14:04.833 --> 14:04.843 align:start position:0%
concept rather than actual missions.
 

14:04.843 --> 14:06.674 align:start position:0%
concept rather than actual missions.
They<00:15:26.880><c> work</c><00:15:27.120><c> by</c><00:15:27.360><c> taking</c><00:15:27.600><c> advantage</c><00:15:28.079><c> of</c><00:15:28.240><c> the</c>

14:06.674 --> 14:06.684 align:start position:0%
They work by taking advantage of the
 

14:06.684 --> 14:09.473 align:start position:0%
They work by taking advantage of the
fact<00:15:28.560><c> that</c><00:15:28.959><c> photons</c><00:15:29.440><c> of</c><00:15:29.680><c> light</c><00:15:30.480><c> also</c><00:15:30.880><c> carry</c>

14:09.473 --> 14:09.483 align:start position:0%
fact that photons of light also carry
 

14:09.483 --> 14:12.914 align:start position:0%
fact that photons of light also carry
momentum.<00:15:32.399><c> So,</c><00:15:32.800><c> a</c><00:15:33.279><c> light</c><00:15:33.600><c> enough,</c><00:15:34.399><c> large</c>

14:12.914 --> 14:12.924 align:start position:0%
momentum. So, a light enough, large
 

14:12.924 --> 14:15.314 align:start position:0%
momentum. So, a light enough, large
enough<00:15:35.040><c> surface</c><00:15:35.440><c> can</c><00:15:35.760><c> catch</c><00:15:36.079><c> all</c><00:15:36.399><c> the</c><00:15:36.639><c> gentle</c>

14:15.314 --> 14:15.324 align:start position:0%
enough surface can catch all the gentle
 

14:15.324 --> 14:17.554 align:start position:0%
enough surface can catch all the gentle
nudges<00:15:37.600><c> emitted</c><00:15:38.000><c> by</c><00:15:38.160><c> photons</c><00:15:38.720><c> streaming</c><00:15:39.199><c> from</c>

14:17.554 --> 14:17.564 align:start position:0%
nudges emitted by photons streaming from
 

14:17.564 --> 14:19.954 align:start position:0%
nudges emitted by photons streaming from
the<00:15:39.519><c> sun</c><00:15:40.000><c> and</c><00:15:40.240><c> use</c><00:15:40.399><c> the</c><00:15:40.639><c> energy</c><00:15:40.880><c> to</c><00:15:41.120><c> accelerate</c>

14:19.954 --> 14:19.964 align:start position:0%
the sun and use the energy to accelerate
 

14:19.964 --> 14:22.514 align:start position:0%
the sun and use the energy to accelerate
out<00:15:42.079><c> on</c><00:15:42.399><c> deep</c><00:15:42.720><c> space</c><00:15:43.040><c> missions</c><00:15:43.440><c> for</c><00:15:43.760><c> very</c><00:15:44.079><c> low</c>

14:22.514 --> 14:22.524 align:start position:0%
out on deep space missions for very low
 

14:22.524 --> 14:25.634 align:start position:0%
out on deep space missions for very low
cost.<00:15:45.360><c> NASA's</c><00:15:46.000><c> advanced</c><00:15:46.560><c> composite</c><00:15:47.040><c> solar</c>

14:25.634 --> 14:25.644 align:start position:0%
cost. NASA's advanced composite solar
 

14:25.644 --> 14:28.754 align:start position:0%
cost. NASA's advanced composite solar
sail<00:15:47.760><c> system</c><00:15:48.079><c> was</c><00:15:48.320><c> launched</c><00:15:48.639><c> in</c><00:15:48.880><c> 2024</c><00:15:49.920><c> and</c><00:15:50.240><c> was</c>

14:28.754 --> 14:28.764 align:start position:0%
sail system was launched in 2024 and was
 

14:28.764 --> 14:30.994 align:start position:0%
sail system was launched in 2024 and was
originally<00:15:51.120><c> deployed</c><00:15:51.519><c> in</c><00:15:51.759><c> space</c><00:15:52.000><c> as</c><00:15:52.240><c> a</c><00:15:52.399><c> cube</c>

14:30.994 --> 14:31.004 align:start position:0%
originally deployed in space as a cube
 

14:31.004 --> 14:33.794 align:start position:0%
originally deployed in space as a cube
set.<00:15:53.600><c> It</c><00:15:53.920><c> then</c><00:15:54.160><c> unfolded</c><00:15:54.800><c> in</c><00:15:55.040><c> space,</c>

14:33.794 --> 14:33.804 align:start position:0%
set. It then unfolded in space,
 

14:33.804 --> 14:36.593 align:start position:0%
set. It then unfolded in space,
stretching<00:15:56.079><c> out</c><00:15:56.320><c> 7</c><00:15:56.639><c> m</c><00:15:56.880><c> long</c><00:15:57.120><c> arms</c><00:15:57.440><c> to</c><00:15:57.680><c> deploy</c><00:15:58.079><c> a</c>

14:36.593 --> 14:36.603 align:start position:0%
stretching out 7 m long arms to deploy a
 

14:36.603 --> 14:40.754 align:start position:0%
stretching out 7 m long arms to deploy a
9x9<00:15:59.360><c> m</c><00:15:59.839><c> square</c><00:16:00.399><c> solar</c><00:16:00.800><c> sail.</c><00:16:01.680><c> It</c><00:16:02.000><c> is</c><00:16:02.240><c> currently</c>

14:40.754 --> 14:40.764 align:start position:0%
9x9 m square solar sail. It is currently
 

14:40.764 --> 14:42.754 align:start position:0%
9x9 m square solar sail. It is currently
in<00:16:02.800><c> orbit</c><00:16:03.199><c> around</c><00:16:03.440><c> Earth</c><00:16:03.759><c> as</c><00:16:04.000><c> scientists</c>

14:42.754 --> 14:42.764 align:start position:0%
in orbit around Earth as scientists
 

14:42.764 --> 14:45.554 align:start position:0%
in orbit around Earth as scientists
monitor<00:16:04.959><c> how</c><00:16:05.279><c> effective</c><00:16:05.680><c> its</c><00:16:06.000><c> design</c><00:16:06.320><c> is.</c><00:16:07.040><c> Its</c>

14:45.554 --> 14:45.564 align:start position:0%
monitor how effective its design is. Its
 

14:45.564 --> 14:48.194 align:start position:0%
monitor how effective its design is. Its
flight<00:16:07.600><c> has</c><00:16:07.920><c> not</c><00:16:08.079><c> gone</c><00:16:08.320><c> flawlessly</c><00:16:08.959><c> though</c><00:16:09.600><c> as</c>

14:48.194 --> 14:48.204 align:start position:0%
flight has not gone flawlessly though as
 

14:48.204 --> 14:50.434 align:start position:0%
flight has not gone flawlessly though as
sadly<00:16:10.399><c> an</c><00:16:10.560><c> arm</c><00:16:10.880><c> became</c><00:16:11.199><c> slightly</c><00:16:11.519><c> bent</c><00:16:11.920><c> during</c>

14:50.434 --> 14:50.444 align:start position:0%
sadly an arm became slightly bent during
 

14:50.444 --> 14:52.833 align:start position:0%
sadly an arm became slightly bent during
deployment<00:16:13.040><c> causing</c><00:16:13.440><c> it</c><00:16:13.600><c> to</c><00:16:13.759><c> slowly</c><00:16:14.240><c> tumble</c>

14:52.833 --> 14:52.843 align:start position:0%
deployment causing it to slowly tumble
 

14:52.843 --> 14:55.874 align:start position:0%
deployment causing it to slowly tumble
as<00:16:14.800><c> it</c><00:16:14.959><c> orbits.</c><00:16:15.839><c> But</c><00:16:16.000><c> NASA</c><00:16:16.480><c> is</c><00:16:16.720><c> still</c><00:16:17.199><c> learning</c>

14:55.874 --> 14:55.884 align:start position:0%
as it orbits. But NASA is still learning
 

14:55.884 --> 14:57.794 align:start position:0%
as it orbits. But NASA is still learning
from<00:16:17.920><c> the</c><00:16:18.079><c> experiment.</c>

14:57.794 --> 14:57.804 align:start position:0%
from the experiment.
 

14:57.804 --> 14:59.634 align:start position:0%
from the experiment.
Future<00:16:20.000><c> models</c><00:16:20.399><c> could</c><00:16:20.639><c> be</c><00:16:20.800><c> larger</c><00:16:21.120><c> than</c>

14:59.634 --> 14:59.644 align:start position:0%
Future models could be larger than
 

14:59.644 --> 15:03.314 align:start position:0%
Future models could be larger than
basketball<00:16:22.079><c> courts</c><00:16:22.720><c> with</c><00:16:23.120><c> 2,000</c><00:16:24.000><c> m</c><00:16:24.320><c> sails</c>

15:03.314 --> 15:03.324 align:start position:0%
basketball courts with 2,000 m sails
 

15:03.324 --> 15:06.593 align:start position:0%
basketball courts with 2,000 m sails
each<00:16:25.360><c> side</c><00:16:25.680><c> about</c><00:16:26.079><c> 45</c><00:16:26.639><c> m</c><00:16:27.040><c> long</c><00:16:27.600><c> if</c><00:16:27.839><c> the</c><00:16:28.000><c> design</c>

15:06.593 --> 15:06.603 align:start position:0%
each side about 45 m long if the design
 

15:06.603 --> 15:09.074 align:start position:0%
each side about 45 m long if the design
remains<00:16:28.880><c> square.</c><00:16:29.680><c> For</c><00:16:29.920><c> deep</c><00:16:30.160><c> space</c><00:16:30.480><c> missions</c>

15:09.074 --> 15:09.084 align:start position:0%
remains square. For deep space missions
 

15:09.084 --> 15:11.153 align:start position:0%
remains square. For deep space missions
where<00:16:31.279><c> no</c><00:16:31.600><c> humans</c><00:16:32.000><c> will</c><00:16:32.160><c> be</c><00:16:32.320><c> carried</c><00:16:32.639><c> and</c>

15:11.153 --> 15:11.163 align:start position:0%
where no humans will be carried and
 

15:11.163 --> 15:13.554 align:start position:0%
where no humans will be carried and
budgets<00:16:33.440><c> are</c><00:16:33.600><c> lacking,</c><00:16:34.399><c> being</c><00:16:34.720><c> able</c><00:16:34.880><c> to</c><00:16:35.040><c> sail</c>

15:13.554 --> 15:13.564 align:start position:0%
budgets are lacking, being able to sail
 

15:13.564 --> 15:15.713 align:start position:0%
budgets are lacking, being able to sail
on<00:16:35.600><c> cosmic</c><00:16:36.079><c> light</c><00:16:36.639><c> might</c><00:16:36.880><c> be</c><00:16:37.040><c> the</c><00:16:37.279><c> most</c>

15:15.713 --> 15:15.723 align:start position:0%
on cosmic light might be the most
 

15:15.723 --> 15:18.593 align:start position:0%
on cosmic light might be the most
efficient<00:16:38.079><c> way</c><00:16:38.320><c> to</c><00:16:38.560><c> complete</c><00:16:38.880><c> a</c><00:16:39.120><c> mission.</c><00:16:40.160><c> A</c>

15:18.593 --> 15:18.603 align:start position:0%
efficient way to complete a mission. A
 

15:18.603 --> 15:20.914 align:start position:0%
efficient way to complete a mission. A
slight<00:16:40.720><c> variation</c><00:16:41.199><c> on</c><00:16:41.440><c> this</c><00:16:41.680><c> is</c><00:16:41.920><c> the</c><00:16:42.160><c> virtual</c>

15:20.914 --> 15:20.924 align:start position:0%
slight variation on this is the virtual
 

15:20.924 --> 15:23.874 align:start position:0%
slight variation on this is the virtual
solar<00:16:43.120><c> sail</c><00:16:43.440><c> or</c><00:16:43.680><c> an</c><00:16:44.079><c> electric</c><00:16:44.560><c> sail.</c><00:16:45.360><c> These</c>

15:23.874 --> 15:23.884 align:start position:0%
solar sail or an electric sail. These
 

15:23.884 --> 15:25.554 align:start position:0%
solar sail or an electric sail. These
sails<00:16:46.079><c> are</c><00:16:46.240><c> still</c><00:16:46.480><c> in</c><00:16:46.720><c> very</c><00:16:47.040><c> early</c>

15:25.554 --> 15:25.564 align:start position:0%
sails are still in very early
 

15:25.564 --> 15:27.634 align:start position:0%
sails are still in very early
development,<00:16:48.160><c> but</c><00:16:48.480><c> rather</c><00:16:48.720><c> than</c><00:16:48.959><c> making</c><00:16:49.199><c> use</c>

15:27.634 --> 15:27.644 align:start position:0%
development, but rather than making use
 

15:27.644 --> 15:30.754 align:start position:0%
development, but rather than making use
of<00:16:49.600><c> a</c><00:16:49.759><c> sail,</c><00:16:50.480><c> they</c><00:16:50.800><c> use</c><00:16:51.360><c> electrically</c><00:16:52.079><c> charged</c>

15:30.754 --> 15:30.764 align:start position:0%
of a sail, they use electrically charged
 

15:30.764 --> 15:33.554 align:start position:0%
of a sail, they use electrically charged
wires<00:16:53.040><c> to</c><00:16:53.279><c> do</c><00:16:53.360><c> the</c><00:16:53.600><c> same</c><00:16:53.759><c> job.</c><00:16:54.639><c> These</c><00:16:54.959><c> wires</c>

15:33.554 --> 15:33.564 align:start position:0%
wires to do the same job. These wires
 

15:33.564 --> 15:36.033 align:start position:0%
wires to do the same job. These wires
stretch<00:16:55.759><c> out</c><00:16:56.160><c> and</c><00:16:56.480><c> create</c><00:16:56.800><c> a</c><00:16:57.120><c> large</c><00:16:57.440><c> electric</c>

15:36.033 --> 15:36.043 align:start position:0%
stretch out and create a large electric
 

15:36.043 --> 15:38.273 align:start position:0%
stretch out and create a large electric
field<00:16:58.079><c> in</c><00:16:58.240><c> the</c><00:16:58.399><c> shape</c><00:16:58.560><c> of</c><00:16:58.720><c> a</c><00:16:58.880><c> sail</c><00:16:59.519><c> which</c><00:16:59.759><c> once</c>

15:38.273 --> 15:38.283 align:start position:0%
field in the shape of a sail which once
 

15:38.283 --> 15:39.874 align:start position:0%
field in the shape of a sail which once
again<00:17:00.320><c> is</c><00:17:00.560><c> gently</c><00:17:00.880><c> pushed</c><00:17:01.199><c> by</c><00:17:01.360><c> solar</c>

15:39.874 --> 15:39.884 align:start position:0%
again is gently pushed by solar
 

15:39.884 --> 15:42.594 align:start position:0%
again is gently pushed by solar
radiation.<00:17:02.720><c> This</c><00:17:02.959><c> time</c><00:17:03.199><c> not</c><00:17:03.440><c> just</c><00:17:03.680><c> because</c><00:17:04.000><c> of</c>

15:42.594 --> 15:42.604 align:start position:0%
radiation. This time not just because of
 

15:42.604 --> 15:45.314 align:start position:0%
radiation. This time not just because of
momentum<00:17:05.280><c> but</c><00:17:05.520><c> because</c><00:17:05.760><c> of</c><00:17:06.079><c> like</c><00:17:06.400><c> charges</c>

15:45.314 --> 15:45.324 align:start position:0%
momentum but because of like charges
 

15:45.324 --> 15:48.594 align:start position:0%
momentum but because of like charges
repelling<00:17:07.760><c> like</c><00:17:08.079><c> charges.</c><00:17:09.280><c> The</c><00:17:09.520><c> company</c><00:17:09.919><c> SAT</c>

15:48.594 --> 15:48.604 align:start position:0%
repelling like charges. The company SAT
 

15:48.604 --> 15:51.714 align:start position:0%
repelling like charges. The company SAT
Revolution<00:17:11.199><c> has</c><00:17:11.439><c> built</c><00:17:11.760><c> Aurora</c><00:17:12.640><c> 1</c><00:17:12.959><c> making</c><00:17:13.280><c> use</c>

15:51.714 --> 15:51.724 align:start position:0%
Revolution has built Aurora 1 making use
 

15:51.724 --> 15:54.354 align:start position:0%
Revolution has built Aurora 1 making use
of<00:17:13.679><c> this</c><00:17:13.839><c> idea.</c><00:17:14.880><c> There</c><00:17:15.199><c> the</c><00:17:15.360><c> wires</c><00:17:15.760><c> will</c><00:17:15.919><c> act</c>

15:54.354 --> 15:54.364 align:start position:0%
of this idea. There the wires will act
 

15:54.364 --> 15:56.434 align:start position:0%
of this idea. There the wires will act
as<00:17:16.319><c> a</c><00:17:16.480><c> sort</c><00:17:16.640><c> of</c><00:17:16.799><c> solar</c><00:17:17.280><c> break</c><00:17:17.679><c> when</c><00:17:17.919><c> it</c><00:17:18.079><c> comes</c>

15:56.434 --> 15:56.444 align:start position:0%
as a sort of solar break when it comes
 

15:56.444 --> 15:58.594 align:start position:0%
as a sort of solar break when it comes
time<00:17:18.480><c> for</c><00:17:18.640><c> the</c><00:17:18.799><c> satellite</c><00:17:19.199><c> to</c><00:17:19.360><c> de-orbit.</c><00:17:20.160><c> the</c>

15:58.594 --> 15:58.604 align:start position:0%
time for the satellite to de-orbit. the
 

15:58.604 --> 16:00.594 align:start position:0%
time for the satellite to de-orbit. the
fields<00:17:20.799><c> creating</c><00:17:21.120><c> a</c><00:17:21.280><c> sort</c><00:17:21.520><c> of</c><00:17:21.679><c> drag</c><00:17:21.919><c> in</c><00:17:22.160><c> the</c>

16:00.594 --> 16:00.604 align:start position:0%
fields creating a sort of drag in the
 

16:00.604 --> 16:02.753 align:start position:0%
fields creating a sort of drag in the
ionosphere<00:17:22.880><c> itself,</c><00:17:23.679><c> helping</c><00:17:24.000><c> to</c><00:17:24.240><c> quickly</c>

16:02.753 --> 16:02.763 align:start position:0%
ionosphere itself, helping to quickly
 

16:02.763 --> 16:04.513 align:start position:0%
ionosphere itself, helping to quickly
de-orbit<00:17:25.039><c> a</c><00:17:25.199><c> satellite</c><00:17:25.520><c> in</c><00:17:25.760><c> a</c><00:17:26.000><c> situation</c>

16:04.513 --> 16:04.523 align:start position:0%
de-orbit a satellite in a situation
 

16:04.523 --> 16:07.233 align:start position:0%
de-orbit a satellite in a situation
where<00:17:26.640><c> atmospheric</c><00:17:27.280><c> drag</c><00:17:27.600><c> isn't</c><00:17:28.000><c> feasible.</c>

16:07.233 --> 16:07.243 align:start position:0%
where atmospheric drag isn't feasible.
 

16:07.243 --> 16:09.714 align:start position:0%
where atmospheric drag isn't feasible.
And<00:17:29.280><c> why</c><00:17:29.520><c> use</c><00:17:29.840><c> such</c><00:17:30.160><c> virtual</c><00:17:30.559><c> fields</c><00:17:30.960><c> to</c><00:17:31.280><c> only</c>

16:09.714 --> 16:09.724 align:start position:0%
And why use such virtual fields to only
 

16:09.724 --> 16:12.834 align:start position:0%
And why use such virtual fields to only
put<00:17:31.679><c> on</c><00:17:31.840><c> the</c><00:17:32.000><c> brakes?</c><00:17:33.039><c> NASA</c><00:17:33.440><c> in</c><00:17:33.679><c> 2024</c><00:17:34.400><c> released</c>

16:12.834 --> 16:12.844 align:start position:0%
put on the brakes? NASA in 2024 released
 

16:12.844 --> 16:14.914 align:start position:0%
put on the brakes? NASA in 2024 released
a<00:17:34.880><c> report</c><00:17:35.120><c> that</c><00:17:35.440><c> discussed</c><00:17:36.240><c> tether</c>

16:14.914 --> 16:14.924 align:start position:0%
a report that discussed tether
 

16:14.924 --> 16:17.314 align:start position:0%
a report that discussed tether
technology,<00:17:37.679><c> effectively</c><00:17:38.320><c> little</c><00:17:38.640><c> more</c><00:17:38.960><c> than</c>

16:17.314 --> 16:17.324 align:start position:0%
technology, effectively little more than
 

16:17.324 --> 16:18.993 align:start position:0%
technology, effectively little more than
long<00:17:39.440><c> wires</c><00:17:39.760><c> that</c><00:17:39.919><c> protrude</c><00:17:40.400><c> from</c><00:17:40.640><c> a</c>

16:18.993 --> 16:19.003 align:start position:0%
long wires that protrude from a
 

16:19.003 --> 16:20.993 align:start position:0%
long wires that protrude from a
spacecraft.<00:17:41.840><c> These</c><00:17:42.160><c> can</c><00:17:42.320><c> be</c><00:17:42.400><c> used</c><00:17:42.559><c> to</c>

16:20.993 --> 16:21.003 align:start position:0%
spacecraft. These can be used to
 

16:21.003 --> 16:22.914 align:start position:0%
spacecraft. These can be used to
exchange<00:17:43.120><c> momentum</c><00:17:43.600><c> from</c><00:17:43.840><c> one</c><00:17:44.000><c> spacecraft</c><00:17:44.480><c> to</c>

16:22.914 --> 16:22.924 align:start position:0%
exchange momentum from one spacecraft to
 

16:22.924 --> 16:24.914 align:start position:0%
exchange momentum from one spacecraft to
another.<00:17:45.440><c> But</c><00:17:45.600><c> when</c><00:17:45.760><c> the</c><00:17:45.919><c> right</c><00:17:46.240><c> current</c><00:17:46.480><c> is</c>

16:24.914 --> 16:24.924 align:start position:0%
another. But when the right current is
 

16:24.924 --> 16:27.314 align:start position:0%
another. But when the right current is
passed<00:17:47.039><c> through</c><00:17:47.200><c> these</c><00:17:47.520><c> wires,</c><00:17:48.320><c> such</c><00:17:48.559><c> tethers</c>

16:27.314 --> 16:27.324 align:start position:0%
passed through these wires, such tethers
 

16:27.324 --> 16:29.394 align:start position:0%
passed through these wires, such tethers
can<00:17:49.360><c> push</c><00:17:49.760><c> against</c><00:17:50.080><c> the</c><00:17:50.320><c> magnetic</c><00:17:50.720><c> field</c><00:17:50.960><c> of</c>

16:29.394 --> 16:29.404 align:start position:0%
can push against the magnetic field of
 

16:29.404 --> 16:31.714 align:start position:0%
can push against the magnetic field of
the<00:17:51.440><c> planet,</c><00:17:52.320><c> actually</c><00:17:52.799><c> increasing</c><00:17:53.280><c> a</c>

16:31.714 --> 16:31.724 align:start position:0%
the planet, actually increasing a
 

16:31.724 --> 16:34.034 align:start position:0%
the planet, actually increasing a
spacecraft's<00:17:54.160><c> orbital</c><00:17:54.640><c> altitude.</c>

16:34.034 --> 16:34.044 align:start position:0%
spacecraft's orbital altitude.
 

16:34.044 --> 16:35.794 align:start position:0%
spacecraft's orbital altitude.
Obviously,<00:17:56.320><c> these</c><00:17:56.640><c> types</c><00:17:56.880><c> of</c><00:17:57.039><c> craft</c><00:17:57.360><c> would</c>

16:35.794 --> 16:35.804 align:start position:0%
Obviously, these types of craft would
 

16:35.804 --> 16:37.474 align:start position:0%
Obviously, these types of craft would
only<00:17:57.919><c> work</c><00:17:58.160><c> in</c><00:17:58.320><c> the</c><00:17:58.480><c> gravity</c><00:17:58.799><c> wells</c><00:17:59.120><c> of</c>

16:37.474 --> 16:37.484 align:start position:0%
only work in the gravity wells of
 

16:37.484 --> 16:39.714 align:start position:0%
only work in the gravity wells of
planets<00:17:59.679><c> with</c><00:17:59.919><c> magneettospheres.</c><00:18:01.200><c> But</c><00:18:01.280><c> the</c>

16:39.714 --> 16:39.724 align:start position:0%
planets with magneettospheres. But the
 

16:39.724 --> 16:41.554 align:start position:0%
planets with magneettospheres. But the
advantage<00:18:01.840><c> of</c><00:18:02.000><c> being</c><00:18:02.160><c> able</c><00:18:02.320><c> to</c><00:18:02.480><c> boost</c><00:18:02.880><c> orbital</c>

16:41.554 --> 16:41.564 align:start position:0%
advantage of being able to boost orbital
 

16:41.564 --> 16:44.354 align:start position:0%
advantage of being able to boost orbital
altitude<00:18:03.760><c> in</c><00:18:04.000><c> satellites</c><00:18:04.559><c> is</c><00:18:04.880><c> easy</c><00:18:05.200><c> to</c><00:18:05.440><c> see.</c>

16:44.354 --> 16:44.364 align:start position:0%
altitude in satellites is easy to see.
 

16:44.364 --> 16:46.354 align:start position:0%
altitude in satellites is easy to see.
You'd<00:18:06.480><c> need</c><00:18:06.720><c> less</c><00:18:06.960><c> fuel</c><00:18:07.280><c> to</c><00:18:07.520><c> maintain</c><00:18:07.919><c> a</c>

16:46.354 --> 16:46.364 align:start position:0%
You'd need less fuel to maintain a
 

16:46.364 --> 16:48.594 align:start position:0%
You'd need less fuel to maintain a
certain<00:18:08.400><c> orbital</c><00:18:08.880><c> position,</c><00:18:09.600><c> extending</c><00:18:10.080><c> the</c>

16:48.594 --> 16:48.604 align:start position:0%
certain orbital position, extending the
 

16:48.604 --> 16:51.154 align:start position:0%
certain orbital position, extending the
overall<00:18:10.799><c> lifespan</c><00:18:11.280><c> of</c><00:18:11.440><c> the</c><00:18:11.600><c> mission.</c><00:18:12.559><c> All</c><00:18:12.799><c> you</c>

16:51.154 --> 16:51.164 align:start position:0%
overall lifespan of the mission. All you
 

16:51.164 --> 16:53.233 align:start position:0%
overall lifespan of the mission. All you
would<00:18:13.200><c> need</c><00:18:13.440><c> is</c><00:18:13.840><c> electricity</c><00:18:14.480><c> to</c><00:18:14.720><c> make</c><00:18:14.880><c> it</c>

16:53.233 --> 16:53.243 align:start position:0%
would need is electricity to make it
 

16:53.243 --> 16:55.794 align:start position:0%
would need is electricity to make it
work<00:18:15.520><c> and</c><00:18:15.760><c> a</c><00:18:16.000><c> few</c><00:18:16.320><c> solar</c><00:18:16.720><c> panels</c><00:18:17.120><c> would</c><00:18:17.440><c> take</c>

16:55.794 --> 16:55.804 align:start position:0%
work and a few solar panels would take
 

16:55.804 --> 16:58.594 align:start position:0%
work and a few solar panels would take
care<00:18:17.760><c> of</c><00:18:17.919><c> that.</c><00:18:18.799><c> But</c><00:18:19.039><c> what</c><00:18:19.360><c> happens</c><00:18:19.760><c> if</c><00:18:20.080><c> we</c>

16:58.594 --> 16:58.604 align:start position:0%
care of that. But what happens if we
 

16:58.604 --> 17:02.034 align:start position:0%
care of that. But what happens if we
want<00:18:20.640><c> to</c><00:18:20.799><c> go</c><00:18:21.120><c> even</c><00:18:21.600><c> further</c><00:18:22.559><c> beyond</c><00:18:23.200><c> our</c><00:18:23.520><c> solar</c>

17:02.034 --> 17:02.044 align:start position:0%
want to go even further beyond our solar
 

17:02.044 --> 17:05.074 align:start position:0%
want to go even further beyond our solar
system<00:18:24.240><c> itself?</c><00:18:25.600><c> The</c><00:18:25.840><c> nearest</c><00:18:26.160><c> star</c><00:18:26.400><c> to</c><00:18:26.640><c> our</c>

17:05.074 --> 17:05.084 align:start position:0%
system itself? The nearest star to our
 

17:05.084 --> 17:07.794 align:start position:0%
system itself? The nearest star to our
solar<00:18:27.200><c> system</c><00:18:27.520><c> is</c><00:18:27.919><c> Proxima</c><00:18:28.480><c> Century,</c><00:18:29.360><c> which</c>

17:07.794 --> 17:07.804 align:start position:0%
solar system is Proxima Century, which
 

17:07.804 --> 17:11.074 align:start position:0%
solar system is Proxima Century, which
is<00:18:30.000><c> 4.25</c><00:18:30.960><c> lighty</c><00:18:31.200><c> years</c><00:18:31.440><c> away</c><00:18:31.679><c> from</c><00:18:31.840><c> us.</c><00:18:32.559><c> To</c>

17:11.074 --> 17:11.084 align:start position:0%
is 4.25 lighty years away from us. To
 

17:11.084 --> 17:13.314 align:start position:0%
is 4.25 lighty years away from us. To
cross<00:18:33.200><c> that</c><00:18:33.600><c> kind</c><00:18:33.840><c> of</c><00:18:34.000><c> distance,</c><00:18:34.720><c> we</c><00:18:34.960><c> would</c>

17:13.314 --> 17:13.324 align:start position:0%
cross that kind of distance, we would
 

17:13.324 --> 17:16.113 align:start position:0%
cross that kind of distance, we would
want<00:18:35.280><c> the</c><00:18:35.600><c> fastest</c><00:18:36.160><c> craft</c><00:18:36.559><c> available</c><00:18:37.039><c> to</c><00:18:37.200><c> us.</c>

17:16.113 --> 17:16.123 align:start position:0%
want the fastest craft available to us.
 

17:16.123 --> 17:18.354 align:start position:0%
want the fastest craft available to us.
So,<00:18:38.320><c> we</c><00:18:38.559><c> would</c><00:18:38.720><c> likely</c><00:18:39.120><c> prefer</c><00:18:39.520><c> an</c><00:18:39.840><c> electric</c>

17:18.354 --> 17:18.364 align:start position:0%
So, we would likely prefer an electric
 

17:18.364 --> 17:21.233 align:start position:0%
So, we would likely prefer an electric
thruster<00:18:40.640><c> over</c><00:18:40.960><c> a</c><00:18:41.120><c> chemical</c><00:18:41.600><c> propulsion</c><00:18:42.160><c> one.</c>

17:21.233 --> 17:21.243 align:start position:0%
thruster over a chemical propulsion one.
 

17:21.243 --> 17:23.474 align:start position:0%
thruster over a chemical propulsion one.
But<00:18:43.280><c> even</c><00:18:43.600><c> if</c><00:18:44.000><c> such</c><00:18:44.240><c> a</c><00:18:44.400><c> thruster</c><00:18:44.880><c> managed</c><00:18:45.120><c> to</c>

17:23.474 --> 17:23.484 align:start position:0%
But even if such a thruster managed to
 

17:23.484 --> 17:27.474 align:start position:0%
But even if such a thruster managed to
get<00:18:45.440><c> a</c><00:18:45.679><c> craft</c><00:18:45.919><c> up</c><00:18:46.160><c> to</c><00:18:46.640><c> 56,000</c><00:18:47.600><c> km/h,</c><00:18:48.799><c> a</c><00:18:49.039><c> speed</c>

17:27.474 --> 17:27.484 align:start position:0%
get a craft up to 56,000 km/h, a speed
 

17:27.484 --> 17:29.554 align:start position:0%
get a craft up to 56,000 km/h, a speed
attained<00:18:49.679><c> by</c><00:18:49.919><c> the</c><00:18:50.080><c> Deep</c><00:18:50.400><c> Space</c><00:18:50.720><c> 1</c><00:18:50.960><c> mission's</c>

17:29.554 --> 17:29.564 align:start position:0%
attained by the Deep Space 1 mission's
 

17:29.564 --> 17:32.274 align:start position:0%
attained by the Deep Space 1 mission's
electric<00:18:51.760><c> thruster</c><00:18:52.160><c> in</c><00:18:52.320><c> 1998,</c><00:18:53.679><c> it</c><00:18:53.919><c> would</c>

17:32.274 --> 17:32.284 align:start position:0%
electric thruster in 1998, it would
 

17:32.284 --> 17:35.233 align:start position:0%
electric thruster in 1998, it would
still<00:18:54.400><c> take</c><00:18:54.720><c> over</c><00:18:55.440><c> 81,000</c>

17:35.233 --> 17:35.243 align:start position:0%
still take over 81,000
 

17:35.243 --> 17:37.794 align:start position:0%
still take over 81,000
years<00:18:57.520><c> to</c><00:18:57.760><c> cross</c><00:18:58.000><c> that</c><00:18:58.320><c> distance.</c><00:18:59.200><c> This</c><00:18:59.440><c> would</c>

17:37.794 --> 17:37.804 align:start position:0%
years to cross that distance. This would
 

17:37.804 --> 17:39.314 align:start position:0%
years to cross that distance. This would
be<00:18:59.760><c> far</c><00:19:00.000><c> too</c><00:19:00.160><c> long</c><00:19:00.320><c> for</c><00:19:00.559><c> humans</c><00:19:00.880><c> to</c>

17:39.314 --> 17:39.324 align:start position:0%
be far too long for humans to
 

17:39.324 --> 17:41.873 align:start position:0%
be far too long for humans to
contemplate.<00:19:02.160><c> Thousands</c><00:19:02.799><c> of</c><00:19:03.039><c> generations</c>

17:41.873 --> 17:41.883 align:start position:0%
contemplate. Thousands of generations
 

17:41.883 --> 17:43.634 align:start position:0%
contemplate. Thousands of generations
would<00:19:03.919><c> pass</c><00:19:04.160><c> before</c><00:19:04.480><c> the</c><00:19:04.720><c> descendants</c><00:19:05.120><c> of</c><00:19:05.280><c> a</c>

17:43.634 --> 17:43.644 align:start position:0%
would pass before the descendants of a
 

17:43.644 --> 17:46.113 align:start position:0%
would pass before the descendants of a
man<00:19:05.760><c> crew</c><00:19:06.160><c> finally</c><00:19:06.640><c> arrived.</c>

17:46.113 --> 17:46.123 align:start position:0%
man crew finally arrived.
 

17:46.123 --> 17:48.434 align:start position:0%
man crew finally arrived.
Obviously,<00:19:08.720><c> thinking</c><00:19:09.120><c> this</c><00:19:09.360><c> far</c><00:19:09.520><c> ahead,</c>

17:48.434 --> 17:48.444 align:start position:0%
Obviously, thinking this far ahead,
 

17:48.444 --> 17:51.233 align:start position:0%
Obviously, thinking this far ahead,
things<00:19:10.640><c> start</c><00:19:10.880><c> to</c><00:19:11.120><c> get</c><00:19:11.280><c> a</c><00:19:11.520><c> bit</c><00:19:11.679><c> theoretical.</c>

17:51.233 --> 17:51.243 align:start position:0%
things start to get a bit theoretical.
 

17:51.243 --> 17:53.873 align:start position:0%
things start to get a bit theoretical.
But<00:19:13.440><c> what</c><00:19:13.760><c> options</c><00:19:14.400><c> are</c><00:19:14.720><c> there</c><00:19:15.039><c> for</c><00:19:15.280><c> speeding</c>

17:53.873 --> 17:53.883 align:start position:0%
But what options are there for speeding
 

17:53.883 --> 17:57.794 align:start position:0%
But what options are there for speeding
up<00:19:15.919><c> the</c><00:19:16.160><c> travel</c><00:19:16.480><c> time?</c><00:19:17.600><c> Well,</c><00:19:18.240><c> there's</c><00:19:18.480><c> a</c><00:19:18.640><c> few.</c>

17:57.794 --> 17:57.804 align:start position:0%
up the travel time? Well, there's a few.
 

17:57.804 --> 18:00.194 align:start position:0%
up the travel time? Well, there's a few.
Some<00:19:20.080><c> are</c><00:19:20.400><c> even</c><00:19:20.799><c> attainable</c><00:19:21.440><c> with</c><00:19:21.679><c> our</c>

18:00.194 --> 18:00.204 align:start position:0%
Some are even attainable with our
 

18:00.204 --> 18:02.434 align:start position:0%
Some are even attainable with our
current<00:19:22.320><c> levels</c><00:19:22.720><c> of</c><00:19:22.880><c> technology,</c><00:19:24.000><c> while</c>

18:02.434 --> 18:02.444 align:start position:0%
current levels of technology, while
 

18:02.444 --> 18:05.794 align:start position:0%
current levels of technology, while
others<00:19:24.640><c> are</c><00:19:24.880><c> a</c><00:19:25.200><c> little</c><00:19:25.360><c> more</c><00:19:26.080><c> outlandish,</c><00:19:27.280><c> but</c>

18:05.794 --> 18:05.804 align:start position:0%
others are a little more outlandish, but
 

18:05.804 --> 18:09.154 align:start position:0%
others are a little more outlandish, but
a<00:19:27.919><c> lot</c><00:19:28.160><c> more</c><00:19:28.400><c> fun.</c><00:19:29.760><c> To</c><00:19:30.080><c> begin</c><00:19:30.240><c> with,</c><00:19:30.559><c> there</c><00:19:30.720><c> was</c>

18:09.154 --> 18:09.164 align:start position:0%
a lot more fun. To begin with, there was
 

18:09.164 --> 18:11.714 align:start position:0%
a lot more fun. To begin with, there was
a<00:19:31.200><c> buzz</c><00:19:31.520><c> in</c><00:19:31.679><c> the</c><00:19:31.840><c> news</c><00:19:32.080><c> back</c><00:19:32.320><c> in</c><00:19:32.480><c> 2021</c><00:19:33.200><c> when</c>

18:11.714 --> 18:11.724 align:start position:0%
a buzz in the news back in 2021 when
 

18:11.724 --> 18:14.194 align:start position:0%
a buzz in the news back in 2021 when
NASA<00:19:33.919><c> scientist</c><00:19:34.400><c> Harold</c><00:19:34.880><c> White</c><00:19:35.520><c> claimed</c><00:19:35.840><c> to</c>

18:14.194 --> 18:14.204 align:start position:0%
NASA scientist Harold White claimed to
 

18:14.204 --> 18:16.993 align:start position:0%
NASA scientist Harold White claimed to
have<00:19:36.160><c> discovered</c><00:19:36.559><c> a</c><00:19:36.880><c> real,</c><00:19:37.520><c> albeit</c><00:19:38.000><c> humble,</c>

18:16.993 --> 18:17.003 align:start position:0%
have discovered a real, albeit humble,
 

18:17.003 --> 18:20.194 align:start position:0%
have discovered a real, albeit humble,
warp<00:19:39.120><c> bubble.</c><00:19:40.240><c> If</c><00:19:40.640><c> true,</c><00:19:41.520><c> this</c><00:19:41.679><c> would</c><00:19:41.840><c> have</c>

18:20.194 --> 18:20.204 align:start position:0%
warp bubble. If true, this would have
 

18:20.204 --> 18:22.434 align:start position:0%
warp bubble. If true, this would have
been<00:19:42.160><c> quite</c><00:19:42.400><c> the</c><00:19:42.559><c> coup,</c><00:19:43.280><c> as</c><00:19:43.520><c> warp</c><00:19:43.840><c> bubbles</c>

18:22.434 --> 18:22.444 align:start position:0%
been quite the coup, as warp bubbles
 

18:22.444 --> 18:24.434 align:start position:0%
been quite the coup, as warp bubbles
might<00:19:44.480><c> hold</c><00:19:44.720><c> the</c><00:19:44.880><c> key</c><00:19:45.120><c> to</c><00:19:45.280><c> moving</c><00:19:45.600><c> faster</c><00:19:46.000><c> than</c>

18:24.434 --> 18:24.444 align:start position:0%
might hold the key to moving faster than
 

18:24.444 --> 18:26.914 align:start position:0%
might hold the key to moving faster than
light<00:19:46.480><c> itself.</c><00:19:47.520><c> Warp</c><00:19:47.840><c> bubbles</c><00:19:48.160><c> work</c><00:19:48.400><c> by</c>

18:26.914 --> 18:26.924 align:start position:0%
light itself. Warp bubbles work by
 

18:26.924 --> 18:29.314 align:start position:0%
light itself. Warp bubbles work by
recognizing<00:19:49.360><c> that</c><00:19:49.840><c> nothing</c><00:19:50.240><c> in</c><00:19:50.559><c> space</c><00:19:50.880><c> can</c>

18:29.314 --> 18:29.324 align:start position:0%
recognizing that nothing in space can
 

18:29.324 --> 18:31.634 align:start position:0%
recognizing that nothing in space can
travel<00:19:51.440><c> faster</c><00:19:51.840><c> than</c><00:19:52.080><c> light,</c><00:19:52.799><c> but</c><00:19:52.960><c> there's</c><00:19:53.200><c> no</c>

18:31.634 --> 18:31.644 align:start position:0%
travel faster than light, but there's no
 

18:31.644 --> 18:34.034 align:start position:0%
travel faster than light, but there's no
rule<00:19:53.679><c> that</c><00:19:53.840><c> says</c><00:19:54.080><c> that</c><00:19:54.400><c> space</c><00:19:54.720><c> itself</c><00:19:55.440><c> can't</c>

18:34.034 --> 18:34.044 align:start position:0%
rule that says that space itself can't
 

18:34.044 --> 18:35.954 align:start position:0%
rule that says that space itself can't
expand<00:19:56.160><c> or</c><00:19:56.400><c> contract</c><00:19:56.880><c> faster</c><00:19:57.280><c> than</c><00:19:57.440><c> those</c>

18:35.954 --> 18:35.964 align:start position:0%
expand or contract faster than those
 

18:35.964 --> 18:38.674 align:start position:0%
expand or contract faster than those
speeds.<00:19:58.640><c> Gravity</c><00:19:59.200><c> causes</c><00:19:59.600><c> a</c><00:19:59.840><c> contraction</c><00:20:00.320><c> to</c>

18:38.674 --> 18:38.684 align:start position:0%
speeds. Gravity causes a contraction to
 

18:38.684 --> 18:41.634 align:start position:0%
speeds. Gravity causes a contraction to
occur<00:20:00.720><c> in</c><00:20:01.039><c> space.</c><00:20:01.919><c> So</c><00:20:02.320><c> if</c><00:20:02.559><c> you</c><00:20:02.720><c> could</c><00:20:02.880><c> somehow</c>

18:41.634 --> 18:41.644 align:start position:0%
occur in space. So if you could somehow
 

18:41.644 --> 18:43.873 align:start position:0%
occur in space. So if you could somehow
concentrate<00:20:04.000><c> that</c><00:20:04.320><c> kind</c><00:20:04.400><c> of</c><00:20:04.559><c> contraction</c><00:20:05.360><c> in</c>

18:43.873 --> 18:43.883 align:start position:0%
concentrate that kind of contraction in
 

18:43.883 --> 18:46.594 align:start position:0%
concentrate that kind of contraction in
front<00:20:05.919><c> of</c><00:20:06.080><c> you,</c><00:20:06.960><c> then</c><00:20:07.280><c> create</c><00:20:07.600><c> some</c><00:20:07.840><c> kind</c><00:20:08.000><c> of</c>

18:46.594 --> 18:46.604 align:start position:0%
front of you, then create some kind of
 

18:46.604 --> 18:49.714 align:start position:0%
front of you, then create some kind of
expansion<00:20:09.039><c> in</c><00:20:09.280><c> the</c><00:20:09.440><c> space</c><00:20:09.760><c> behind</c><00:20:10.240><c> you,</c><00:20:11.200><c> it</c>

18:49.714 --> 18:49.724 align:start position:0%
expansion in the space behind you, it
 

18:49.724 --> 18:52.354 align:start position:0%
expansion in the space behind you, it
might<00:20:11.919><c> be</c><00:20:12.080><c> possible</c><00:20:12.559><c> to</c><00:20:12.799><c> create</c><00:20:13.120><c> a</c><00:20:13.440><c> bubble</c>

18:52.354 --> 18:52.364 align:start position:0%
might be possible to create a bubble
 

18:52.364 --> 18:54.993 align:start position:0%
might be possible to create a bubble
with<00:20:14.480><c> you</c><00:20:14.799><c> in</c><00:20:15.039><c> the</c><00:20:15.200><c> middle</c><00:20:15.360><c> of</c><00:20:15.600><c> it</c><00:20:16.000><c> that</c><00:20:16.400><c> moved</c>

18:54.993 --> 18:55.003 align:start position:0%
with you in the middle of it that moved
 

18:55.003 --> 18:58.034 align:start position:0%
with you in the middle of it that moved
across<00:20:17.200><c> space</c><00:20:17.840><c> by</c><00:20:18.160><c> changing</c><00:20:18.720><c> the</c><00:20:19.200><c> distance</c>

18:58.034 --> 18:58.044 align:start position:0%
across space by changing the distance
 

18:58.044 --> 19:00.514 align:start position:0%
across space by changing the distance
between<00:20:20.320><c> things</c><00:20:21.039><c> rather</c><00:20:21.360><c> than</c><00:20:21.600><c> by</c><00:20:21.919><c> trying</c><00:20:22.160><c> to</c>

19:00.514 --> 19:00.524 align:start position:0%
between things rather than by trying to
 

19:00.524 --> 19:03.314 align:start position:0%
between things rather than by trying to
close<00:20:22.640><c> those</c><00:20:22.960><c> distances.</c><00:20:24.160><c> Effectively,</c><00:20:24.880><c> it's</c>

19:03.314 --> 19:03.324 align:start position:0%
close those distances. Effectively, it's
 

19:03.324 --> 19:06.353 align:start position:0%
close those distances. Effectively, it's
like<00:20:25.360><c> trying</c><00:20:25.679><c> to</c><00:20:25.919><c> circumvent</c><00:20:26.559><c> a</c><00:20:26.960><c> 30</c><00:20:27.280><c> km/h</c>

19:06.353 --> 19:06.363 align:start position:0%
like trying to circumvent a 30 km/h
 

19:06.363 --> 19:09.074 align:start position:0%
like trying to circumvent a 30 km/h
speed<00:20:28.400><c> limit</c><00:20:28.640><c> on</c><00:20:28.799><c> a</c><00:20:28.960><c> road</c><00:20:29.440><c> by</c><00:20:29.760><c> moving</c><00:20:30.240><c> the</c><00:20:30.480><c> road</c>

19:09.074 --> 19:09.084 align:start position:0%
speed limit on a road by moving the road
 

19:09.084 --> 19:10.834 align:start position:0%
speed limit on a road by moving the road
itself.

19:10.834 --> 19:10.844 align:start position:0%
itself.
 

19:10.844 --> 19:13.314 align:start position:0%
itself.
There<00:20:32.880><c> are</c><00:20:33.120><c> a</c><00:20:33.520><c> few</c><00:20:33.840><c> drawbacks</c><00:20:34.400><c> to</c><00:20:34.559><c> such</c><00:20:34.799><c> warp</c>

19:13.314 --> 19:13.324 align:start position:0%
There are a few drawbacks to such warp
 

19:13.324 --> 19:16.353 align:start position:0%
There are a few drawbacks to such warp
bubbles,<00:20:36.000><c> namely</c><00:20:36.400><c> that</c><00:20:36.640><c> to</c><00:20:37.200><c> expand</c><00:20:37.679><c> space,</c>

19:16.353 --> 19:16.363 align:start position:0%
bubbles, namely that to expand space,
 

19:16.363 --> 19:18.274 align:start position:0%
bubbles, namely that to expand space,
you<00:20:38.400><c> would</c><00:20:38.559><c> need</c><00:20:38.720><c> some</c><00:20:38.960><c> kind</c><00:20:39.200><c> of</c><00:20:39.440><c> exotic</c>

19:18.274 --> 19:18.284 align:start position:0%
you would need some kind of exotic
 

19:18.284 --> 19:20.674 align:start position:0%
you would need some kind of exotic
negative<00:20:40.640><c> matter</c><00:20:41.200><c> to</c><00:20:41.520><c> create</c><00:20:41.760><c> the</c><00:20:42.000><c> opposite</c>

19:20.674 --> 19:20.684 align:start position:0%
negative matter to create the opposite
 

19:20.684 --> 19:22.434 align:start position:0%
negative matter to create the opposite
of<00:20:42.880><c> gravitational</c><00:20:43.520><c> contraction</c><00:20:44.000><c> of</c>

19:22.434 --> 19:22.444 align:start position:0%
of gravitational contraction of
 

19:22.444 --> 19:25.474 align:start position:0%
of gravitational contraction of
spaceime.<00:20:45.360><c> Sadly,</c><00:20:45.840><c> we</c><00:20:46.240><c> have</c><00:20:46.480><c> never</c><00:20:46.799><c> actually</c>

19:25.474 --> 19:25.484 align:start position:0%
spaceime. Sadly, we have never actually
 

19:25.484 --> 19:27.634 align:start position:0%
spaceime. Sadly, we have never actually
seen<00:20:47.600><c> this</c><00:20:47.840><c> kind</c><00:20:48.000><c> of</c><00:20:48.159><c> matter,</c><00:20:48.960><c> and</c><00:20:49.200><c> it's</c>

19:27.634 --> 19:27.644 align:start position:0%
seen this kind of matter, and it's
 

19:27.644 --> 19:30.674 align:start position:0%
seen this kind of matter, and it's
dubious<00:20:50.240><c> it</c><00:20:50.559><c> even</c><00:20:50.799><c> exists.</c><00:20:51.760><c> On</c><00:20:52.000><c> top</c><00:20:52.159><c> of</c><00:20:52.240><c> that,</c>

19:30.674 --> 19:30.684 align:start position:0%
dubious it even exists. On top of that,
 

19:30.684 --> 19:33.233 align:start position:0%
dubious it even exists. On top of that,
such<00:20:52.640><c> a</c><00:20:52.799><c> W</c><00:20:53.120><c> bubble</c><00:20:53.440><c> would</c><00:20:53.679><c> need</c><00:20:53.840><c> a</c><00:20:54.240><c> ridiculous</c>

19:33.233 --> 19:33.243 align:start position:0%
such a W bubble would need a ridiculous
 

19:33.243 --> 19:36.353 align:start position:0%
such a W bubble would need a ridiculous
amount<00:20:55.360><c> of</c><00:20:55.520><c> energy</c><00:20:56.320><c> and</c><00:20:56.640><c> some</c><00:20:56.880><c> models</c><00:20:57.280><c> suggest</c>

19:36.353 --> 19:36.363 align:start position:0%
amount of energy and some models suggest
 

19:36.363 --> 19:38.993 align:start position:0%
amount of energy and some models suggest
needs<00:20:58.640><c> more</c><00:20:59.120><c> negative</c><00:20:59.600><c> energy</c><00:21:00.320><c> than</c><00:21:00.559><c> the</c>

19:38.993 --> 19:39.003 align:start position:0%
needs more negative energy than the
 

19:39.003 --> 19:41.634 align:start position:0%
needs more negative energy than the
amount<00:21:01.200><c> of</c><00:21:01.679><c> positive</c><00:21:02.159><c> energy</c><00:21:02.559><c> that</c><00:21:02.799><c> exists</c><00:21:03.200><c> in</c>

19:41.634 --> 19:41.644 align:start position:0%
amount of positive energy that exists in
 

19:41.644 --> 19:45.554 align:start position:0%
amount of positive energy that exists in
the<00:21:03.679><c> whole</c><00:21:04.240><c> universe.</c><00:21:05.600><c> So,</c><00:21:06.400><c> war</c><00:21:06.720><c> bubbles</c>

19:45.554 --> 19:45.564 align:start position:0%
the whole universe. So, war bubbles
 

19:45.564 --> 19:48.834 align:start position:0%
the whole universe. So, war bubbles
seemed<00:21:07.760><c> a</c><00:21:08.000><c> long</c><00:21:08.240><c> way</c><00:21:08.480><c> off,</c><00:21:09.440><c> which</c><00:21:09.679><c> is</c><00:21:09.840><c> why</c>

19:48.834 --> 19:48.844 align:start position:0%
seemed a long way off, which is why
 

19:48.844 --> 19:51.794 align:start position:0%
seemed a long way off, which is why
bubble<00:21:11.039><c> was</c><00:21:11.280><c> so</c><00:21:11.520><c> exciting.</c><00:21:12.640><c> Admittedly,</c><00:21:13.360><c> he</c>

19:51.794 --> 19:51.804 align:start position:0%
bubble was so exciting. Admittedly, he
 

19:51.804 --> 19:53.474 align:start position:0%
bubble was so exciting. Admittedly, he
claimed<00:21:13.919><c> that</c><00:21:14.159><c> it</c><00:21:14.320><c> was</c><00:21:14.480><c> only</c><00:21:14.720><c> large</c><00:21:14.960><c> enough</c><00:21:15.120><c> to</c>

19:53.474 --> 19:53.484 align:start position:0%
claimed that it was only large enough to
 

19:53.484 --> 19:57.074 align:start position:0%
claimed that it was only large enough to
be<00:21:15.440><c> able</c><00:21:15.520><c> to</c><00:21:15.679><c> fit</c><00:21:16.000><c> a</c><00:21:16.480><c> 1</c><00:21:17.039><c> micrometer</c><00:21:17.919><c> sphere,</c>

19:57.074 --> 19:57.084 align:start position:0%
be able to fit a 1 micrometer sphere,
 

19:57.084 --> 19:59.554 align:start position:0%
be able to fit a 1 micrometer sphere,
but<00:21:19.200><c> proof</c><00:21:19.440><c> of</c><00:21:19.679><c> concept</c><00:21:20.080><c> would</c><00:21:20.400><c> be</c><00:21:20.559><c> a</c><00:21:20.880><c> huge</c>

19:59.554 --> 19:59.564 align:start position:0%
but proof of concept would be a huge
 

19:59.564 --> 20:03.474 align:start position:0%
but proof of concept would be a huge
step<00:21:21.600><c> forward.</c><00:21:23.039><c> Sadly,</c><00:21:24.080><c> White's</c><00:21:24.480><c> bubble</c><00:21:24.960><c> was</c>

20:03.474 --> 20:03.484 align:start position:0%
step forward. Sadly, White's bubble was
 

20:03.484 --> 20:05.794 align:start position:0%
step forward. Sadly, White's bubble was
soon<00:21:25.440><c> to</c><00:21:25.600><c> burst.</c><00:21:26.559><c> As</c><00:21:26.880><c> other</c><00:21:27.120><c> scientists</c>

20:05.794 --> 20:05.804 align:start position:0%
soon to burst. As other scientists
 

20:05.804 --> 20:07.873 align:start position:0%
soon to burst. As other scientists
started<00:21:28.000><c> taking</c><00:21:28.320><c> a</c><00:21:28.559><c> closer</c><00:21:28.960><c> look</c><00:21:29.120><c> at</c><00:21:29.280><c> White's</c>

20:07.873 --> 20:07.883 align:start position:0%
started taking a closer look at White's
 

20:07.883 --> 20:10.113 align:start position:0%
started taking a closer look at White's
paper,<00:21:30.320><c> it</c><00:21:30.480><c> became</c><00:21:30.799><c> clear</c><00:21:31.039><c> that</c><00:21:31.280><c> he</c><00:21:31.520><c> hadn't</c>

20:10.113 --> 20:10.123 align:start position:0%
paper, it became clear that he hadn't
 

20:10.123 --> 20:12.753 align:start position:0%
paper, it became clear that he hadn't
actually<00:21:32.240><c> made</c><00:21:32.480><c> a</c><00:21:32.640><c> W</c><00:21:32.960><c> bubble,</c><00:21:33.440><c> but</c><00:21:33.679><c> had</c><00:21:33.919><c> merely</c>

20:12.753 --> 20:12.763 align:start position:0%
actually made a W bubble, but had merely
 

20:12.763 --> 20:15.394 align:start position:0%
actually made a W bubble, but had merely
calculated<00:21:35.360><c> something</c><00:21:35.760><c> that</c><00:21:36.080><c> looked</c><00:21:36.400><c> a</c><00:21:36.880><c> bit</c>

20:15.394 --> 20:15.404 align:start position:0%
calculated something that looked a bit
 

20:15.404 --> 20:17.794 align:start position:0%
calculated something that looked a bit
like<00:21:37.600><c> W</c><00:21:37.919><c> bubble</c><00:21:38.240><c> calculations.</c><00:21:39.120><c> if</c><00:21:39.360><c> you</c>

20:17.794 --> 20:17.804 align:start position:0%
like W bubble calculations. if you
 

20:17.804 --> 20:21.074 align:start position:0%
like W bubble calculations. if you
squint.<00:21:40.799><c> There</c><00:21:41.039><c> was</c><00:21:41.200><c> no</c><00:21:41.360><c> experimental</c><00:21:42.080><c> proof.</c>

20:21.074 --> 20:21.084 align:start position:0%
squint. There was no experimental proof.
 

20:21.084 --> 20:23.474 align:start position:0%
squint. There was no experimental proof.
White<00:21:43.280><c> hadn't</c><00:21:43.600><c> even</c><00:21:44.000><c> been</c><00:21:44.320><c> working</c><00:21:44.640><c> on</c><00:21:44.960><c> wart</c>

20:23.474 --> 20:23.484 align:start position:0%
White hadn't even been working on wart
 

20:23.484 --> 20:26.194 align:start position:0%
White hadn't even been working on wart
bubbles<00:21:45.600><c> at</c><00:21:45.760><c> the</c><00:21:45.919><c> time,</c><00:21:46.480><c> but</c><00:21:46.720><c> rather</c><00:21:47.360><c> casmir</c>

20:26.194 --> 20:26.204 align:start position:0%
bubbles at the time, but rather casmir
 

20:26.204 --> 20:28.594 align:start position:0%
bubbles at the time, but rather casmir
cavities,<00:21:48.880><c> a</c><00:21:49.120><c> quantum</c><00:21:49.520><c> effect</c><00:21:49.760><c> that</c><00:21:50.000><c> appears</c>

20:28.594 --> 20:28.604 align:start position:0%
cavities, a quantum effect that appears
 

20:28.604 --> 20:30.194 align:start position:0%
cavities, a quantum effect that appears
between<00:21:50.720><c> two</c><00:21:51.039><c> plates</c><00:21:51.360><c> under</c><00:21:51.600><c> certain</c>

20:30.194 --> 20:30.204 align:start position:0%
between two plates under certain
 

20:30.204 --> 20:32.194 align:start position:0%
between two plates under certain
wavelengths.<00:21:52.880><c> And</c><00:21:53.039><c> it</c><00:21:53.200><c> was</c><00:21:53.360><c> one</c><00:21:53.520><c> of</c><00:21:53.600><c> these</c>

20:32.194 --> 20:32.204 align:start position:0%
wavelengths. And it was one of these
 

20:32.204 --> 20:34.594 align:start position:0%
wavelengths. And it was one of these
that<00:21:54.320><c> had</c><00:21:54.720><c> some</c><00:21:55.200><c> characteristics</c><00:21:55.919><c> that</c><00:21:56.159><c> were</c>

20:34.594 --> 20:34.604 align:start position:0%
that had some characteristics that were
 

20:34.604 --> 20:36.434 align:start position:0%
that had some characteristics that were
similar<00:21:56.880><c> to</c><00:21:57.120><c> what</c><00:21:57.360><c> you</c><00:21:57.520><c> might</c><00:21:57.679><c> want</c><00:21:57.840><c> to</c><00:21:58.000><c> see</c><00:21:58.080><c> in</c>

20:36.434 --> 20:36.444 align:start position:0%
similar to what you might want to see in
 

20:36.444 --> 20:39.474 align:start position:0%
similar to what you might want to see in
a<00:21:58.320><c> warp</c><00:21:58.640><c> bubble,</c><00:21:59.200><c> which</c><00:21:59.440><c> is</c><00:21:59.600><c> a</c><00:22:00.000><c> far</c><00:22:00.400><c> cry</c><00:22:00.960><c> from</c>

20:39.474 --> 20:39.484 align:start position:0%
a warp bubble, which is a far cry from
 

20:39.484 --> 20:42.274 align:start position:0%
a warp bubble, which is a far cry from
actually<00:22:01.679><c> making</c><00:22:02.000><c> a</c><00:22:02.240><c> warp</c><00:22:02.640><c> bubble.</c>

20:42.274 --> 20:42.284 align:start position:0%
actually making a warp bubble.
 

20:42.284 --> 20:45.474 align:start position:0%
actually making a warp bubble.
So,<00:22:04.960><c> warp</c><00:22:05.440><c> drives</c><00:22:05.919><c> might</c><00:22:06.320><c> still</c><00:22:06.720><c> be</c><00:22:06.960><c> one</c><00:22:07.120><c> for</c>

20:45.474 --> 20:45.484 align:start position:0%
So, warp drives might still be one for
 

20:45.484 --> 20:47.554 align:start position:0%
So, warp drives might still be one for
the<00:22:07.440><c> realms</c><00:22:07.760><c> of</c><00:22:07.919><c> science</c><00:22:08.240><c> fiction,</c><00:22:09.039><c> at</c><00:22:09.039><c> least</c>

20:47.554 --> 20:47.564 align:start position:0%
the realms of science fiction, at least
 

20:47.564 --> 20:50.113 align:start position:0%
the realms of science fiction, at least
for<00:22:09.600><c> now.</c><00:22:10.400><c> But</c><00:22:10.559><c> the</c><00:22:10.799><c> last</c><00:22:11.039><c> technology</c><00:22:11.520><c> I</c><00:22:11.760><c> want</c>

20:50.113 --> 20:50.123 align:start position:0%
for now. But the last technology I want
 

20:50.123 --> 20:52.194 align:start position:0%
for now. But the last technology I want
to<00:22:12.000><c> talk</c><00:22:12.159><c> about</c><00:22:12.400><c> today</c><00:22:12.720><c> feels</c><00:22:13.120><c> a</c><00:22:13.440><c> little</c><00:22:13.679><c> more</c>

20:52.194 --> 20:52.204 align:start position:0%
to talk about today feels a little more
 

20:52.204 --> 20:54.274 align:start position:0%
to talk about today feels a little more
within<00:22:14.400><c> reach.</c>

20:54.274 --> 20:54.284 align:start position:0%
within reach.
 

20:54.284 --> 20:56.113 align:start position:0%
within reach.
Part<00:22:16.320><c> of</c><00:22:16.480><c> the</c><00:22:16.720><c> challenge</c><00:22:17.039><c> of</c><00:22:17.440><c> traveling</c>

20:56.113 --> 20:56.123 align:start position:0%
Part of the challenge of traveling
 

20:56.123 --> 20:58.914 align:start position:0%
Part of the challenge of traveling
between<00:22:18.400><c> stars</c><00:22:18.799><c> is</c><00:22:19.120><c> acceleration.</c><00:22:20.320><c> If</c><00:22:20.559><c> you</c>

20:58.914 --> 20:58.924 align:start position:0%
between stars is acceleration. If you
 

20:58.924 --> 21:01.314 align:start position:0%
between stars is acceleration. If you
had<00:22:20.960><c> infinite</c><00:22:21.440><c> energy</c><00:22:22.159><c> and</c><00:22:22.480><c> could</c><00:22:22.720><c> thus</c>

21:01.314 --> 21:01.324 align:start position:0%
had infinite energy and could thus
 

21:01.324 --> 21:04.113 align:start position:0%
had infinite energy and could thus
accelerate<00:22:23.840><c> infinitely,</c><00:22:24.799><c> you</c><00:22:25.039><c> could</c><00:22:25.280><c> vastly</c>

21:04.113 --> 21:04.123 align:start position:0%
accelerate infinitely, you could vastly
 

21:04.123 --> 21:07.634 align:start position:0%
accelerate infinitely, you could vastly
cut<00:22:26.159><c> down</c><00:22:26.400><c> on</c><00:22:26.640><c> that</c><00:22:26.960><c> 81,000year</c><00:22:28.240><c> travel</c><00:22:28.559><c> time.</c>

21:07.634 --> 21:07.644 align:start position:0%
cut down on that 81,000year travel time.
 

21:07.644 --> 21:10.194 align:start position:0%
cut down on that 81,000year travel time.
But<00:22:29.919><c> this</c><00:22:30.159><c> is</c><00:22:30.320><c> easier</c><00:22:30.640><c> said</c><00:22:30.880><c> than</c><00:22:31.039><c> done.</c>

21:10.194 --> 21:10.204 align:start position:0%
But this is easier said than done.
 

21:10.204 --> 21:12.594 align:start position:0%
But this is easier said than done.
Carrying<00:22:32.480><c> chemical</c><00:22:32.960><c> fuel</c><00:22:33.200><c> with</c><00:22:33.440><c> you</c><00:22:33.679><c> is</c><00:22:34.080><c> not</c>

21:12.594 --> 21:12.604 align:start position:0%
Carrying chemical fuel with you is not
 

21:12.604 --> 21:14.674 align:start position:0%
Carrying chemical fuel with you is not
an<00:22:34.559><c> ideal</c><00:22:34.960><c> solution</c><00:22:35.679><c> as</c><00:22:35.919><c> you</c><00:22:36.080><c> will</c><00:22:36.240><c> quickly</c>

21:14.674 --> 21:14.684 align:start position:0%
an ideal solution as you will quickly
 

21:14.684 --> 21:16.353 align:start position:0%
an ideal solution as you will quickly
run<00:22:36.720><c> out</c><00:22:36.880><c> of</c><00:22:36.960><c> fuel</c><00:22:37.200><c> without</c><00:22:37.600><c> getting</c><00:22:37.919><c> much</c>

21:16.353 --> 21:16.363 align:start position:0%
run out of fuel without getting much
 

21:16.363 --> 21:19.074 align:start position:0%
run out of fuel without getting much
acceleration.<00:22:39.520><c> And</c><00:22:39.840><c> electrical</c><00:22:40.320><c> thrusters</c>

21:19.074 --> 21:19.084 align:start position:0%
acceleration. And electrical thrusters
 

21:19.084 --> 21:22.034 align:start position:0%
acceleration. And electrical thrusters
will<00:22:41.200><c> also</c><00:22:41.600><c> struggle</c><00:22:42.320><c> as</c><00:22:42.720><c> solar</c><00:22:43.200><c> panels</c><00:22:43.600><c> drop</c>

21:22.034 --> 21:22.044 align:start position:0%
will also struggle as solar panels drop
 

21:22.044 --> 21:23.873 align:start position:0%
will also struggle as solar panels drop
in<00:22:44.080><c> effectiveness</c><00:22:44.640><c> the</c><00:22:44.880><c> further</c><00:22:45.120><c> from</c><00:22:45.280><c> a</c><00:22:45.440><c> star</c>

21:23.873 --> 21:23.883 align:start position:0%
in effectiveness the further from a star
 

21:23.883 --> 21:26.753 align:start position:0%
in effectiveness the further from a star
you<00:22:45.840><c> travel.</c><00:22:46.640><c> In</c><00:22:46.960><c> our</c><00:22:47.200><c> own</c><00:22:47.440><c> solar</c><00:22:47.840><c> system,</c><00:22:48.320><c> the</c>

21:26.753 --> 21:26.763 align:start position:0%
you travel. In our own solar system, the
 

21:26.763 --> 21:28.594 align:start position:0%
you travel. In our own solar system, the
furthest<00:22:48.880><c> out</c><00:22:49.120><c> missions</c><00:22:49.520><c> can</c><00:22:49.760><c> realistically</c>

21:28.594 --> 21:28.604 align:start position:0%
furthest out missions can realistically
 

21:28.604 --> 21:31.314 align:start position:0%
furthest out missions can realistically
use<00:22:50.640><c> solar</c><00:22:50.960><c> panels</c><00:22:51.360><c> is</c><00:22:51.600><c> Jupiter.</c><00:22:52.559><c> And</c><00:22:52.799><c> even</c>

21:31.314 --> 21:31.324 align:start position:0%
use solar panels is Jupiter. And even
 

21:31.324 --> 21:33.233 align:start position:0%
use solar panels is Jupiter. And even
there,<00:22:53.760><c> the</c><00:22:53.919><c> missions</c><00:22:54.240><c> that</c><00:22:54.480><c> try</c><00:22:54.720><c> that</c>

21:33.233 --> 21:33.243 align:start position:0%
there, the missions that try that
 

21:33.243 --> 21:36.034 align:start position:0%
there, the missions that try that
approach,<00:22:55.440><c> such</c><00:22:55.679><c> as</c><00:22:55.919><c> Juno,</c><00:22:56.799><c> have</c><00:22:56.960><c> to</c><00:22:57.200><c> have</c>

21:36.034 --> 21:36.044 align:start position:0%
approach, such as Juno, have to have
 

21:36.044 --> 21:39.634 align:start position:0%
approach, such as Juno, have to have
massive<00:22:58.400><c> solar</c><00:22:58.799><c> panels</c><00:22:59.520><c> and</c><00:22:59.840><c> accept</c><00:23:00.480><c> 25</c><00:23:01.039><c> times</c>

21:39.634 --> 21:39.644 align:start position:0%
massive solar panels and accept 25 times
 

21:39.644 --> 21:42.113 align:start position:0%
massive solar panels and accept 25 times
less<00:23:01.760><c> light</c><00:23:02.000><c> than</c><00:23:02.240><c> we</c><00:23:02.400><c> see</c><00:23:02.559><c> on</c><00:23:02.720><c> Earth.</c><00:23:03.679><c> In</c>

21:42.113 --> 21:42.123 align:start position:0%
less light than we see on Earth. In
 

21:42.123 --> 21:44.993 align:start position:0%
less light than we see on Earth. In
interstellar<00:23:04.559><c> space,</c><00:23:05.280><c> solar</c><00:23:05.679><c> panels</c><00:23:06.400><c> just</c>

21:44.993 --> 21:45.003 align:start position:0%
interstellar space, solar panels just
 

21:45.003 --> 21:48.113 align:start position:0%
interstellar space, solar panels just
wouldn't<00:23:07.360><c> work.</c><00:23:08.720><c> But</c><00:23:08.880><c> what</c><00:23:09.120><c> if</c><00:23:09.280><c> you</c><00:23:09.440><c> could</c><00:23:09.679><c> get</c>

21:48.113 --> 21:48.123 align:start position:0%
wouldn't work. But what if you could get
 

21:48.123 --> 21:51.314 align:start position:0%
wouldn't work. But what if you could get
energy<00:23:10.400><c> to</c><00:23:10.720><c> order?</c><00:23:11.840><c> Then</c><00:23:12.159><c> you</c><00:23:12.320><c> could</c><00:23:12.559><c> use</c><00:23:12.880><c> an</c>

21:51.314 --> 21:51.324 align:start position:0%
energy to order? Then you could use an
 

21:51.324 --> 21:53.394 align:start position:0%
energy to order? Then you could use an
efficient<00:23:13.760><c> electrical</c><00:23:14.480><c> engine</c><00:23:14.960><c> and</c>

21:53.394 --> 21:53.404 align:start position:0%
efficient electrical engine and
 

21:53.404 --> 21:55.233 align:start position:0%
efficient electrical engine and
accelerate<00:23:15.760><c> much</c><00:23:16.159><c> longer</c><00:23:16.559><c> after</c><00:23:16.880><c> the</c>

21:55.233 --> 21:55.243 align:start position:0%
accelerate much longer after the
 

21:55.243 --> 21:57.154 align:start position:0%
accelerate much longer after the
sunlight<00:23:17.440><c> ran</c><00:23:17.760><c> out.</c><00:23:18.400><c> Which</c><00:23:18.559><c> is</c><00:23:18.720><c> why</c>

21:57.154 --> 21:57.164 align:start position:0%
sunlight ran out. Which is why
 

21:57.164 --> 21:59.233 align:start position:0%
sunlight ran out. Which is why
scientists<00:23:19.440><c> have</c><00:23:19.760><c> started</c><00:23:20.159><c> considering</c>

21:59.233 --> 21:59.243 align:start position:0%
scientists have started considering
 

21:59.243 --> 22:02.993 align:start position:0%
scientists have started considering
beaming.<00:23:22.320><c> By</c><00:23:22.720><c> putting</c><00:23:23.039><c> a</c><00:23:23.360><c> large</c><00:23:23.919><c> laser</c><00:23:24.480><c> on</c>

22:02.993 --> 22:03.003 align:start position:0%
beaming. By putting a large laser on
 

22:03.003 --> 22:05.233 align:start position:0%
beaming. By putting a large laser on
Earth<00:23:25.039><c> or</c><00:23:25.360><c> in</c><00:23:25.600><c> Earth's</c><00:23:25.919><c> orbit,</c><00:23:26.640><c> you</c><00:23:26.799><c> could</c>

22:05.233 --> 22:05.243 align:start position:0%
Earth or in Earth's orbit, you could
 

22:05.243 --> 22:07.954 align:start position:0%
Earth or in Earth's orbit, you could
send<00:23:27.280><c> a</c><00:23:27.600><c> stream</c><00:23:28.000><c> of</c><00:23:28.240><c> photons</c><00:23:28.880><c> directly</c><00:23:29.360><c> to</c><00:23:29.600><c> a</c>

22:07.954 --> 22:07.964 align:start position:0%
send a stream of photons directly to a
 

22:07.964 --> 22:10.353 align:start position:0%
send a stream of photons directly to a
receiver<00:23:30.159><c> on</c><00:23:30.400><c> the</c><00:23:30.559><c> spacecraft,</c><00:23:31.440><c> energizing</c>

22:10.353 --> 22:10.363 align:start position:0%
receiver on the spacecraft, energizing
 

22:10.363 --> 22:12.753 align:start position:0%
receiver on the spacecraft, energizing
it<00:23:32.480><c> as</c><00:23:32.720><c> it</c><00:23:32.960><c> traveled.</c><00:23:33.919><c> Or</c><00:23:34.080><c> you</c><00:23:34.240><c> could</c><00:23:34.400><c> use</c>

22:12.753 --> 22:12.763 align:start position:0%
it as it traveled. Or you could use
 

22:12.763 --> 22:14.834 align:start position:0%
it as it traveled. Or you could use
electrons<00:23:35.280><c> accelerated</c><00:23:35.919><c> to</c><00:23:36.080><c> near</c><00:23:36.320><c> light</c>

22:14.834 --> 22:14.844 align:start position:0%
electrons accelerated to near light
 

22:14.844 --> 22:17.154 align:start position:0%
electrons accelerated to near light
speeds<00:23:36.960><c> to</c><00:23:37.120><c> do</c><00:23:37.200><c> a</c><00:23:37.360><c> similar</c><00:23:37.679><c> thing.</c><00:23:38.559><c> Or</c><00:23:38.799><c> you</c>

22:17.154 --> 22:17.164 align:start position:0%
speeds to do a similar thing. Or you
 

22:17.164 --> 22:19.074 align:start position:0%
speeds to do a similar thing. Or you
could<00:23:39.120><c> put</c><00:23:39.280><c> a</c><00:23:39.440><c> solar</c><00:23:39.760><c> sail</c><00:23:40.000><c> on</c><00:23:40.159><c> the</c><00:23:40.320><c> spacecraft</c>

22:19.074 --> 22:19.084 align:start position:0%
could put a solar sail on the spacecraft
 

22:19.084 --> 22:21.394 align:start position:0%
could put a solar sail on the spacecraft
and<00:23:41.120><c> rely</c><00:23:41.440><c> on</c><00:23:41.600><c> the</c><00:23:41.840><c> momentum</c><00:23:42.240><c> of</c><00:23:42.400><c> the</c><00:23:42.559><c> beam</c><00:23:42.960><c> to</c>

22:21.394 --> 22:21.404 align:start position:0%
and rely on the momentum of the beam to
 

22:21.404 --> 22:24.993 align:start position:0%
and rely on the momentum of the beam to
give<00:23:43.440><c> the</c><00:23:43.679><c> craft</c><00:23:44.080><c> a</c><00:23:44.320><c> constant</c><00:23:44.799><c> push.</c><00:23:46.000><c> A</c><00:23:46.240><c> duo</c><00:23:46.559><c> of</c>

22:24.993 --> 22:25.003 align:start position:0%
give the craft a constant push. A duo of
 

22:25.003 --> 22:28.914 align:start position:0%
give the craft a constant push. A duo of
researchers<00:23:47.679><c> Jeffrey</c><00:23:48.159><c> Greon</c><00:23:48.720><c> and</c><00:23:49.200><c> Kerit</c><00:23:49.679><c> Rukh</c>

22:28.914 --> 22:28.924 align:start position:0%
researchers Jeffrey Greon and Kerit Rukh
 

22:28.924 --> 22:30.594 align:start position:0%
researchers Jeffrey Greon and Kerit Rukh
published<00:23:51.120><c> in</c><00:23:51.280><c> the</c><00:23:51.440><c> journal</c><00:23:51.919><c> Actctor</c>

22:30.594 --> 22:30.604 align:start position:0%
published in the journal Actctor
 

22:30.604 --> 22:33.954 align:start position:0%
published in the journal Actctor
Astronautica<00:23:53.760><c> calculated</c><00:23:54.240><c> in</c><00:23:54.480><c> 2024</c><00:23:55.200><c> that</c><00:23:55.520><c> a</c>

22:33.954 --> 22:33.964 align:start position:0%
Astronautica calculated in 2024 that a
 

22:33.964 --> 22:36.434 align:start position:0%
Astronautica calculated in 2024 that a
probe<00:23:56.080><c> the</c><00:23:56.320><c> size</c><00:23:56.640><c> of</c><00:23:56.799><c> Voyager</c><00:23:57.679><c> pushed</c><00:23:58.000><c> and</c>

22:36.434 --> 22:36.444 align:start position:0%
probe the size of Voyager pushed and
 

22:36.444 --> 22:38.993 align:start position:0%
probe the size of Voyager pushed and
energized<00:23:58.799><c> by</c><00:23:59.039><c> an</c><00:23:59.360><c> electron</c><00:23:59.760><c> beam</c><00:24:00.480><c> could</c>

22:38.993 --> 22:39.003 align:start position:0%
energized by an electron beam could
 

22:39.003 --> 22:42.674 align:start position:0%
energized by an electron beam could
reach<00:24:01.440><c> 10%</c><00:24:02.559><c> the</c><00:24:02.880><c> speed</c><00:24:03.120><c> of</c><00:24:03.280><c> light.</c><00:24:04.000><c> That</c><00:24:04.240><c> would</c>

22:42.674 --> 22:42.684 align:start position:0%
reach 10% the speed of light. That would
 

22:42.684 --> 22:45.634 align:start position:0%
reach 10% the speed of light. That would
cut<00:24:04.640><c> the</c><00:24:04.880><c> travel</c><00:24:05.200><c> time</c><00:24:05.520><c> down</c><00:24:05.840><c> from</c><00:24:06.400><c> 81,000</c>

22:45.634 --> 22:45.644 align:start position:0%
cut the travel time down from 81,000
 

22:45.644 --> 22:48.993 align:start position:0%
cut the travel time down from 81,000
years<00:24:07.840><c> to</c><00:24:08.159><c> a</c><00:24:08.320><c> far</c><00:24:08.559><c> more</c><00:24:08.799><c> reasonable</c><00:24:09.600><c> 40.</c>

22:48.993 --> 22:49.003 align:start position:0%
years to a far more reasonable 40.
 

22:49.003 --> 22:51.473 align:start position:0%
years to a far more reasonable 40.
Suddenly,<00:24:11.360><c> getting</c><00:24:11.679><c> humans</c><00:24:12.080><c> to</c><00:24:12.320><c> other</c><00:24:12.640><c> stars</c>

22:51.473 --> 22:51.483 align:start position:0%
Suddenly, getting humans to other stars
 

22:51.483 --> 22:54.594 align:start position:0%
Suddenly, getting humans to other stars
becomes<00:24:13.919><c> much</c><00:24:14.320><c> more</c><00:24:14.559><c> feasible.</c><00:24:16.000><c> But</c><00:24:16.159><c> of</c>

22:54.594 --> 22:54.604 align:start position:0%
becomes much more feasible. But of
 

22:54.604 --> 22:56.434 align:start position:0%
becomes much more feasible. But of
course,<00:24:16.720><c> there</c><00:24:16.960><c> are</c><00:24:17.200><c> a</c><00:24:17.440><c> few</c><00:24:17.600><c> challenges</c><00:24:18.000><c> to</c>

22:56.434 --> 22:56.444 align:start position:0%
course, there are a few challenges to
 

22:56.444 --> 22:58.993 align:start position:0%
course, there are a few challenges to
overcome<00:24:18.720><c> here,</c><00:24:19.039><c> too.</c><00:24:19.840><c> How</c><00:24:20.080><c> do</c><00:24:20.159><c> you</c><00:24:20.320><c> stop</c><00:24:20.640><c> the</c>

22:58.993 --> 22:59.003 align:start position:0%
overcome here, too. How do you stop the
 

22:59.003 --> 23:01.473 align:start position:0%
overcome here, too. How do you stop the
beam<00:24:21.120><c> from</c><00:24:21.360><c> spreading</c><00:24:21.760><c> out</c><00:24:21.919><c> as</c><00:24:22.159><c> it</c><00:24:22.320><c> travels?</c>

23:01.473 --> 23:01.483 align:start position:0%
beam from spreading out as it travels?
 

23:01.483 --> 23:03.233 align:start position:0%
beam from spreading out as it travels?
How<00:24:23.440><c> do</c><00:24:23.600><c> you</c><00:24:23.760><c> make</c><00:24:23.919><c> sure</c><00:24:24.240><c> your</c><00:24:24.559><c> spacecraft</c>

23:03.233 --> 23:03.243 align:start position:0%
How do you make sure your spacecraft
 

23:03.243 --> 23:05.554 align:start position:0%
How do you make sure your spacecraft
doesn't<00:24:25.360><c> melt</c><00:24:25.840><c> as</c><00:24:26.080><c> it's</c><00:24:26.320><c> constantly</c><00:24:26.880><c> blasted</c>

23:05.554 --> 23:05.564 align:start position:0%
doesn't melt as it's constantly blasted
 

23:05.564 --> 23:07.954 align:start position:0%
doesn't melt as it's constantly blasted
by<00:24:27.520><c> a</c><00:24:27.760><c> giant</c><00:24:28.080><c> laser?</c><00:24:28.960><c> How</c><00:24:29.120><c> do</c><00:24:29.279><c> you</c><00:24:29.360><c> keep</c><00:24:29.520><c> the</c>

23:07.954 --> 23:07.964 align:start position:0%
by a giant laser? How do you keep the
 

23:07.964 --> 23:10.353 align:start position:0%
by a giant laser? How do you keep the
laser<00:24:30.159><c> pointed</c><00:24:30.720><c> exactly</c><00:24:31.200><c> at</c><00:24:31.440><c> the</c><00:24:31.600><c> spacecraft</c>

23:10.353 --> 23:10.363 align:start position:0%
laser pointed exactly at the spacecraft
 

23:10.363 --> 23:12.113 align:start position:0%
laser pointed exactly at the spacecraft
that's<00:24:32.480><c> traveling</c><00:24:32.880><c> further</c><00:24:33.279><c> and</c><00:24:33.520><c> further</c>

23:12.113 --> 23:12.123 align:start position:0%
that's traveling further and further
 

23:12.123 --> 23:15.473 align:start position:0%
that's traveling further and further
away?<00:24:34.960><c> But</c><00:24:35.600><c> these</c><00:24:36.000><c> feel</c><00:24:36.240><c> like</c><00:24:36.559><c> solvable</c>

23:15.473 --> 23:15.483 align:start position:0%
away? But these feel like solvable
 

23:15.483 --> 23:17.233 align:start position:0%
away? But these feel like solvable
engineering<00:24:37.919><c> questions</c><00:24:38.400><c> rather</c><00:24:38.720><c> than</c>

23:17.233 --> 23:17.243 align:start position:0%
engineering questions rather than
 

23:17.243 --> 23:20.034 align:start position:0%
engineering questions rather than
hypothetical<00:24:39.840><c> physics</c><00:24:40.240><c> ones.</c><00:24:41.200><c> There</c><00:24:41.440><c> was</c><00:24:41.600><c> a</c>

23:20.034 --> 23:20.044 align:start position:0%
hypothetical physics ones. There was a
 

23:20.044 --> 23:21.794 align:start position:0%
hypothetical physics ones. There was a
project<00:24:42.080><c> back</c><00:24:42.320><c> in</c><00:24:42.559><c> 2016</c><00:24:43.200><c> called</c><00:24:43.360><c> the</c>

23:21.794 --> 23:21.804 align:start position:0%
project back in 2016 called the
 

23:21.804 --> 23:24.034 align:start position:0%
project back in 2016 called the
breakthrough<00:24:44.159><c> star</c><00:24:44.720><c> project</c><00:24:45.360><c> that</c><00:24:45.600><c> even</c>

23:24.034 --> 23:24.044 align:start position:0%
breakthrough star project that even
 

23:24.044 --> 23:26.753 align:start position:0%
breakthrough star project that even
aimed<00:24:46.240><c> to</c><00:24:46.400><c> implement</c><00:24:46.880><c> this</c><00:24:47.200><c> technology.</c><00:24:48.320><c> It</c>

23:26.753 --> 23:26.763 align:start position:0%
aimed to implement this technology. It
 

23:26.763 --> 23:29.233 align:start position:0%
aimed to implement this technology. It
would<00:24:48.720><c> use</c><00:24:48.960><c> a</c><00:24:49.200><c> groundbased</c><00:24:49.919><c> laser</c><00:24:50.320><c> array</c><00:24:51.039><c> at</c>

23:29.233 --> 23:29.243 align:start position:0%
would use a groundbased laser array at
 

23:29.243 --> 23:32.353 align:start position:0%
would use a groundbased laser array at
least<00:24:51.360><c> a</c><00:24:51.520><c> kilometer</c><00:24:52.000><c> across</c><00:24:52.799><c> to</c><00:24:53.039><c> send</c><00:24:53.200><c> a</c><00:24:53.520><c> tiny</c>

23:32.353 --> 23:32.363 align:start position:0%
least a kilometer across to send a tiny
 

23:32.363 --> 23:34.834 align:start position:0%
least a kilometer across to send a tiny
star<00:24:54.480><c> chip</c><00:24:54.880><c> into</c><00:24:55.120><c> interstellar</c><00:24:55.760><c> space.</c>

23:34.834 --> 23:34.844 align:start position:0%
star chip into interstellar space.
 

23:34.844 --> 23:37.074 align:start position:0%
star chip into interstellar space.
Sadly,<00:24:57.120><c> the</c><00:24:57.279><c> project</c><00:24:57.600><c> peted</c><00:24:58.000><c> out</c><00:24:58.159><c> due</c><00:24:58.400><c> to</c><00:24:58.559><c> the</c>

23:37.074 --> 23:37.084 align:start position:0%
Sadly, the project peted out due to the
 

23:37.084 --> 23:39.473 align:start position:0%
Sadly, the project peted out due to the
daunting<00:24:59.440><c> costs</c><00:24:59.840><c> involved.</c><00:25:00.720><c> But</c><00:25:00.799><c> it</c><00:25:01.039><c> showed</c>

23:39.473 --> 23:39.483 align:start position:0%
daunting costs involved. But it showed
 

23:39.483 --> 23:41.394 align:start position:0%
daunting costs involved. But it showed
that<00:25:01.440><c> the</c><00:25:01.679><c> idea</c><00:25:02.080><c> is</c><00:25:02.400><c> much</c><00:25:02.720><c> closer</c><00:25:03.039><c> to</c>

23:41.394 --> 23:41.404 align:start position:0%
that the idea is much closer to
 

23:41.404 --> 23:43.794 align:start position:0%
that the idea is much closer to
realization<00:25:03.840><c> than</c><00:25:04.080><c> warp</c><00:25:04.480><c> drives.</c><00:25:05.279><c> According</c>

23:43.794 --> 23:43.804 align:start position:0%
realization than warp drives. According
 

23:43.804 --> 23:46.274 align:start position:0%
realization than warp drives. According
to<00:25:05.760><c> some</c><00:25:06.080><c> engineers</c><00:25:06.480><c> and</c><00:25:06.720><c> researchers,</c><00:25:07.600><c> if</c><00:25:07.840><c> we</c>

23:46.274 --> 23:46.284 align:start position:0%
to some engineers and researchers, if we
 

23:46.284 --> 23:48.034 align:start position:0%
to some engineers and researchers, if we
were<00:25:08.240><c> willing</c><00:25:08.480><c> to</c><00:25:08.640><c> spend</c><00:25:08.960><c> the</c><00:25:09.120><c> money,</c><00:25:09.600><c> we</c>

23:48.034 --> 23:48.044 align:start position:0%
were willing to spend the money, we
 

23:48.044 --> 23:52.914 align:start position:0%
were willing to spend the money, we
could<00:25:10.000><c> cut</c><00:25:10.240><c> trips</c><00:25:10.559><c> to</c><00:25:10.799><c> Mars</c><00:25:11.440><c> down</c><00:25:11.760><c> to</c><00:25:12.159><c> 45</c><00:25:12.960><c> days.</c>

23:52.914 --> 23:52.924 align:start position:0%
could cut trips to Mars down to 45 days.
 

23:52.924 --> 23:55.873 align:start position:0%
could cut trips to Mars down to 45 days.
So<00:25:15.520><c> whether</c><00:25:15.919><c> by</c><00:25:16.240><c> solar</c><00:25:16.640><c> sail,</c><00:25:17.200><c> electric</c>

23:55.873 --> 23:55.883 align:start position:0%
So whether by solar sail, electric
 

23:55.883 --> 23:59.233 align:start position:0%
So whether by solar sail, electric
field,<00:25:18.240><c> nuclear</c><00:25:18.720><c> power,</c><00:25:19.200><c> or</c><00:25:19.600><c> laser</c><00:25:20.000><c> beam,</c><00:25:20.720><c> or</c>

23:59.233 --> 23:59.243 align:start position:0%
field, nuclear power, or laser beam, or
 

23:59.243 --> 24:02.113 align:start position:0%
field, nuclear power, or laser beam, or
maybe<00:25:21.440><c> even</c><00:25:21.840><c> a</c><00:25:22.000><c> warp</c><00:25:22.320><c> drive,</c><00:25:23.120><c> humanity</c><00:25:23.600><c> is</c>

24:02.113 --> 24:02.123 align:start position:0%
maybe even a warp drive, humanity is
 

24:02.123 --> 24:04.353 align:start position:0%
maybe even a warp drive, humanity is
exploring<00:25:24.720><c> many</c><00:25:25.039><c> ways</c><00:25:25.279><c> to</c><00:25:25.520><c> get</c><00:25:25.679><c> around</c><00:25:25.919><c> in</c>

24:04.353 --> 24:04.363 align:start position:0%
exploring many ways to get around in
 

24:04.363 --> 24:06.834 align:start position:0%
exploring many ways to get around in
space.<00:25:27.039><c> And</c><00:25:27.360><c> once</c><00:25:27.760><c> out</c><00:25:28.000><c> of</c><00:25:28.080><c> a</c><00:25:28.240><c> planet's</c>

24:06.834 --> 24:06.844 align:start position:0%
space. And once out of a planet's
 

24:06.844 --> 24:09.554 align:start position:0%
space. And once out of a planet's
gravity<00:25:29.120><c> well,</c><00:25:29.679><c> the</c><00:25:29.919><c> vast</c><00:25:30.400><c> empty</c><00:25:30.720><c> distances</c>

24:09.554 --> 24:09.564 align:start position:0%
gravity well, the vast empty distances
 

24:09.564 --> 24:12.353 align:start position:0%
gravity well, the vast empty distances
we<00:25:31.600><c> aim</c><00:25:31.840><c> to</c><00:25:32.000><c> traverse</c><00:25:32.799><c> require</c><00:25:33.600><c> unique</c>

24:12.353 --> 24:12.363 align:start position:0%
we aim to traverse require unique
 

24:12.363 --> 24:15.154 align:start position:0%
we aim to traverse require unique
approaches<00:25:35.200><c> and</c><00:25:35.440><c> unconventional</c><00:25:36.320><c> technology</c>

24:15.154 --> 24:15.164 align:start position:0%
approaches and unconventional technology
 

24:15.164 --> 24:17.074 align:start position:0%
approaches and unconventional technology
if<00:25:37.120><c> we</c><00:25:37.279><c> want</c><00:25:37.360><c> to</c><00:25:37.520><c> live</c><00:25:37.760><c> long</c><00:25:38.000><c> enough</c><00:25:38.320><c> to</c><00:25:38.559><c> see</c>

24:17.074 --> 24:17.084 align:start position:0%
if we want to live long enough to see
 

24:17.084 --> 24:19.554 align:start position:0%
if we want to live long enough to see
our<00:25:39.120><c> destinations.</c><00:25:40.559><c> But</c><00:25:40.799><c> it's</c><00:25:41.039><c> so</c>

24:19.554 --> 24:19.564 align:start position:0%
our destinations. But it's so
 

24:19.564 --> 24:21.394 align:start position:0%
our destinations. But it's so
fascinating<00:25:42.000><c> living</c><00:25:42.320><c> in</c><00:25:42.480><c> what</c><00:25:42.720><c> feels</c><00:25:43.039><c> like</c>

24:21.394 --> 24:21.404 align:start position:0%
fascinating living in what feels like
 

24:21.404 --> 24:24.674 align:start position:0%
fascinating living in what feels like
the<00:25:43.440><c> dawn</c><00:25:43.840><c> of</c><00:25:44.000><c> a</c><00:25:44.159><c> new</c><00:25:44.320><c> age</c><00:25:45.039><c> where</c><00:25:45.679><c> this</c><00:25:46.000><c> subject</c>

24:24.674 --> 24:24.684 align:start position:0%
the dawn of a new age where this subject
 

24:24.684 --> 24:26.914 align:start position:0%
the dawn of a new age where this subject
isn't<00:25:46.880><c> just</c><00:25:47.039><c> science</c><00:25:47.360><c> fiction</c><00:25:47.679><c> anymore,</c><00:25:48.400><c> but</c>

24:26.914 --> 24:26.924 align:start position:0%
isn't just science fiction anymore, but
 

24:26.924 --> 24:29.394 align:start position:0%
isn't just science fiction anymore, but
humanity<00:25:49.360><c> really</c><00:25:49.679><c> feels</c><00:25:50.000><c> like</c><00:25:50.240><c> it</c><00:25:50.480><c> could</c><00:25:50.720><c> soon</c>

24:29.394 --> 24:29.404 align:start position:0%
humanity really feels like it could soon
 

24:29.404 --> 24:32.034 align:start position:0%
humanity really feels like it could soon
be<00:25:51.440><c> leaving</c><00:25:51.840><c> the</c><00:25:52.080><c> cradle</c><00:25:52.559><c> of</c><00:25:52.799><c> Earth</c><00:25:53.360><c> to</c><00:25:53.600><c> reach</c>

24:32.034 --> 24:32.044 align:start position:0%
be leaving the cradle of Earth to reach
 

24:32.044 --> 24:34.993 align:start position:0%
be leaving the cradle of Earth to reach
for<00:25:54.000><c> the</c><00:25:54.159><c> stars.</c><00:25:55.279><c> After</c><00:25:55.600><c> all,</c><00:25:56.240><c> staying</c><00:25:56.640><c> at</c>

24:34.993 --> 24:35.003 align:start position:0%
for the stars. After all, staying at
 

24:35.003 --> 24:38.034 align:start position:0%
for the stars. After all, staying at
home<00:25:57.039><c> would</c><00:25:57.360><c> be</c><00:25:57.600><c> accepting</c><00:25:58.080><c> a</c><00:25:58.400><c> limit.</c><00:25:59.360><c> And</c><00:25:59.600><c> as</c>

24:38.034 --> 24:38.044 align:start position:0%
home would be accepting a limit. And as
 

24:38.044 --> 24:44.834 align:start position:0%
home would be accepting a limit. And as
we<00:26:00.080><c> know,</c><00:26:00.960><c> humans</c><00:26:01.520><c> don't</c><00:26:01.840><c> do</c><00:26:02.080><c> limitations.</c>

24:39.219 --> 24:39.229 align:start position:0%
you're on the list and ready to send in
 

24:39.229 --> 24:42.789 align:start position:0%
you're on the list and ready to send in
your<00:26:39.760><c> first</c><00:26:40.080><c> question.</c>