WEBVTT

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When<00:00:01.680><c> a</c><00:00:01.839><c> private</c><00:00:02.159><c> eye</c><00:00:02.399><c> in</c><00:00:02.560><c> a</c><00:00:02.800><c> rain</c><00:00:03.200><c> hammered</c>

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When a private eye in a rain hammered
 

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When a private eye in a rain hammered
city<00:00:03.919><c> wants</c><00:00:04.160><c> to</c><00:00:04.400><c> unravel</c><00:00:04.960><c> a</c><00:00:05.200><c> web</c><00:00:05.440><c> of</c><00:00:05.680><c> crime</c><00:00:06.000><c> and</c>

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city wants to unravel a web of crime and
 

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city wants to unravel a web of crime and
corruption,<00:00:07.200><c> they</c><00:00:07.440><c> often</c><00:00:07.839><c> have</c><00:00:08.240><c> one</c><00:00:08.639><c> mantra.</c>

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corruption, they often have one mantra.
 

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corruption, they often have one mantra.
Follow<00:00:10.559><c> the</c><00:00:10.880><c> money.</c><00:00:12.000><c> In</c><00:00:12.240><c> a</c><00:00:12.400><c> trail</c><00:00:12.719><c> of</c><00:00:13.040><c> dollar</c>

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Follow the money. In a trail of dollar
 

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Follow the money. In a trail of dollar
signs,<00:00:14.160><c> ones,</c><00:00:14.639><c> and</c><00:00:15.040><c> zeros,</c><00:00:15.920><c> provided</c><00:00:16.400><c> they</c>

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signs, ones, and zeros, provided they
 

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signs, ones, and zeros, provided they
are<00:00:16.800><c> dogged</c><00:00:17.279><c> enough,</c><00:00:17.760><c> they</c><00:00:18.160><c> usually</c><00:00:18.640><c> find</c><00:00:18.800><c> the</c>

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are dogged enough, they usually find the
 

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are dogged enough, they usually find the
perpetrator.

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perpetrator.
 

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perpetrator.
When<00:00:20.800><c> it</c><00:00:20.960><c> comes</c><00:00:21.119><c> to</c><00:00:21.279><c> the</c><00:00:21.439><c> planet</c><00:00:21.760><c> Mars,</c>

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When it comes to the planet Mars,
 

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When it comes to the planet Mars,
scientists<00:00:23.359><c> have</c><00:00:23.600><c> a</c><00:00:23.840><c> different</c><00:00:24.160><c> mantra.</c>

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scientists have a different mantra.
 

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scientists have a different mantra.
Follow<00:00:25.600><c> the</c><00:00:26.080><c> water.</c><00:00:27.279><c> The</c><00:00:27.519><c> case</c><00:00:27.760><c> they're</c>

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Follow the water. The case they're
 

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Follow the water. The case they're
trying<00:00:28.240><c> to</c><00:00:28.400><c> crack</c><00:00:28.640><c> is</c><00:00:28.800><c> one</c><00:00:28.960><c> of</c><00:00:29.039><c> the</c><00:00:29.199><c> coldest</c>

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trying to crack is one of the coldest
 

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trying to crack is one of the coldest
cases<00:00:30.160><c> on</c><00:00:30.400><c> the</c><00:00:30.560><c> books.</c><00:00:31.199><c> One</c><00:00:31.439><c> that</c><00:00:31.679><c> has</c><00:00:32.000><c> baffled</c>

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cases on the books. One that has baffled
 

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cases on the books. One that has baffled
investigators<00:00:33.280><c> for</c><00:00:33.520><c> hundreds,</c><00:00:34.320><c> if</c><00:00:34.559><c> not</c>

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investigators for hundreds, if not
 

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investigators for hundreds, if not
thousands<00:00:35.360><c> of</c><00:00:35.600><c> years.</c><00:00:36.719><c> Did</c><00:00:37.280><c> life</c><00:00:37.920><c> ever</c><00:00:38.399><c> arise</c>

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thousands of years. Did life ever arise
 

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thousands of years. Did life ever arise
on<00:00:39.200><c> Mars?</c><00:00:40.160><c> And</c><00:00:40.399><c> like</c><00:00:40.719><c> all</c><00:00:41.040><c> good</c>

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on Mars? And like all good
 

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on Mars? And like all good
investigations,<00:00:42.559><c> it's</c><00:00:43.040><c> all</c><00:00:43.520><c> about</c>

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investigations, it's all about
 

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investigations, it's all about
collecting<00:00:44.320><c> the</c><00:00:44.559><c> right</c><00:00:44.800><c> evidence.</c><00:00:46.239><c> If</c><00:00:46.559><c> water</c>

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collecting the right evidence. If water
 

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collecting the right evidence. If water
did<00:00:47.440><c> once</c><00:00:47.760><c> flow</c><00:00:48.000><c> on</c><00:00:48.160><c> Mars,</c><00:00:48.879><c> signatures</c><00:00:49.440><c> of</c>

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did once flow on Mars, signatures of
 

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did once flow on Mars, signatures of
life<00:00:50.480><c> could</c><00:00:51.200><c> be</c><00:00:51.360><c> found</c><00:00:51.520><c> in</c><00:00:51.760><c> its</c><00:00:51.920><c> sediments.</c>

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life could be found in its sediments.
 

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life could be found in its sediments.
find<00:00:53.280><c> the</c><00:00:53.520><c> water,</c><00:00:54.399><c> potentially</c><00:00:55.280><c> find</c><00:00:55.600><c> signs</c>

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find the water, potentially find signs
 

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find the water, potentially find signs
of<00:00:56.160><c> life.</c><00:00:57.360><c> It's</c><00:00:57.600><c> a</c><00:00:57.760><c> good</c><00:00:57.840><c> thing</c><00:00:58.079><c> then</c><00:00:58.239><c> that</c>

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of life. It's a good thing then that
 

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of life. It's a good thing then that
science<00:00:58.960><c> has</c><00:00:59.280><c> set</c><00:00:59.440><c> to</c><00:00:59.680><c> work</c><00:01:00.000><c> detective</c><00:01:00.640><c> with</c>

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science has set to work detective with
 

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science has set to work detective with
steel<00:01:01.280><c> in</c><00:01:01.520><c> their</c><00:01:01.680><c> hearts</c><00:01:02.399><c> who</c><00:01:02.640><c> rarely</c><00:01:03.039><c> sleep</c>

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steel in their hearts who rarely sleep
 

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steel in their hearts who rarely sleep
and<00:01:04.000><c> whose</c><00:01:04.400><c> memories</c><00:01:04.879><c> are</c><00:01:05.280><c> literally</c>

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and whose memories are literally
 

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and whose memories are literally
photographic

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photographic
 

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photographic
rovers.<00:01:08.799><c> And</c><00:01:09.040><c> today</c><00:01:09.520><c> we're</c><00:01:09.760><c> going</c><00:01:09.920><c> to</c><00:01:10.080><c> look</c><00:01:10.320><c> at</c>

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rovers. And today we're going to look at
 

01:10.479 --> 01:13.750 align:start position:0%
rovers. And today we're going to look at
the<00:01:10.720><c> times</c><00:01:11.119><c> they</c><00:01:11.520><c> blew</c><00:01:11.920><c> this</c><00:01:12.320><c> water</c><00:01:12.720><c> case</c><00:01:13.200><c> wide</c>

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the times they blew this water case wide
 

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the times they blew this water case wide
open.

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open.
 

01:15.280 --> 01:17.109 align:start position:0%
open.
I'm<00:01:15.600><c> Alex</c><00:01:15.920><c> Mccoan</c><00:01:16.479><c> and</c><00:01:16.720><c> you're</c><00:01:16.880><c> watching</c>

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I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
 

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I'm Alex Mccoan and you're watching
Astramm.<00:01:18.080><c> Join</c><00:01:18.400><c> me</c><00:01:18.560><c> in</c><00:01:18.880><c> this</c><00:01:19.200><c> gritty</c><00:01:19.759><c> supercut</c>

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Astramm. Join me in this gritty supercut
 

01:20.560 --> 01:22.550 align:start position:0%
Astramm. Join me in this gritty supercut
because<00:01:21.200><c> Mars</c><00:01:21.520><c> is</c><00:01:21.680><c> covered</c><00:01:21.920><c> in</c><00:01:22.080><c> a</c><00:01:22.320><c> lot</c><00:01:22.400><c> of</c>

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because Mars is covered in a lot of
 

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because Mars is covered in a lot of
grit.<00:01:23.200><c> For</c><00:01:23.439><c> the</c><00:01:23.600><c> moments,</c><00:01:24.159><c> Mars</c><00:01:24.640><c> rovers</c><00:01:25.119><c> have</c>

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grit. For the moments, Mars rovers have
 

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grit. For the moments, Mars rovers have
proven<00:01:25.840><c> once</c><00:01:26.159><c> and</c><00:01:26.400><c> for</c><00:01:26.640><c> all</c><00:01:27.280><c> that</c><00:01:27.680><c> water</c><00:01:28.080><c> used</c>

01:28.310 --> 01:28.320 align:start position:0%
proven once and for all that water used
 

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proven once and for all that water used
to<00:01:28.479><c> flow</c><00:01:28.720><c> on</c><00:01:28.960><c> the</c><00:01:29.119><c> Martian</c><00:01:29.600><c> surface.</c><00:01:30.479><c> It's</c>

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to flow on the Martian surface. It's
 

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to flow on the Martian surface. It's
quite<00:01:31.280><c> the</c><00:01:31.520><c> story.</c><00:01:32.400><c> Just</c><00:01:32.960><c> don't</c><00:01:33.360><c> expect</c><00:01:33.680><c> a</c><00:01:34.240><c> fem</c>

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quite the story. Just don't expect a fem
 

01:34.640 --> 01:38.230 align:start position:0%
quite the story. Just don't expect a fem
fatal.

01:38.230 --> 01:38.240 align:start position:0%
 
 

01:38.240 --> 01:40.230 align:start position:0%
 
There<00:01:38.479><c> have</c><00:01:38.720><c> been</c><00:01:38.960><c> six</c><00:01:39.360><c> successful</c><00:01:39.920><c> rover</c>

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There have been six successful rover
 

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There have been six successful rover
missions<00:01:40.560><c> on</c><00:01:40.720><c> Mars,</c><00:01:41.520><c> but</c><00:01:41.759><c> of</c><00:01:42.000><c> those,</c><00:01:42.400><c> we're</c>

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missions on Mars, but of those, we're
 

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missions on Mars, but of those, we're
going<00:01:42.960><c> to</c><00:01:43.119><c> focus</c><00:01:43.520><c> on</c><00:01:44.000><c> three.</c><00:01:44.960><c> NASA's</c>

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going to focus on three. NASA's
 

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going to focus on three. NASA's
Opportunity<00:01:46.159><c> and</c><00:01:46.399><c> Perseverance</c><00:01:47.040><c> Rovers</c><00:01:47.920><c> and</c>

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Opportunity and Perseverance Rovers and
 

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Opportunity and Perseverance Rovers and
China's<00:01:49.040><c> Zurong.</c><00:01:50.320><c> So,</c><00:01:50.799><c> let's</c><00:01:51.119><c> take</c><00:01:51.280><c> a</c><00:01:51.439><c> closer</c>

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China's Zurong. So, let's take a closer
 

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China's Zurong. So, let's take a closer
look<00:01:52.000><c> at</c><00:01:52.320><c> the</c><00:01:52.640><c> first</c><00:01:52.880><c> of</c><00:01:53.119><c> our</c><00:01:53.360><c> three</c><00:01:53.680><c> rovers</c>

01:54.550 --> 01:54.560 align:start position:0%
look at the first of our three rovers
 

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look at the first of our three rovers
going<00:01:54.799><c> back</c><00:01:55.040><c> to</c><00:01:55.280><c> about</c><00:01:55.840><c> halfway</c><00:01:56.399><c> through</c><00:01:56.799><c> its</c>

01:57.109 --> 01:57.119 align:start position:0%
going back to about halfway through its
 

01:57.119 --> 01:59.990 align:start position:0%
going back to about halfway through its
mission.<00:01:58.240><c> The</c><00:01:58.560><c> date</c><00:01:58.799><c> is</c><00:01:59.040><c> the</c><00:01:59.360><c> 15th</c><00:01:59.840><c> of</c>

01:59.990 --> 02:00.000 align:start position:0%
mission. The date is the 15th of
 

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mission. The date is the 15th of
December,<00:02:00.719><c> 2010,</c><00:02:01.840><c> 2,449</c>

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December, 2010, 2,449
 

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December, 2010, 2,449
souls<00:02:04.079><c> into</c><00:02:04.320><c> Opportunity's</c><00:02:05.119><c> mission</c><00:02:05.600><c> to</c><00:02:05.840><c> find</c>

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souls into Opportunity's mission to find
 

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souls into Opportunity's mission to find
evidence<00:02:06.479><c> of</c><00:02:06.719><c> past</c><00:02:07.040><c> oceans</c><00:02:07.439><c> on</c><00:02:07.680><c> Mars.</c>

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evidence of past oceans on Mars.
 

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evidence of past oceans on Mars.
Up<00:02:09.759><c> until</c><00:02:10.000><c> this</c><00:02:10.239><c> point,</c><00:02:10.560><c> Opportunity</c><00:02:11.280><c> had</c>

02:11.510 --> 02:11.520 align:start position:0%
Up until this point, Opportunity had
 

02:11.520 --> 02:14.550 align:start position:0%
Up until this point, Opportunity had
traveled<00:02:11.920><c> over</c><00:02:12.319><c> 25</c><00:02:12.879><c> km,</c><00:02:13.840><c> investigating</c>

02:14.550 --> 02:14.560 align:start position:0%
traveled over 25 km, investigating
 

02:14.560 --> 02:17.510 align:start position:0%
traveled over 25 km, investigating
rocks,<00:02:15.440><c> craters,</c><00:02:16.080><c> and</c><00:02:16.319><c> bedrock</c><00:02:17.200><c> while</c>

02:17.510 --> 02:17.520 align:start position:0%
rocks, craters, and bedrock while
 

02:17.520 --> 02:20.470 align:start position:0%
rocks, craters, and bedrock while
traversing<00:02:18.080><c> sandjunes</c><00:02:18.720><c> and</c><00:02:18.879><c> plains.</c><00:02:20.239><c> The</c>

02:20.470 --> 02:20.480 align:start position:0%
traversing sandjunes and plains. The
 

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traversing sandjunes and plains. The
areas<00:02:20.800><c> it</c><00:02:21.040><c> had</c><00:02:21.200><c> explored</c><00:02:21.680><c> so</c><00:02:21.920><c> far</c><00:02:22.319><c> contained</c>

02:22.869 --> 02:22.879 align:start position:0%
areas it had explored so far contained
 

02:22.879 --> 02:24.869 align:start position:0%
areas it had explored so far contained
clues<00:02:23.200><c> that</c><00:02:23.520><c> suggested</c><00:02:23.920><c> that</c><00:02:24.160><c> these</c><00:02:24.400><c> areas</c>

02:24.869 --> 02:24.879 align:start position:0%
clues that suggested that these areas
 

02:24.879 --> 02:27.190 align:start position:0%
clues that suggested that these areas
were<00:02:25.120><c> regularly</c><00:02:25.680><c> flooded</c><00:02:26.080><c> by</c><00:02:26.319><c> water.</c>

02:27.190 --> 02:27.200 align:start position:0%
were regularly flooded by water.
 

02:27.200 --> 02:29.030 align:start position:0%
were regularly flooded by water.
Although<00:02:27.520><c> it</c><00:02:27.760><c> fell</c><00:02:28.080><c> short</c><00:02:28.319><c> of</c><00:02:28.560><c> confirming</c>

02:29.030 --> 02:29.040 align:start position:0%
Although it fell short of confirming
 

02:29.040 --> 02:30.790 align:start position:0%
Although it fell short of confirming
that<00:02:29.280><c> a</c><00:02:29.440><c> constant</c><00:02:29.840><c> body</c><00:02:30.080><c> of</c><00:02:30.319><c> water</c><00:02:30.560><c> was</c>

02:30.790 --> 02:30.800 align:start position:0%
that a constant body of water was
 

02:30.800 --> 02:32.790 align:start position:0%
that a constant body of water was
present<00:02:31.120><c> there,</c><00:02:31.520><c> like</c><00:02:31.680><c> an</c><00:02:31.920><c> ocean,</c>

02:32.790 --> 02:32.800 align:start position:0%
present there, like an ocean,
 

02:32.800 --> 02:34.790 align:start position:0%
present there, like an ocean,
Opportunity<00:02:33.440><c> was</c><00:02:33.680><c> now</c><00:02:34.080><c> looking</c><00:02:34.480><c> for</c>

02:34.790 --> 02:34.800 align:start position:0%
Opportunity was now looking for
 

02:34.800 --> 02:37.670 align:start position:0%
Opportunity was now looking for
something<00:02:35.360><c> more</c><00:02:35.920><c> definitive.</c>

02:37.670 --> 02:37.680 align:start position:0%
something more definitive.
 

02:37.680 --> 02:40.150 align:start position:0%
something more definitive.
Mars'<00:02:38.239><c> harsh</c><00:02:38.560><c> environment</c><00:02:39.120><c> had</c><00:02:39.440><c> also</c><00:02:39.840><c> started</c>

02:40.150 --> 02:40.160 align:start position:0%
Mars' harsh environment had also started
 

02:40.160 --> 02:42.550 align:start position:0%
Mars' harsh environment had also started
to<00:02:40.400><c> take</c><00:02:40.560><c> a</c><00:02:40.720><c> toll</c><00:02:40.959><c> on</c><00:02:41.200><c> Opportunity</c><00:02:42.080><c> with</c><00:02:42.319><c> some</c>

02:42.550 --> 02:42.560 align:start position:0%
to take a toll on Opportunity with some
 

02:42.560 --> 02:44.869 align:start position:0%
to take a toll on Opportunity with some
onboard<00:02:43.040><c> motors</c><00:02:43.440><c> failing,</c><00:02:44.239><c> meaning</c><00:02:44.560><c> it</c>

02:44.869 --> 02:44.879 align:start position:0%
onboard motors failing, meaning it
 

02:44.879 --> 02:46.710 align:start position:0%
onboard motors failing, meaning it
couldn't<00:02:45.120><c> stow</c><00:02:45.440><c> its</c><00:02:45.599><c> robotic</c><00:02:46.080><c> arm</c><00:02:46.400><c> away</c>

02:46.710 --> 02:46.720 align:start position:0%
couldn't stow its robotic arm away
 

02:46.720 --> 02:50.150 align:start position:0%
couldn't stow its robotic arm away
anymore.<00:02:48.080><c> Our</c><00:02:48.400><c> persevering</c><00:02:49.200><c> champion</c><00:02:49.840><c> had</c>

02:50.150 --> 02:50.160 align:start position:0%
anymore. Our persevering champion had
 

02:50.160 --> 02:52.949 align:start position:0%
anymore. Our persevering champion had
just<00:02:50.400><c> arrived</c><00:02:50.720><c> at</c><00:02:51.040><c> Santa</c><00:02:51.440><c> Maria</c><00:02:51.840><c> Crater.</c><00:02:52.800><c> But</c>

02:52.949 --> 02:52.959 align:start position:0%
just arrived at Santa Maria Crater. But
 

02:52.959 --> 02:54.869 align:start position:0%
just arrived at Santa Maria Crater. But
for<00:02:53.200><c> scientists,</c><00:02:53.920><c> the</c><00:02:54.239><c> most</c><00:02:54.400><c> exciting</c>

02:54.869 --> 02:54.879 align:start position:0%
for scientists, the most exciting
 

02:54.879 --> 02:56.869 align:start position:0%
for scientists, the most exciting
prospect<00:02:55.280><c> for</c><00:02:55.519><c> the</c><00:02:55.680><c> mission</c><00:02:55.920><c> was</c><00:02:56.239><c> finally</c><00:02:56.640><c> on</c>

02:56.869 --> 02:56.879 align:start position:0%
prospect for the mission was finally on
 

02:56.879 --> 03:00.710 align:start position:0%
prospect for the mission was finally on
the<00:02:57.040><c> horizon,</c><00:02:57.920><c> a</c><00:02:58.239><c> big</c><00:02:58.800><c> 22</c><00:02:59.280><c> km</c><00:02:59.760><c> crater</c><00:03:00.400><c> where</c>

03:00.710 --> 03:00.720 align:start position:0%
the horizon, a big 22 km crater where
 

03:00.720 --> 03:02.790 align:start position:0%
the horizon, a big 22 km crater where
clays<00:03:01.200><c> had</c><00:03:01.519><c> been</c><00:03:01.680><c> detected</c><00:03:02.159><c> by</c><00:03:02.319><c> the</c><00:03:02.480><c> Mars</c>

03:02.790 --> 03:02.800 align:start position:0%
clays had been detected by the Mars
 

03:02.800 --> 03:05.270 align:start position:0%
clays had been detected by the Mars
Reconnaissance<00:03:03.360><c> Orbiter.</c>

03:05.270 --> 03:05.280 align:start position:0%
Reconnaissance Orbiter.
 

03:05.280 --> 03:07.750 align:start position:0%
Reconnaissance Orbiter.
Clays<00:03:05.760><c> are</c><00:03:06.000><c> significant</c><00:03:06.959><c> because</c><00:03:07.280><c> they</c><00:03:07.519><c> are</c>

03:07.750 --> 03:07.760 align:start position:0%
Clays are significant because they are
 

03:07.760 --> 03:10.470 align:start position:0%
Clays are significant because they are
hydrated<00:03:08.400><c> minerals,</c><00:03:09.280><c> meaning</c><00:03:09.680><c> surface</c><00:03:10.159><c> water</c>

03:10.470 --> 03:10.480 align:start position:0%
hydrated minerals, meaning surface water
 

03:10.480 --> 03:12.149 align:start position:0%
hydrated minerals, meaning surface water
was<00:03:10.720><c> likely</c><00:03:11.040><c> to</c><00:03:11.200><c> have</c><00:03:11.360><c> pulled</c><00:03:11.680><c> there</c><00:03:11.920><c> for</c>

03:12.149 --> 03:12.159 align:start position:0%
was likely to have pulled there for
 

03:12.159 --> 03:14.869 align:start position:0%
was likely to have pulled there for
lengthy<00:03:12.640><c> periods</c><00:03:13.040><c> of</c><00:03:13.200><c> time.</c><00:03:14.159><c> After</c><00:03:14.480><c> spending</c>

03:14.869 --> 03:14.879 align:start position:0%
lengthy periods of time. After spending
 

03:14.879 --> 03:16.630 align:start position:0%
lengthy periods of time. After spending
three<00:03:15.200><c> fairly</c><00:03:15.519><c> uneventful</c><00:03:16.159><c> months</c><00:03:16.319><c> at</c><00:03:16.480><c> the</c>

03:16.630 --> 03:16.640 align:start position:0%
three fairly uneventful months at the
 

03:16.640 --> 03:19.030 align:start position:0%
three fairly uneventful months at the
Santa<00:03:16.959><c> Maria</c><00:03:17.360><c> crater,</c><00:03:18.080><c> Opportunity</c><00:03:18.720><c> headed</c>

03:19.030 --> 03:19.040 align:start position:0%
Santa Maria crater, Opportunity headed
 

03:19.040 --> 03:21.030 align:start position:0%
Santa Maria crater, Opportunity headed
towards<00:03:19.440><c> the</c><00:03:19.680><c> closest</c><00:03:20.080><c> hill</c><00:03:20.319><c> on</c><00:03:20.560><c> the</c><00:03:20.640><c> crater</c>

03:21.030 --> 03:21.040 align:start position:0%
towards the closest hill on the crater
 

03:21.040 --> 03:24.710 align:start position:0%
towards the closest hill on the crater
rim<00:03:21.599><c> known</c><00:03:21.920><c> as</c><00:03:22.159><c> Cape</c><00:03:22.480><c> York.</c><00:03:23.840><c> Along</c><00:03:24.159><c> the</c><00:03:24.319><c> way,</c>

03:24.710 --> 03:24.720 align:start position:0%
rim known as Cape York. Along the way,
 

03:24.720 --> 03:27.350 align:start position:0%
rim known as Cape York. Along the way,
it<00:03:24.959><c> came</c><00:03:25.200><c> across</c><00:03:25.519><c> a</c><00:03:25.760><c> few</c><00:03:26.000><c> small</c><00:03:26.319><c> craters,</c><00:03:27.200><c> some</c>

03:27.350 --> 03:27.360 align:start position:0%
it came across a few small craters, some
 

03:27.360 --> 03:29.589 align:start position:0%
it came across a few small craters, some
of<00:03:27.519><c> which</c><00:03:27.840><c> were</c><00:03:28.080><c> very</c><00:03:28.400><c> young</c><00:03:28.800><c> with</c><00:03:29.040><c> ejector</c>

03:29.589 --> 03:29.599 align:start position:0%
of which were very young with ejector
 

03:29.599 --> 03:32.630 align:start position:0%
of which were very young with ejector
from<00:03:29.760><c> the</c><00:03:29.920><c> impact</c><00:03:30.400><c> strewn</c><00:03:30.799><c> across</c><00:03:31.120><c> the</c><00:03:31.360><c> place.</c>

03:32.630 --> 03:32.640 align:start position:0%
from the impact strewn across the place.
 

03:32.640 --> 03:34.949 align:start position:0%
from the impact strewn across the place.
But<00:03:32.879><c> Opportunity</c><00:03:33.440><c> didn't</c><00:03:33.760><c> stay</c><00:03:34.000><c> for</c><00:03:34.239><c> long.</c>

03:34.949 --> 03:34.959 align:start position:0%
But Opportunity didn't stay for long.
 

03:34.959 --> 03:37.430 align:start position:0%
But Opportunity didn't stay for long.
Approaching<00:03:35.680><c> Endeavor,</c><00:03:36.640><c> that's</c><00:03:36.959><c> the</c><00:03:37.120><c> name</c><00:03:37.280><c> of</c>

03:37.430 --> 03:37.440 align:start position:0%
Approaching Endeavor, that's the name of
 

03:37.440 --> 03:39.910 align:start position:0%
Approaching Endeavor, that's the name of
the<00:03:37.599><c> crater,</c><00:03:38.319><c> Opportunity</c><00:03:38.959><c> was</c><00:03:39.200><c> finally</c><00:03:39.599><c> able</c>

03:39.910 --> 03:39.920 align:start position:0%
the crater, Opportunity was finally able
 

03:39.920 --> 03:42.149 align:start position:0%
the crater, Opportunity was finally able
to<00:03:40.080><c> see</c><00:03:40.319><c> some</c><00:03:40.480><c> variation</c><00:03:41.040><c> in</c><00:03:41.280><c> the</c><00:03:41.440><c> landscape</c>

03:42.149 --> 03:42.159 align:start position:0%
to see some variation in the landscape
 

03:42.159 --> 03:44.229 align:start position:0%
to see some variation in the landscape
after<00:03:42.480><c> years</c><00:03:42.799><c> of</c><00:03:43.040><c> simply</c><00:03:43.440><c> crossing</c><00:03:43.920><c> flat</c>

03:44.229 --> 03:44.239 align:start position:0%
after years of simply crossing flat
 

03:44.239 --> 03:47.030 align:start position:0%
after years of simply crossing flat
plains<00:03:44.560><c> of</c><00:03:44.720><c> sandjunes.</c><00:03:46.000><c> Peaks</c><00:03:46.400><c> and</c><00:03:46.640><c> capes</c>

03:47.030 --> 03:47.040 align:start position:0%
plains of sandjunes. Peaks and capes
 

03:47.040 --> 03:49.110 align:start position:0%
plains of sandjunes. Peaks and capes
started<00:03:47.280><c> to</c><00:03:47.519><c> rise</c><00:03:47.760><c> up</c><00:03:47.840><c> on</c><00:03:48.080><c> the</c><00:03:48.239><c> horizon</c><00:03:48.879><c> as</c>

03:49.110 --> 03:49.120 align:start position:0%
started to rise up on the horizon as
 

03:49.120 --> 03:51.589 align:start position:0%
started to rise up on the horizon as
Opportunity<00:03:49.760><c> approached</c><00:03:50.159><c> the</c><00:03:50.319><c> crater</c><00:03:50.720><c> rim.</c>

03:51.589 --> 03:51.599 align:start position:0%
Opportunity approached the crater rim.
 

03:51.599 --> 03:54.949 align:start position:0%
Opportunity approached the crater rim.
On<00:03:51.840><c> Saul</c><00:03:52.319><c> 2709,</c><00:03:53.760><c> Opportunity</c><00:03:54.480><c> finally</c>

03:54.949 --> 03:54.959 align:start position:0%
On Saul 2709, Opportunity finally
 

03:54.959 --> 03:57.670 align:start position:0%
On Saul 2709, Opportunity finally
arrived<00:03:55.280><c> at</c><00:03:55.440><c> Cape</c><00:03:55.760><c> York</c><00:03:56.400><c> and</c><00:03:56.640><c> specifically</c><00:03:57.360><c> a</c>

03:57.670 --> 03:57.680 align:start position:0%
arrived at Cape York and specifically a
 

03:57.680 --> 04:00.390 align:start position:0%
arrived at Cape York and specifically a
place<00:03:57.920><c> known</c><00:03:58.239><c> as</c><00:03:58.480><c> Spirit</c><00:03:58.959><c> Point,</c><00:03:59.760><c> named</c><00:04:00.159><c> after</c>

04:00.390 --> 04:00.400 align:start position:0%
place known as Spirit Point, named after
 

04:00.400 --> 04:02.550 align:start position:0%
place known as Spirit Point, named after
Opportunity<00:04:01.120><c> sister</c><00:04:01.519><c> rover</c><00:04:01.920><c> that</c><00:04:02.159><c> had</c><00:04:02.400><c> come</c>

04:02.550 --> 04:02.560 align:start position:0%
Opportunity sister rover that had come
 

04:02.560 --> 04:04.229 align:start position:0%
Opportunity sister rover that had come
to<00:04:02.720><c> the</c><00:04:02.879><c> end</c><00:04:02.959><c> of</c><00:04:03.120><c> its</c><00:04:03.360><c> mission</c><00:04:03.680><c> on</c><00:04:03.840><c> the</c><00:04:04.000><c> other</c>

04:04.229 --> 04:04.239 align:start position:0%
to the end of its mission on the other
 

04:04.239 --> 04:05.910 align:start position:0%
to the end of its mission on the other
side<00:04:04.319><c> of</c><00:04:04.480><c> the</c><00:04:04.640><c> planet</c><00:04:05.040><c> only</c><00:04:05.280><c> a</c><00:04:05.439><c> few</c><00:04:05.599><c> months</c>

04:05.910 --> 04:05.920 align:start position:0%
side of the planet only a few months
 

04:05.920 --> 04:07.750 align:start position:0%
side of the planet only a few months
previously.

04:07.750 --> 04:07.760 align:start position:0%
previously.
 

04:07.760 --> 04:10.550 align:start position:0%
previously.
Opportunity<00:04:08.480><c> had</c><00:04:08.720><c> traveled</c><00:04:09.040><c> over</c><00:04:09.439><c> 30</c><00:04:09.760><c> km</c><00:04:10.319><c> up</c>

04:10.550 --> 04:10.560 align:start position:0%
Opportunity had traveled over 30 km up
 

04:10.560 --> 04:13.110 align:start position:0%
Opportunity had traveled over 30 km up
until<00:04:10.799><c> this</c><00:04:11.040><c> point,</c><00:04:11.840><c> 50</c><00:04:12.159><c> times</c><00:04:12.560><c> further</c><00:04:12.879><c> than</c>

04:13.110 --> 04:13.120 align:start position:0%
until this point, 50 times further than
 

04:13.120 --> 04:15.589 align:start position:0%
until this point, 50 times further than
the<00:04:13.360><c> original</c><00:04:13.680><c> planned</c><00:04:14.080><c> mission</c><00:04:14.480><c> distance.</c>

04:15.589 --> 04:15.599 align:start position:0%
the original planned mission distance.
 

04:15.599 --> 04:17.590 align:start position:0%
the original planned mission distance.
Mission<00:04:15.920><c> planners</c><00:04:16.400><c> decided</c><00:04:16.799><c> not</c><00:04:17.040><c> to</c><00:04:17.199><c> go</c><00:04:17.359><c> into</c>

04:17.590 --> 04:17.600 align:start position:0%
Mission planners decided not to go into
 

04:17.600 --> 04:19.990 align:start position:0%
Mission planners decided not to go into
the<00:04:17.759><c> crater</c><00:04:18.400><c> as</c><00:04:18.799><c> points</c><00:04:19.199><c> of</c><00:04:19.359><c> interest</c><00:04:19.759><c> were</c>

04:19.990 --> 04:20.000 align:start position:0%
the crater as points of interest were
 

04:20.000 --> 04:21.990 align:start position:0%
the crater as points of interest were
again<00:04:20.560><c> found</c><00:04:20.880><c> around</c><00:04:21.199><c> the</c><00:04:21.440><c> rim</c><00:04:21.680><c> of</c><00:04:21.840><c> the</c>

04:21.990 --> 04:22.000 align:start position:0%
again found around the rim of the
 

04:22.000 --> 04:24.550 align:start position:0%
again found around the rim of the
crater.<00:04:23.040><c> Bedrock</c><00:04:23.600><c> is</c><00:04:23.840><c> exposed</c><00:04:24.160><c> to</c><00:04:24.400><c> the</c>

04:24.550 --> 04:24.560 align:start position:0%
crater. Bedrock is exposed to the
 

04:24.560 --> 04:26.710 align:start position:0%
crater. Bedrock is exposed to the
surface<00:04:24.880><c> there</c><00:04:25.440><c> which</c><00:04:25.680><c> allowed</c><00:04:26.160><c> opportunity</c>

04:26.710 --> 04:26.720 align:start position:0%
surface there which allowed opportunity
 

04:26.720 --> 04:29.270 align:start position:0%
surface there which allowed opportunity
to<00:04:26.960><c> study</c><00:04:27.360><c> the</c><00:04:27.600><c> oldest</c><00:04:28.000><c> rocks</c><00:04:28.400><c> it</c><00:04:28.560><c> had</c><00:04:28.800><c> seen</c><00:04:29.040><c> so</c>

04:29.270 --> 04:29.280 align:start position:0%
to study the oldest rocks it had seen so
 

04:29.280 --> 04:31.350 align:start position:0%
to study the oldest rocks it had seen so
far<00:04:29.440><c> on</c><00:04:29.680><c> this</c><00:04:29.840><c> journey.</c>

04:31.350 --> 04:31.360 align:start position:0%
far on this journey.
 

04:31.360 --> 04:33.590 align:start position:0%
far on this journey.
It<00:04:31.600><c> was</c><00:04:31.759><c> also</c><00:04:32.160><c> around</c><00:04:32.479><c> these</c><00:04:32.720><c> peaks</c><00:04:33.040><c> and</c><00:04:33.199><c> capes</c>

04:33.590 --> 04:33.600 align:start position:0%
It was also around these peaks and capes
 

04:33.600 --> 04:35.430 align:start position:0%
It was also around these peaks and capes
along<00:04:33.840><c> the</c><00:04:34.000><c> rim</c><00:04:34.400><c> where</c><00:04:34.639><c> the</c><00:04:34.800><c> hydrated</c>

04:35.430 --> 04:35.440 align:start position:0%
along the rim where the hydrated
 

04:35.440 --> 04:37.590 align:start position:0%
along the rim where the hydrated
minerals<00:04:36.000><c> or</c><00:04:36.240><c> clays</c><00:04:36.639><c> were</c><00:04:36.880><c> detected</c><00:04:37.280><c> by</c><00:04:37.440><c> the</c>

04:37.590 --> 04:37.600 align:start position:0%
minerals or clays were detected by the
 

04:37.600 --> 04:40.150 align:start position:0%
minerals or clays were detected by the
MRO.

04:40.150 --> 04:40.160 align:start position:0%
MRO.
 

04:40.160 --> 04:42.070 align:start position:0%
MRO.
Perched<00:04:40.639><c> on</c><00:04:40.800><c> top</c><00:04:40.960><c> of</c><00:04:41.120><c> Spirit</c><00:04:41.520><c> Point,</c>

04:42.070 --> 04:42.080 align:start position:0%
Perched on top of Spirit Point,
 

04:42.080 --> 04:44.230 align:start position:0%
Perched on top of Spirit Point,
Opportunity<00:04:42.720><c> looked</c><00:04:43.120><c> over</c><00:04:43.360><c> Endeavor,</c>

04:44.230 --> 04:44.240 align:start position:0%
Opportunity looked over Endeavor,
 

04:44.240 --> 04:46.629 align:start position:0%
Opportunity looked over Endeavor,
providing<00:04:44.720><c> a</c><00:04:45.040><c> perspective</c><00:04:45.759><c> about</c><00:04:46.160><c> just</c><00:04:46.400><c> how</c>

04:46.629 --> 04:46.639 align:start position:0%
providing a perspective about just how
 

04:46.639 --> 04:49.510 align:start position:0%
providing a perspective about just how
big<00:04:46.880><c> this</c><00:04:47.120><c> crater</c><00:04:47.520><c> is.</c>

04:49.510 --> 04:49.520 align:start position:0%
big this crater is.
 

04:49.520 --> 04:51.670 align:start position:0%
big this crater is.
From<00:04:49.759><c> the</c><00:04:49.919><c> onset,</c><00:04:50.639><c> Opportunity</c><00:04:51.280><c> began</c>

04:51.670 --> 04:51.680 align:start position:0%
From the onset, Opportunity began
 

04:51.680 --> 04:53.830 align:start position:0%
From the onset, Opportunity began
discovering<00:04:52.240><c> phenomena</c><00:04:52.880><c> never</c><00:04:53.199><c> before</c><00:04:53.600><c> seen</c>

04:53.830 --> 04:53.840 align:start position:0%
discovering phenomena never before seen
 

04:53.840 --> 04:56.710 align:start position:0%
discovering phenomena never before seen
on<00:04:54.000><c> Mars.</c><00:04:55.280><c> The</c><00:04:55.520><c> soil</c><00:04:55.840><c> found</c><00:04:56.160><c> around</c><00:04:56.479><c> the</c>

04:56.710 --> 04:56.720 align:start position:0%
on Mars. The soil found around the
 

04:56.720 --> 04:59.350 align:start position:0%
on Mars. The soil found around the
area's<00:04:57.040><c> Opportunity</c><00:04:57.600><c> had</c><00:04:57.840><c> thus</c><00:04:58.240><c> far</c><00:04:58.560><c> explored</c>

04:59.350 --> 04:59.360 align:start position:0%
area's Opportunity had thus far explored
 

04:59.360 --> 05:02.230 align:start position:0%
area's Opportunity had thus far explored
contained<00:04:59.840><c> countless</c><00:05:00.560><c> smooth,</c><00:05:01.360><c> tiny</c><00:05:01.919><c> round</c>

05:02.230 --> 05:02.240 align:start position:0%
contained countless smooth, tiny round
 

05:02.240 --> 05:05.670 align:start position:0%
contained countless smooth, tiny round
rocks,<00:05:02.800><c> nicknamed</c><00:05:03.520><c> blueberries.</c><00:05:04.800><c> Strange</c>

05:05.670 --> 05:05.680 align:start position:0%
rocks, nicknamed blueberries. Strange
 

05:05.680 --> 05:08.790 align:start position:0%
rocks, nicknamed blueberries. Strange
geological<00:05:06.479><c> formations</c><00:05:07.120><c> that</c><00:05:07.360><c> have</c><00:05:07.680><c> thus</c><00:05:08.080><c> far</c>

05:08.790 --> 05:08.800 align:start position:0%
geological formations that have thus far
 

05:08.800 --> 05:11.749 align:start position:0%
geological formations that have thus far
defied<00:05:09.440><c> scientific</c><00:05:10.080><c> explanation,</c><00:05:11.199><c> though</c><00:05:11.440><c> we</c>

05:11.749 --> 05:11.759 align:start position:0%
defied scientific explanation, though we
 

05:11.759 --> 05:15.350 align:start position:0%
defied scientific explanation, though we
think<00:05:12.479><c> they</c><00:05:12.720><c> may</c><00:05:13.039><c> hint</c><00:05:13.360><c> at</c><00:05:13.600><c> a</c><00:05:13.759><c> watery</c><00:05:14.240><c> past.</c>

05:15.350 --> 05:15.360 align:start position:0%
think they may hint at a watery past.
 

05:15.360 --> 05:18.390 align:start position:0%
think they may hint at a watery past.
However,<00:05:16.160><c> around</c><00:05:16.479><c> Endeavor,</c><00:05:17.520><c> no</c><00:05:17.840><c> blueberries</c>

05:18.390 --> 05:18.400 align:start position:0%
However, around Endeavor, no blueberries
 

05:18.400 --> 05:20.710 align:start position:0%
However, around Endeavor, no blueberries
were<00:05:18.560><c> to</c><00:05:18.720><c> be</c><00:05:18.800><c> found.</c><00:05:19.759><c> Instead,</c><00:05:20.160><c> the</c><00:05:20.400><c> soil</c>

05:20.710 --> 05:20.720 align:start position:0%
were to be found. Instead, the soil
 

05:20.720 --> 05:23.189 align:start position:0%
were to be found. Instead, the soil
looks<00:05:21.039><c> much</c><00:05:21.360><c> coarser,</c><00:05:22.160><c> the</c><00:05:22.400><c> rock</c><00:05:22.720><c> sharper,</c>

05:23.189 --> 05:23.199 align:start position:0%
looks much coarser, the rock sharper,
 

05:23.199 --> 05:25.749 align:start position:0%
looks much coarser, the rock sharper,
and<00:05:23.440><c> not</c><00:05:23.600><c> as</c><00:05:23.840><c> rounded.</c><00:05:24.960><c> Mission</c><00:05:25.280><c> controllers</c>

05:25.749 --> 05:25.759 align:start position:0%
and not as rounded. Mission controllers
 

05:25.759 --> 05:27.749 align:start position:0%
and not as rounded. Mission controllers
were<00:05:26.000><c> so</c><00:05:26.240><c> impressed</c><00:05:26.560><c> by</c><00:05:26.800><c> the</c><00:05:26.960><c> variation</c><00:05:27.520><c> of</c>

05:27.749 --> 05:27.759 align:start position:0%
were so impressed by the variation of
 

05:27.759 --> 05:29.430 align:start position:0%
were so impressed by the variation of
this<00:05:28.000><c> area</c><00:05:28.400><c> compared</c><00:05:28.720><c> to</c><00:05:28.880><c> the</c><00:05:29.039><c> initial</c>

05:29.430 --> 05:29.440 align:start position:0%
this area compared to the initial
 

05:29.440 --> 05:31.350 align:start position:0%
this area compared to the initial
landing<00:05:29.759><c> site</c><00:05:30.320><c> that</c><00:05:30.560><c> they</c><00:05:30.720><c> said</c><00:05:30.880><c> that</c><00:05:31.120><c> this</c>

05:31.350 --> 05:31.360 align:start position:0%
landing site that they said that this
 

05:31.360 --> 05:33.029 align:start position:0%
landing site that they said that this
section<00:05:31.680><c> of</c><00:05:31.840><c> the</c><00:05:32.000><c> mission</c><00:05:32.320><c> provided</c><00:05:32.800><c> the</c>

05:33.029 --> 05:33.039 align:start position:0%
section of the mission provided the
 

05:33.039 --> 05:35.110 align:start position:0%
section of the mission provided the
equivalent<00:05:33.520><c> of</c><00:05:33.680><c> a</c><00:05:33.919><c> second</c><00:05:34.240><c> landing</c><00:05:34.639><c> site</c><00:05:34.880><c> for</c>

05:35.110 --> 05:35.120 align:start position:0%
equivalent of a second landing site for
 

05:35.120 --> 05:37.350 align:start position:0%
equivalent of a second landing site for
the<00:05:35.280><c> price</c><00:05:35.440><c> of</c><00:05:35.600><c> one.</c>

05:37.350 --> 05:37.360 align:start position:0%
the price of one.
 

05:37.360 --> 05:39.270 align:start position:0%
the price of one.
The<00:05:37.600><c> first</c><00:05:37.840><c> point</c><00:05:38.080><c> of</c><00:05:38.240><c> interest</c><00:05:38.639><c> Opportunity</c>

05:39.270 --> 05:39.280 align:start position:0%
The first point of interest Opportunity
 

05:39.280 --> 05:41.670 align:start position:0%
The first point of interest Opportunity
examined<00:05:39.759><c> was</c><00:05:40.000><c> a</c><00:05:40.160><c> large</c><00:05:40.400><c> ejector</c><00:05:40.960><c> rock</c><00:05:41.360><c> called</c>

05:41.670 --> 05:41.680 align:start position:0%
examined was a large ejector rock called
 

05:41.680 --> 05:44.870 align:start position:0%
examined was a large ejector rock called
Tisdale<00:05:42.320><c> 2.</c><00:05:43.280><c> It</c><00:05:43.520><c> was</c><00:05:43.680><c> unlike</c><00:05:44.080><c> any</c><00:05:44.320><c> other</c><00:05:44.560><c> rock</c>

05:44.870 --> 05:44.880 align:start position:0%
Tisdale 2. It was unlike any other rock
 

05:44.880 --> 05:48.390 align:start position:0%
Tisdale 2. It was unlike any other rock
so<00:05:45.120><c> far</c><00:05:45.360><c> examined</c><00:05:45.759><c> on</c><00:05:45.919><c> Mars.</c><00:05:47.280><c> It</c><00:05:47.520><c> had</c><00:05:47.759><c> volcanic</c>

05:48.390 --> 05:48.400 align:start position:0%
so far examined on Mars. It had volcanic
 

05:48.400 --> 05:51.189 align:start position:0%
so far examined on Mars. It had volcanic
characteristics<00:05:49.759><c> but</c><00:05:50.160><c> contained</c><00:05:50.639><c> more</c><00:05:50.880><c> zinc</c>

05:51.189 --> 05:51.199 align:start position:0%
characteristics but contained more zinc
 

05:51.199 --> 05:54.230 align:start position:0%
characteristics but contained more zinc
and<00:05:51.440><c> bromine</c><00:05:51.919><c> than</c><00:05:52.160><c> previously</c><00:05:52.639><c> seen.</c><00:05:53.840><c> It</c><00:05:54.080><c> was</c>

05:54.230 --> 05:54.240 align:start position:0%
and bromine than previously seen. It was
 

05:54.240 --> 05:56.870 align:start position:0%
and bromine than previously seen. It was
determined<00:05:54.639><c> to</c><00:05:54.880><c> be</c><00:05:54.960><c> a</c><00:05:55.120><c> type</c><00:05:55.280><c> of</c><00:05:55.520><c> breer,</c><00:05:56.639><c> old</c>

05:56.870 --> 05:56.880 align:start position:0%
determined to be a type of breer, old
 

05:56.880 --> 05:58.790 align:start position:0%
determined to be a type of breer, old
rock<00:05:57.280><c> fragments</c><00:05:57.840><c> having</c><00:05:58.160><c> been</c><00:05:58.400><c> fused</c>

05:58.790 --> 05:58.800 align:start position:0%
rock fragments having been fused
 

05:58.800 --> 06:01.749 align:start position:0%
rock fragments having been fused
together.<00:06:00.000><c> This</c><00:06:00.320><c> was</c><00:06:00.639><c> further</c><00:06:01.039><c> evidence</c><00:06:01.440><c> for</c>

06:01.749 --> 06:01.759 align:start position:0%
together. This was further evidence for
 

06:01.759 --> 06:04.390 align:start position:0%
together. This was further evidence for
water.<00:06:02.800><c> The</c><00:06:03.039><c> impact</c><00:06:03.360><c> that</c><00:06:03.600><c> threw</c><00:06:03.919><c> this</c><00:06:04.080><c> bit</c><00:06:04.240><c> of</c>

06:04.390 --> 06:04.400 align:start position:0%
water. The impact that threw this bit of
 

06:04.400 --> 06:06.790 align:start position:0%
water. The impact that threw this bit of
ejector<00:06:05.120><c> likely</c><00:06:05.520><c> released</c><00:06:05.919><c> hot</c><00:06:06.240><c> underground</c>

06:06.790 --> 06:06.800 align:start position:0%
ejector likely released hot underground
 

06:06.800 --> 06:10.870 align:start position:0%
ejector likely released hot underground
water<00:06:07.440><c> that</c><00:06:07.759><c> deposited</c><00:06:08.319><c> zinc</c><00:06:08.639><c> in</c><00:06:08.800><c> the</c><00:06:08.960><c> rock.</c>

06:10.870 --> 06:10.880 align:start position:0%
water that deposited zinc in the rock.
 

06:10.880 --> 06:13.350 align:start position:0%
water that deposited zinc in the rock.
Just<00:06:11.120><c> a</c><00:06:11.360><c> short</c><00:06:11.600><c> distance</c><00:06:11.919><c> from</c><00:06:12.160><c> Tisdale</c><00:06:12.800><c> 2,</c>

06:13.350 --> 06:13.360 align:start position:0%
Just a short distance from Tisdale 2,
 

06:13.360 --> 06:15.270 align:start position:0%
Just a short distance from Tisdale 2,
Opportunity<00:06:14.080><c> discovered</c><00:06:14.560><c> perhaps</c><00:06:14.880><c> the</c><00:06:15.120><c> most</c>

06:15.270 --> 06:15.280 align:start position:0%
Opportunity discovered perhaps the most
 

06:15.280 --> 06:17.350 align:start position:0%
Opportunity discovered perhaps the most
conclusive<00:06:15.919><c> evidence</c><00:06:16.319><c> that</c><00:06:16.639><c> water</c><00:06:16.960><c> existed</c>

06:17.350 --> 06:17.360 align:start position:0%
conclusive evidence that water existed
 

06:17.360 --> 06:20.150 align:start position:0%
conclusive evidence that water existed
on<00:06:17.520><c> Mars</c><00:06:17.840><c> thus</c><00:06:18.160><c> far.</c><00:06:19.120><c> Can</c><00:06:19.360><c> you</c><00:06:19.520><c> guess</c><00:06:19.759><c> what</c><00:06:19.919><c> it</c>

06:20.150 --> 06:20.160 align:start position:0%
on Mars thus far. Can you guess what it
 

06:20.160 --> 06:22.150 align:start position:0%
on Mars thus far. Can you guess what it
is<00:06:20.319><c> from</c><00:06:20.560><c> this</c><00:06:20.720><c> picture?</c>

06:22.150 --> 06:22.160 align:start position:0%
is from this picture?
 

06:22.160 --> 06:24.550 align:start position:0%
is from this picture?
Look<00:06:22.479><c> closely</c><00:06:22.880><c> at</c><00:06:23.039><c> the</c><00:06:23.280><c> bottom</c><00:06:23.440><c> of</c><00:06:23.680><c> this</c><00:06:23.919><c> image</c>

06:24.550 --> 06:24.560 align:start position:0%
Look closely at the bottom of this image
 

06:24.560 --> 06:27.110 align:start position:0%
Look closely at the bottom of this image
and<00:06:24.800><c> you'll</c><00:06:25.039><c> see</c><00:06:25.199><c> a</c><00:06:25.440><c> thin</c><00:06:25.840><c> white</c><00:06:26.160><c> line</c><00:06:26.560><c> exposed</c>

06:27.110 --> 06:27.120 align:start position:0%
and you'll see a thin white line exposed
 

06:27.120 --> 06:29.990 align:start position:0%
and you'll see a thin white line exposed
in<00:06:27.360><c> this</c><00:06:27.520><c> outcrop.</c><00:06:28.800><c> A</c><00:06:29.039><c> close-up</c><00:06:29.520><c> examination</c>

06:29.990 --> 06:30.000 align:start position:0%
in this outcrop. A close-up examination
 

06:30.000 --> 06:32.790 align:start position:0%
in this outcrop. A close-up examination
of<00:06:30.160><c> the</c><00:06:30.400><c> vein</c><00:06:30.880><c> revealed</c><00:06:31.360><c> it</c><00:06:31.520><c> to</c><00:06:31.600><c> be</c><00:06:31.759><c> gypsum,</c>

06:32.790 --> 06:32.800 align:start position:0%
of the vein revealed it to be gypsum,
 

06:32.800 --> 06:35.430 align:start position:0%
of the vein revealed it to be gypsum,
the<00:06:33.039><c> alpha</c><00:06:33.440><c> particle</c><00:06:34.000><c> X-ray</c><00:06:34.479><c> spectrometer</c><00:06:35.199><c> on</c>

06:35.430 --> 06:35.440 align:start position:0%
the alpha particle X-ray spectrometer on
 

06:35.440 --> 06:37.830 align:start position:0%
the alpha particle X-ray spectrometer on
the<00:06:35.600><c> rover's</c><00:06:36.000><c> arm,</c><00:06:36.560><c> detecting</c><00:06:37.120><c> the</c><00:06:37.360><c> minerals</c>

06:37.830 --> 06:37.840 align:start position:0%
the rover's arm, detecting the minerals
 

06:37.840 --> 06:40.230 align:start position:0%
the rover's arm, detecting the minerals
calcium<00:06:38.319><c> and</c><00:06:38.479><c> sulfur,</c><00:06:39.360><c> together</c><00:06:39.840><c> making</c>

06:40.230 --> 06:40.240 align:start position:0%
calcium and sulfur, together making
 

06:40.240 --> 06:43.029 align:start position:0%
calcium and sulfur, together making
calcium<00:06:40.800><c> sulfate.</c><00:06:41.919><c> They</c><00:06:42.240><c> named</c><00:06:42.479><c> this</c><00:06:42.720><c> vein</c>

06:43.029 --> 06:43.039 align:start position:0%
calcium sulfate. They named this vein
 

06:43.039 --> 06:45.510 align:start position:0%
calcium sulfate. They named this vein
the<00:06:43.280><c> Homestake</c><00:06:43.919><c> Deposit,</c><00:06:44.800><c> and</c><00:06:45.039><c> it</c><00:06:45.199><c> likely</c>

06:45.510 --> 06:45.520 align:start position:0%
the Homestake Deposit, and it likely
 

06:45.520 --> 06:47.749 align:start position:0%
the Homestake Deposit, and it likely
formed<00:06:45.919><c> from</c><00:06:46.160><c> water</c><00:06:46.479><c> dissolving</c><00:06:47.039><c> calcium</c><00:06:47.600><c> out</c>

06:47.749 --> 06:47.759 align:start position:0%
formed from water dissolving calcium out
 

06:47.759 --> 06:49.990 align:start position:0%
formed from water dissolving calcium out
of<00:06:47.919><c> volcanic</c><00:06:48.479><c> rocks,</c><00:06:49.120><c> which</c><00:06:49.360><c> combined</c><00:06:49.759><c> with</c>

06:49.990 --> 06:50.000 align:start position:0%
of volcanic rocks, which combined with
 

06:50.000 --> 06:53.029 align:start position:0%
of volcanic rocks, which combined with
sulfur<00:06:50.800><c> and</c><00:06:51.039><c> was</c><00:06:51.280><c> then</c><00:06:51.600><c> deposited</c><00:06:52.240><c> as</c><00:06:52.560><c> calcium</c>

06:53.029 --> 06:53.039 align:start position:0%
sulfur and was then deposited as calcium
 

06:53.039 --> 06:55.270 align:start position:0%
sulfur and was then deposited as calcium
sulfate<00:06:53.680><c> into</c><00:06:54.080><c> an</c><00:06:54.240><c> underground</c><00:06:54.800><c> fracture</c>

06:55.270 --> 06:55.280 align:start position:0%
sulfate into an underground fracture
 

06:55.280 --> 06:57.110 align:start position:0%
sulfate into an underground fracture
that<00:06:55.600><c> later</c><00:06:55.919><c> became</c><00:06:56.319><c> exposed</c><00:06:56.720><c> at</c><00:06:56.960><c> the</c>

06:57.110 --> 06:57.120 align:start position:0%
that later became exposed at the
 

06:57.120 --> 07:00.870 align:start position:0%
that later became exposed at the
surface.<00:06:58.400><c> The</c><00:06:58.720><c> impact</c><00:06:59.039><c> that</c><00:06:59.280><c> threw</c><00:06:59.599><c> Tisdale</c><00:07:00.319><c> 2</c>

07:00.870 --> 07:00.880 align:start position:0%
surface. The impact that threw Tisdale 2
 

07:00.880 --> 07:02.469 align:start position:0%
surface. The impact that threw Tisdale 2
likely<00:07:01.280><c> had</c><00:07:01.520><c> something</c><00:07:01.759><c> to</c><00:07:02.000><c> do</c><00:07:02.080><c> with</c><00:07:02.240><c> this</c>

07:02.469 --> 07:02.479 align:start position:0%
likely had something to do with this
 

07:02.479 --> 07:05.510 align:start position:0%
likely had something to do with this
vein<00:07:02.880><c> as</c><00:07:03.120><c> well.</c><00:07:04.000><c> If</c><00:07:04.240><c> this</c><00:07:04.479><c> is</c><00:07:04.639><c> the</c><00:07:04.880><c> case,</c><00:07:05.280><c> it</c>

07:05.510 --> 07:05.520 align:start position:0%
vein as well. If this is the case, it
 

07:05.520 --> 07:07.430 align:start position:0%
vein as well. If this is the case, it
shows<00:07:05.759><c> that</c><00:07:06.000><c> water</c><00:07:06.400><c> once</c><00:07:06.720><c> flowed</c><00:07:07.120><c> through</c>

07:07.430 --> 07:07.440 align:start position:0%
shows that water once flowed through
 

07:07.440 --> 07:10.230 align:start position:0%
shows that water once flowed through
underground<00:07:08.000><c> fractures</c><00:07:08.479><c> on</c><00:07:08.720><c> Mars.</c><00:07:09.840><c> Later</c>

07:10.230 --> 07:10.240 align:start position:0%
underground fractures on Mars. Later
 

07:10.240 --> 07:11.909 align:start position:0%
underground fractures on Mars. Later
analysis<00:07:10.720><c> of</c><00:07:10.800><c> the</c><00:07:10.960><c> data</c><00:07:11.360><c> Opportunity</c>

07:11.909 --> 07:11.919 align:start position:0%
analysis of the data Opportunity
 

07:11.919 --> 07:14.150 align:start position:0%
analysis of the data Opportunity
collected<00:07:12.720><c> showed</c><00:07:13.039><c> that</c><00:07:13.280><c> not</c><00:07:13.520><c> only</c><00:07:13.680><c> was</c><00:07:13.919><c> this</c>

07:14.150 --> 07:14.160 align:start position:0%
collected showed that not only was this
 

07:14.160 --> 07:16.469 align:start position:0%
collected showed that not only was this
likely<00:07:14.400><c> to</c><00:07:14.560><c> be</c><00:07:14.720><c> gypsum,</c><00:07:15.520><c> but</c><00:07:15.759><c> also</c><00:07:16.080><c> that</c><00:07:16.240><c> the</c>

07:16.469 --> 07:16.479 align:start position:0%
likely to be gypsum, but also that the
 

07:16.479 --> 07:17.990 align:start position:0%
likely to be gypsum, but also that the
water<00:07:16.720><c> here</c><00:07:16.960><c> would</c><00:07:17.199><c> have</c><00:07:17.360><c> been</c><00:07:17.520><c> much</c><00:07:17.759><c> less</c>

07:17.990 --> 07:18.000 align:start position:0%
water here would have been much less
 

07:18.000 --> 07:19.830 align:start position:0%
water here would have been much less
acidic<00:07:18.479><c> than</c><00:07:18.639><c> it</c><00:07:18.800><c> would</c><00:07:18.960><c> have</c><00:07:19.199><c> been</c><00:07:19.440><c> around</c>

07:19.830 --> 07:19.840 align:start position:0%
acidic than it would have been around
 

07:19.840 --> 07:22.150 align:start position:0%
acidic than it would have been around
other<00:07:20.160><c> locations</c><00:07:20.560><c> on</c><00:07:20.800><c> the</c><00:07:21.039><c> planet,</c><00:07:21.759><c> meaning</c>

07:22.150 --> 07:22.160 align:start position:0%
other locations on the planet, meaning
 

07:22.160 --> 07:23.909 align:start position:0%
other locations on the planet, meaning
it<00:07:22.400><c> could</c><00:07:22.560><c> have</c><00:07:22.800><c> been</c><00:07:22.960><c> more</c><00:07:23.199><c> conducive</c><00:07:23.680><c> to</c>

07:23.909 --> 07:23.919 align:start position:0%
it could have been more conducive to
 

07:23.919 --> 07:26.870 align:start position:0%
it could have been more conducive to
life.

07:26.870 --> 07:26.880 align:start position:0%
life.
 

07:26.880 --> 07:29.350 align:start position:0%
life.
Martian<00:07:27.440><c> winter</c><00:07:27.759><c> was</c><00:07:27.919><c> soon</c><00:07:28.240><c> setting</c><00:07:28.639><c> in,</c>

07:29.350 --> 07:29.360 align:start position:0%
Martian winter was soon setting in,
 

07:29.360 --> 07:31.749 align:start position:0%
Martian winter was soon setting in,
meaning<00:07:29.759><c> shorter</c><00:07:30.240><c> days</c><00:07:30.639><c> and</c><00:07:30.800><c> a</c><00:07:30.960><c> lower</c><00:07:31.280><c> sun</c><00:07:31.520><c> in</c>

07:31.749 --> 07:31.759 align:start position:0%
meaning shorter days and a lower sun in
 

07:31.759 --> 07:35.110 align:start position:0%
meaning shorter days and a lower sun in
the<00:07:31.919><c> sky.</c><00:07:33.199><c> For</c><00:07:33.440><c> a</c><00:07:33.599><c> solar</c><00:07:34.000><c> powered</c><00:07:34.319><c> rover</c><00:07:34.800><c> that</c>

07:35.110 --> 07:35.120 align:start position:0%
the sky. For a solar powered rover that
 

07:35.120 --> 07:36.790 align:start position:0%
the sky. For a solar powered rover that
can't<00:07:35.360><c> adjust</c><00:07:35.680><c> the</c><00:07:35.919><c> angle</c><00:07:36.160><c> of</c><00:07:36.319><c> its</c><00:07:36.479><c> solar</c>

07:36.790 --> 07:36.800 align:start position:0%
can't adjust the angle of its solar
 

07:36.800 --> 07:39.909 align:start position:0%
can't adjust the angle of its solar
panels,<00:07:37.520><c> this</c><00:07:37.680><c> is</c><00:07:37.840><c> not</c><00:07:38.000><c> the</c><00:07:38.240><c> ideal</c><00:07:38.720><c> situation.</c>

07:39.909 --> 07:39.919 align:start position:0%
panels, this is not the ideal situation.
 

07:39.919 --> 07:41.670 align:start position:0%
panels, this is not the ideal situation.
But<00:07:40.160><c> for</c><00:07:40.400><c> the</c><00:07:40.560><c> first</c><00:07:40.720><c> time</c><00:07:40.960><c> since</c><00:07:41.199><c> the</c><00:07:41.440><c> mission</c>

07:41.670 --> 07:41.680 align:start position:0%
But for the first time since the mission
 

07:41.680 --> 07:44.550 align:start position:0%
But for the first time since the mission
began,<00:07:42.560><c> Opportunity</c><00:07:43.280><c> had</c><00:07:43.520><c> the</c><00:07:43.759><c> opportunity</c>

07:44.550 --> 07:44.560 align:start position:0%
began, Opportunity had the opportunity
 

07:44.560 --> 07:46.870 align:start position:0%
began, Opportunity had the opportunity
to<00:07:44.800><c> spend</c><00:07:45.120><c> the</c><00:07:45.360><c> winter</c><00:07:45.759><c> on</c><00:07:46.000><c> a</c><00:07:46.160><c> slope</c><00:07:46.479><c> aimed</c>

07:46.870 --> 07:46.880 align:start position:0%
to spend the winter on a slope aimed
 

07:46.880 --> 07:49.029 align:start position:0%
to spend the winter on a slope aimed
towards<00:07:47.199><c> the</c><00:07:47.360><c> sun.</c><00:07:48.160><c> Meaning</c><00:07:48.400><c> that</c><00:07:48.639><c> for</c><00:07:48.800><c> this</c>

07:49.029 --> 07:49.039 align:start position:0%
towards the sun. Meaning that for this
 

07:49.039 --> 07:51.029 align:start position:0%
towards the sun. Meaning that for this
winter,<00:07:49.440><c> it</c><00:07:49.680><c> would</c><00:07:49.840><c> be</c><00:07:50.000><c> confined</c><00:07:50.319><c> to</c><00:07:50.560><c> an</c><00:07:50.720><c> area</c>

07:51.029 --> 07:51.039 align:start position:0%
winter, it would be confined to an area
 

07:51.039 --> 07:53.430 align:start position:0%
winter, it would be confined to an area
named<00:07:51.360><c> Gley</c><00:07:51.840><c> Haven.</c>

07:53.430 --> 07:53.440 align:start position:0%
named Gley Haven.
 

07:53.440 --> 07:55.510 align:start position:0%
named Gley Haven.
This<00:07:53.759><c> area</c><00:07:54.000><c> was</c><00:07:54.240><c> not</c><00:07:54.479><c> only</c><00:07:54.720><c> aimed</c><00:07:55.039><c> towards</c><00:07:55.360><c> the</c>

07:55.510 --> 07:55.520 align:start position:0%
This area was not only aimed towards the
 

07:55.520 --> 07:58.150 align:start position:0%
This area was not only aimed towards the
sun,<00:07:56.000><c> but</c><00:07:56.240><c> it</c><00:07:56.479><c> was</c><00:07:56.639><c> also</c><00:07:56.960><c> rocky,</c><00:07:57.759><c> meaning</c>

07:58.150 --> 07:58.160 align:start position:0%
sun, but it was also rocky, meaning
 

07:58.160 --> 08:00.230 align:start position:0%
sun, but it was also rocky, meaning
Opportunity<00:07:58.720><c> had</c><00:07:58.879><c> a</c><00:07:59.120><c> lot</c><00:07:59.280><c> it</c><00:07:59.520><c> could</c><00:07:59.680><c> examine</c>

08:00.230 --> 08:00.240 align:start position:0%
Opportunity had a lot it could examine
 

08:00.240 --> 08:04.070 align:start position:0%
Opportunity had a lot it could examine
during<00:08:00.560><c> these</c><00:08:00.879><c> few</c><00:08:01.120><c> months.</c><00:08:02.319><c> This</c><00:08:02.720><c> 360°</c>

08:04.070 --> 08:04.080 align:start position:0%
during these few months. This 360°
 

08:04.080 --> 08:06.629 align:start position:0%
during these few months. This 360°
panorama<00:08:04.960><c> shows</c><00:08:05.280><c> the</c><00:08:05.440><c> tracks</c><00:08:05.759><c> of</c><00:08:05.919><c> opportunity</c>

08:06.629 --> 08:06.639 align:start position:0%
panorama shows the tracks of opportunity
 

08:06.639 --> 08:08.950 align:start position:0%
panorama shows the tracks of opportunity
as<00:08:06.879><c> it</c><00:08:07.120><c> carefully</c><00:08:07.520><c> navigated</c><00:08:08.080><c> its</c><00:08:08.319><c> way</c><00:08:08.560><c> to</c><00:08:08.720><c> its</c>

08:08.950 --> 08:08.960 align:start position:0%
as it carefully navigated its way to its
 

08:08.960 --> 08:11.110 align:start position:0%
as it carefully navigated its way to its
winter<00:08:09.280><c> lodgings.</c>

08:11.110 --> 08:11.120 align:start position:0%
winter lodgings.
 

08:11.120 --> 08:13.589 align:start position:0%
winter lodgings.
Months<00:08:11.520><c> had</c><00:08:11.759><c> passed</c><00:08:12.319><c> and</c><00:08:12.639><c> winter</c><00:08:12.960><c> was</c><00:08:13.199><c> turning</c>

08:13.589 --> 08:13.599 align:start position:0%
Months had passed and winter was turning
 

08:13.599 --> 08:16.070 align:start position:0%
Months had passed and winter was turning
again<00:08:13.840><c> to</c><00:08:14.080><c> summer.</c>

08:16.070 --> 08:16.080 align:start position:0%
again to summer.
 

08:16.080 --> 08:18.550 align:start position:0%
again to summer.
On<00:08:16.400><c> soul</c><00:08:16.800><c> 2947,</c>

08:18.550 --> 08:18.560 align:start position:0%
On soul 2947,
 

08:18.560 --> 08:20.390 align:start position:0%
On soul 2947,
Opportunity<00:08:19.199><c> moved</c><00:08:19.520><c> again</c><00:08:19.759><c> for</c><00:08:20.000><c> the</c><00:08:20.160><c> first</c>

08:20.390 --> 08:20.400 align:start position:0%
Opportunity moved again for the first
 

08:20.400 --> 08:23.270 align:start position:0%
Opportunity moved again for the first
time<00:08:20.639><c> since</c><00:08:20.879><c> it</c><00:08:21.120><c> set</c><00:08:21.280><c> up</c><00:08:21.440><c> camp</c><00:08:21.680><c> in</c><00:08:21.840><c> Gley</c><00:08:22.240><c> Haven.</c>

08:23.270 --> 08:23.280 align:start position:0%
time since it set up camp in Gley Haven.
 

08:23.280 --> 08:25.189 align:start position:0%
time since it set up camp in Gley Haven.
Luckily,<00:08:23.919><c> everything</c><00:08:24.160><c> that</c><00:08:24.479><c> was</c><00:08:24.720><c> functioning</c>

08:25.189 --> 08:25.199 align:start position:0%
Luckily, everything that was functioning
 

08:25.199 --> 08:27.029 align:start position:0%
Luckily, everything that was functioning
from<00:08:25.520><c> before</c><00:08:26.080><c> seemed</c><00:08:26.400><c> to</c><00:08:26.639><c> still</c><00:08:26.800><c> be</c>

08:27.029 --> 08:27.039 align:start position:0%
from before seemed to still be
 

08:27.039 --> 08:29.430 align:start position:0%
from before seemed to still be
functioning,<00:08:28.000><c> and</c><00:08:28.240><c> Opportunity</c><00:08:28.800><c> headed</c><00:08:29.199><c> out</c>

08:29.430 --> 08:29.440 align:start position:0%
functioning, and Opportunity headed out
 

08:29.440 --> 08:31.830 align:start position:0%
functioning, and Opportunity headed out
to<00:08:29.599><c> the</c><00:08:29.840><c> next</c><00:08:30.000><c> point</c><00:08:30.240><c> of</c><00:08:30.479><c> interest.</c>

08:31.830 --> 08:31.840 align:start position:0%
to the next point of interest.
 

08:31.840 --> 08:34.630 align:start position:0%
to the next point of interest.
M<00:08:32.399><c> data</c><00:08:32.959><c> suggested</c><00:08:33.519><c> clays</c><00:08:34.000><c> were</c><00:08:34.159><c> present</c><00:08:34.399><c> in</c>

08:34.630 --> 08:34.640 align:start position:0%
M data suggested clays were present in
 

08:34.640 --> 08:36.469 align:start position:0%
M data suggested clays were present in
this<00:08:34.800><c> area</c><00:08:35.360><c> and</c><00:08:35.599><c> the</c><00:08:35.760><c> mission</c><00:08:36.080><c> team</c><00:08:36.320><c> were</c>

08:36.469 --> 08:36.479 align:start position:0%
this area and the mission team were
 

08:36.479 --> 08:39.029 align:start position:0%
this area and the mission team were
determined<00:08:36.959><c> to</c><00:08:37.120><c> find</c><00:08:37.360><c> it.</c><00:08:38.320><c> A</c><00:08:38.560><c> beckoning</c>

08:39.029 --> 08:39.039 align:start position:0%
determined to find it. A beckoning
 

08:39.039 --> 08:42.469 align:start position:0%
determined to find it. A beckoning
outcrop<00:08:39.599><c> was</c><00:08:39.760><c> spotted</c><00:08:40.080><c> around</c><00:08:40.479><c> Soul</c><00:08:40.959><c> 3057</c><00:08:42.240><c> and</c>

08:42.469 --> 08:42.479 align:start position:0%
outcrop was spotted around Soul 3057 and
 

08:42.479 --> 08:44.470 align:start position:0%
outcrop was spotted around Soul 3057 and
the<00:08:42.640><c> microscopic</c><00:08:43.440><c> camera</c><00:08:43.919><c> revealed</c>

08:44.470 --> 08:44.480 align:start position:0%
the microscopic camera revealed
 

08:44.480 --> 08:46.150 align:start position:0%
the microscopic camera revealed
something<00:08:44.800><c> about</c><00:08:45.040><c> it</c><00:08:45.279><c> that</c><00:08:45.519><c> no</c><00:08:45.760><c> one</c><00:08:45.920><c> was</c>

08:46.150 --> 08:46.160 align:start position:0%
something about it that no one was
 

08:46.160 --> 08:48.790 align:start position:0%
something about it that no one was
expecting.<00:08:47.519><c> Much</c><00:08:47.760><c> like</c><00:08:48.080><c> Opportunity's</c>

08:48.790 --> 08:48.800 align:start position:0%
expecting. Much like Opportunity's
 

08:48.800 --> 08:51.350 align:start position:0%
expecting. Much like Opportunity's
landing<00:08:49.200><c> site,</c><00:08:50.000><c> these</c><00:08:50.399><c> smooth</c><00:08:50.800><c> polished</c>

08:51.350 --> 08:51.360 align:start position:0%
landing site, these smooth polished
 

08:51.360 --> 08:54.310 align:start position:0%
landing site, these smooth polished
blueberry<00:08:51.920><c> rocks</c><00:08:52.399><c> were</c><00:08:52.560><c> observed.</c><00:08:53.839><c> However,</c>

08:54.310 --> 08:54.320 align:start position:0%
blueberry rocks were observed. However,
 

08:54.320 --> 08:56.230 align:start position:0%
blueberry rocks were observed. However,
this<00:08:54.560><c> time</c><00:08:54.800><c> they</c><00:08:55.040><c> were</c><00:08:55.200><c> very</c><00:08:55.519><c> much</c><00:08:55.760><c> a</c><00:08:56.000><c> part</c><00:08:56.160><c> of</c>

08:56.230 --> 08:56.240 align:start position:0%
this time they were very much a part of
 

08:56.240 --> 08:57.990 align:start position:0%
this time they were very much a part of
the<00:08:56.480><c> rock.</c>

08:57.990 --> 08:58.000 align:start position:0%
the rock.
 

08:58.000 --> 08:59.590 align:start position:0%
the rock.
They<00:08:58.240><c> were</c><00:08:58.399><c> also</c><00:08:58.800><c> smaller</c><00:08:59.200><c> than</c><00:08:59.360><c> what</c>

08:59.590 --> 08:59.600 align:start position:0%
They were also smaller than what
 

08:59.600 --> 09:01.910 align:start position:0%
They were also smaller than what
Opportunity<00:09:00.160><c> had</c><00:09:00.399><c> seen</c><00:09:00.640><c> before,</c><00:09:01.360><c> only</c><00:09:01.600><c> a</c><00:09:01.760><c> few</c>

09:01.910 --> 09:01.920 align:start position:0%
Opportunity had seen before, only a few
 

09:01.920 --> 09:04.790 align:start position:0%
Opportunity had seen before, only a few
millimeters<00:09:02.480><c> in</c><00:09:02.640><c> diameter</c><00:09:03.600><c> and</c><00:09:03.920><c> not</c><00:09:04.240><c> rich</c><00:09:04.560><c> in</c>

09:04.790 --> 09:04.800 align:start position:0%
millimeters in diameter and not rich in
 

09:04.800 --> 09:07.590 align:start position:0%
millimeters in diameter and not rich in
iron<00:09:05.279><c> like</c><00:09:05.519><c> the</c><00:09:05.760><c> landing</c><00:09:06.080><c> site</c><00:09:06.399><c> blueberries.</c>

09:07.590 --> 09:07.600 align:start position:0%
iron like the landing site blueberries.
 

09:07.600 --> 09:09.110 align:start position:0%
iron like the landing site blueberries.
A<00:09:07.839><c> few</c><00:09:08.000><c> of</c><00:09:08.080><c> the</c><00:09:08.240><c> exposed</c><00:09:08.640><c> blueberries</c>

09:09.110 --> 09:09.120 align:start position:0%
A few of the exposed blueberries
 

09:09.120 --> 09:11.829 align:start position:0%
A few of the exposed blueberries
observed<00:09:09.680><c> had</c><00:09:09.920><c> been</c><00:09:10.160><c> eroded</c><00:09:10.560><c> away,</c><00:09:11.360><c> revealing</c>

09:11.829 --> 09:11.839 align:start position:0%
observed had been eroded away, revealing
 

09:11.839 --> 09:14.230 align:start position:0%
observed had been eroded away, revealing
their<00:09:12.080><c> internal</c><00:09:12.560><c> structure.</c>

09:14.230 --> 09:14.240 align:start position:0%
their internal structure.
 

09:14.240 --> 09:15.990 align:start position:0%
their internal structure.
Scientists<00:09:14.800><c> described</c><00:09:15.200><c> these</c><00:09:15.440><c> blueberries</c>

09:15.990 --> 09:16.000 align:start position:0%
Scientists described these blueberries
 

09:16.000 --> 09:18.550 align:start position:0%
Scientists described these blueberries
as<00:09:16.399><c> crunchy</c><00:09:16.880><c> on</c><00:09:17.120><c> the</c><00:09:17.279><c> outside</c><00:09:17.680><c> and</c><00:09:18.000><c> softer</c><00:09:18.399><c> in</c>

09:18.550 --> 09:18.560 align:start position:0%
as crunchy on the outside and softer in
 

09:18.560 --> 09:20.550 align:start position:0%
as crunchy on the outside and softer in
the<00:09:18.720><c> middle.</c><00:09:19.600><c> They</c><00:09:19.839><c> are</c><00:09:20.080><c> different</c><00:09:20.320><c> in</c>

09:20.550 --> 09:20.560 align:start position:0%
the middle. They are different in
 

09:20.560 --> 09:22.389 align:start position:0%
the middle. They are different in
concentration.<00:09:21.600><c> They</c><00:09:21.760><c> are</c><00:09:21.920><c> different</c><00:09:22.160><c> in</c>

09:22.389 --> 09:22.399 align:start position:0%
concentration. They are different in
 

09:22.399 --> 09:23.990 align:start position:0%
concentration. They are different in
structure.<00:09:23.120><c> They</c><00:09:23.279><c> are</c><00:09:23.440><c> different</c><00:09:23.680><c> in</c>

09:23.990 --> 09:24.000 align:start position:0%
structure. They are different in
 

09:24.000 --> 09:25.829 align:start position:0%
structure. They are different in
composition.<00:09:25.040><c> They</c><00:09:25.200><c> are</c><00:09:25.360><c> different</c><00:09:25.600><c> in</c>

09:25.829 --> 09:25.839 align:start position:0%
composition. They are different in
 

09:25.839 --> 09:29.910 align:start position:0%
composition. They are different in
distribution.<00:09:27.120><c> It</c><00:09:27.360><c> was</c><00:09:27.519><c> quite</c><00:09:27.760><c> the</c><00:09:27.920><c> mystery.</c>

09:29.910 --> 09:29.920 align:start position:0%
distribution. It was quite the mystery.
 

09:29.920 --> 09:31.990 align:start position:0%
distribution. It was quite the mystery.
Opportunity<00:09:30.560><c> had</c><00:09:30.880><c> just</c><00:09:31.040><c> one</c><00:09:31.279><c> more</c><00:09:31.600><c> place</c><00:09:31.839><c> to</c>

09:31.990 --> 09:32.000 align:start position:0%
Opportunity had just one more place to
 

09:32.000 --> 09:34.470 align:start position:0%
Opportunity had just one more place to
visit<00:09:32.320><c> on</c><00:09:32.480><c> its</c><00:09:32.720><c> trip</c><00:09:32.880><c> around</c><00:09:33.200><c> Cape</c><00:09:33.519><c> York,</c><00:09:34.320><c> and</c>

09:34.470 --> 09:34.480 align:start position:0%
visit on its trip around Cape York, and
 

09:34.480 --> 09:36.790 align:start position:0%
visit on its trip around Cape York, and
that<00:09:34.720><c> was</c><00:09:34.959><c> the</c><00:09:35.200><c> clay</c><00:09:35.519><c> patch</c><00:09:35.920><c> dubbed</c><00:09:36.399><c> White</c>

09:36.790 --> 09:36.800 align:start position:0%
that was the clay patch dubbed White
 

09:36.800 --> 09:40.230 align:start position:0%
that was the clay patch dubbed White
Water<00:09:37.200><c> Lake.</c><00:09:38.480><c> On</c><00:09:38.720><c> its</c><00:09:38.959><c> way</c><00:09:39.120><c> there,</c><00:09:39.760><c> the</c><00:09:40.000><c> Earth</c>

09:40.230 --> 09:40.240 align:start position:0%
Water Lake. On its way there, the Earth
 

09:40.240 --> 09:41.990 align:start position:0%
Water Lake. On its way there, the Earth
and<00:09:40.399><c> Mars</c><00:09:40.720><c> were</c><00:09:40.959><c> just</c><00:09:41.120><c> going</c><00:09:41.279><c> through</c><00:09:41.440><c> a</c><00:09:41.680><c> phase</c>

09:41.990 --> 09:42.000 align:start position:0%
and Mars were just going through a phase
 

09:42.000 --> 09:44.470 align:start position:0%
and Mars were just going through a phase
called<00:09:42.240><c> Solar</c><00:09:42.640><c> Conjunction,</c><00:09:43.519><c> where</c><00:09:43.839><c> Mars</c><00:09:44.240><c> is</c>

09:44.470 --> 09:44.480 align:start position:0%
called Solar Conjunction, where Mars is
 

09:44.480 --> 09:46.310 align:start position:0%
called Solar Conjunction, where Mars is
behind<00:09:44.720><c> the</c><00:09:44.959><c> Sun,</c><00:09:45.600><c> which</c><00:09:45.920><c> blocks</c>

09:46.310 --> 09:46.320 align:start position:0%
behind the Sun, which blocks
 

09:46.320 --> 09:47.829 align:start position:0%
behind the Sun, which blocks
communications<00:09:47.120><c> between</c><00:09:47.440><c> mission</c>

09:47.829 --> 09:47.839 align:start position:0%
communications between mission
 

09:47.839 --> 09:49.990 align:start position:0%
communications between mission
controllers<00:09:48.320><c> and</c><00:09:48.399><c> the</c><00:09:48.480><c> rover.</c><00:09:49.519><c> This</c><00:09:49.839><c> has</c>

09:49.990 --> 09:50.000 align:start position:0%
controllers and the rover. This has
 

09:50.000 --> 09:51.590 align:start position:0%
controllers and the rover. This has
happened<00:09:50.240><c> a</c><00:09:50.480><c> few</c><00:09:50.640><c> times</c><00:09:50.880><c> during</c><00:09:51.200><c> the</c><00:09:51.440><c> course</c>

09:51.590 --> 09:51.600 align:start position:0%
happened a few times during the course
 

09:51.600 --> 09:53.990 align:start position:0%
happened a few times during the course
of<00:09:51.680><c> the</c><00:09:51.920><c> mission</c><00:09:52.160><c> already,</c><00:09:53.120><c> but</c><00:09:53.360><c> this</c><00:09:53.600><c> time</c>

09:53.990 --> 09:54.000 align:start position:0%
of the mission already, but this time
 

09:54.000 --> 09:55.829 align:start position:0%
of the mission already, but this time
Opportunity<00:09:54.560><c> gave</c><00:09:54.880><c> mission</c><00:09:55.200><c> controllers</c><00:09:55.680><c> a</c>

09:55.829 --> 09:55.839 align:start position:0%
Opportunity gave mission controllers a
 

09:55.839 --> 09:57.750 align:start position:0%
Opportunity gave mission controllers a
bit<00:09:55.920><c> of</c><00:09:56.000><c> a</c><00:09:56.160><c> scare</c><00:09:56.880><c> as</c><00:09:57.200><c> during</c><00:09:57.519><c> the</c>

09:57.750 --> 09:57.760 align:start position:0%
bit of a scare as during the
 

09:57.760 --> 10:00.070 align:start position:0%
bit of a scare as during the
communications<00:09:58.399><c> blackout,</c><00:09:59.279><c> Opportunity's</c>

10:00.070 --> 10:00.080 align:start position:0%
communications blackout, Opportunity's
 

10:00.080 --> 10:02.310 align:start position:0%
communications blackout, Opportunity's
onboard<00:10:00.560><c> computer</c><00:10:01.040><c> reset</c><00:10:01.519><c> into</c><00:10:01.839><c> standby</c>

10:02.310 --> 10:02.320 align:start position:0%
onboard computer reset into standby
 

10:02.320 --> 10:05.110 align:start position:0%
onboard computer reset into standby
mode.<00:10:03.279><c> Thankfully,</c><00:10:04.080><c> communications</c><00:10:04.800><c> were</c>

10:05.110 --> 10:05.120 align:start position:0%
mode. Thankfully, communications were
 

10:05.120 --> 10:07.509 align:start position:0%
mode. Thankfully, communications were
restored.<00:10:06.080><c> Opportunity</c><00:10:06.720><c> booted</c><00:10:07.040><c> back</c><00:10:07.279><c> up</c>

10:07.509 --> 10:07.519 align:start position:0%
restored. Opportunity booted back up
 

10:07.519 --> 10:10.230 align:start position:0%
restored. Opportunity booted back up
properly<00:10:08.480><c> and</c><00:10:08.720><c> it</c><00:10:08.959><c> carried</c><00:10:09.279><c> on</c><00:10:09.440><c> to</c><00:10:09.680><c> Whitewater</c>

10:10.230 --> 10:10.240 align:start position:0%
properly and it carried on to Whitewater
 

10:10.240 --> 10:13.430 align:start position:0%
properly and it carried on to Whitewater
Lake.<00:10:11.600><c> And</c><00:10:11.839><c> it</c><00:10:12.000><c> was</c><00:10:12.160><c> there</c><00:10:12.720><c> Opportunity</c>

10:13.430 --> 10:13.440 align:start position:0%
Lake. And it was there Opportunity
 

10:13.440 --> 10:16.310 align:start position:0%
Lake. And it was there Opportunity
discovered<00:10:14.079><c> Espirinance,</c><00:10:15.200><c> the</c><00:10:15.440><c> pale</c><00:10:15.839><c> rock</c><00:10:16.079><c> in</c>

10:16.310 --> 10:16.320 align:start position:0%
discovered Espirinance, the pale rock in
 

10:16.320 --> 10:18.470 align:start position:0%
discovered Espirinance, the pale rock in
the<00:10:16.399><c> upper</c><00:10:16.720><c> center</c><00:10:16.959><c> of</c><00:10:17.120><c> this</c><00:10:17.360><c> image,</c><00:10:18.079><c> which</c><00:10:18.320><c> is</c>

10:18.470 --> 10:18.480 align:start position:0%
the upper center of this image, which is
 

10:18.480 --> 10:21.509 align:start position:0%
the upper center of this image, which is
about<00:10:18.720><c> the</c><00:10:18.880><c> size</c><00:10:19.120><c> of</c><00:10:19.279><c> a</c><00:10:19.440><c> human</c><00:10:19.760><c> forearm.</c><00:10:21.200><c> This</c>

10:21.509 --> 10:21.519 align:start position:0%
about the size of a human forearm. This
 

10:21.519 --> 10:24.069 align:start position:0%
about the size of a human forearm. This
was<00:10:21.760><c> it,</c><00:10:22.399><c> the</c><00:10:22.640><c> treasure</c><00:10:23.120><c> scientists</c><00:10:23.680><c> had</c><00:10:23.920><c> been</c>

10:24.069 --> 10:24.079 align:start position:0%
was it, the treasure scientists had been
 

10:24.079 --> 10:26.470 align:start position:0%
was it, the treasure scientists had been
looking<00:10:24.320><c> for.</c>

10:26.470 --> 10:26.480 align:start position:0%
looking for.
 

10:26.480 --> 10:28.550 align:start position:0%
looking for.
Espirinanc's<00:10:27.279><c> composition</c><00:10:27.760><c> was</c><00:10:28.000><c> found</c><00:10:28.160><c> to</c><00:10:28.399><c> be</c>

10:28.550 --> 10:28.560 align:start position:0%
Espirinanc's composition was found to be
 

10:28.560 --> 10:31.750 align:start position:0%
Espirinanc's composition was found to be
higher<00:10:28.800><c> in</c><00:10:29.040><c> aluminium</c><00:10:29.760><c> and</c><00:10:30.079><c> silica</c><00:10:31.200><c> and</c><00:10:31.440><c> lower</c>

10:31.750 --> 10:31.760 align:start position:0%
higher in aluminium and silica and lower
 

10:31.760 --> 10:34.550 align:start position:0%
higher in aluminium and silica and lower
in<00:10:32.000><c> calcium</c><00:10:32.480><c> and</c><00:10:32.720><c> iron,</c><00:10:33.519><c> more</c><00:10:33.760><c> so</c><00:10:34.000><c> than</c><00:10:34.320><c> any</c>

10:34.550 --> 10:34.560 align:start position:0%
in calcium and iron, more so than any
 

10:34.560 --> 10:36.870 align:start position:0%
in calcium and iron, more so than any
other<00:10:34.880><c> rock</c><00:10:35.279><c> Opportunity</c><00:10:35.920><c> had</c><00:10:36.160><c> examined</c><00:10:36.640><c> in</c>

10:36.870 --> 10:36.880 align:start position:0%
other rock Opportunity had examined in
 

10:36.880 --> 10:40.069 align:start position:0%
other rock Opportunity had examined in
more<00:10:37.040><c> than</c><00:10:37.279><c> 9</c><00:10:37.519><c> years</c><00:10:37.760><c> on</c><00:10:38.000><c> Mars.</c><00:10:39.200><c> Testing</c><00:10:39.760><c> found</c>

10:40.069 --> 10:40.079 align:start position:0%
more than 9 years on Mars. Testing found
 

10:40.079 --> 10:42.150 align:start position:0%
more than 9 years on Mars. Testing found
that<00:10:40.320><c> this</c><00:10:40.560><c> rock</c><00:10:40.880><c> had</c><00:10:41.040><c> a</c><00:10:41.279><c> clay</c><00:10:41.680><c> mineral</c>

10:42.150 --> 10:42.160 align:start position:0%
that this rock had a clay mineral
 

10:42.160 --> 10:44.630 align:start position:0%
that this rock had a clay mineral
content<00:10:42.880><c> due</c><00:10:43.120><c> to</c><00:10:43.279><c> intense</c><00:10:43.680><c> alteration</c><00:10:44.320><c> by</c>

10:44.630 --> 10:44.640 align:start position:0%
content due to intense alteration by
 

10:44.640 --> 10:47.829 align:start position:0%
content due to intense alteration by
water.<00:10:45.760><c> Opportunity</c><00:10:46.399><c> spent</c><00:10:46.800><c> weeks</c><00:10:47.120><c> here</c>

10:47.829 --> 10:47.839 align:start position:0%
water. Opportunity spent weeks here
 

10:47.839 --> 10:49.190 align:start position:0%
water. Opportunity spent weeks here
making<00:10:48.160><c> sure</c><00:10:48.320><c> the</c><00:10:48.560><c> measurements</c><00:10:48.959><c> were</c>

10:49.190 --> 10:49.200 align:start position:0%
making sure the measurements were
 

10:49.200 --> 10:51.190 align:start position:0%
making sure the measurements were
correct,<00:10:49.839><c> getting</c><00:10:50.240><c> everything</c><00:10:50.560><c> it</c><00:10:50.800><c> could</c><00:10:50.959><c> get</c>

10:51.190 --> 10:51.200 align:start position:0%
correct, getting everything it could get
 

10:51.200 --> 10:53.350 align:start position:0%
correct, getting everything it could get
done<00:10:51.680><c> before</c><00:10:52.079><c> Martian</c><00:10:52.480><c> winter</c><00:10:52.800><c> came</c><00:10:53.040><c> around</c>

10:53.350 --> 10:53.360 align:start position:0%
done before Martian winter came around
 

10:53.360 --> 10:56.150 align:start position:0%
done before Martian winter came around
again.<00:10:54.399><c> Opportunity</c><00:10:55.040><c> left</c><00:10:55.360><c> Cape</c><00:10:55.680><c> York</c><00:10:56.000><c> on</c>

10:56.150 --> 10:56.160 align:start position:0%
again. Opportunity left Cape York on
 

10:56.160 --> 10:58.230 align:start position:0%
again. Opportunity left Cape York on
soul<00:10:56.640><c> 3344.</c>

10:58.230 --> 10:58.240 align:start position:0%
soul 3344.
 

10:58.240 --> 11:00.790 align:start position:0%
soul 3344.
Having<00:10:58.560><c> spent</c><00:10:58.880><c> nine</c><00:10:59.200><c> Earth</c><00:10:59.519><c> years</c><00:11:00.079><c> or</c><00:11:00.399><c> five</c>

11:00.790 --> 11:00.800 align:start position:0%
Having spent nine Earth years or five
 

11:00.800 --> 11:03.910 align:start position:0%
Having spent nine Earth years or five
Martian<00:11:01.279><c> years</c><00:11:01.600><c> on</c><00:11:01.839><c> Mars's</c><00:11:02.320><c> surface,</c><00:11:03.680><c> they</c>

11:03.910 --> 11:03.920 align:start position:0%
Martian years on Mars's surface, they
 

11:03.920 --> 11:06.150 align:start position:0%
Martian years on Mars's surface, they
found<00:11:04.160><c> the</c><00:11:04.399><c> best</c><00:11:04.640><c> evidence</c><00:11:05.120><c> out</c><00:11:05.279><c> of</c><00:11:05.440><c> any</c><00:11:05.760><c> Mars</c>

11:06.150 --> 11:06.160 align:start position:0%
found the best evidence out of any Mars
 

11:06.160 --> 11:08.470 align:start position:0%
found the best evidence out of any Mars
mission<00:11:06.480><c> that</c><00:11:06.800><c> neutral</c><00:11:07.279><c> pH</c><00:11:07.680><c> water</c><00:11:08.160><c> once</c>

11:08.470 --> 11:08.480 align:start position:0%
mission that neutral pH water once
 

11:08.480 --> 11:11.430 align:start position:0%
mission that neutral pH water once
existed<00:11:08.880><c> on</c><00:11:09.120><c> Mars.</c><00:11:10.160><c> But</c><00:11:10.320><c> scientists</c><00:11:10.880><c> were</c><00:11:11.120><c> not</c>

11:11.430 --> 11:11.440 align:start position:0%
existed on Mars. But scientists were not
 

11:11.440 --> 11:14.310 align:start position:0%
existed on Mars. But scientists were not
content<00:11:11.839><c> to</c><00:11:12.000><c> let</c><00:11:12.160><c> the</c><00:11:12.399><c> mystery</c><00:11:12.880><c> end</c><00:11:13.200><c> there.</c><00:11:14.079><c> To</c>

11:14.310 --> 11:14.320 align:start position:0%
content to let the mystery end there. To
 

11:14.320 --> 11:17.350 align:start position:0%
content to let the mystery end there. To
get<00:11:14.480><c> a</c><00:11:14.720><c> clear</c><00:11:14.959><c> idea</c><00:11:15.279><c> of</c><00:11:15.519><c> where</c><00:11:15.839><c> water</c><00:11:16.720><c> and</c><00:11:16.959><c> thus</c>

11:17.350 --> 11:17.360 align:start position:0%
get a clear idea of where water and thus
 

11:17.360 --> 11:20.310 align:start position:0%
get a clear idea of where water and thus
potential<00:11:17.839><c> life</c><00:11:18.480><c> had</c><00:11:18.640><c> once</c><00:11:18.959><c> resided</c><00:11:19.360><c> on</c><00:11:19.600><c> Mars,</c>

11:20.310 --> 11:20.320 align:start position:0%
potential life had once resided on Mars,
 

11:20.320 --> 11:22.710 align:start position:0%
potential life had once resided on Mars,
other<00:11:20.800><c> locations</c><00:11:21.360><c> on</c><00:11:21.519><c> the</c><00:11:21.760><c> dusty</c><00:11:22.160><c> surface</c>

11:22.710 --> 11:22.720 align:start position:0%
other locations on the dusty surface
 

11:22.720 --> 11:27.030 align:start position:0%
other locations on the dusty surface
needed<00:11:23.120><c> to</c><00:11:23.360><c> be</c><00:11:23.600><c> explored.</c><00:11:24.720><c> As</c><00:11:25.040><c> such,</c><00:11:25.519><c> in</c><00:11:25.839><c> 2021,</c>

11:27.030 --> 11:27.040 align:start position:0%
needed to be explored. As such, in 2021,
 

11:27.040 --> 11:29.190 align:start position:0%
needed to be explored. As such, in 2021,
our<00:11:27.360><c> next</c><00:11:27.600><c> robo</c><00:11:28.079><c> was</c><00:11:28.240><c> sent</c><00:11:28.399><c> to</c><00:11:28.640><c> locations</c>

11:29.190 --> 11:29.200 align:start position:0%
our next robo was sent to locations
 

11:29.200 --> 11:32.310 align:start position:0%
our next robo was sent to locations
within<00:11:29.680><c> a</c><00:11:29.920><c> crater</c><00:11:30.480><c> known</c><00:11:30.720><c> as</c><00:11:31.120><c> Yzero,</c>

11:32.310 --> 11:32.320 align:start position:0%
within a crater known as Yzero,
 

11:32.320 --> 11:38.630 align:start position:0%
within a crater known as Yzero,
thousands<00:11:32.880><c> of</c><00:11:33.040><c> kilometers</c><00:11:33.600><c> away.</c>

11:38.630 --> 11:38.640 align:start position:0%
 
 

11:38.640 --> 11:41.350 align:start position:0%
 
In<00:11:38.880><c> Yzero</c><00:11:39.600><c> Crater,</c><00:11:40.240><c> there</c><00:11:40.399><c> is</c><00:11:40.560><c> a</c><00:11:40.720><c> June</c><00:11:41.040><c> field</c>

11:41.350 --> 11:41.360 align:start position:0%
In Yzero Crater, there is a June field
 

11:41.360 --> 11:44.550 align:start position:0%
In Yzero Crater, there is a June field
known<00:11:41.600><c> as</c><00:11:41.839><c> Saitar.</c><00:11:43.279><c> In</c><00:11:43.519><c> amongst</c><00:11:43.839><c> these</c><00:11:44.079><c> dunes,</c>

11:44.550 --> 11:44.560 align:start position:0%
known as Saitar. In amongst these dunes,
 

11:44.560 --> 11:46.630 align:start position:0%
known as Saitar. In amongst these dunes,
there<00:11:44.720><c> is</c><00:11:44.880><c> a</c><00:11:45.120><c> series</c><00:11:45.440><c> of</c><00:11:45.600><c> outcroppings</c><00:11:46.320><c> that</c>

11:46.630 --> 11:46.640 align:start position:0%
there is a series of outcroppings that
 

11:46.640 --> 11:48.310 align:start position:0%
there is a series of outcroppings that
were<00:11:46.880><c> of</c><00:11:47.120><c> particular</c><00:11:47.760><c> interest</c><00:11:48.160><c> to</c>

11:48.310 --> 11:48.320 align:start position:0%
were of particular interest to
 

11:48.320 --> 11:50.710 align:start position:0%
were of particular interest to
Perseverance's<00:11:49.200><c> mission</c><00:11:49.839><c> due</c><00:11:50.079><c> to</c><00:11:50.240><c> the</c><00:11:50.399><c> many</c>

11:50.710 --> 11:50.720 align:start position:0%
Perseverance's mission due to the many
 

11:50.720 --> 11:52.630 align:start position:0%
Perseverance's mission due to the many
different<00:11:51.120><c> layers</c><00:11:51.279><c> of</c><00:11:51.519><c> exposed</c><00:11:52.079><c> rock</c><00:11:52.399><c> they</c>

11:52.630 --> 11:52.640 align:start position:0%
different layers of exposed rock they
 

11:52.640 --> 11:55.430 align:start position:0%
different layers of exposed rock they
gave<00:11:52.880><c> access</c><00:11:53.200><c> to.</c><00:11:54.320><c> These</c><00:11:54.640><c> different</c><00:11:55.120><c> layers</c>

11:55.430 --> 11:55.440 align:start position:0%
gave access to. These different layers
 

11:55.440 --> 11:57.509 align:start position:0%
gave access to. These different layers
likely<00:11:55.839><c> represented</c><00:11:56.480><c> different</c><00:11:56.800><c> geological</c>

11:57.509 --> 11:57.519 align:start position:0%
likely represented different geological
 

11:57.519 --> 11:59.910 align:start position:0%
likely represented different geological
eras,<00:11:58.320><c> which</c><00:11:58.560><c> would</c><00:11:58.800><c> give</c><00:11:59.120><c> scientists</c><00:11:59.600><c> the</c>

11:59.910 --> 11:59.920 align:start position:0%
eras, which would give scientists the
 

11:59.920 --> 12:01.590 align:start position:0%
eras, which would give scientists the
clearest<00:12:00.480><c> picture</c><00:12:00.800><c> of</c><00:12:00.959><c> the</c><00:12:01.200><c> history</c><00:12:01.440><c> of</c>

12:01.590 --> 12:01.600 align:start position:0%
clearest picture of the history of
 

12:01.600 --> 12:03.829 align:start position:0%
clearest picture of the history of
Yzero,<00:12:02.560><c> as</c><00:12:02.720><c> well</c><00:12:02.880><c> as</c><00:12:03.120><c> giving</c><00:12:03.360><c> them</c><00:12:03.600><c> an</c>

12:03.829 --> 12:03.839 align:start position:0%
Yzero, as well as giving them an
 

12:03.839 --> 12:07.030 align:start position:0%
Yzero, as well as giving them an
opportunity<00:12:04.320><c> to</c><00:12:04.560><c> find</c><00:12:04.880><c> life</c><00:12:05.279><c> itself.</c>

12:07.030 --> 12:07.040 align:start position:0%
opportunity to find life itself.
 

12:07.040 --> 12:09.590 align:start position:0%
opportunity to find life itself.
Outcroppings<00:12:07.839><c> are</c><00:12:08.079><c> of</c><00:12:08.399><c> particular</c><00:12:09.040><c> interest</c>

12:09.590 --> 12:09.600 align:start position:0%
Outcroppings are of particular interest
 

12:09.600 --> 12:11.430 align:start position:0%
Outcroppings are of particular interest
because<00:12:10.079><c> Perseverance's</c><00:12:10.959><c> drilling</c>

12:11.430 --> 12:11.440 align:start position:0%
because Perseverance's drilling
 

12:11.440 --> 12:13.590 align:start position:0%
because Perseverance's drilling
equipment<00:12:12.000><c> only</c><00:12:12.320><c> allows</c><00:12:12.639><c> it</c><00:12:12.800><c> to</c><00:12:12.959><c> dig</c><00:12:13.200><c> several</c>

12:13.590 --> 12:13.600 align:start position:0%
equipment only allows it to dig several
 

12:13.600 --> 12:15.110 align:start position:0%
equipment only allows it to dig several
centime.

12:15.110 --> 12:15.120 align:start position:0%
centime.
 

12:15.120 --> 12:17.350 align:start position:0%
centime.
If<00:12:15.279><c> it</c><00:12:15.519><c> wasn't</c><00:12:15.680><c> for</c><00:12:16.000><c> outcroppings,</c><00:12:16.880><c> where</c>

12:17.350 --> 12:17.360 align:start position:0%
If it wasn't for outcroppings, where
 

12:17.360 --> 12:19.430 align:start position:0%
If it wasn't for outcroppings, where
erosion<00:12:17.760><c> had</c><00:12:18.079><c> exposed</c><00:12:18.560><c> these</c><00:12:18.959><c> layers</c><00:12:19.200><c> to</c><00:12:19.360><c> the</c>

12:19.430 --> 12:19.440 align:start position:0%
erosion had exposed these layers to the
 

12:19.440 --> 12:21.829 align:start position:0%
erosion had exposed these layers to the
Martian<00:12:19.839><c> atmosphere,</c><00:12:20.880><c> Perseverance</c><00:12:21.600><c> would</c>

12:21.829 --> 12:21.839 align:start position:0%
Martian atmosphere, Perseverance would
 

12:21.839 --> 12:23.910 align:start position:0%
Martian atmosphere, Perseverance would
not<00:12:22.000><c> have</c><00:12:22.240><c> access</c><00:12:22.560><c> to</c><00:12:22.720><c> them.</c>

12:23.910 --> 12:23.920 align:start position:0%
not have access to them.
 

12:23.920 --> 12:26.710 align:start position:0%
not have access to them.
However,<00:12:24.800><c> sandjunes</c><00:12:25.519><c> are</c><00:12:25.760><c> of</c><00:12:26.079><c> particular</c>

12:26.710 --> 12:26.720 align:start position:0%
However, sandjunes are of particular
 

12:26.720 --> 12:29.750 align:start position:0%
However, sandjunes are of particular
danger<00:12:27.200><c> to</c><00:12:27.360><c> a</c><00:12:27.600><c> rover</c><00:12:27.920><c> like</c><00:12:28.160><c> Perseverance.</c>

12:29.750 --> 12:29.760 align:start position:0%
danger to a rover like Perseverance.
 

12:29.760 --> 12:32.389 align:start position:0%
danger to a rover like Perseverance.
With<00:12:30.000><c> help</c><00:12:30.320><c> an</c><00:12:30.560><c> entire</c><00:12:30.959><c> solar</c><00:12:31.360><c> system</c><00:12:31.680><c> away,</c>

12:32.389 --> 12:32.399 align:start position:0%
With help an entire solar system away,
 

12:32.399 --> 12:34.710 align:start position:0%
With help an entire solar system away,
if<00:12:32.639><c> Perseverance</c><00:12:33.360><c> was</c><00:12:33.680><c> to</c><00:12:33.920><c> start</c><00:12:34.320><c> wheel</c>

12:34.710 --> 12:34.720 align:start position:0%
if Perseverance was to start wheel
 

12:34.720 --> 12:36.629 align:start position:0%
if Perseverance was to start wheel
spinning<00:12:35.040><c> in</c><00:12:35.200><c> a</c><00:12:35.440><c> section</c><00:12:35.680><c> of</c><00:12:36.000><c> particularly</c>

12:36.629 --> 12:36.639 align:start position:0%
spinning in a section of particularly
 

12:36.639 --> 12:39.030 align:start position:0%
spinning in a section of particularly
loose<00:12:36.959><c> June,</c><00:12:37.680><c> it</c><00:12:37.920><c> would</c><00:12:38.079><c> likely</c><00:12:38.480><c> spell</c><00:12:38.800><c> the</c>

12:39.030 --> 12:39.040 align:start position:0%
loose June, it would likely spell the
 

12:39.040 --> 12:41.430 align:start position:0%
loose June, it would likely spell the
end<00:12:39.200><c> of</c><00:12:39.360><c> its</c><00:12:39.600><c> mission,</c><00:12:40.399><c> much</c><00:12:40.639><c> like</c><00:12:40.800><c> it</c><00:12:41.040><c> did</c><00:12:41.200><c> for</c>

12:41.430 --> 12:41.440 align:start position:0%
end of its mission, much like it did for
 

12:41.440 --> 12:44.710 align:start position:0%
end of its mission, much like it did for
the<00:12:41.600><c> Spirit</c><00:12:42.000><c> Rover</c><00:12:42.399><c> in</c><00:12:42.800><c> 2009.</c>

12:44.710 --> 12:44.720 align:start position:0%
the Spirit Rover in 2009.
 

12:44.720 --> 12:47.509 align:start position:0%
the Spirit Rover in 2009.
As<00:12:44.959><c> such,</c><00:12:45.440><c> Perseverance's</c><00:12:46.320><c> trusty</c><00:12:46.800><c> sidekick,</c>

12:47.509 --> 12:47.519 align:start position:0%
As such, Perseverance's trusty sidekick,
 

12:47.519 --> 12:50.710 align:start position:0%
As such, Perseverance's trusty sidekick,
Ingenuity,<00:12:48.720><c> a</c><00:12:48.959><c> small</c><00:12:49.279><c> helicopter,</c><00:12:50.160><c> the</c><00:12:50.480><c> first</c>

12:50.710 --> 12:50.720 align:start position:0%
Ingenuity, a small helicopter, the first
 

12:50.720 --> 12:53.269 align:start position:0%
Ingenuity, a small helicopter, the first
of<00:12:50.880><c> its</c><00:12:51.200><c> kind</c><00:12:51.519><c> on</c><00:12:51.760><c> the</c><00:12:51.920><c> Martian</c><00:12:52.399><c> surface</c><00:12:53.040><c> that</c>

12:53.269 --> 12:53.279 align:start position:0%
of its kind on the Martian surface that
 

12:53.279 --> 12:55.030 align:start position:0%
of its kind on the Martian surface that
had<00:12:53.519><c> traveled</c><00:12:53.760><c> to</c><00:12:53.920><c> Mars</c><00:12:54.320><c> along</c><00:12:54.720><c> with</c>

12:55.030 --> 12:55.040 align:start position:0%
had traveled to Mars along with
 

12:55.040 --> 12:57.430 align:start position:0%
had traveled to Mars along with
Perseverance,<00:12:56.079><c> was</c><00:12:56.320><c> sent</c><00:12:56.560><c> in</c><00:12:56.800><c> to</c><00:12:57.040><c> conduct</c>

12:57.430 --> 12:57.440 align:start position:0%
Perseverance, was sent in to conduct
 

12:57.440 --> 13:00.069 align:start position:0%
Perseverance, was sent in to conduct
some<00:12:57.680><c> preliminary</c><00:12:58.399><c> reconnaissance.</c>

13:00.069 --> 13:00.079 align:start position:0%
some preliminary reconnaissance.
 

13:00.079 --> 13:01.990 align:start position:0%
some preliminary reconnaissance.
If<00:13:00.320><c> it</c><00:13:00.560><c> could</c><00:13:00.720><c> find</c><00:13:00.959><c> a</c><00:13:01.200><c> route</c><00:13:01.519><c> through</c><00:13:01.760><c> the</c>

13:01.990 --> 13:02.000 align:start position:0%
If it could find a route through the
 

13:02.000 --> 13:04.389 align:start position:0%
If it could find a route through the
sandunes<00:13:02.560><c> that</c><00:13:02.800><c> look</c><00:13:03.040><c> safe,</c><00:13:03.680><c> Perseverance</c>

13:04.389 --> 13:04.399 align:start position:0%
sandunes that look safe, Perseverance
 

13:04.399 --> 13:06.790 align:start position:0%
sandunes that look safe, Perseverance
could<00:13:04.639><c> get</c><00:13:04.880><c> its</c><00:13:05.120><c> sample</c><00:13:05.519><c> tubes</c><00:13:06.000><c> to</c><00:13:06.240><c> the</c><00:13:06.399><c> vital</c>

13:06.790 --> 13:06.800 align:start position:0%
could get its sample tubes to the vital
 

13:06.800 --> 13:09.430 align:start position:0%
could get its sample tubes to the vital
outcroppings<00:13:07.519><c> of</c><00:13:07.760><c> Saitar.</c>

13:09.430 --> 13:09.440 align:start position:0%
outcroppings of Saitar.
 

13:09.440 --> 13:11.590 align:start position:0%
outcroppings of Saitar.
Ingenuity<00:13:10.079><c> began</c><00:13:10.320><c> its</c><00:13:10.639><c> scouting</c><00:13:11.120><c> before</c><00:13:11.440><c> the</c>

13:11.590 --> 13:11.600 align:start position:0%
Ingenuity began its scouting before the
 

13:11.600 --> 13:13.990 align:start position:0%
Ingenuity began its scouting before the
Solar<00:13:12.000><c> Conjunction</c><00:13:12.800><c> and</c><00:13:13.040><c> flew</c><00:13:13.360><c> for</c><00:13:13.600><c> several</c>

13:13.990 --> 13:14.000 align:start position:0%
Solar Conjunction and flew for several
 

13:14.000 --> 13:15.990 align:start position:0%
Solar Conjunction and flew for several
flights<00:13:14.480><c> from</c><00:13:14.800><c> September</c><00:13:15.360><c> through</c><00:13:15.680><c> to</c>

13:15.990 --> 13:16.000 align:start position:0%
flights from September through to
 

13:16.000 --> 13:19.190 align:start position:0%
flights from September through to
December<00:13:16.560><c> 2021.</c><00:13:17.839><c> Flying</c><00:13:18.160><c> at</c><00:13:18.320><c> a</c><00:13:18.480><c> height</c><00:13:18.720><c> of</c><00:13:18.959><c> 10</c>

13:19.190 --> 13:19.200 align:start position:0%
December 2021. Flying at a height of 10
 

13:19.200 --> 13:21.670 align:start position:0%
December 2021. Flying at a height of 10
meters,<00:13:19.920><c> these</c><00:13:20.240><c> reconnaissance</c><00:13:20.880><c> expeditions</c>

13:21.670 --> 13:21.680 align:start position:0%
meters, these reconnaissance expeditions
 

13:21.680 --> 13:23.509 align:start position:0%
meters, these reconnaissance expeditions
allowed<00:13:22.079><c> scientists</c><00:13:22.560><c> to</c><00:13:22.800><c> pick</c><00:13:23.040><c> out</c><00:13:23.279><c> the</c>

13:23.509 --> 13:23.519 align:start position:0%
allowed scientists to pick out the
 

13:23.519 --> 13:26.310 align:start position:0%
allowed scientists to pick out the
perfect<00:13:23.839><c> route.</c><00:13:24.720><c> Perseverance</c><00:13:25.440><c> set</c><00:13:25.680><c> off</c><00:13:26.000><c> in</c>

13:26.310 --> 13:26.320 align:start position:0%
perfect route. Perseverance set off in
 

13:26.320 --> 13:29.269 align:start position:0%
perfect route. Perseverance set off in
early<00:13:26.639><c> November</c><00:13:27.200><c> 2021,</c><00:13:28.480><c> beginning</c><00:13:28.959><c> its</c>

13:29.269 --> 13:29.279 align:start position:0%
early November 2021, beginning its
 

13:29.279 --> 13:31.910 align:start position:0%
early November 2021, beginning its
exploration<00:13:29.760><c> of</c><00:13:30.000><c> the</c><00:13:30.160><c> dunes.</c><00:13:31.120><c> It</c><00:13:31.360><c> picked</c><00:13:31.680><c> its</c>

13:31.910 --> 13:31.920 align:start position:0%
exploration of the dunes. It picked its
 

13:31.920 --> 13:34.470 align:start position:0%
exploration of the dunes. It picked its
way<00:13:32.160><c> carefully,</c><00:13:33.120><c> being</c><00:13:33.440><c> sure</c><00:13:33.680><c> not</c><00:13:33.920><c> to</c><00:13:34.160><c> travel</c>

13:34.470 --> 13:34.480 align:start position:0%
way carefully, being sure not to travel
 

13:34.480 --> 13:36.790 align:start position:0%
way carefully, being sure not to travel
too<00:13:34.720><c> fast</c><00:13:35.360><c> in</c><00:13:35.600><c> case</c><00:13:35.680><c> it</c><00:13:35.920><c> fell</c><00:13:36.240><c> into</c><00:13:36.560><c> any</c>

13:36.790 --> 13:36.800 align:start position:0%
too fast in case it fell into any
 

13:36.800 --> 13:39.829 align:start position:0%
too fast in case it fell into any
unforeseen<00:13:37.600><c> sand</c><00:13:37.920><c> trap.</c><00:13:38.959><c> It</c><00:13:39.200><c> moved</c><00:13:39.519><c> between</c>

13:39.829 --> 13:39.839 align:start position:0%
unforeseen sand trap. It moved between
 

13:39.839 --> 13:42.310 align:start position:0%
unforeseen sand trap. It moved between
dunes<00:13:40.320><c> that</c><00:13:40.480><c> were</c><00:13:40.560><c> a</c><00:13:40.800><c> meter</c><00:13:41.120><c> high,</c><00:13:41.839><c> finding</c>

13:42.310 --> 13:42.320 align:start position:0%
dunes that were a meter high, finding
 

13:42.320 --> 13:44.949 align:start position:0%
dunes that were a meter high, finding
the<00:13:42.560><c> flattest</c><00:13:43.040><c> path.</c><00:13:44.160><c> But</c><00:13:44.320><c> thankfully,</c>

13:44.949 --> 13:44.959 align:start position:0%
the flattest path. But thankfully,
 

13:44.959 --> 13:46.949 align:start position:0%
the flattest path. But thankfully,
Ingenuity<00:13:45.680><c> had</c><00:13:45.920><c> led</c><00:13:46.079><c> it</c><00:13:46.320><c> through.</c>

13:46.949 --> 13:46.959 align:start position:0%
Ingenuity had led it through.
 

13:46.959 --> 13:48.949 align:start position:0%
Ingenuity had led it through.
Perseverance<00:13:47.680><c> was</c><00:13:47.920><c> able</c><00:13:48.079><c> to</c><00:13:48.320><c> make</c><00:13:48.480><c> it</c><00:13:48.639><c> to</c><00:13:48.800><c> the</c>

13:48.949 --> 13:48.959 align:start position:0%
Perseverance was able to make it to the
 

13:48.959 --> 13:52.310 align:start position:0%
Perseverance was able to make it to the
protruding<00:13:49.519><c> rock</c><00:13:49.920><c> known</c><00:13:50.240><c> as</c><00:13:50.480><c> Brack.</c><00:13:51.680><c> By</c><00:13:52.000><c> now,</c>

13:52.310 --> 13:52.320 align:start position:0%
protruding rock known as Brack. By now,
 

13:52.320 --> 13:54.389 align:start position:0%
protruding rock known as Brack. By now,
Perseverance<00:13:52.959><c> had</c><00:13:53.200><c> had</c><00:13:53.440><c> time</c><00:13:53.600><c> to</c><00:13:53.920><c> practice</c>

13:54.389 --> 13:54.399 align:start position:0%
Perseverance had had time to practice
 

13:54.399 --> 13:56.710 align:start position:0%
Perseverance had had time to practice
drilling<00:13:54.880><c> into</c><00:13:55.200><c> Martian</c><00:13:55.600><c> rock</c><00:13:55.839><c> with</c><00:13:56.079><c> its</c><00:13:56.320><c> cing</c>

13:56.710 --> 13:56.720 align:start position:0%
drilling into Martian rock with its cing
 

13:56.720 --> 13:59.990 align:start position:0%
drilling into Martian rock with its cing
drill.<00:13:57.440><c> Some</c><00:13:57.680><c> of</c><00:13:57.839><c> this</c><00:13:58.160><c> successful</c><00:13:59.199><c> and</c><00:13:59.440><c> some</c>

13:59.990 --> 14:00.000 align:start position:0%
drill. Some of this successful and some
 

14:00.000 --> 14:03.030 align:start position:0%
drill. Some of this successful and some
not<00:14:00.320><c> so.</c><00:14:01.040><c> But</c><00:14:01.279><c> either</c><00:14:01.519><c> way,</c><00:14:02.240><c> now</c><00:14:02.480><c> that</c><00:14:02.720><c> it</c><00:14:02.880><c> had</c>

14:03.030 --> 14:03.040 align:start position:0%
not so. But either way, now that it had
 

14:03.040 --> 14:05.430 align:start position:0%
not so. But either way, now that it had
its<00:14:03.279><c> technique</c><00:14:03.680><c> down,</c><00:14:04.240><c> Perseverance</c><00:14:04.959><c> quickly</c>

14:05.430 --> 14:05.440 align:start position:0%
its technique down, Perseverance quickly
 

14:05.440 --> 14:08.230 align:start position:0%
its technique down, Perseverance quickly
was<00:14:05.680><c> able</c><00:14:05.839><c> to</c><00:14:06.000><c> obtain</c><00:14:06.399><c> new</c><00:14:06.639><c> samples.</c><00:14:07.760><c> deciding</c>

14:08.230 --> 14:08.240 align:start position:0%
was able to obtain new samples. deciding
 

14:08.240 --> 14:10.470 align:start position:0%
was able to obtain new samples. deciding
to<00:14:08.399><c> call</c><00:14:08.639><c> the</c><00:14:08.880><c> first</c><00:14:09.199><c> empty</c><00:14:09.519><c> sample</c><00:14:10.000><c> container</c>

14:10.470 --> 14:10.480 align:start position:0%
to call the first empty sample container
 

14:10.480 --> 14:13.350 align:start position:0%
to call the first empty sample container
at<00:14:10.720><c> Brack</c><00:14:11.120><c> an</c><00:14:11.360><c> atmosphere</c><00:14:12.079><c> sample.</c><00:14:13.040><c> These</c>

14:13.350 --> 14:13.360 align:start position:0%
at Brack an atmosphere sample. These
 

14:13.360 --> 14:15.189 align:start position:0%
at Brack an atmosphere sample. These
next<00:14:13.680><c> two</c><00:14:13.920><c> samples</c><00:14:14.399><c> were</c><00:14:14.639><c> officially</c>

14:15.189 --> 14:15.199 align:start position:0%
next two samples were officially
 

14:15.199 --> 14:17.590 align:start position:0%
next two samples were officially
Perseverance's<00:14:16.079><c> fifth</c><00:14:16.399><c> and</c><00:14:16.720><c> sixth</c><00:14:17.199><c> sample</c>

14:17.590 --> 14:17.600 align:start position:0%
Perseverance's fifth and sixth sample
 

14:17.600 --> 14:19.910 align:start position:0%
Perseverance's fifth and sixth sample
tubes<00:14:18.160><c> and</c><00:14:18.399><c> their</c><00:14:18.639><c> third</c><00:14:18.880><c> and</c><00:14:19.199><c> fourth</c><00:14:19.600><c> rock</c>

14:19.910 --> 14:19.920 align:start position:0%
tubes and their third and fourth rock
 

14:19.920 --> 14:23.110 align:start position:0%
tubes and their third and fourth rock
samples.<00:14:21.279><c> From</c><00:14:21.519><c> these</c><00:14:21.839><c> accumulated</c><00:14:22.480><c> samples,</c>

14:23.110 --> 14:23.120 align:start position:0%
samples. From these accumulated samples,
 

14:23.120 --> 14:24.629 align:start position:0%
samples. From these accumulated samples,
scientists<00:14:23.600><c> were</c><00:14:23.760><c> able</c><00:14:24.000><c> to</c><00:14:24.160><c> make</c><00:14:24.320><c> an</c>

14:24.629 --> 14:24.639 align:start position:0%
scientists were able to make an
 

14:24.639 --> 14:27.269 align:start position:0%
scientists were able to make an
unexpected<00:14:25.440><c> discovery.</c><00:14:26.560><c> These</c><00:14:26.800><c> were</c><00:14:27.040><c> not</c>

14:27.269 --> 14:27.279 align:start position:0%
unexpected discovery. These were not
 

14:27.279 --> 14:29.350 align:start position:0%
unexpected discovery. These were not
sedimentary<00:14:27.920><c> rocks</c><00:14:28.320><c> as</c><00:14:28.639><c> had</c><00:14:28.880><c> first</c><00:14:29.120><c> been</c>

14:29.350 --> 14:29.360 align:start position:0%
sedimentary rocks as had first been
 

14:29.360 --> 14:32.310 align:start position:0%
sedimentary rocks as had first been
anticipated.<00:14:30.720><c> Instead,</c><00:14:31.440><c> Perseverance</c><00:14:32.079><c> had</c>

14:32.310 --> 14:32.320 align:start position:0%
anticipated. Instead, Perseverance had
 

14:32.320 --> 14:35.590 align:start position:0%
anticipated. Instead, Perseverance had
discovered<00:14:32.720><c> the</c><00:14:33.120><c> ignous</c><00:14:33.600><c> rock,</c><00:14:34.079><c> Olivine.</c>

14:35.590 --> 14:35.600 align:start position:0%
discovered the ignous rock, Olivine.
 

14:35.600 --> 14:37.670 align:start position:0%
discovered the ignous rock, Olivine.
Olivine<00:14:36.240><c> is</c><00:14:36.320><c> a</c><00:14:36.480><c> type</c><00:14:36.639><c> of</c><00:14:36.800><c> rock</c><00:14:37.120><c> that</c><00:14:37.360><c> can</c>

14:37.670 --> 14:37.680 align:start position:0%
Olivine is a type of rock that can
 

14:37.680 --> 14:39.910 align:start position:0%
Olivine is a type of rock that can
actually<00:14:38.000><c> be</c><00:14:38.240><c> found</c><00:14:38.480><c> here</c><00:14:38.639><c> on</c><00:14:38.880><c> Earth.</c><00:14:39.680><c> For</c>

14:39.910 --> 14:39.920 align:start position:0%
actually be found here on Earth. For
 

14:39.920 --> 14:42.710 align:start position:0%
actually be found here on Earth. For
instance,<00:14:40.320><c> in</c><00:14:40.560><c> parts</c><00:14:40.800><c> of</c><00:14:40.959><c> Australia.</c><00:14:42.240><c> Unlike</c>

14:42.710 --> 14:42.720 align:start position:0%
instance, in parts of Australia. Unlike
 

14:42.720 --> 14:44.710 align:start position:0%
instance, in parts of Australia. Unlike
sedimentary<00:14:43.440><c> rocks</c><00:14:43.920><c> which</c><00:14:44.079><c> are</c><00:14:44.320><c> made</c><00:14:44.480><c> by</c>

14:44.710 --> 14:44.720 align:start position:0%
sedimentary rocks which are made by
 

14:44.720 --> 14:46.870 align:start position:0%
sedimentary rocks which are made by
particles<00:14:45.120><c> of</c><00:14:45.360><c> sand</c><00:14:45.680><c> and</c><00:14:45.839><c> other</c><00:14:46.079><c> detritus</c>

14:46.870 --> 14:46.880 align:start position:0%
particles of sand and other detritus
 

14:46.880 --> 14:48.949 align:start position:0%
particles of sand and other detritus
slowly<00:14:47.440><c> accumulating</c><00:14:48.079><c> on</c><00:14:48.320><c> top</c><00:14:48.399><c> of</c><00:14:48.560><c> each</c><00:14:48.800><c> other</c>

14:48.949 --> 14:48.959 align:start position:0%
slowly accumulating on top of each other
 

14:48.959 --> 14:51.990 align:start position:0%
slowly accumulating on top of each other
over<00:14:49.279><c> time,</c><00:14:50.160><c> an</c><00:14:50.480><c> ignous</c><00:14:50.959><c> rock</c><00:14:51.199><c> like</c><00:14:51.519><c> olivine</c>

14:51.990 --> 14:52.000 align:start position:0%
over time, an ignous rock like olivine
 

14:52.000 --> 14:54.949 align:start position:0%
over time, an ignous rock like olivine
is<00:14:52.160><c> formed</c><00:14:52.560><c> by</c><00:14:52.800><c> the</c><00:14:53.040><c> cooling</c><00:14:53.440><c> of</c><00:14:53.600><c> magma.</c><00:14:54.720><c> As</c>

14:54.949 --> 14:54.959 align:start position:0%
is formed by the cooling of magma. As
 

14:54.959 --> 14:56.949 align:start position:0%
is formed by the cooling of magma. As
such,<00:14:55.440><c> it</c><00:14:55.680><c> seems</c><00:14:55.920><c> that</c><00:14:56.079><c> at</c><00:14:56.320><c> one</c><00:14:56.560><c> time</c><00:14:56.720><c> or</c>

14:56.949 --> 14:56.959 align:start position:0%
such, it seems that at one time or
 

14:56.959 --> 14:59.030 align:start position:0%
such, it seems that at one time or
another,<00:14:57.440><c> Yzero</c><00:14:58.079><c> crater</c><00:14:58.480><c> must</c><00:14:58.639><c> have</c><00:14:58.880><c> been</c>

14:59.030 --> 14:59.040 align:start position:0%
another, Yzero crater must have been
 

14:59.040 --> 15:02.069 align:start position:0%
another, Yzero crater must have been
witnessed<00:14:59.440><c> to</c><00:14:59.600><c> some</c><00:14:59.839><c> volcanic</c><00:15:00.480><c> activity.</c>

15:02.069 --> 15:02.079 align:start position:0%
witnessed to some volcanic activity.
 

15:02.079 --> 15:04.230 align:start position:0%
witnessed to some volcanic activity.
While<00:15:02.399><c> this</c><00:15:02.720><c> might</c><00:15:03.040><c> initially</c><00:15:03.600><c> seem</c><00:15:03.920><c> to</c><00:15:04.079><c> be</c>

15:04.230 --> 15:04.240 align:start position:0%
While this might initially seem to be
 

15:04.240 --> 15:06.870 align:start position:0%
While this might initially seem to be
bad<00:15:04.560><c> news,</c><00:15:05.440><c> you</c><00:15:05.760><c> might</c><00:15:06.000><c> correctly</c><00:15:06.480><c> conclude</c>

15:06.870 --> 15:06.880 align:start position:0%
bad news, you might correctly conclude
 

15:06.880 --> 15:08.470 align:start position:0%
bad news, you might correctly conclude
that<00:15:07.120><c> not</c><00:15:07.360><c> much</c><00:15:07.519><c> life</c><00:15:07.760><c> could</c><00:15:08.000><c> be</c><00:15:08.160><c> found</c><00:15:08.320><c> in</c>

15:08.470 --> 15:08.480 align:start position:0%
that not much life could be found in
 

15:08.480 --> 15:11.590 align:start position:0%
that not much life could be found in
magma,<00:15:09.600><c> scientists</c><00:15:10.240><c> could</c><00:15:10.480><c> discern</c><00:15:10.959><c> signs</c><00:15:11.279><c> of</c>

15:11.590 --> 15:11.600 align:start position:0%
magma, scientists could discern signs of
 

15:11.600 --> 15:14.389 align:start position:0%
magma, scientists could discern signs of
water<00:15:12.079><c> erosion</c><00:15:12.480><c> on</c><00:15:12.639><c> the</c><00:15:12.800><c> rocks.</c><00:15:13.760><c> The</c><00:15:14.000><c> ridges</c>

15:14.389 --> 15:14.399 align:start position:0%
water erosion on the rocks. The ridges
 

15:14.399 --> 15:16.389 align:start position:0%
water erosion on the rocks. The ridges
at<00:15:14.560><c> the</c><00:15:14.720><c> ends</c><00:15:14.959><c> of</c><00:15:15.040><c> the</c><00:15:15.199><c> crater</c><00:15:15.680><c> showed</c><00:15:16.079><c> signs</c>

15:16.389 --> 15:16.399 align:start position:0%
at the ends of the crater showed signs
 

15:16.399 --> 15:19.269 align:start position:0%
at the ends of the crater showed signs
of<00:15:16.560><c> water</c><00:15:16.959><c> motion.</c><00:15:18.240><c> Whatever</c><00:15:18.720><c> volcanic</c>

15:19.269 --> 15:19.279 align:start position:0%
of water motion. Whatever volcanic
 

15:19.279 --> 15:21.350 align:start position:0%
of water motion. Whatever volcanic
activity<00:15:19.680><c> had</c><00:15:19.920><c> happened</c><00:15:20.240><c> here,</c><00:15:20.800><c> the</c><00:15:21.040><c> water</c>

15:21.350 --> 15:21.360 align:start position:0%
activity had happened here, the water
 

15:21.360 --> 15:23.750 align:start position:0%
activity had happened here, the water
that<00:15:21.600><c> created</c><00:15:22.000><c> Yzero's</c><00:15:22.639><c> delta</c><00:15:23.279><c> must</c><00:15:23.519><c> have</c>

15:23.750 --> 15:23.760 align:start position:0%
that created Yzero's delta must have
 

15:23.760 --> 15:26.949 align:start position:0%
that created Yzero's delta must have
come<00:15:24.079><c> after</c><00:15:24.560><c> it</c><00:15:24.800><c> had</c><00:15:25.040><c> already</c><00:15:25.440><c> cooled.</c><00:15:26.720><c> As</c>

15:26.949 --> 15:26.959 align:start position:0%
come after it had already cooled. As
 

15:26.959 --> 15:29.189 align:start position:0%
come after it had already cooled. As
such,<00:15:27.440><c> the</c><00:15:27.680><c> presence</c><00:15:27.920><c> of</c><00:15:28.240><c> ignous</c><00:15:28.639><c> rocks</c><00:15:28.959><c> was</c>

15:29.189 --> 15:29.199 align:start position:0%
such, the presence of ignous rocks was
 

15:29.199 --> 15:31.829 align:start position:0%
such, the presence of ignous rocks was
actually<00:15:29.680><c> good</c><00:15:29.920><c> news.</c><00:15:30.480><c> Ignous</c><00:15:31.279><c> rock</c><00:15:31.600><c> is</c>

15:31.829 --> 15:31.839 align:start position:0%
actually good news. Ignous rock is
 

15:31.839 --> 15:34.389 align:start position:0%
actually good news. Ignous rock is
usually<00:15:32.399><c> very</c><00:15:32.720><c> high</c><00:15:32.880><c> in</c><00:15:33.120><c> minerals.</c><00:15:34.000><c> This</c><00:15:34.240><c> is</c>

15:34.389 --> 15:34.399 align:start position:0%
usually very high in minerals. This is
 

15:34.399 --> 15:36.550 align:start position:0%
usually very high in minerals. This is
why<00:15:34.560><c> the</c><00:15:34.800><c> areas</c><00:15:35.199><c> around</c><00:15:35.519><c> volcanoes</c><00:15:36.160><c> are</c><00:15:36.399><c> so</c>

15:36.550 --> 15:36.560 align:start position:0%
why the areas around volcanoes are so
 

15:36.560 --> 15:38.069 align:start position:0%
why the areas around volcanoes are so
fertile.

15:38.069 --> 15:38.079 align:start position:0%
fertile.
 

15:38.079 --> 15:40.230 align:start position:0%
fertile.
The<00:15:38.399><c> presence</c><00:15:38.639><c> of</c><00:15:38.880><c> water</c><00:15:39.199><c> and</c><00:15:39.519><c> high</c><00:15:39.760><c> mineral</c>

15:40.230 --> 15:40.240 align:start position:0%
The presence of water and high mineral
 

15:40.240 --> 15:42.310 align:start position:0%
The presence of water and high mineral
count<00:15:40.480><c> rocks</c><00:15:40.959><c> could</c><00:15:41.199><c> have</c><00:15:41.360><c> been</c><00:15:41.519><c> the</c><00:15:41.839><c> perfect</c>

15:42.310 --> 15:42.320 align:start position:0%
count rocks could have been the perfect
 

15:42.320 --> 15:46.949 align:start position:0%
count rocks could have been the perfect
conditions<00:15:42.720><c> for</c><00:15:42.959><c> life.</c>

15:46.949 --> 15:46.959 align:start position:0%
 
 

15:46.959 --> 15:48.710 align:start position:0%
 
In<00:15:47.199><c> the</c><00:15:47.360><c> future,</c><00:15:47.680><c> scientists</c><00:15:48.160><c> will</c><00:15:48.399><c> be</c><00:15:48.560><c> able</c>

15:48.710 --> 15:48.720 align:start position:0%
In the future, scientists will be able
 

15:48.720 --> 15:50.790 align:start position:0%
In the future, scientists will be able
to<00:15:48.880><c> send</c><00:15:49.199><c> missions</c><00:15:49.600><c> to</c><00:15:49.759><c> locations</c><00:15:50.320><c> like</c><00:15:50.560><c> the</c>

15:50.790 --> 15:50.800 align:start position:0%
to send missions to locations like the
 

15:50.800 --> 15:53.350 align:start position:0%
to send missions to locations like the
Yzero<00:15:51.360><c> Crater</c><00:15:51.680><c> Delta</c><00:15:52.240><c> as</c><00:15:52.480><c> they</c><00:15:52.720><c> make</c><00:15:52.959><c> future</c>

15:53.350 --> 15:53.360 align:start position:0%
Yzero Crater Delta as they make future
 

15:53.360 --> 15:56.230 align:start position:0%
Yzero Crater Delta as they make future
attempts<00:15:53.759><c> to</c><00:15:53.920><c> locate</c><00:15:54.399><c> alien</c><00:15:54.880><c> life.</c><00:15:55.680><c> Indeed,</c>

15:56.230 --> 15:56.240 align:start position:0%
attempts to locate alien life. Indeed,
 

15:56.240 --> 15:58.389 align:start position:0%
attempts to locate alien life. Indeed,
once<00:15:56.560><c> humans</c><00:15:56.880><c> land</c><00:15:57.120><c> on</c><00:15:57.279><c> Mars,</c><00:15:57.680><c> as</c><00:15:57.839><c> is</c><00:15:58.079><c> planned</c>

15:58.389 --> 15:58.399 align:start position:0%
once humans land on Mars, as is planned
 

15:58.399 --> 16:01.910 align:start position:0%
once humans land on Mars, as is planned
for<00:15:58.639><c> the</c><00:15:58.800><c> 2030s,</c><00:16:00.079><c> it's</c><00:16:00.399><c> not</c><00:16:00.880><c> unimaginable</c>

16:01.910 --> 16:01.920 align:start position:0%
for the 2030s, it's not unimaginable
 

16:01.920 --> 16:04.310 align:start position:0%
for the 2030s, it's not unimaginable
that<00:16:02.320><c> archaeological</c><00:16:03.040><c> dig</c><00:16:03.360><c> sites</c><00:16:03.680><c> will</c><00:16:03.920><c> be</c>

16:04.310 --> 16:04.320 align:start position:0%
that archaeological dig sites will be
 

16:04.320 --> 16:06.949 align:start position:0%
that archaeological dig sites will be
one<00:16:04.560><c> day</c><00:16:04.720><c> set</c><00:16:04.959><c> up</c><00:16:05.199><c> in</c><00:16:05.519><c> locations</c><00:16:06.079><c> like</c><00:16:06.320><c> this,</c>

16:06.949 --> 16:06.959 align:start position:0%
one day set up in locations like this,
 

16:06.959 --> 16:09.269 align:start position:0%
one day set up in locations like this,
with<00:16:07.199><c> humans</c><00:16:07.600><c> in</c><00:16:07.920><c> space</c><00:16:08.240><c> suits</c><00:16:08.800><c> gently</c>

16:09.269 --> 16:09.279 align:start position:0%
with humans in space suits gently
 

16:09.279 --> 16:12.389 align:start position:0%
with humans in space suits gently
brushing<00:16:09.759><c> away</c><00:16:10.079><c> the</c><00:16:10.399><c> fine</c><00:16:10.880><c> oxidized</c><00:16:11.600><c> iron</c><00:16:11.920><c> and</c>

16:12.389 --> 16:12.399 align:start position:0%
brushing away the fine oxidized iron and
 

16:12.399 --> 16:14.870 align:start position:0%
brushing away the fine oxidized iron and
bassalt<00:16:12.880><c> rock</c><00:16:13.360><c> to</c><00:16:13.600><c> see</c><00:16:13.759><c> if</c><00:16:14.000><c> signs</c><00:16:14.320><c> of</c><00:16:14.480><c> life</c><00:16:14.639><c> can</c>

16:14.870 --> 16:14.880 align:start position:0%
bassalt rock to see if signs of life can
 

16:14.880 --> 16:17.110 align:start position:0%
bassalt rock to see if signs of life can
be<00:16:15.040><c> found</c><00:16:15.199><c> underneath.</c><00:16:16.160><c> But</c><00:16:16.399><c> still,</c>

16:17.110 --> 16:17.120 align:start position:0%
be found underneath. But still,
 

16:17.120 --> 16:19.590 align:start position:0%
be found underneath. But still,
scientists<00:16:17.680><c> yearned</c><00:16:18.240><c> for</c><00:16:18.800><c> clearer</c><00:16:19.279><c> pictures</c>

16:19.590 --> 16:19.600 align:start position:0%
scientists yearned for clearer pictures
 

16:19.600 --> 16:22.230 align:start position:0%
scientists yearned for clearer pictures
of<00:16:19.839><c> Mars's</c><00:16:20.399><c> ancient</c><00:16:20.800><c> watercapes</c><00:16:21.440><c> than</c><00:16:21.600><c> this.</c>

16:22.230 --> 16:22.240 align:start position:0%
of Mars's ancient watercapes than this.
 

16:22.240 --> 16:23.910 align:start position:0%
of Mars's ancient watercapes than this.
And<00:16:22.320><c> it</c><00:16:22.560><c> was</c><00:16:22.639><c> now</c><00:16:22.880><c> likely</c><00:16:23.120><c> that</c><00:16:23.360><c> water</c><00:16:23.680><c> had</c>

16:23.910 --> 16:23.920 align:start position:0%
And it was now likely that water had
 

16:23.920 --> 16:26.470 align:start position:0%
And it was now likely that water had
pulled<00:16:24.160><c> in</c><00:16:24.320><c> craters</c><00:16:24.800><c> and</c><00:16:25.040><c> flowed</c><00:16:25.440><c> in</c><00:16:25.680><c> rivers.</c>

16:26.470 --> 16:26.480 align:start position:0%
pulled in craters and flowed in rivers.
 

16:26.480 --> 16:29.189 align:start position:0%
pulled in craters and flowed in rivers.
But<00:16:26.639><c> what</c><00:16:26.880><c> about</c><00:16:27.120><c> the</c><00:16:27.440><c> step</c><00:16:27.759><c> beyond</c><00:16:28.160><c> that?</c>

16:29.189 --> 16:29.199 align:start position:0%
But what about the step beyond that?
 

16:29.199 --> 16:31.670 align:start position:0%
But what about the step beyond that?
Could<00:16:29.680><c> ancient</c><00:16:30.000><c> Mars</c><00:16:30.399><c> have</c><00:16:30.639><c> once</c><00:16:31.040><c> housed</c>

16:31.670 --> 16:31.680 align:start position:0%
Could ancient Mars have once housed
 

16:31.680 --> 16:34.949 align:start position:0%
Could ancient Mars have once housed
oceans?<00:16:33.040><c> If</c><00:16:33.360><c> true,</c><00:16:33.839><c> this</c><00:16:34.079><c> would</c><00:16:34.240><c> be</c><00:16:34.480><c> exciting</c>

16:34.949 --> 16:34.959 align:start position:0%
oceans? If true, this would be exciting
 

16:34.959 --> 16:37.269 align:start position:0%
oceans? If true, this would be exciting
for<00:16:35.199><c> those</c><00:16:35.519><c> searching</c><00:16:35.920><c> for</c><00:16:36.160><c> signs</c><00:16:36.480><c> of</c><00:16:36.800><c> ancient</c>

16:37.269 --> 16:37.279 align:start position:0%
for those searching for signs of ancient
 

16:37.279 --> 16:40.069 align:start position:0%
for those searching for signs of ancient
alien<00:16:37.759><c> life.</c><00:16:38.959><c> A</c><00:16:39.120><c> shoreline</c><00:16:39.680><c> could</c><00:16:39.920><c> have</c>

16:40.069 --> 16:40.079 align:start position:0%
alien life. A shoreline could have
 

16:40.079 --> 16:42.949 align:start position:0%
alien life. A shoreline could have
supported<00:16:40.560><c> an</c><00:16:40.800><c> abundance</c><00:16:41.199><c> of</c><00:16:41.440><c> life,</c><00:16:42.160><c> possibly</c>

16:42.949 --> 16:42.959 align:start position:0%
supported an abundance of life, possibly
 

16:42.959 --> 16:45.910 align:start position:0%
supported an abundance of life, possibly
entire<00:16:43.759><c> diverse</c><00:16:44.320><c> ecosystems.</c>

16:45.910 --> 16:45.920 align:start position:0%
entire diverse ecosystems.
 

16:45.920 --> 16:48.389 align:start position:0%
entire diverse ecosystems.
and<00:16:46.480><c> they</c><00:16:46.720><c> might</c><00:16:46.959><c> have</c><00:16:47.199><c> left</c><00:16:47.440><c> behind</c><00:16:48.000><c> bio</c>

16:48.389 --> 16:48.399 align:start position:0%
and they might have left behind bio
 

16:48.399 --> 16:51.110 align:start position:0%
and they might have left behind bio
signatures<00:16:49.279><c> like</c><00:16:49.680><c> scavenger</c><00:16:50.240><c> hunt</c><00:16:50.480><c> clues</c><00:16:50.880><c> we</c>

16:51.110 --> 16:51.120 align:start position:0%
signatures like scavenger hunt clues we
 

16:51.120 --> 16:53.430 align:start position:0%
signatures like scavenger hunt clues we
can<00:16:51.279><c> use</c><00:16:51.519><c> to</c><00:16:51.759><c> paint</c><00:16:52.000><c> a</c><00:16:52.320><c> picture</c><00:16:52.560><c> of</c><00:16:52.800><c> Mars's</c>

16:53.430 --> 16:53.440 align:start position:0%
can use to paint a picture of Mars's
 

16:53.440 --> 16:56.150 align:start position:0%
can use to paint a picture of Mars's
ancient<00:16:54.079><c> coastal</c><00:16:54.639><c> habitats.</c>

16:56.150 --> 16:56.160 align:start position:0%
ancient coastal habitats.
 

16:56.160 --> 16:58.310 align:start position:0%
ancient coastal habitats.
Shore<00:16:56.560><c> environments</c><00:16:57.120><c> offer</c><00:16:57.519><c> key</c><00:16:57.839><c> advantages</c>

16:58.310 --> 16:58.320 align:start position:0%
Shore environments offer key advantages
 

16:58.320 --> 17:00.550 align:start position:0%
Shore environments offer key advantages
to<00:16:58.560><c> budding</c><00:16:58.959><c> life.</c><00:16:59.680><c> They</c><00:17:00.000><c> concentrate</c>

17:00.550 --> 17:00.560 align:start position:0%
to budding life. They concentrate
 

17:00.560 --> 17:03.269 align:start position:0%
to budding life. They concentrate
organic<00:17:01.120><c> molecules</c><00:17:01.759><c> through</c><00:17:02.079><c> evaporation,</c>

17:03.269 --> 17:03.279 align:start position:0%
organic molecules through evaporation,
 

17:03.279 --> 17:04.949 align:start position:0%
organic molecules through evaporation,
promote<00:17:03.600><c> the</c><00:17:03.839><c> formation</c><00:17:04.240><c> of</c><00:17:04.480><c> complex</c>

17:04.949 --> 17:04.959 align:start position:0%
promote the formation of complex
 

17:04.959 --> 17:07.990 align:start position:0%
promote the formation of complex
molecules<00:17:05.520><c> like</c><00:17:05.919><c> RNA</c><00:17:06.480><c> and</c><00:17:06.799><c> protein</c><00:17:07.679><c> and</c>

17:07.990 --> 17:08.000 align:start position:0%
molecules like RNA and protein and
 

17:08.000 --> 17:10.630 align:start position:0%
molecules like RNA and protein and
provide<00:17:08.640><c> mineralrich</c><00:17:09.439><c> surfaces</c><00:17:10.000><c> and</c><00:17:10.240><c> energy</c>

17:10.630 --> 17:10.640 align:start position:0%
provide mineralrich surfaces and energy
 

17:10.640 --> 17:13.990 align:start position:0%
provide mineralrich surfaces and energy
sources<00:17:11.439><c> like</c><00:17:11.760><c> UV</c><00:17:12.240><c> radiation,</c><00:17:13.120><c> heat</c><00:17:13.679><c> and</c>

17:13.990 --> 17:14.000 align:start position:0%
sources like UV radiation, heat and
 

17:14.000 --> 17:16.230 align:start position:0%
sources like UV radiation, heat and
chemical<00:17:14.480><c> gradients,</c><00:17:15.360><c> all</c><00:17:15.600><c> of</c><00:17:15.760><c> which</c><00:17:16.000><c> can</c>

17:16.230 --> 17:16.240 align:start position:0%
chemical gradients, all of which can
 

17:16.240 --> 17:18.630 align:start position:0%
chemical gradients, all of which can
drive<00:17:16.559><c> the</c><00:17:16.880><c> chemistry</c><00:17:17.439><c> needed</c><00:17:17.919><c> for</c><00:17:18.160><c> life</c><00:17:18.400><c> to</c>

17:18.630 --> 17:18.640 align:start position:0%
drive the chemistry needed for life to
 

17:18.640 --> 17:22.230 align:start position:0%
drive the chemistry needed for life to
arise.<00:17:20.079><c> In</c><00:17:20.400><c> contrast,</c><00:17:21.360><c> rivers</c><00:17:21.760><c> are</c><00:17:22.000><c> too</c>

17:22.230 --> 17:22.240 align:start position:0%
arise. In contrast, rivers are too
 

17:22.240 --> 17:24.549 align:start position:0%
arise. In contrast, rivers are too
dynamic<00:17:22.799><c> and</c><00:17:23.120><c> dilute</c><00:17:23.760><c> to</c><00:17:24.000><c> support</c><00:17:24.319><c> the</c>

17:24.549 --> 17:24.559 align:start position:0%
dynamic and dilute to support the
 

17:24.559 --> 17:26.630 align:start position:0%
dynamic and dilute to support the
delicate<00:17:25.120><c> chemical</c><00:17:25.600><c> conditions</c><00:17:26.079><c> needed</c><00:17:26.400><c> for</c>

17:26.630 --> 17:26.640 align:start position:0%
delicate chemical conditions needed for
 

17:26.640 --> 17:29.909 align:start position:0%
delicate chemical conditions needed for
life<00:17:26.880><c> to</c><00:17:27.199><c> arise.</c><00:17:28.640><c> They</c><00:17:28.960><c> constantly</c><00:17:29.520><c> flush</c>

17:29.909 --> 17:29.919 align:start position:0%
life to arise. They constantly flush
 

17:29.919 --> 17:32.070 align:start position:0%
life to arise. They constantly flush
materials<00:17:30.559><c> downstream,</c><00:17:31.600><c> making</c><00:17:31.919><c> it</c>

17:32.070 --> 17:32.080 align:start position:0%
materials downstream, making it
 

17:32.080 --> 17:34.230 align:start position:0%
materials downstream, making it
difficult<00:17:32.400><c> for</c><00:17:32.640><c> molecules</c><00:17:33.200><c> to</c><00:17:33.360><c> accumulate</c>

17:34.230 --> 17:34.240 align:start position:0%
difficult for molecules to accumulate
 

17:34.240 --> 17:36.630 align:start position:0%
difficult for molecules to accumulate
and<00:17:34.559><c> react</c><00:17:34.880><c> the</c><00:17:35.120><c> way</c><00:17:35.280><c> they</c><00:17:35.600><c> need</c><00:17:35.760><c> to</c><00:17:36.080><c> to</c><00:17:36.320><c> form</c>

17:36.630 --> 17:36.640 align:start position:0%
and react the way they need to to form
 

17:36.640 --> 17:39.750 align:start position:0%
and react the way they need to to form
life.<00:17:37.919><c> So,</c><00:17:38.160><c> if</c><00:17:38.400><c> researchers</c><00:17:39.039><c> could</c><00:17:39.280><c> find</c>

17:39.750 --> 17:39.760 align:start position:0%
life. So, if researchers could find
 

17:39.760 --> 17:42.310 align:start position:0%
life. So, if researchers could find
evidence<00:17:40.240><c> of</c><00:17:40.480><c> a</c><00:17:40.720><c> standing</c><00:17:41.360><c> body</c><00:17:41.679><c> of</c><00:17:41.840><c> water</c><00:17:42.080><c> on</c>

17:42.310 --> 17:42.320 align:start position:0%
evidence of a standing body of water on
 

17:42.320 --> 17:45.909 align:start position:0%
evidence of a standing body of water on
Mars,<00:17:42.960><c> like</c><00:17:43.280><c> a</c><00:17:43.600><c> lake</c><00:17:44.080><c> or</c><00:17:44.400><c> an</c><00:17:44.559><c> ocean,</c><00:17:45.440><c> they'd</c><00:17:45.760><c> be</c>

17:45.909 --> 17:45.919 align:start position:0%
Mars, like a lake or an ocean, they'd be
 

17:45.919 --> 17:48.630 align:start position:0%
Mars, like a lake or an ocean, they'd be
in<00:17:46.160><c> a</c><00:17:46.400><c> much</c><00:17:46.799><c> better</c><00:17:47.200><c> spot</c><00:17:47.679><c> to</c><00:17:48.000><c> search</c><00:17:48.320><c> for</c>

17:48.630 --> 17:48.640 align:start position:0%
in a much better spot to search for
 

17:48.640 --> 17:51.669 align:start position:0%
in a much better spot to search for
remnants<00:17:49.120><c> of</c><00:17:49.280><c> microbial</c><00:17:50.000><c> life.</c><00:17:50.960><c> The</c><00:17:51.200><c> Chinese</c>

17:51.669 --> 17:51.679 align:start position:0%
remnants of microbial life. The Chinese
 

17:51.679 --> 17:53.990 align:start position:0%
remnants of microbial life. The Chinese
Tanwen<00:17:52.320><c> 1</c><00:17:52.559><c> mission</c><00:17:53.039><c> might</c><00:17:53.280><c> have</c><00:17:53.440><c> captured</c><00:17:53.760><c> the</c>

17:53.990 --> 17:54.000 align:start position:0%
Tanwen 1 mission might have captured the
 

17:54.000 --> 17:56.549 align:start position:0%
Tanwen 1 mission might have captured the
most<00:17:54.160><c> compelling</c><00:17:54.799><c> evidence</c><00:17:55.200><c> yet</c><00:17:55.679><c> for</c><00:17:56.240><c> ancient</c>

17:56.549 --> 17:56.559 align:start position:0%
most compelling evidence yet for ancient
 

17:56.559 --> 17:58.230 align:start position:0%
most compelling evidence yet for ancient
oceans<00:17:56.960><c> on</c><00:17:57.120><c> Mars.</c>

17:58.230 --> 17:58.240 align:start position:0%
oceans on Mars.
 

17:58.240 --> 18:01.350 align:start position:0%
oceans on Mars.
It's<00:17:58.559><c> the</c><00:17:58.880><c> first</c><00:17:59.360><c> on</c><00:17:59.679><c> the</c><00:17:59.840><c> ground</c><00:18:00.320><c> data</c><00:18:00.960><c> ever</c>

18:01.350 --> 18:01.360 align:start position:0%
It's the first on the ground data ever
 

18:01.360 --> 18:04.710 align:start position:0%
It's the first on the ground data ever
collected<00:18:02.080><c> of</c><00:18:02.320><c> a</c><00:18:02.559><c> suspected</c><00:18:03.360><c> ocean</c><00:18:03.760><c> zone</c><00:18:04.480><c> and</c>

18:04.710 --> 18:04.720 align:start position:0%
collected of a suspected ocean zone and
 

18:04.720 --> 18:06.789 align:start position:0%
collected of a suspected ocean zone and
it<00:18:04.880><c> makes</c><00:18:05.120><c> a</c><00:18:05.360><c> strong</c><00:18:05.760><c> case</c><00:18:06.160><c> that</c><00:18:06.480><c> our</c>

18:06.789 --> 18:06.799 align:start position:0%
it makes a strong case that our
 

18:06.799 --> 18:11.909 align:start position:0%
it makes a strong case that our
shoreline<00:18:07.280><c> theory</c><00:18:07.919><c> is</c><00:18:08.240><c> on</c><00:18:08.559><c> the</c><00:18:08.720><c> right</c><00:18:09.039><c> track.</c>

18:11.909 --> 18:11.919 align:start position:0%
shoreline theory is on the right track.
 

18:11.919 --> 18:15.590 align:start position:0%
shoreline theory is on the right track.
On<00:18:12.080><c> the</c><00:18:12.320><c> 23rd</c><00:18:12.720><c> of</c><00:18:12.880><c> July</c><00:18:13.440><c> 2020,</c><00:18:14.400><c> the</c><00:18:14.559><c> Tanwen</c><00:18:15.280><c> 1</c>

18:15.590 --> 18:15.600 align:start position:0%
On the 23rd of July 2020, the Tanwen 1
 

18:15.600 --> 18:18.789 align:start position:0%
On the 23rd of July 2020, the Tanwen 1
spacecraft<00:18:16.160><c> began</c><00:18:16.480><c> its</c><00:18:17.039><c> 202day</c><00:18:18.240><c> journey</c><00:18:18.640><c> to</c>

18:18.789 --> 18:18.799 align:start position:0%
spacecraft began its 202day journey to
 

18:18.799 --> 18:21.830 align:start position:0%
spacecraft began its 202day journey to
Mars.<00:18:19.760><c> Aboard</c><00:18:20.400><c> it</c><00:18:20.559><c> carried</c><00:18:20.880><c> an</c><00:18:21.039><c> orbiter,</c>

18:21.830 --> 18:21.840 align:start position:0%
Mars. Aboard it carried an orbiter,
 

18:21.840 --> 18:25.029 align:start position:0%
Mars. Aboard it carried an orbiter,
lander,<00:18:22.480><c> and</c><00:18:22.720><c> the</c><00:18:22.960><c> Tsurang</c><00:18:23.600><c> rover.</c><00:18:24.559><c> The</c><00:18:24.799><c> aim</c>

18:25.029 --> 18:25.039 align:start position:0%
lander, and the Tsurang rover. The aim
 

18:25.039 --> 18:27.270 align:start position:0%
lander, and the Tsurang rover. The aim
of<00:18:25.120><c> the</c><00:18:25.280><c> mission</c><00:18:25.600><c> was</c><00:18:25.840><c> to</c><00:18:26.080><c> investigate</c><00:18:26.720><c> Mars'</c>

18:27.270 --> 18:27.280 align:start position:0%
of the mission was to investigate Mars'
 

18:27.280 --> 18:29.750 align:start position:0%
of the mission was to investigate Mars'
geology,<00:18:28.080><c> climate,</c><00:18:28.640><c> and</c><00:18:28.880><c> habitability</c>

18:29.750 --> 18:29.760 align:start position:0%
geology, climate, and habitability
 

18:29.760 --> 18:32.549 align:start position:0%
geology, climate, and habitability
through<00:18:30.160><c> three</c><00:18:30.559><c> key</c><00:18:30.880><c> activities.</c><00:18:32.320><c> By</c>

18:32.549 --> 18:32.559 align:start position:0%
through three key activities. By
 

18:32.559 --> 18:34.390 align:start position:0%
through three key activities. By
studying<00:18:32.960><c> the</c><00:18:33.200><c> surface</c><00:18:33.520><c> and</c><00:18:33.840><c> subsurface</c><00:18:34.320><c> of</c>

18:34.390 --> 18:34.400 align:start position:0%
studying the surface and subsurface of
 

18:34.400 --> 18:36.870 align:start position:0%
studying the surface and subsurface of
the<00:18:34.559><c> Utopia</c><00:18:35.120><c> Plenicia,</c><00:18:35.919><c> a</c><00:18:36.080><c> region</c><00:18:36.400><c> scientists</c>

18:36.870 --> 18:36.880 align:start position:0%
the Utopia Plenicia, a region scientists
 

18:36.880 --> 18:39.190 align:start position:0%
the Utopia Plenicia, a region scientists
think<00:18:37.200><c> could</c><00:18:37.440><c> be</c><00:18:37.600><c> an</c><00:18:37.840><c> ancient</c><00:18:38.160><c> ocean</c><00:18:38.559><c> basin</c>

18:39.190 --> 18:39.200 align:start position:0%
think could be an ancient ocean basin
 

18:39.200 --> 18:42.230 align:start position:0%
think could be an ancient ocean basin
based<00:18:39.440><c> on</c><00:18:39.679><c> mapping</c><00:18:40.160><c> from</c><00:18:40.480><c> satellite</c><00:18:40.960><c> data.</c><00:18:42.000><c> by</c>

18:42.230 --> 18:42.240 align:start position:0%
based on mapping from satellite data. by
 

18:42.240 --> 18:43.750 align:start position:0%
based on mapping from satellite data. by
performing<00:18:42.720><c> climate</c><00:18:43.200><c> and</c><00:18:43.440><c> weather</c>

18:43.750 --> 18:43.760 align:start position:0%
performing climate and weather
 

18:43.760 --> 18:45.830 align:start position:0%
performing climate and weather
monitoring<00:18:44.640><c> including</c><00:18:45.039><c> magnetic</c><00:18:45.520><c> field</c>

18:45.830 --> 18:45.840 align:start position:0%
monitoring including magnetic field
 

18:45.840 --> 18:48.950 align:start position:0%
monitoring including magnetic field
variations<00:18:46.720><c> and</c><00:18:46.960><c> dust</c><00:18:47.360><c> activities</c><00:18:48.000><c> effect</c><00:18:48.640><c> on</c>

18:48.950 --> 18:48.960 align:start position:0%
variations and dust activities effect on
 

18:48.960 --> 18:51.510 align:start position:0%
variations and dust activities effect on
solar<00:18:49.360><c> panels</c><00:18:49.679><c> and</c><00:18:49.919><c> climate</c>

18:51.510 --> 18:51.520 align:start position:0%
solar panels and climate
 

18:51.520 --> 18:54.549 align:start position:0%
solar panels and climate
and<00:18:52.000><c> by</c><00:18:52.400><c> searching</c><00:18:52.960><c> for</c><00:18:53.280><c> signs</c><00:18:53.679><c> of</c><00:18:53.919><c> water</c><00:18:54.320><c> and</c>

18:54.549 --> 18:54.559 align:start position:0%
and by searching for signs of water and
 

18:54.559 --> 18:57.029 align:start position:0%
and by searching for signs of water and
habitability.<00:18:55.840><c> Investigating</c><00:18:56.480><c> whether</c><00:18:56.799><c> the</c>

18:57.029 --> 18:57.039 align:start position:0%
habitability. Investigating whether the
 

18:57.039 --> 18:59.510 align:start position:0%
habitability. Investigating whether the
region<00:18:57.440><c> harbored</c><00:18:58.080><c> conditions</c><00:18:58.720><c> suitable</c><00:18:59.280><c> for</c>

18:59.510 --> 18:59.520 align:start position:0%
region harbored conditions suitable for
 

18:59.520 --> 19:02.310 align:start position:0%
region harbored conditions suitable for
life<00:18:59.840><c> in</c><00:19:00.160><c> the</c><00:19:00.320><c> past.</c><00:19:01.600><c> On</c><00:19:01.760><c> the</c><00:19:01.919><c> 10th</c><00:19:02.160><c> of</c>

19:02.310 --> 19:02.320 align:start position:0%
life in the past. On the 10th of
 

19:02.320 --> 19:05.990 align:start position:0%
life in the past. On the 10th of
February<00:19:02.880><c> 2021,</c><00:19:04.000><c> Tanwin</c><00:19:04.640><c> 1</c><00:19:05.039><c> entered</c><00:19:05.520><c> into</c>

19:05.990 --> 19:06.000 align:start position:0%
February 2021, Tanwin 1 entered into
 

19:06.000 --> 19:09.029 align:start position:0%
February 2021, Tanwin 1 entered into
orbit<00:19:06.480><c> around</c><00:19:06.799><c> Mars.</c><00:19:07.760><c> Controllers</c><00:19:08.559><c> spent</c>

19:09.029 --> 19:09.039 align:start position:0%
orbit around Mars. Controllers spent
 

19:09.039 --> 19:11.750 align:start position:0%
orbit around Mars. Controllers spent
three<00:19:09.360><c> months</c><00:19:09.919><c> testing</c><00:19:10.320><c> the</c><00:19:10.559><c> probe</c><00:19:10.880><c> systems,</c>

19:11.750 --> 19:11.760 align:start position:0%
three months testing the probe systems,
 

19:11.760 --> 19:13.590 align:start position:0%
three months testing the probe systems,
shifting<00:19:12.240><c> its</c><00:19:12.480><c> orbital</c><00:19:12.960><c> path</c><00:19:13.280><c> from</c>

19:13.590 --> 19:13.600 align:start position:0%
shifting its orbital path from
 

19:13.600 --> 19:16.630 align:start position:0%
shifting its orbital path from
equatorial<00:19:14.400><c> to</c><00:19:14.720><c> polar</c><00:19:15.520><c> and</c><00:19:15.840><c> preparing</c><00:19:16.240><c> it</c><00:19:16.480><c> for</c>

19:16.630 --> 19:16.640 align:start position:0%
equatorial to polar and preparing it for
 

19:16.640 --> 19:20.230 align:start position:0%
equatorial to polar and preparing it for
its<00:19:16.960><c> main</c><00:19:17.440><c> science</c><00:19:17.840><c> mission.</c><00:19:19.120><c> Finally,</c><00:19:19.919><c> on</c>

19:20.230 --> 19:20.240 align:start position:0%
its main science mission. Finally, on
 

19:20.240 --> 19:23.270 align:start position:0%
its main science mission. Finally, on
the<00:19:20.400><c> 14th</c><00:19:20.799><c> of</c><00:19:21.039><c> May,</c><00:19:21.760><c> the</c><00:19:22.000><c> lander</c><00:19:22.480><c> touched</c><00:19:22.880><c> down</c>

19:23.270 --> 19:23.280 align:start position:0%
the 14th of May, the lander touched down
 

19:23.280 --> 19:26.070 align:start position:0%
the 14th of May, the lander touched down
on<00:19:23.600><c> the</c><00:19:23.760><c> red</c><00:19:24.000><c> planet.</c><00:19:24.720><c> And</c><00:19:24.960><c> a</c><00:19:25.120><c> week</c><00:19:25.280><c> later,</c><00:19:25.840><c> the</c>

19:26.070 --> 19:26.080 align:start position:0%
on the red planet. And a week later, the
 

19:26.080 --> 19:28.950 align:start position:0%
on the red planet. And a week later, the
Tsurang<00:19:26.640><c> rover</c><00:19:27.039><c> was</c><00:19:27.280><c> successfully</c><00:19:28.080><c> deployed,</c>

19:28.950 --> 19:28.960 align:start position:0%
Tsurang rover was successfully deployed,
 

19:28.960 --> 19:31.830 align:start position:0%
Tsurang rover was successfully deployed,
making<00:19:29.360><c> China</c><00:19:30.080><c> only</c><00:19:30.400><c> the</c><00:19:30.720><c> second</c><00:19:31.200><c> nation</c><00:19:31.600><c> in</c>

19:31.830 --> 19:31.840 align:start position:0%
making China only the second nation in
 

19:31.840 --> 19:34.310 align:start position:0%
making China only the second nation in
history<00:19:32.480><c> to</c><00:19:32.799><c> successfully</c><00:19:33.360><c> deploy</c><00:19:33.679><c> a</c><00:19:33.919><c> rover</c>

19:34.310 --> 19:34.320 align:start position:0%
history to successfully deploy a rover
 

19:34.320 --> 19:38.150 align:start position:0%
history to successfully deploy a rover
on<00:19:34.559><c> Mars,</c><00:19:35.280><c> behind</c><00:19:36.000><c> the</c><00:19:36.240><c> USA.</c>

19:38.150 --> 19:38.160 align:start position:0%
on Mars, behind the USA.
 

19:38.160 --> 19:40.870 align:start position:0%
on Mars, behind the USA.
For<00:19:38.400><c> China,</c><00:19:39.039><c> this</c><00:19:39.280><c> mission</c><00:19:39.840><c> represented</c><00:19:40.559><c> more</c>

19:40.870 --> 19:40.880 align:start position:0%
For China, this mission represented more
 

19:40.880 --> 19:43.510 align:start position:0%
For China, this mission represented more
than<00:19:41.120><c> just</c><00:19:41.600><c> scientific</c><00:19:42.160><c> discovery.</c><00:19:43.280><c> It</c>

19:43.510 --> 19:43.520 align:start position:0%
than just scientific discovery. It
 

19:43.520 --> 19:45.590 align:start position:0%
than just scientific discovery. It
showcased<00:19:44.080><c> their</c><00:19:44.400><c> spaceflight</c><00:19:45.039><c> capabilities</c>

19:45.590 --> 19:45.600 align:start position:0%
showcased their spaceflight capabilities
 

19:45.600 --> 19:48.710 align:start position:0%
showcased their spaceflight capabilities
and<00:19:45.840><c> autonomy</c><00:19:46.880><c> and</c><00:19:47.280><c> demonstrated</c><00:19:48.000><c> they</c><00:19:48.400><c> can</c>

19:48.710 --> 19:48.720 align:start position:0%
and autonomy and demonstrated they can
 

19:48.720 --> 19:50.789 align:start position:0%
and autonomy and demonstrated they can
launch<00:19:49.039><c> and</c><00:19:49.360><c> operate</c><00:19:49.760><c> missions</c><00:19:50.320><c> without</c>

19:50.789 --> 19:50.799 align:start position:0%
launch and operate missions without
 

19:50.799 --> 19:53.270 align:start position:0%
launch and operate missions without
relying<00:19:51.520><c> on</c><00:19:51.919><c> foreign</c><00:19:52.320><c> navigation</c><00:19:52.960><c> or</c>

19:53.270 --> 19:53.280 align:start position:0%
relying on foreign navigation or
 

19:53.280 --> 19:55.909 align:start position:0%
relying on foreign navigation or
communication<00:19:53.919><c> systems.</c><00:19:55.039><c> The</c><00:19:55.280><c> Tanwen</c>

19:55.909 --> 19:55.919 align:start position:0%
communication systems. The Tanwen
 

19:55.919 --> 19:58.789 align:start position:0%
communication systems. The Tanwen
mission,<00:19:56.559><c> meaning</c><00:19:57.280><c> questions</c><00:19:57.760><c> to</c><00:19:58.000><c> heaven,</c>

19:58.789 --> 19:58.799 align:start position:0%
mission, meaning questions to heaven,
 

19:58.799 --> 20:00.710 align:start position:0%
mission, meaning questions to heaven,
laid<00:19:59.120><c> the</c><00:19:59.280><c> foundation</c><00:19:59.679><c> for</c><00:19:59.919><c> future</c><00:20:00.320><c> Chinese</c>

20:00.710 --> 20:00.720 align:start position:0%
laid the foundation for future Chinese
 

20:00.720 --> 20:04.630 align:start position:0%
laid the foundation for future Chinese
missions<00:20:01.440><c> like</c><00:20:01.600><c> a</c><00:20:01.840><c> Mars</c><00:20:02.320><c> sample</c><00:20:02.799><c> return</c><00:20:03.760><c> and</c><00:20:04.320><c> a</c>

20:04.630 --> 20:04.640 align:start position:0%
missions like a Mars sample return and a
 

20:04.640 --> 20:09.510 align:start position:0%
missions like a Mars sample return and a
possible<00:20:05.039><c> crude</c><00:20:05.440><c> mission</c><00:20:05.679><c> to</c><00:20:05.840><c> Mars</c><00:20:06.320><c> by</c><00:20:06.799><c> 2033.</c>

20:09.510 --> 20:09.520 align:start position:0%
possible crude mission to Mars by 2033.
 

20:09.520 --> 20:13.029 align:start position:0%
possible crude mission to Mars by 2033.
The<00:20:09.840><c> 240</c><00:20:10.720><c> kg</c><00:20:11.360><c> rover</c><00:20:11.919><c> was</c><00:20:12.240><c> deployed</c><00:20:12.640><c> in</c><00:20:12.880><c> a</c>

20:13.029 --> 20:13.039 align:start position:0%
The 240 kg rover was deployed in a
 

20:13.039 --> 20:16.310 align:start position:0%
The 240 kg rover was deployed in a
region<00:20:13.200><c> of</c><00:20:13.440><c> Mars</c><00:20:13.840><c> known</c><00:20:14.160><c> as</c><00:20:14.480><c> Utopia</c><00:20:15.280><c> Penicia,</c>

20:16.310 --> 20:16.320 align:start position:0%
region of Mars known as Utopia Penicia,
 

20:16.320 --> 20:18.710 align:start position:0%
region of Mars known as Utopia Penicia,
the<00:20:16.559><c> largest</c><00:20:16.960><c> known</c><00:20:17.280><c> impact</c><00:20:17.679><c> basin</c><00:20:18.240><c> in</c><00:20:18.480><c> the</c>

20:18.710 --> 20:18.720 align:start position:0%
the largest known impact basin in the
 

20:18.720 --> 20:21.669 align:start position:0%
the largest known impact basin in the
whole<00:20:19.200><c> solar</c><00:20:19.520><c> system.</c><00:20:20.559><c> It's</c><00:20:20.880><c> the</c><00:20:21.120><c> same</c><00:20:21.280><c> region</c>

20:21.669 --> 20:21.679 align:start position:0%
whole solar system. It's the same region
 

20:21.679 --> 20:23.909 align:start position:0%
whole solar system. It's the same region
where<00:20:22.000><c> the</c><00:20:22.160><c> NASA</c><00:20:22.640><c> Viking</c><00:20:23.039><c> missions</c><00:20:23.440><c> landed</c>

20:23.909 --> 20:23.919 align:start position:0%
where the NASA Viking missions landed
 

20:23.919 --> 20:26.470 align:start position:0%
where the NASA Viking missions landed
almost<00:20:24.320><c> 50</c><00:20:24.640><c> years</c><00:20:24.799><c> ago.</c><00:20:25.760><c> But</c><00:20:26.000><c> recently,</c>

20:26.470 --> 20:26.480 align:start position:0%
almost 50 years ago. But recently,
 

20:26.480 --> 20:28.950 align:start position:0%
almost 50 years ago. But recently,
interest<00:20:26.880><c> in</c><00:20:27.120><c> this</c><00:20:27.280><c> area</c><00:20:27.679><c> was</c><00:20:27.919><c> revived</c><00:20:28.559><c> due</c><00:20:28.799><c> to</c>

20:28.950 --> 20:28.960 align:start position:0%
interest in this area was revived due to
 

20:28.960 --> 20:32.630 align:start position:0%
interest in this area was revived due to
a<00:20:29.280><c> 2016</c><00:20:29.919><c> NASA</c><00:20:30.320><c> discovery.</c><00:20:31.440><c> Turns</c><00:20:31.760><c> out</c><00:20:32.240><c> it</c><00:20:32.480><c> is</c>

20:32.630 --> 20:32.640 align:start position:0%
a 2016 NASA discovery. Turns out it is
 

20:32.640 --> 20:35.590 align:start position:0%
a 2016 NASA discovery. Turns out it is
home<00:20:32.880><c> to</c><00:20:33.120><c> a</c><00:20:33.440><c> massive</c><00:20:34.000><c> amount</c><00:20:34.400><c> of</c><00:20:34.799><c> underground</c>

20:35.590 --> 20:35.600 align:start position:0%
home to a massive amount of underground
 

20:35.600 --> 20:38.470 align:start position:0%
home to a massive amount of underground
ice.<00:20:36.640><c> About</c><00:20:36.960><c> as</c><00:20:37.200><c> much</c><00:20:37.440><c> water</c><00:20:37.760><c> as</c><00:20:38.000><c> you'd</c><00:20:38.240><c> find</c>

20:38.470 --> 20:38.480 align:start position:0%
ice. About as much water as you'd find
 

20:38.480 --> 20:42.630 align:start position:0%
ice. About as much water as you'd find
in<00:20:38.799><c> Lake</c><00:20:39.120><c> Superior,</c><00:20:40.480><c> about</c><00:20:40.960><c> 12,100</c>

20:42.630 --> 20:42.640 align:start position:0%
in Lake Superior, about 12,100
 

20:42.640 --> 20:48.950 align:start position:0%
in Lake Superior, about 12,100
km<00:20:43.360><c> cubed</c><00:20:44.320><c> or</c><00:20:44.720><c> 1</c><00:20:45.039><c> *</c><00:20:45.280><c> 10</c><00:20:45.840><c> ^</c><00:20:46.400><c> 16</c><00:20:47.360><c> L.</c>

20:48.950 --> 20:48.960 align:start position:0%
km cubed or 1 * 10 ^ 16 L.
 

20:48.960 --> 20:51.909 align:start position:0%
km cubed or 1 * 10 ^ 16 L.
So<00:20:49.280><c> to</c><00:20:49.600><c> study</c><00:20:49.919><c> this</c><00:20:50.400><c> promising</c><00:20:50.960><c> region,</c><00:20:51.679><c> the</c>

20:51.909 --> 20:51.919 align:start position:0%
So to study this promising region, the
 

20:51.919 --> 20:54.710 align:start position:0%
So to study this promising region, the
Tsurong<00:20:52.480><c> rover</c><00:20:52.799><c> came</c><00:20:53.120><c> equipped</c><00:20:53.520><c> with</c><00:20:54.080><c> 13</c>

20:54.710 --> 20:54.720 align:start position:0%
Tsurong rover came equipped with 13
 

20:54.720 --> 20:57.029 align:start position:0%
Tsurong rover came equipped with 13
different<00:20:55.120><c> scientific</c><00:20:55.679><c> payloads</c><00:20:56.559><c> which</c><00:20:56.799><c> can</c>

20:57.029 --> 20:57.039 align:start position:0%
different scientific payloads which can
 

20:57.039 --> 21:00.549 align:start position:0%
different scientific payloads which can
be<00:20:57.200><c> thought</c><00:20:57.360><c> of</c><00:20:57.600><c> as</c><00:20:58.080><c> four</c><00:20:58.400><c> categories.</c><00:20:59.679><c> Radars</c>

21:00.549 --> 21:00.559 align:start position:0%
be thought of as four categories. Radars
 

21:00.559 --> 21:03.110 align:start position:0%
be thought of as four categories. Radars
to<00:21:00.799><c> detect</c><00:21:01.200><c> subsurface</c><00:21:01.919><c> structures</c><00:21:02.480><c> up</c><00:21:02.720><c> to</c>

21:03.110 --> 21:03.120 align:start position:0%
to detect subsurface structures up to
 

21:03.120 --> 21:05.830 align:start position:0%
to detect subsurface structures up to
100<00:21:03.600><c> meters</c><00:21:04.000><c> underground,</c><00:21:05.039><c> including</c><00:21:05.600><c> the</c>

21:05.830 --> 21:05.840 align:start position:0%
100 meters underground, including the
 

21:05.840 --> 21:08.710 align:start position:0%
100 meters underground, including the
ground<00:21:06.240><c> penetrating</c><00:21:07.039><c> roper</c><00:21:07.520><c> radar,</c>

21:08.710 --> 21:08.720 align:start position:0%
ground penetrating roper radar,
 

21:08.720 --> 21:11.190 align:start position:0%
ground penetrating roper radar,
spectrometers<00:21:09.600><c> to</c><00:21:09.919><c> analyze</c><00:21:10.400><c> soil</c><00:21:10.720><c> and</c><00:21:10.960><c> rock</c>

21:11.190 --> 21:11.200 align:start position:0%
spectrometers to analyze soil and rock
 

21:11.200 --> 21:13.750 align:start position:0%
spectrometers to analyze soil and rock
compositions,<00:21:12.240><c> including</c><00:21:12.640><c> a</c><00:21:12.960><c> laser</c><00:21:13.360><c> induced</c>

21:13.750 --> 21:13.760 align:start position:0%
compositions, including a laser induced
 

21:13.760 --> 21:16.549 align:start position:0%
compositions, including a laser induced
breakdown<00:21:14.320><c> and</c><00:21:14.640><c> infrared</c><00:21:15.200><c> spectrometer,</c>

21:16.549 --> 21:16.559 align:start position:0%
breakdown and infrared spectrometer,
 

21:16.559 --> 21:18.470 align:start position:0%
breakdown and infrared spectrometer,
optical<00:21:17.120><c> cameras</c><00:21:17.520><c> that</c><00:21:17.760><c> will</c><00:21:17.919><c> image</c><00:21:18.240><c> the</c>

21:18.470 --> 21:18.480 align:start position:0%
optical cameras that will image the
 

21:18.480 --> 21:20.310 align:start position:0%
optical cameras that will image the
planet<00:21:18.799><c> from</c><00:21:19.039><c> both</c><00:21:19.280><c> the</c><00:21:19.520><c> orbiter</c><00:21:20.000><c> and</c><00:21:20.159><c> the</c>

21:20.310 --> 21:20.320 align:start position:0%
planet from both the orbiter and the
 

21:20.320 --> 21:23.669 align:start position:0%
planet from both the orbiter and the
rover,<00:21:21.280><c> as</c><00:21:21.600><c> well</c><00:21:21.760><c> as</c><00:21:22.080><c> provide</c><00:21:22.640><c> topography</c><00:21:23.280><c> and</c>

21:23.669 --> 21:23.679 align:start position:0%
rover, as well as provide topography and
 

21:23.679 --> 21:26.710 align:start position:0%
rover, as well as provide topography and
navigation<00:21:24.240><c> capabilities,</c><00:21:25.600><c> and</c><00:21:26.159><c> monitors</c>

21:26.710 --> 21:26.720 align:start position:0%
navigation capabilities, and monitors
 

21:26.720 --> 21:29.029 align:start position:0%
navigation capabilities, and monitors
for<00:21:26.960><c> atmosphere</c><00:21:27.520><c> and</c><00:21:27.760><c> space</c><00:21:28.080><c> environments</c>

21:29.029 --> 21:29.039 align:start position:0%
for atmosphere and space environments
 

21:29.039 --> 21:31.029 align:start position:0%
for atmosphere and space environments
that<00:21:29.280><c> will</c><00:21:29.520><c> detect</c><00:21:29.760><c> the</c><00:21:30.000><c> magnetic</c><00:21:30.480><c> field,</c>

21:31.029 --> 21:31.039 align:start position:0%
that will detect the magnetic field,
 

21:31.039 --> 21:32.950 align:start position:0%
that will detect the magnetic field,
space<00:21:31.360><c> radiation,</c><00:21:32.080><c> and</c><00:21:32.320><c> the</c><00:21:32.480><c> climate</c><00:21:32.799><c> of</c>

21:32.950 --> 21:32.960 align:start position:0%
space radiation, and the climate of
 

21:32.960 --> 21:36.149 align:start position:0%
space radiation, and the climate of
Mars,<00:21:33.760><c> including</c><00:21:34.159><c> a</c><00:21:34.480><c> surface</c><00:21:34.960><c> magnetometer</c>

21:36.149 --> 21:36.159 align:start position:0%
Mars, including a surface magnetometer
 

21:36.159 --> 21:39.029 align:start position:0%
Mars, including a surface magnetometer
and<00:21:36.480><c> the</c><00:21:36.720><c> Mars</c><00:21:37.200><c> Climate</c><00:21:37.600><c> Station</c><00:21:38.320><c> designed</c><00:21:38.799><c> to</c>

21:39.029 --> 21:39.039 align:start position:0%
and the Mars Climate Station designed to
 

21:39.039 --> 21:41.350 align:start position:0%
and the Mars Climate Station designed to
monitor<00:21:39.440><c> local</c><00:21:39.840><c> temperature,</c><00:21:40.720><c> wind,</c>

21:41.350 --> 21:41.360 align:start position:0%
monitor local temperature, wind,
 

21:41.360 --> 21:44.789 align:start position:0%
monitor local temperature, wind,
pressure,<00:21:42.159><c> and</c><00:21:42.400><c> even</c><00:21:42.799><c> record</c><00:21:43.200><c> sound.</c><00:21:44.559><c> The</c>

21:44.789 --> 21:44.799 align:start position:0%
pressure, and even record sound. The
 

21:44.799 --> 21:47.430 align:start position:0%
pressure, and even record sound. The
rover<00:21:45.200><c> also</c><00:21:45.520><c> carried</c><00:21:45.919><c> a</c><00:21:46.080><c> deployable</c><00:21:46.880><c> wireless</c>

21:47.430 --> 21:47.440 align:start position:0%
rover also carried a deployable wireless
 

21:47.440 --> 21:49.750 align:start position:0%
rover also carried a deployable wireless
selfie<00:21:47.840><c> camera</c><00:21:48.480><c> that</c><00:21:48.720><c> produced</c><00:21:49.280><c> some</c><00:21:49.520><c> of</c><00:21:49.600><c> the</c>

21:49.750 --> 21:49.760 align:start position:0%
selfie camera that produced some of the
 

21:49.760 --> 21:52.390 align:start position:0%
selfie camera that produced some of the
mission's<00:21:50.320><c> most</c><00:21:50.799><c> iconic</c><00:21:51.280><c> images,</c><00:21:52.080><c> like</c>

21:52.390 --> 21:52.400 align:start position:0%
mission's most iconic images, like
 

21:52.400 --> 21:55.350 align:start position:0%
mission's most iconic images, like
these.

21:55.350 --> 21:55.360 align:start position:0%
these.
 

21:55.360 --> 21:57.909 align:start position:0%
these.
So,<00:21:55.919><c> loaded</c><00:21:56.320><c> up</c><00:21:56.480><c> with</c><00:21:56.799><c> all</c><00:21:57.039><c> these</c><00:21:57.360><c> scientific</c>

21:57.909 --> 21:57.919 align:start position:0%
So, loaded up with all these scientific
 

21:57.919 --> 22:00.710 align:start position:0%
So, loaded up with all these scientific
payloads,<00:21:58.880><c> what</c><00:21:59.120><c> exactly</c><00:21:59.679><c> did</c><00:22:00.080><c> Zurang</c>

22:00.710 --> 22:00.720 align:start position:0%
payloads, what exactly did Zurang
 

22:00.720 --> 22:03.430 align:start position:0%
payloads, what exactly did Zurang
discover<00:22:01.600><c> about</c><00:22:01.919><c> the</c><00:22:02.159><c> Martian</c><00:22:02.640><c> coastline</c>

22:03.430 --> 22:03.440 align:start position:0%
discover about the Martian coastline
 

22:03.440 --> 22:06.950 align:start position:0%
discover about the Martian coastline
that<00:22:03.679><c> past</c><00:22:04.000><c> missions</c><00:22:04.480><c> had</c><00:22:04.720><c> missed?</c>

22:06.950 --> 22:06.960 align:start position:0%
that past missions had missed?
 

22:06.960 --> 22:09.029 align:start position:0%
that past missions had missed?
To<00:22:07.280><c> fully</c><00:22:07.520><c> understand</c><00:22:07.840><c> this,</c><00:22:08.240><c> we</c><00:22:08.480><c> need</c><00:22:08.720><c> a</c>

22:09.029 --> 22:09.039 align:start position:0%
To fully understand this, we need a
 

22:09.039 --> 22:11.669 align:start position:0%
To fully understand this, we need a
quick<00:22:09.360><c> geography</c><00:22:09.840><c> lesson.</c><00:22:11.039><c> On</c><00:22:11.360><c> Earth,</c>

22:11.669 --> 22:11.679 align:start position:0%
quick geography lesson. On Earth,
 

22:11.679 --> 22:13.830 align:start position:0%
quick geography lesson. On Earth,
sediment<00:22:12.240><c> particles</c><00:22:12.720><c> are</c><00:22:12.960><c> transported</c><00:22:13.520><c> by</c>

22:13.830 --> 22:13.840 align:start position:0%
sediment particles are transported by
 

22:13.840 --> 22:16.310 align:start position:0%
sediment particles are transported by
wind,<00:22:14.400><c> water,</c><00:22:14.799><c> and</c><00:22:15.039><c> ice,</c><00:22:15.600><c> carried</c><00:22:16.000><c> through</c>

22:16.310 --> 22:16.320 align:start position:0%
wind, water, and ice, carried through
 

22:16.320 --> 22:19.430 align:start position:0%
wind, water, and ice, carried through
rivers,<00:22:16.960><c> or</c><00:22:17.200><c> moved</c><00:22:17.600><c> downhill</c><00:22:18.159><c> by</c><00:22:18.400><c> glaciers.</c>

22:19.430 --> 22:19.440 align:start position:0%
rivers, or moved downhill by glaciers.
 

22:19.440 --> 22:21.669 align:start position:0%
rivers, or moved downhill by glaciers.
The<00:22:19.679><c> sediment</c><00:22:20.080><c> is</c><00:22:20.320><c> eventually</c><00:22:20.799><c> deposited</c><00:22:21.440><c> in</c>

22:21.669 --> 22:21.679 align:start position:0%
The sediment is eventually deposited in
 

22:21.679 --> 22:23.990 align:start position:0%
The sediment is eventually deposited in
low<00:22:22.080><c> energy</c><00:22:22.559><c> environments</c><00:22:23.280><c> like</c><00:22:23.679><c> river</c>

22:23.990 --> 22:24.000 align:start position:0%
low energy environments like river
 

22:24.000 --> 22:27.270 align:start position:0%
low energy environments like river
deltas,<00:22:24.880><c> lake</c><00:22:25.280><c> and</c><00:22:25.679><c> ocean</c><00:22:26.080><c> floors,</c><00:22:26.960><c> flood</c>

22:27.270 --> 22:27.280 align:start position:0%
deltas, lake and ocean floors, flood
 

22:27.280 --> 22:29.830 align:start position:0%
deltas, lake and ocean floors, flood
planes,<00:22:28.080><c> and</c><00:22:28.320><c> the</c><00:22:28.559><c> base</c><00:22:28.880><c> of</c><00:22:29.039><c> hills</c><00:22:29.520><c> or</c>

22:29.830 --> 22:29.840 align:start position:0%
planes, and the base of hills or
 

22:29.840 --> 22:32.230 align:start position:0%
planes, and the base of hills or
mountains.<00:22:30.880><c> But</c><00:22:31.039><c> it</c><00:22:31.280><c> can</c><00:22:31.360><c> also</c><00:22:31.600><c> happen</c><00:22:31.840><c> along</c>

22:32.230 --> 22:32.240 align:start position:0%
mountains. But it can also happen along
 

22:32.240 --> 22:35.430 align:start position:0%
mountains. But it can also happen along
coastlines,<00:22:33.360><c> more</c><00:22:33.679><c> specifically</c><00:22:34.799><c> along</c><00:22:35.120><c> the</c>

22:35.430 --> 22:35.440 align:start position:0%
coastlines, more specifically along the
 

22:35.440 --> 22:37.190 align:start position:0%
coastlines, more specifically along the
part<00:22:35.600><c> of</c><00:22:35.760><c> the</c><00:22:35.919><c> beach</c><00:22:36.320><c> known</c><00:22:36.640><c> as</c><00:22:36.880><c> the</c>

22:37.190 --> 22:37.200 align:start position:0%
part of the beach known as the
 

22:37.200 --> 22:40.390 align:start position:0%
part of the beach known as the
foresshore.<00:22:38.640><c> This</c><00:22:38.880><c> is</c><00:22:39.120><c> a</c><00:22:39.440><c> dynamic</c><00:22:40.080><c> part</c><00:22:40.240><c> of</c>

22:40.390 --> 22:40.400 align:start position:0%
foresshore. This is a dynamic part of
 

22:40.400 --> 22:43.110 align:start position:0%
foresshore. This is a dynamic part of
the<00:22:40.559><c> shoreline</c><00:22:41.440><c> between</c><00:22:41.919><c> the</c><00:22:42.240><c> high</c><00:22:42.559><c> tide</c><00:22:42.880><c> and</c>

22:43.110 --> 22:43.120 align:start position:0%
the shoreline between the high tide and
 

22:43.120 --> 22:46.149 align:start position:0%
the shoreline between the high tide and
low<00:22:43.440><c> tide</c><00:22:43.840><c> lines.</c><00:22:44.799><c> Here,</c><00:22:45.280><c> sediment</c><00:22:45.760><c> can</c><00:22:46.000><c> be</c>

22:46.149 --> 22:46.159 align:start position:0%
low tide lines. Here, sediment can be
 

22:46.159 --> 22:48.310 align:start position:0%
low tide lines. Here, sediment can be
added<00:22:46.480><c> or</c><00:22:46.799><c> removed</c><00:22:47.360><c> depending</c><00:22:47.760><c> on</c><00:22:48.080><c> things</c>

22:48.310 --> 22:48.320 align:start position:0%
added or removed depending on things
 

22:48.320 --> 22:51.909 align:start position:0%
added or removed depending on things
like<00:22:48.640><c> wind,</c><00:22:49.440><c> tides,</c><00:22:50.480><c> weather</c><00:22:50.880><c> events,</c><00:22:51.679><c> and</c>

22:51.909 --> 22:51.919 align:start position:0%
like wind, tides, weather events, and
 

22:51.919 --> 22:55.510 align:start position:0%
like wind, tides, weather events, and
the<00:22:52.159><c> type</c><00:22:52.400><c> and</c><00:22:52.720><c> size</c><00:22:53.200><c> of</c><00:22:53.520><c> sediment</c><00:22:54.080><c> particles.</c>

22:55.510 --> 22:55.520 align:start position:0%
the type and size of sediment particles.
 

22:55.520 --> 22:57.990 align:start position:0%
the type and size of sediment particles.
On<00:22:55.840><c> Earth,</c><00:22:56.240><c> the</c><00:22:56.400><c> foreshore</c><00:22:57.039><c> zone</c><00:22:57.520><c> tends</c><00:22:57.840><c> to</c>

22:57.990 --> 22:58.000 align:start position:0%
On Earth, the foreshore zone tends to
 

22:58.000 --> 23:00.630 align:start position:0%
On Earth, the foreshore zone tends to
slope<00:22:58.400><c> gently</c><00:22:58.799><c> towards</c><00:22:59.200><c> the</c><00:22:59.360><c> sea.</c><00:23:00.320><c> The</c>

23:00.630 --> 23:00.640 align:start position:0%
slope gently towards the sea. The
 

23:00.640 --> 23:02.390 align:start position:0%
slope gently towards the sea. The
gradient<00:23:00.960><c> of</c><00:23:01.120><c> the</c><00:23:01.280><c> slope</c><00:23:01.679><c> depends</c><00:23:02.000><c> on</c><00:23:02.240><c> the</c>

23:02.390 --> 23:02.400 align:start position:0%
gradient of the slope depends on the
 

23:02.400 --> 23:04.950 align:start position:0%
gradient of the slope depends on the
type<00:23:02.640><c> of</c><00:23:02.799><c> sediment.</c><00:23:03.760><c> For</c><00:23:03.919><c> example,</c><00:23:04.480><c> beaches</c>

23:04.950 --> 23:04.960 align:start position:0%
type of sediment. For example, beaches
 

23:04.960 --> 23:07.990 align:start position:0%
type of sediment. For example, beaches
made<00:23:05.200><c> of</c><00:23:05.600><c> smaller,</c><00:23:06.320><c> finer</c><00:23:06.799><c> particles</c><00:23:07.600><c> result</c>

23:07.990 --> 23:08.000 align:start position:0%
made of smaller, finer particles result
 

23:08.000 --> 23:11.029 align:start position:0%
made of smaller, finer particles result
in<00:23:08.400><c> low</c><00:23:08.720><c> gradient</c><00:23:09.200><c> beaches,</c><00:23:10.240><c> while</c><00:23:10.640><c> beaches</c>

23:11.029 --> 23:11.039 align:start position:0%
in low gradient beaches, while beaches
 

23:11.039 --> 23:13.830 align:start position:0%
in low gradient beaches, while beaches
with<00:23:11.360><c> cobbles</c><00:23:12.000><c> may</c><00:23:12.320><c> be</c><00:23:12.480><c> stacked</c><00:23:12.799><c> as</c><00:23:13.039><c> steep</c><00:23:13.360><c> as</c>

23:13.830 --> 23:13.840 align:start position:0%
with cobbles may be stacked as steep as
 

23:13.840 --> 23:17.110 align:start position:0%
with cobbles may be stacked as steep as
20°.<00:23:15.120><c> These</c><00:23:15.520><c> sloping</c><00:23:16.159><c> layers</c><00:23:16.400><c> record</c><00:23:16.799><c> the</c>

23:17.110 --> 23:17.120 align:start position:0%
20°. These sloping layers record the
 

23:17.120 --> 23:19.270 align:start position:0%
20°. These sloping layers record the
long-term<00:23:17.840><c> balance</c><00:23:18.320><c> between</c><00:23:18.799><c> sediment</c>

23:19.270 --> 23:19.280 align:start position:0%
long-term balance between sediment
 

23:19.280 --> 23:22.710 align:start position:0%
long-term balance between sediment
supply,<00:23:20.080><c> wave</c><00:23:20.400><c> energy,</c><00:23:21.120><c> and</c><00:23:21.440><c> water</c><00:23:21.760><c> level</c><00:23:22.400><c> and</c>

23:22.710 --> 23:22.720 align:start position:0%
supply, wave energy, and water level and
 

23:22.720 --> 23:24.549 align:start position:0%
supply, wave energy, and water level and
can<00:23:22.960><c> be</c><00:23:23.120><c> preserved</c><00:23:23.600><c> in</c><00:23:23.760><c> the</c><00:23:23.919><c> geological</c>

23:24.549 --> 23:24.559 align:start position:0%
can be preserved in the geological
 

23:24.559 --> 23:27.510 align:start position:0%
can be preserved in the geological
record<00:23:25.039><c> for</c><00:23:25.600><c> millions</c><00:23:26.000><c> of</c><00:23:26.159><c> years.</c>

23:27.510 --> 23:27.520 align:start position:0%
record for millions of years.
 

23:27.520 --> 23:30.070 align:start position:0%
record for millions of years.
Back<00:23:27.840><c> on</c><00:23:28.000><c> Mars,</c><00:23:28.559><c> the</c><00:23:28.799><c> Sirong</c><00:23:29.280><c> rover</c><00:23:29.679><c> was</c><00:23:29.919><c> hard</c>

23:30.070 --> 23:30.080 align:start position:0%
Back on Mars, the Sirong rover was hard
 

23:30.080 --> 23:32.390 align:start position:0%
Back on Mars, the Sirong rover was hard
at<00:23:30.240><c> work</c><00:23:30.640><c> studying</c><00:23:31.039><c> the</c><00:23:31.200><c> planet's</c><00:23:31.679><c> subsurface</c>

23:32.390 --> 23:32.400 align:start position:0%
at work studying the planet's subsurface
 

23:32.400 --> 23:35.350 align:start position:0%
at work studying the planet's subsurface
topography.<00:23:33.520><c> It</c><00:23:33.760><c> did</c><00:23:33.919><c> this</c><00:23:34.159><c> by</c><00:23:34.480><c> sending</c><00:23:34.960><c> radio</c>

23:35.350 --> 23:35.360 align:start position:0%
topography. It did this by sending radio
 

23:35.360 --> 23:38.070 align:start position:0%
topography. It did this by sending radio
waves<00:23:35.760><c> into</c><00:23:36.080><c> the</c><00:23:36.320><c> ground</c><00:23:36.640><c> using</c><00:23:37.039><c> its</c><00:23:37.520><c> rover</c>

23:38.070 --> 23:38.080 align:start position:0%
waves into the ground using its rover
 

23:38.080 --> 23:40.710 align:start position:0%
waves into the ground using its rover
radar.<00:23:39.200><c> When</c><00:23:39.440><c> the</c><00:23:39.600><c> radio</c><00:23:40.000><c> wave</c><00:23:40.240><c> hits</c><00:23:40.480><c> a</c>

23:40.710 --> 23:40.720 align:start position:0%
radar. When the radio wave hits a
 

23:40.720 --> 23:42.390 align:start position:0%
radar. When the radio wave hits a
boundary<00:23:41.120><c> between</c><00:23:41.679><c> two</c><00:23:42.080><c> different</c>

23:42.390 --> 23:42.400 align:start position:0%
boundary between two different
 

23:42.400 --> 23:44.789 align:start position:0%
boundary between two different
materials,<00:23:43.440><c> for</c><00:23:43.520><c> example,</c><00:23:44.159><c> when</c><00:23:44.480><c> the</c>

23:44.789 --> 23:44.799 align:start position:0%
materials, for example, when the
 

23:44.799 --> 23:46.950 align:start position:0%
materials, for example, when the
composition<00:23:45.360><c> shifts</c><00:23:45.760><c> from</c><00:23:46.080><c> fine</c><00:23:46.480><c> grained</c>

23:46.950 --> 23:46.960 align:start position:0%
composition shifts from fine grained
 

23:46.960 --> 23:49.990 align:start position:0%
composition shifts from fine grained
sediment<00:23:47.520><c> to</c><00:23:48.159><c> coarser</c><00:23:48.720><c> sand,</c><00:23:49.440><c> the</c><00:23:49.679><c> signal</c>

23:49.990 --> 23:50.000 align:start position:0%
sediment to coarser sand, the signal
 

23:50.000 --> 23:53.029 align:start position:0%
sediment to coarser sand, the signal
bounces<00:23:50.480><c> back.</c><00:23:51.440><c> This</c><00:23:51.679><c> creates</c><00:23:52.080><c> a</c><00:23:52.400><c> reflector</c>

23:53.029 --> 23:53.039 align:start position:0%
bounces back. This creates a reflector
 

23:53.039 --> 23:55.909 align:start position:0%
bounces back. This creates a reflector
in<00:23:53.280><c> the</c><00:23:53.440><c> radar</c><00:23:53.840><c> image.</c><00:23:54.960><c> What</c><00:23:55.280><c> grabbed</c><00:23:55.679><c> the</c>

23:55.909 --> 23:55.919 align:start position:0%
in the radar image. What grabbed the
 

23:55.919 --> 23:59.110 align:start position:0%
in the radar image. What grabbed the
Tsurang's<00:23:56.559><c> team's</c><00:23:57.120><c> attention</c><00:23:58.159><c> was</c><00:23:58.480><c> not</c><00:23:58.880><c> just</c>

23:59.110 --> 23:59.120 align:start position:0%
Tsurang's team's attention was not just
 

23:59.120 --> 24:01.669 align:start position:0%
Tsurang's team's attention was not just
that<00:23:59.440><c> signals</c><00:23:59.840><c> were</c><00:24:00.000><c> bouncing</c><00:24:00.320><c> back,</c><00:24:00.960><c> but</c><00:24:01.280><c> the</c>

24:01.669 --> 24:01.679 align:start position:0%
that signals were bouncing back, but the
 

24:01.679 --> 24:06.149 align:start position:0%
that signals were bouncing back, but the
angle<00:24:02.240><c> they</c><00:24:02.480><c> were</c><00:24:02.640><c> bouncing</c><00:24:03.039><c> back</c><00:24:03.360><c> at.</c><00:24:04.640><c> All</c><00:24:05.200><c> 76</c>

24:06.149 --> 24:06.159 align:start position:0%
angle they were bouncing back at. All 76
 

24:06.159 --> 24:08.310 align:start position:0%
angle they were bouncing back at. All 76
of<00:24:06.480><c> the</c><00:24:06.720><c> geological</c><00:24:07.360><c> reflectors</c><00:24:08.000><c> they</c>

24:08.310 --> 24:08.320 align:start position:0%
of the geological reflectors they
 

24:08.320 --> 24:11.350 align:start position:0%
of the geological reflectors they
encountered<00:24:09.280><c> sloped</c><00:24:09.760><c> in</c><00:24:10.000><c> the</c><00:24:10.240><c> same</c><00:24:10.559><c> direction</c>

24:11.350 --> 24:11.360 align:start position:0%
encountered sloped in the same direction
 

24:11.360 --> 24:15.350 align:start position:0%
encountered sloped in the same direction
at<00:24:11.600><c> an</c><00:24:11.840><c> angle</c><00:24:12.240><c> between</c><00:24:12.880><c> 6</c><00:24:13.360><c> and</c><00:24:13.760><c> 20°.</c>

24:15.350 --> 24:15.360 align:start position:0%
at an angle between 6 and 20°.
 

24:15.360 --> 24:17.269 align:start position:0%
at an angle between 6 and 20°.
Putting<00:24:15.679><c> the</c><00:24:15.840><c> pieces</c><00:24:16.240><c> together,</c><00:24:16.720><c> the</c><00:24:17.039><c> team</c>

24:17.269 --> 24:17.279 align:start position:0%
Putting the pieces together, the team
 

24:17.279 --> 24:20.549 align:start position:0%
Putting the pieces together, the team
realized<00:24:17.840><c> that</c><00:24:18.320><c> 10</c><00:24:18.720><c> to</c><00:24:19.039><c> 35</c><00:24:19.520><c> m</c><00:24:20.000><c> below</c><00:24:20.320><c> the</c>

24:20.549 --> 24:20.559 align:start position:0%
realized that 10 to 35 m below the
 

24:20.559 --> 24:24.870 align:start position:0%
realized that 10 to 35 m below the
planet's<00:24:20.960><c> surface</c><00:24:21.840><c> lies</c><00:24:22.240><c> a</c><00:24:22.640><c> 1.3</c><00:24:23.840><c> km</c><00:24:24.480><c> stretch</c>

24:24.870 --> 24:24.880 align:start position:0%
planet's surface lies a 1.3 km stretch
 

24:24.880 --> 24:28.470 align:start position:0%
planet's surface lies a 1.3 km stretch
of<00:24:25.120><c> terrain</c><00:24:25.919><c> sloping</c><00:24:26.480><c> towards</c><00:24:26.960><c> the</c><00:24:27.200><c> lowlands.</c>

24:28.470 --> 24:28.480 align:start position:0%
of terrain sloping towards the lowlands.
 

24:28.480 --> 24:31.350 align:start position:0%
of terrain sloping towards the lowlands.
It<00:24:28.720><c> seemed</c><00:24:29.039><c> like</c><00:24:29.440><c> more</c><00:24:29.760><c> than</c><00:24:30.000><c> coincidence.</c>

24:31.350 --> 24:31.360 align:start position:0%
It seemed like more than coincidence.
 

24:31.360 --> 24:33.590 align:start position:0%
It seemed like more than coincidence.
Could<00:24:31.760><c> this</c><00:24:32.240><c> be</c><00:24:32.559><c> proof</c><00:24:32.880><c> of</c><00:24:33.120><c> what</c><00:24:33.279><c> they</c><00:24:33.520><c> were</c>

24:33.590 --> 24:33.600 align:start position:0%
Could this be proof of what they were
 

24:33.600 --> 24:36.549 align:start position:0%
Could this be proof of what they were
looking<00:24:33.840><c> for?</c><00:24:34.480><c> The</c><00:24:34.880><c> indisputable</c><00:24:35.919><c> evidence</c>

24:36.549 --> 24:36.559 align:start position:0%
looking for? The indisputable evidence
 

24:36.559 --> 24:39.590 align:start position:0%
looking for? The indisputable evidence
for<00:24:36.799><c> an</c><00:24:37.039><c> ancient</c><00:24:37.440><c> shoreline</c><00:24:38.000><c> on</c><00:24:38.240><c> Mars?</c><00:24:39.360><c> The</c>

24:39.590 --> 24:39.600 align:start position:0%
for an ancient shoreline on Mars? The
 

24:39.600 --> 24:41.510 align:start position:0%
for an ancient shoreline on Mars? The
team<00:24:39.840><c> hurried</c><00:24:40.240><c> to</c><00:24:40.400><c> compare</c><00:24:40.720><c> this</c><00:24:41.039><c> Martian</c>

24:41.510 --> 24:41.520 align:start position:0%
team hurried to compare this Martian
 

24:41.520 --> 24:43.430 align:start position:0%
team hurried to compare this Martian
picture<00:24:41.760><c> to</c><00:24:42.000><c> the</c><00:24:42.159><c> buried</c><00:24:42.480><c> beaches</c><00:24:42.960><c> found</c><00:24:43.200><c> on</c>

24:43.430 --> 24:43.440 align:start position:0%
picture to the buried beaches found on
 

24:43.440 --> 24:46.789 align:start position:0%
picture to the buried beaches found on
Earth<00:24:44.159><c> and</c><00:24:44.400><c> found</c><00:24:44.799><c> the</c><00:24:45.120><c> Bay</c><00:24:45.360><c> of</c><00:24:45.600><c> Bengal</c><00:24:46.320><c> to</c><00:24:46.640><c> be</c>

24:46.789 --> 24:46.799 align:start position:0%
Earth and found the Bay of Bengal to be
 

24:46.799 --> 24:49.909 align:start position:0%
Earth and found the Bay of Bengal to be
such<00:24:47.039><c> a</c><00:24:47.279><c> strikingly</c><00:24:48.080><c> similar</c><00:24:48.640><c> Earth</c><00:24:48.960><c> analog</c>

24:49.909 --> 24:49.919 align:start position:0%
such a strikingly similar Earth analog
 

24:49.919 --> 24:52.310 align:start position:0%
such a strikingly similar Earth analog
they<00:24:50.240><c> even</c><00:24:50.559><c> featured</c><00:24:51.039><c> this</c><00:24:51.360><c> finding</c><00:24:51.840><c> in</c><00:24:52.080><c> their</c>

24:52.310 --> 24:52.320 align:start position:0%
they even featured this finding in their
 

24:52.320 --> 24:54.789 align:start position:0%
they even featured this finding in their
paper.<00:24:53.360><c> One</c><00:24:53.600><c> of</c><00:24:53.679><c> the</c><00:24:53.840><c> co-authors</c><00:24:54.480><c> of</c><00:24:54.640><c> the</c>

24:54.789 --> 24:54.799 align:start position:0%
paper. One of the co-authors of the
 

24:54.799 --> 24:56.390 align:start position:0%
paper. One of the co-authors of the
original<00:24:55.120><c> research</c><00:24:55.520><c> paper</c><00:24:55.840><c> that</c><00:24:56.080><c> published</c>

24:56.390 --> 24:56.400 align:start position:0%
original research paper that published
 

24:56.400 --> 24:58.230 align:start position:0%
original research paper that published
the<00:24:56.559><c> findings</c><00:24:56.960><c> said,</c><00:24:57.360><c> "It's</c><00:24:57.760><c> a</c><00:24:57.919><c> simple</c>

24:58.230 --> 24:58.240 align:start position:0%
the findings said, "It's a simple
 

24:58.240 --> 25:00.870 align:start position:0%
the findings said, "It's a simple
structure,<00:24:58.960><c> but</c><00:24:59.200><c> it</c><00:24:59.440><c> tells</c><00:24:59.679><c> you</c><00:25:00.240><c> there</c><00:25:00.480><c> had</c><00:25:00.720><c> to</c>

25:00.870 --> 25:00.880 align:start position:0%
structure, but it tells you there had to
 

25:00.880 --> 25:04.070 align:start position:0%
structure, but it tells you there had to
be<00:25:01.120><c> waves.</c><00:25:01.919><c> There</c><00:25:02.080><c> had</c><00:25:02.320><c> to</c><00:25:02.480><c> be</c><00:25:02.720><c> a</c><00:25:03.039><c> nearby</c><00:25:03.600><c> river</c>

25:04.070 --> 25:04.080 align:start position:0%
be waves. There had to be a nearby river
 

25:04.080 --> 25:06.390 align:start position:0%
be waves. There had to be a nearby river
supplying<00:25:04.559><c> sediment,</c><00:25:05.360><c> and</c><00:25:05.600><c> all</c><00:25:05.760><c> these</c><00:25:06.080><c> things</c>

25:06.390 --> 25:06.400 align:start position:0%
supplying sediment, and all these things
 

25:06.400 --> 25:08.870 align:start position:0%
supplying sediment, and all these things
had<00:25:06.640><c> to</c><00:25:06.799><c> be</c><00:25:07.039><c> active</c><00:25:07.600><c> for</c><00:25:07.919><c> some</c><00:25:08.240><c> extended</c>

25:08.870 --> 25:08.880 align:start position:0%
had to be active for some extended
 

25:08.880 --> 25:12.149 align:start position:0%
had to be active for some extended
period<00:25:09.200><c> of</c><00:25:09.440><c> time.</c><00:25:10.720><c> We</c><00:25:11.120><c> also</c><00:25:11.520><c> know</c><00:25:11.760><c> that</c><00:25:11.919><c> the</c>

25:12.149 --> 25:12.159 align:start position:0%
period of time. We also know that the
 

25:12.159 --> 25:15.430 align:start position:0%
period of time. We also know that the
sun<00:25:12.640><c> and</c><00:25:12.960><c> Mars's</c><00:25:13.520><c> bigger</c><00:25:13.840><c> moon,</c><00:25:14.240><c> Phobos,</c><00:25:15.200><c> do</c>

25:15.430 --> 25:15.440 align:start position:0%
sun and Mars's bigger moon, Phobos, do
 

25:15.440 --> 25:17.590 align:start position:0%
sun and Mars's bigger moon, Phobos, do
affect<00:25:15.760><c> the</c><00:25:16.000><c> planet's</c><00:25:16.320><c> surface</c><00:25:16.720><c> gravity,</c>

25:17.590 --> 25:17.600 align:start position:0%
affect the planet's surface gravity,
 

25:17.600 --> 25:20.149 align:start position:0%
affect the planet's surface gravity,
which<00:25:18.000><c> could</c><00:25:18.320><c> have</c><00:25:18.559><c> caused</c><00:25:18.960><c> tides</c><00:25:19.679><c> on</c><00:25:19.919><c> the</c>

25:20.149 --> 25:20.159 align:start position:0%
which could have caused tides on the
 

25:20.159 --> 25:22.149 align:start position:0%
which could have caused tides on the
ancient<00:25:20.559><c> ocean."</c>

25:22.149 --> 25:22.159 align:start position:0%
ancient ocean."
 

25:22.159 --> 25:24.470 align:start position:0%
ancient ocean."
The<00:25:22.400><c> team</c><00:25:22.799><c> briefly</c><00:25:23.360><c> considered</c><00:25:24.080><c> but</c>

25:24.470 --> 25:24.480 align:start position:0%
The team briefly considered but
 

25:24.480 --> 25:26.310 align:start position:0%
The team briefly considered but
ultimately<00:25:24.880><c> ruled</c><00:25:25.279><c> out</c><00:25:25.600><c> other</c><00:25:25.919><c> possible</c>

25:26.310 --> 25:26.320 align:start position:0%
ultimately ruled out other possible
 

25:26.320 --> 25:28.870 align:start position:0%
ultimately ruled out other possible
explanations<00:25:26.880><c> for</c><00:25:27.120><c> the</c><00:25:27.279><c> sloping</c><00:25:27.760><c> structures.</c>

25:28.870 --> 25:28.880 align:start position:0%
explanations for the sloping structures.
 

25:28.880 --> 25:31.510 align:start position:0%
explanations for the sloping structures.
They<00:25:29.200><c> argued</c><00:25:29.679><c> both</c><00:25:30.159><c> sandjunes</c><00:25:30.880><c> and</c><00:25:31.120><c> lava</c>

25:31.510 --> 25:31.520 align:start position:0%
They argued both sandjunes and lava
 

25:31.520 --> 25:33.510 align:start position:0%
They argued both sandjunes and lava
flows<00:25:31.919><c> would</c><00:25:32.159><c> lead</c><00:25:32.320><c> to</c><00:25:32.480><c> slopes</c><00:25:32.880><c> pointing</c><00:25:33.279><c> in</c>

25:33.510 --> 25:33.520 align:start position:0%
flows would lead to slopes pointing in
 

25:33.520 --> 25:36.230 align:start position:0%
flows would lead to slopes pointing in
multiple<00:25:33.919><c> directions.</c><00:25:34.880><c> Yet</c><00:25:35.279><c> in</c><00:25:35.440><c> the</c><00:25:35.679><c> Tsurang</c>

25:36.230 --> 25:36.240 align:start position:0%
multiple directions. Yet in the Tsurang
 

25:36.240 --> 25:39.269 align:start position:0%
multiple directions. Yet in the Tsurang
data,<00:25:37.200><c> all</c><00:25:37.440><c> the</c><00:25:37.679><c> reflectors</c><00:25:38.320><c> point</c><00:25:38.720><c> the</c><00:25:39.039><c> same</c>

25:39.269 --> 25:39.279 align:start position:0%
data, all the reflectors point the same
 

25:39.279 --> 25:42.230 align:start position:0%
data, all the reflectors point the same
way.<00:25:40.240><c> They</c><00:25:40.559><c> concluded</c><00:25:41.200><c> that</c><00:25:41.440><c> these</c><00:25:41.760><c> slopes</c>

25:42.230 --> 25:42.240 align:start position:0%
way. They concluded that these slopes
 

25:42.240 --> 25:44.390 align:start position:0%
way. They concluded that these slopes
were<00:25:42.480><c> more</c><00:25:42.720><c> consistent</c><00:25:43.279><c> with</c><00:25:43.520><c> a</c><00:25:43.840><c> coastal</c>

25:44.390 --> 25:44.400 align:start position:0%
were more consistent with a coastal
 

25:44.400 --> 25:47.029 align:start position:0%
were more consistent with a coastal
forshore<00:25:45.120><c> environment,</c><00:25:46.240><c> strengthening</c><00:25:46.799><c> the</c>

25:47.029 --> 25:47.039 align:start position:0%
forshore environment, strengthening the
 

25:47.039 --> 25:49.430 align:start position:0%
forshore environment, strengthening the
case<00:25:47.440><c> that</c><00:25:47.760><c> Mars</c><00:25:48.240><c> once</c><00:25:48.559><c> had</c><00:25:48.960><c> dynamic</c>

25:49.430 --> 25:49.440 align:start position:0%
case that Mars once had dynamic
 

25:49.440 --> 25:53.029 align:start position:0%
case that Mars once had dynamic
shorelines<00:25:50.159><c> that</c><00:25:50.480><c> experienced</c><00:25:51.440><c> tides,</c><00:25:52.400><c> wind,</c>

25:53.029 --> 25:53.039 align:start position:0%
shorelines that experienced tides, wind,
 

25:53.039 --> 25:58.230 align:start position:0%
shorelines that experienced tides, wind,
and<00:25:53.360><c> waves,</c><00:25:54.240><c> just</c><00:25:54.480><c> like</c><00:25:54.960><c> Earth</c><00:25:55.360><c> does</c><00:25:55.679><c> today.</c>

25:58.230 --> 25:58.240 align:start position:0%
and waves, just like Earth does today.
 

25:58.240 --> 26:00.710 align:start position:0%
and waves, just like Earth does today.
For<00:25:58.559><c> decades,</c><00:25:59.279><c> scientists</c><00:25:59.760><c> have</c><00:26:00.000><c> been</c><00:26:00.320><c> locked</c>

26:00.710 --> 26:00.720 align:start position:0%
For decades, scientists have been locked
 

26:00.720 --> 26:03.029 align:start position:0%
For decades, scientists have been locked
in<00:26:01.039><c> heated</c><00:26:01.440><c> debate</c><00:26:01.919><c> over</c><00:26:02.159><c> the</c><00:26:02.400><c> question</c><00:26:02.799><c> of</c>

26:03.029 --> 26:03.039 align:start position:0%
in heated debate over the question of
 

26:03.039 --> 26:05.750 align:start position:0%
in heated debate over the question of
Mars's<00:26:03.600><c> oceans.</c><00:26:04.559><c> The</c><00:26:04.799><c> evidence</c><00:26:05.279><c> seemed</c>

26:05.750 --> 26:05.760 align:start position:0%
Mars's oceans. The evidence seemed
 

26:05.760 --> 26:08.070 align:start position:0%
Mars's oceans. The evidence seemed
frustratingly<00:26:06.559><c> unclear.</c><00:26:07.600><c> Prominent</c>

26:08.070 --> 26:08.080 align:start position:0%
frustratingly unclear. Prominent
 

26:08.080 --> 26:10.390 align:start position:0%
frustratingly unclear. Prominent
researchers<00:26:08.799><c> dismissed</c><00:26:09.440><c> shoreline</c><00:26:10.000><c> evidence</c>

26:10.390 --> 26:10.400 align:start position:0%
researchers dismissed shoreline evidence
 

26:10.400 --> 26:13.750 align:start position:0%
researchers dismissed shoreline evidence
as<00:26:10.799><c> artifacts</c><00:26:11.440><c> or</c><00:26:12.000><c> poor</c><00:26:12.320><c> image</c><00:26:12.720><c> resolution,</c>

26:13.750 --> 26:13.760 align:start position:0%
as artifacts or poor image resolution,
 

26:13.760 --> 26:15.990 align:start position:0%
as artifacts or poor image resolution,
and<00:26:14.000><c> climate</c><00:26:14.480><c> modelers</c><00:26:14.960><c> struggle</c><00:26:15.440><c> to</c><00:26:15.600><c> explain</c>

26:15.990 --> 26:16.000 align:start position:0%
and climate modelers struggle to explain
 

26:16.000 --> 26:19.190 align:start position:0%
and climate modelers struggle to explain
how<00:26:16.320><c> liquid</c><00:26:16.799><c> water</c><00:26:17.360><c> could</c><00:26:17.679><c> exist</c><00:26:18.320><c> on</c><00:26:18.640><c> an</c><00:26:18.880><c> early</c>

26:19.190 --> 26:19.200 align:start position:0%
how liquid water could exist on an early
 

26:19.200 --> 26:24.310 align:start position:0%
how liquid water could exist on an early
Mars<00:26:19.919><c> with</c><00:26:20.159><c> a</c><00:26:20.400><c> fainter</c><00:26:20.960><c> sun.</c><00:26:22.240><c> You</c><00:26:22.480><c> see,</c><00:26:23.360><c> 3.5</c>

26:24.310 --> 26:24.320 align:start position:0%
Mars with a fainter sun. You see, 3.5
 

26:24.320 --> 26:27.750 align:start position:0%
Mars with a fainter sun. You see, 3.5
billion<00:26:24.720><c> years</c><00:26:24.880><c> ago,</c><00:26:25.520><c> our</c><00:26:25.840><c> sun</c><00:26:26.159><c> was</c><00:26:26.320><c> about</c><00:26:26.880><c> 25%</c>

26:27.750 --> 26:27.760 align:start position:0%
billion years ago, our sun was about 25%
 

26:27.760 --> 26:30.630 align:start position:0%
billion years ago, our sun was about 25%
dimmer<00:26:28.159><c> than</c><00:26:28.400><c> it</c><00:26:28.640><c> is</c><00:26:28.799><c> now.</c><00:26:29.600><c> Too</c><00:26:29.840><c> faint</c><00:26:30.159><c> to</c><00:26:30.400><c> keep</c>

26:30.630 --> 26:30.640 align:start position:0%
dimmer than it is now. Too faint to keep
 

26:30.640 --> 26:34.149 align:start position:0%
dimmer than it is now. Too faint to keep
Mars<00:26:31.039><c> above</c><00:26:31.440><c> freezing.</c><00:26:32.559><c> And</c><00:26:32.799><c> yet</c><00:26:33.440><c> our</c><00:26:33.760><c> climate</c>

26:34.149 --> 26:34.159 align:start position:0%
Mars above freezing. And yet our climate
 

26:34.159 --> 26:37.029 align:start position:0%
Mars above freezing. And yet our climate
models<00:26:34.799><c> predict</c><00:26:35.200><c> that</c><00:26:35.520><c> at</c><00:26:35.760><c> the</c><00:26:36.000><c> time</c><00:26:36.559><c> Mars</c>

26:37.029 --> 26:37.039 align:start position:0%
models predict that at the time Mars
 

26:37.039 --> 26:38.870 align:start position:0%
models predict that at the time Mars
would<00:26:37.200><c> have</c><00:26:37.360><c> been</c><00:26:37.600><c> covered</c><00:26:37.919><c> in</c><00:26:38.159><c> rivers,</c>

26:38.870 --> 26:38.880 align:start position:0%
would have been covered in rivers,
 

26:38.880 --> 26:41.909 align:start position:0%
would have been covered in rivers,
lakes,<00:26:39.600><c> and</c><00:26:39.919><c> even</c><00:26:40.320><c> oceans.</c>

26:41.909 --> 26:41.919 align:start position:0%
lakes, and even oceans.
 

26:41.919 --> 26:44.549 align:start position:0%
lakes, and even oceans.
This<00:26:42.240><c> leads</c><00:26:42.559><c> to</c><00:26:42.720><c> what</c><00:26:42.960><c> is</c><00:26:43.200><c> known</c><00:26:43.440><c> as</c><00:26:43.760><c> the</c><00:26:44.000><c> faint</c>

26:44.549 --> 26:44.559 align:start position:0%
This leads to what is known as the faint
 

26:44.559 --> 26:47.990 align:start position:0%
This leads to what is known as the faint
young<00:26:45.039><c> sun</c><00:26:45.600><c> paradox.</c><00:26:47.039><c> If</c><00:26:47.279><c> the</c><00:26:47.440><c> heat</c><00:26:47.760><c> for</c>

26:47.990 --> 26:48.000 align:start position:0%
young sun paradox. If the heat for
 

26:48.000 --> 26:50.630 align:start position:0%
young sun paradox. If the heat for
liquid<00:26:48.400><c> water</c><00:26:48.720><c> didn't</c><00:26:49.039><c> come</c><00:26:49.200><c> from</c><00:26:49.360><c> the</c><00:26:49.600><c> sun,</c>

26:50.630 --> 26:50.640 align:start position:0%
liquid water didn't come from the sun,
 

26:50.640 --> 26:52.230 align:start position:0%
liquid water didn't come from the sun,
it<00:26:50.960><c> must</c><00:26:51.200><c> have</c><00:26:51.360><c> come</c><00:26:51.520><c> from</c><00:26:51.679><c> Mars's</c>

26:52.230 --> 26:52.240 align:start position:0%
it must have come from Mars's
 

26:52.240 --> 26:53.830 align:start position:0%
it must have come from Mars's
atmosphere.

26:53.830 --> 26:53.840 align:start position:0%
atmosphere.
 

26:53.840 --> 26:56.070 align:start position:0%
atmosphere.
This<00:26:54.000><c> has</c><00:26:54.159><c> led</c><00:26:54.480><c> to</c><00:26:54.720><c> three</c><00:26:55.039><c> theories</c><00:26:55.600><c> trying</c><00:26:55.919><c> to</c>

26:56.070 --> 26:56.080 align:start position:0%
This has led to three theories trying to
 

26:56.080 --> 26:59.269 align:start position:0%
This has led to three theories trying to
solve<00:26:56.400><c> the</c><00:26:56.720><c> faint</c><00:26:57.200><c> young</c><00:26:57.679><c> sun</c><00:26:58.080><c> paradox.</c><00:26:59.039><c> The</c>

26:59.269 --> 26:59.279 align:start position:0%
solve the faint young sun paradox. The
 

26:59.279 --> 27:02.789 align:start position:0%
solve the faint young sun paradox. The
first<00:26:59.600><c> says</c><00:27:00.080><c> Mars</c><00:27:00.640><c> was</c><00:27:01.039><c> warm</c><00:27:01.360><c> and</c><00:27:01.679><c> wet.</c><00:27:02.640><c> The</c>

27:02.789 --> 27:02.799 align:start position:0%
first says Mars was warm and wet. The
 

27:02.799 --> 27:05.110 align:start position:0%
first says Mars was warm and wet. The
idea<00:27:03.120><c> is</c><00:27:03.360><c> that</c><00:27:03.679><c> Mars's</c><00:27:04.159><c> atmosphere</c><00:27:04.720><c> was</c>

27:05.110 --> 27:05.120 align:start position:0%
idea is that Mars's atmosphere was
 

27:05.120 --> 27:07.750 align:start position:0%
idea is that Mars's atmosphere was
loaded<00:27:05.679><c> with</c><00:27:05.919><c> greenhouse</c><00:27:06.400><c> gases,</c><00:27:07.360><c> mainly</c>

27:07.750 --> 27:07.760 align:start position:0%
loaded with greenhouse gases, mainly
 

27:07.760 --> 27:10.710 align:start position:0%
loaded with greenhouse gases, mainly
carbon<00:27:08.159><c> dioxide</c><00:27:09.039><c> and</c><00:27:09.279><c> water</c><00:27:09.600><c> vapor,</c><00:27:10.400><c> which</c>

27:10.710 --> 27:10.720 align:start position:0%
carbon dioxide and water vapor, which
 

27:10.720 --> 27:13.190 align:start position:0%
carbon dioxide and water vapor, which
made<00:27:10.960><c> it</c><00:27:11.279><c> so</c><00:27:11.600><c> dense</c><00:27:12.159><c> it</c><00:27:12.400><c> could</c><00:27:12.559><c> trap</c><00:27:12.880><c> enough</c>

27:13.190 --> 27:13.200 align:start position:0%
made it so dense it could trap enough
 

27:13.200 --> 27:15.350 align:start position:0%
made it so dense it could trap enough
heat<00:27:13.520><c> to</c><00:27:13.760><c> allow</c><00:27:14.080><c> liquid</c><00:27:14.480><c> water</c><00:27:14.799><c> to</c><00:27:14.960><c> persist</c>

27:15.350 --> 27:15.360 align:start position:0%
heat to allow liquid water to persist
 

27:15.360 --> 27:17.830 align:start position:0%
heat to allow liquid water to persist
for<00:27:15.760><c> millions</c><00:27:16.159><c> of</c><00:27:16.320><c> years.</c><00:27:17.360><c> This</c><00:27:17.600><c> would</c>

27:17.830 --> 27:17.840 align:start position:0%
for millions of years. This would
 

27:17.840 --> 27:19.510 align:start position:0%
for millions of years. This would
explain<00:27:18.240><c> the</c><00:27:18.480><c> evidence</c><00:27:18.880><c> pointing</c><00:27:19.279><c> to</c>

27:19.510 --> 27:19.520 align:start position:0%
explain the evidence pointing to
 

27:19.520 --> 27:22.950 align:start position:0%
explain the evidence pointing to
rainfall,<00:27:20.400><c> lakes,</c><00:27:20.960><c> and</c><00:27:21.279><c> oceans.</c><00:27:22.480><c> But</c><00:27:22.720><c> the</c>

27:22.950 --> 27:22.960 align:start position:0%
rainfall, lakes, and oceans. But the
 

27:22.960 --> 27:25.590 align:start position:0%
rainfall, lakes, and oceans. But the
problem<00:27:23.200><c> is</c><00:27:23.840><c> according</c><00:27:24.240><c> to</c><00:27:24.400><c> our</c><00:27:24.720><c> models,</c>

27:25.590 --> 27:25.600 align:start position:0%
problem is according to our models,
 

27:25.600 --> 27:28.310 align:start position:0%
problem is according to our models,
carbon<00:27:26.000><c> dioxide</c><00:27:26.640><c> and</c><00:27:26.960><c> water</c><00:27:27.279><c> vapor</c><00:27:27.679><c> alone</c>

27:28.310 --> 27:28.320 align:start position:0%
carbon dioxide and water vapor alone
 

27:28.320 --> 27:30.230 align:start position:0%
carbon dioxide and water vapor alone
can't<00:27:28.640><c> produce</c><00:27:29.039><c> the</c><00:27:29.279><c> warming</c><00:27:29.679><c> needed</c><00:27:30.000><c> for</c>

27:30.230 --> 27:30.240 align:start position:0%
can't produce the warming needed for
 

27:30.240 --> 27:33.669 align:start position:0%
can't produce the warming needed for
this<00:27:30.400><c> scenario.</c><00:27:31.600><c> Other</c><00:27:31.919><c> gases</c><00:27:32.400><c> like</c><00:27:32.880><c> methane,</c>

27:33.669 --> 27:33.679 align:start position:0%
this scenario. Other gases like methane,
 

27:33.679 --> 27:36.710 align:start position:0%
this scenario. Other gases like methane,
ammonia,<00:27:34.559><c> or</c><00:27:34.799><c> hydrogen</c><00:27:35.440><c> would</c><00:27:35.760><c> be</c><00:27:35.919><c> needed,</c>

27:36.710 --> 27:36.720 align:start position:0%
ammonia, or hydrogen would be needed,
 

27:36.720 --> 27:38.950 align:start position:0%
ammonia, or hydrogen would be needed,
but<00:27:36.960><c> they</c><00:27:37.279><c> are</c><00:27:37.440><c> unstable</c><00:27:38.240><c> and</c><00:27:38.559><c> hard</c><00:27:38.799><c> to</c>

27:38.950 --> 27:38.960 align:start position:0%
but they are unstable and hard to
 

27:38.960 --> 27:41.510 align:start position:0%
but they are unstable and hard to
maintain<00:27:39.440><c> long</c><00:27:39.760><c> term.</c><00:27:41.039><c> The</c><00:27:41.279><c> second</c>

27:41.510 --> 27:41.520 align:start position:0%
maintain long term. The second
 

27:41.520 --> 27:43.590 align:start position:0%
maintain long term. The second
possibility<00:27:42.080><c> is</c><00:27:42.240><c> that</c><00:27:42.480><c> Mars</c><00:27:42.799><c> was</c><00:27:43.039><c> only</c><00:27:43.279><c> warm</c>

27:43.590 --> 27:43.600 align:start position:0%
possibility is that Mars was only warm
 

27:43.600 --> 27:46.230 align:start position:0%
possibility is that Mars was only warm
and<00:27:43.840><c> wet</c><00:27:44.240><c> some</c><00:27:44.480><c> of</c><00:27:44.640><c> the</c><00:27:44.880><c> time,</c><00:27:45.520><c> mainly</c><00:27:46.000><c> in</c>

27:46.230 --> 27:46.240 align:start position:0%
and wet some of the time, mainly in
 

27:46.240 --> 27:48.630 align:start position:0%
and wet some of the time, mainly in
response<00:27:46.640><c> to</c><00:27:46.960><c> major</c><00:27:47.360><c> events</c><00:27:47.760><c> like</c><00:27:48.240><c> massive</c>

27:48.630 --> 27:48.640 align:start position:0%
response to major events like massive
 

27:48.640 --> 27:52.149 align:start position:0%
response to major events like massive
volcanic<00:27:49.279><c> eruptions</c><00:27:49.760><c> or</c><00:27:50.320><c> asteroid</c><00:27:50.880><c> impacts.</c>

27:52.149 --> 27:52.159 align:start position:0%
volcanic eruptions or asteroid impacts.
 

27:52.159 --> 27:54.070 align:start position:0%
volcanic eruptions or asteroid impacts.
These<00:27:52.400><c> could</c><00:27:52.640><c> release</c><00:27:52.960><c> huge</c><00:27:53.360><c> amounts</c><00:27:53.600><c> of</c><00:27:53.760><c> heat</c>

27:54.070 --> 27:54.080 align:start position:0%
These could release huge amounts of heat
 

27:54.080 --> 27:57.190 align:start position:0%
These could release huge amounts of heat
or<00:27:54.320><c> greenhouse</c><00:27:54.799><c> gases,</c><00:27:55.679><c> creating</c><00:27:56.240><c> long-lived</c>

27:57.190 --> 27:57.200 align:start position:0%
or greenhouse gases, creating long-lived
 

27:57.200 --> 28:00.310 align:start position:0%
or greenhouse gases, creating long-lived
warm<00:27:57.600><c> spells</c><00:27:58.480><c> where</c><00:27:58.799><c> ice</c><00:27:59.120><c> melted,</c><00:27:59.919><c> rivers</c>

28:00.310 --> 28:00.320 align:start position:0%
warm spells where ice melted, rivers
 

28:00.320 --> 28:03.110 align:start position:0%
warm spells where ice melted, rivers
flowed,<00:28:00.880><c> and</c><00:28:01.279><c> erosion</c><00:28:01.679><c> occurred.</c><00:28:02.720><c> But</c><00:28:02.880><c> we</c>

28:03.110 --> 28:03.120 align:start position:0%
flowed, and erosion occurred. But we
 

28:03.120 --> 28:05.430 align:start position:0%
flowed, and erosion occurred. But we
can't<00:28:03.360><c> know</c><00:28:03.600><c> for</c><00:28:03.840><c> sure</c><00:28:04.159><c> if</c><00:28:04.399><c> the</c><00:28:04.640><c> intensity</c><00:28:05.200><c> and</c>

28:05.430 --> 28:05.440 align:start position:0%
can't know for sure if the intensity and
 

28:05.440 --> 28:07.110 align:start position:0%
can't know for sure if the intensity and
frequency<00:28:05.919><c> of</c><00:28:06.080><c> these</c><00:28:06.399><c> spells</c><00:28:06.799><c> would</c><00:28:06.960><c> have</c>

28:07.110 --> 28:07.120 align:start position:0%
frequency of these spells would have
 

28:07.120 --> 28:09.669 align:start position:0%
frequency of these spells would have
been<00:28:07.360><c> enough</c><00:28:07.679><c> to</c><00:28:07.919><c> carve</c><00:28:08.320><c> all</c><00:28:08.559><c> the</c><00:28:08.799><c> valleys</c><00:28:09.440><c> and</c>

28:09.669 --> 28:09.679 align:start position:0%
been enough to carve all the valleys and
 

28:09.679 --> 28:11.750 align:start position:0%
been enough to carve all the valleys and
fill<00:28:09.919><c> the</c><00:28:10.159><c> lakes</c><00:28:10.559><c> we</c><00:28:10.880><c> see</c><00:28:11.039><c> evidence</c><00:28:11.440><c> for</c>

28:11.750 --> 28:11.760 align:start position:0%
fill the lakes we see evidence for
 

28:11.760 --> 28:13.350 align:start position:0%
fill the lakes we see evidence for
today.

28:13.350 --> 28:13.360 align:start position:0%
today.
 

28:13.360 --> 28:16.070 align:start position:0%
today.
And<00:28:13.600><c> finally,</c><00:28:14.399><c> some</c><00:28:14.640><c> think</c><00:28:14.960><c> Mars</c><00:28:15.360><c> spent</c><00:28:15.760><c> most</c>

28:16.070 --> 28:16.080 align:start position:0%
And finally, some think Mars spent most
 

28:16.080 --> 28:18.870 align:start position:0%
And finally, some think Mars spent most
of<00:28:16.240><c> its</c><00:28:16.480><c> history</c><00:28:16.880><c> as</c><00:28:17.120><c> a</c><00:28:17.360><c> frozen</c><00:28:17.840><c> ball.</c>

28:18.870 --> 28:18.880 align:start position:0%
of its history as a frozen ball.
 

28:18.880 --> 28:21.430 align:start position:0%
of its history as a frozen ball.
Landscapes<00:28:19.520><c> were</c><00:28:19.679><c> dominated</c><00:28:20.240><c> by</c><00:28:20.720><c> snow</c><00:28:21.120><c> and</c>

28:21.430 --> 28:21.440 align:start position:0%
Landscapes were dominated by snow and
 

28:21.440 --> 28:24.549 align:start position:0%
Landscapes were dominated by snow and
ice,<00:28:22.399><c> but</c><00:28:22.640><c> under</c><00:28:22.960><c> certain</c><00:28:23.440><c> conditions,</c><00:28:24.240><c> like</c>

28:24.549 --> 28:24.559 align:start position:0%
ice, but under certain conditions, like
 

28:24.559 --> 28:27.430 align:start position:0%
ice, but under certain conditions, like
changes<00:28:25.039><c> in</c><00:28:25.279><c> Mars's</c><00:28:25.840><c> orbit</c><00:28:26.640><c> or</c><00:28:27.039><c> sudden</c>

28:27.430 --> 28:27.440 align:start position:0%
changes in Mars's orbit or sudden
 

28:27.440 --> 28:31.029 align:start position:0%
changes in Mars's orbit or sudden
heating<00:28:27.840><c> events,</c><00:28:28.799><c> the</c><00:28:29.039><c> ice</c><00:28:29.360><c> melted.</c><00:28:30.799><c> This</c>

28:31.029 --> 28:31.039 align:start position:0%
heating events, the ice melted. This
 

28:31.039 --> 28:33.430 align:start position:0%
heating events, the ice melted. This
explains<00:28:31.520><c> why</c><00:28:31.760><c> Mars</c><00:28:32.159><c> shows</c><00:28:32.559><c> signs</c><00:28:32.880><c> of</c><00:28:33.120><c> both</c>

28:33.430 --> 28:33.440 align:start position:0%
explains why Mars shows signs of both
 

28:33.440 --> 28:36.630 align:start position:0%
explains why Mars shows signs of both
glacia<00:28:33.919><c> activity</c><00:28:34.559><c> and</c><00:28:34.960><c> flowing</c><00:28:35.440><c> water.</c><00:28:36.480><c> But</c>

28:36.630 --> 28:36.640 align:start position:0%
glacia activity and flowing water. But
 

28:36.640 --> 28:38.789 align:start position:0%
glacia activity and flowing water. But
what<00:28:36.880><c> could</c><00:28:37.039><c> have</c><00:28:37.200><c> melted</c><00:28:37.760><c> all</c><00:28:38.000><c> that</c><00:28:38.240><c> ice</c>

28:38.789 --> 28:38.799 align:start position:0%
what could have melted all that ice
 

28:38.799 --> 28:41.190 align:start position:0%
what could have melted all that ice
often<00:28:39.200><c> enough</c><00:28:39.520><c> for</c><00:28:39.760><c> the</c><00:28:40.000><c> erosion</c><00:28:40.399><c> we</c><00:28:40.720><c> see</c><00:28:40.960><c> to</c>

28:41.190 --> 28:41.200 align:start position:0%
often enough for the erosion we see to
 

28:41.200 --> 28:42.710 align:start position:0%
often enough for the erosion we see to
occur?

28:42.710 --> 28:42.720 align:start position:0%
occur?
 

28:42.720 --> 28:45.510 align:start position:0%
occur?
None<00:28:43.200><c> of</c><00:28:43.440><c> these</c><00:28:43.760><c> three</c><00:28:44.080><c> scenarios</c><00:28:44.880><c> perfectly</c>

28:45.510 --> 28:45.520 align:start position:0%
None of these three scenarios perfectly
 

28:45.520 --> 28:48.310 align:start position:0%
None of these three scenarios perfectly
explain<00:28:46.159><c> Mars's</c><00:28:46.799><c> past</c><00:28:47.200><c> climate.</c>

28:48.310 --> 28:48.320 align:start position:0%
explain Mars's past climate.
 

28:48.320 --> 28:50.470 align:start position:0%
explain Mars's past climate.
Frustratingly,<00:28:49.440><c> despite</c><00:28:49.919><c> the</c><00:28:50.159><c> strong</c>

28:50.470 --> 28:50.480 align:start position:0%
Frustratingly, despite the strong
 

28:50.480 --> 28:52.789 align:start position:0%
Frustratingly, despite the strong
evidence<00:28:50.799><c> for</c><00:28:51.039><c> shorelines,</c><00:28:52.000><c> we</c><00:28:52.320><c> still</c><00:28:52.559><c> don't</c>

28:52.789 --> 28:52.799 align:start position:0%
evidence for shorelines, we still don't
 

28:52.799 --> 28:55.269 align:start position:0%
evidence for shorelines, we still don't
know<00:28:52.960><c> how</c><00:28:53.200><c> to</c><00:28:53.360><c> reframe</c><00:28:53.840><c> our</c><00:28:54.159><c> models</c><00:28:54.480><c> of</c><00:28:54.720><c> Mars's</c>

28:55.269 --> 28:55.279 align:start position:0%
know how to reframe our models of Mars's
 

28:55.279 --> 28:57.909 align:start position:0%
know how to reframe our models of Mars's
early<00:28:55.679><c> climate</c><00:28:56.399><c> to</c><00:28:56.640><c> allow</c><00:28:56.960><c> for</c><00:28:57.279><c> water</c><00:28:57.760><c> to</c>

28:57.909 --> 28:57.919 align:start position:0%
early climate to allow for water to
 

28:57.919 --> 29:00.549 align:start position:0%
early climate to allow for water to
persist<00:28:58.320><c> there.</c><00:28:59.360><c> Although</c><00:28:59.679><c> a</c><00:28:59.919><c> paper</c><00:29:00.240><c> released</c>

29:00.549 --> 29:00.559 align:start position:0%
persist there. Although a paper released
 

29:00.559 --> 29:02.710 align:start position:0%
persist there. Although a paper released
in<00:29:00.720><c> the</c><00:29:00.880><c> journal,</c><00:29:01.279><c> Communications,</c><00:29:02.399><c> Earth,</c>

29:02.710 --> 29:02.720 align:start position:0%
in the journal, Communications, Earth,
 

29:02.720 --> 29:05.750 align:start position:0%
in the journal, Communications, Earth,
and<00:29:02.960><c> Environment</c><00:29:03.520><c> in</c><00:29:03.760><c> December</c><00:29:04.240><c> 2025</c><00:29:05.440><c> found</c>

29:05.750 --> 29:05.760 align:start position:0%
and Environment in December 2025 found
 

29:05.760 --> 29:07.590 align:start position:0%
and Environment in December 2025 found
evidence<00:29:06.080><c> in</c><00:29:06.320><c> Perseverance's</c><00:29:07.120><c> data</c><00:29:07.440><c> that</c>

29:07.590 --> 29:07.600 align:start position:0%
evidence in Perseverance's data that
 

29:07.600 --> 29:10.389 align:start position:0%
evidence in Perseverance's data that
suggested<00:29:08.240><c> clays</c><00:29:08.720><c> it</c><00:29:09.039><c> saw</c><00:29:09.520><c> had</c><00:29:09.760><c> been</c><00:29:09.919><c> sculpted</c>

29:10.389 --> 29:10.399 align:start position:0%
suggested clays it saw had been sculpted
 

29:10.399 --> 29:13.750 align:start position:0%
suggested clays it saw had been sculpted
by<00:29:10.799><c> consistent</c><00:29:11.760><c> heavy</c><00:29:12.159><c> rain,</c><00:29:13.039><c> lending</c><00:29:13.440><c> weight</c>

29:13.750 --> 29:13.760 align:start position:0%
by consistent heavy rain, lending weight
 

29:13.760 --> 29:16.950 align:start position:0%
by consistent heavy rain, lending weight
to<00:29:14.000><c> one</c><00:29:14.240><c> of</c><00:29:14.399><c> the</c><00:29:14.559><c> rainfall</c><00:29:15.039><c> options.</c><00:29:16.240><c> Still,</c>

29:16.950 --> 29:16.960 align:start position:0%
to one of the rainfall options. Still,
 

29:16.960 --> 29:19.750 align:start position:0%
to one of the rainfall options. Still,
solving<00:29:17.440><c> the</c><00:29:17.679><c> faint</c><00:29:18.080><c> young</c><00:29:18.399><c> sun</c><00:29:18.640><c> paradox</c><00:29:19.520><c> may</c>

29:19.750 --> 29:19.760 align:start position:0%
solving the faint young sun paradox may
 

29:19.760 --> 29:21.830 align:start position:0%
solving the faint young sun paradox may
be<00:29:19.919><c> the</c><00:29:20.159><c> key</c><00:29:20.399><c> to</c><00:29:20.640><c> understanding</c><00:29:21.120><c> whether</c><00:29:21.440><c> Mars</c>

29:21.830 --> 29:21.840 align:start position:0%
be the key to understanding whether Mars
 

29:21.840 --> 29:25.510 align:start position:0%
be the key to understanding whether Mars
was<00:29:22.159><c> ever</c><00:29:22.640><c> truly</c><00:29:23.200><c> habitable.</c>

29:25.510 --> 29:25.520 align:start position:0%
was ever truly habitable.
 

29:25.520 --> 29:27.750 align:start position:0%
was ever truly habitable.
So,<00:29:25.840><c> it's</c><00:29:26.320><c> too</c><00:29:26.559><c> soon</c><00:29:26.799><c> to</c><00:29:26.960><c> get</c><00:29:27.120><c> carried</c><00:29:27.440><c> away</c>

29:27.750 --> 29:27.760 align:start position:0%
So, it's too soon to get carried away
 

29:27.760 --> 29:29.830 align:start position:0%
So, it's too soon to get carried away
imagining<00:29:28.399><c> some</c><00:29:28.720><c> billionaire</c><00:29:29.360><c> digging</c><00:29:29.679><c> up</c>

29:29.830 --> 29:29.840 align:start position:0%
imagining some billionaire digging up
 

29:29.840 --> 29:31.990 align:start position:0%
imagining some billionaire digging up
Martian<00:29:30.320><c> beaches</c><00:29:30.880><c> and</c><00:29:31.200><c> turning</c><00:29:31.520><c> them</c><00:29:31.679><c> into</c>

29:31.990 --> 29:32.000 align:start position:0%
Martian beaches and turning them into
 

29:32.000 --> 29:34.549 align:start position:0%
Martian beaches and turning them into
resorts.<00:29:33.039><c> The</c><00:29:33.279><c> truth</c><00:29:33.440><c> is,</c><00:29:33.840><c> we</c><00:29:34.159><c> still</c><00:29:34.320><c> need</c>

29:34.549 --> 29:34.559 align:start position:0%
resorts. The truth is, we still need
 

29:34.559 --> 29:36.549 align:start position:0%
resorts. The truth is, we still need
more<00:29:34.880><c> data</c><00:29:35.200><c> to</c><00:29:35.440><c> put</c><00:29:35.679><c> the</c><00:29:35.919><c> full</c><00:29:36.159><c> puzzle</c>

29:36.549 --> 29:36.559 align:start position:0%
more data to put the full puzzle
 

29:36.559 --> 29:39.669 align:start position:0%
more data to put the full puzzle
together.<00:29:37.679><c> Tragically,</c><00:29:38.640><c> even</c><00:29:38.880><c> in</c><00:29:39.120><c> the</c><00:29:39.279><c> best</c>

29:39.669 --> 29:39.679 align:start position:0%
together. Tragically, even in the best
 

29:39.679 --> 29:42.070 align:start position:0%
together. Tragically, even in the best
investigation<00:29:40.399><c> cases,</c><00:29:41.279><c> evidence</c><00:29:41.679><c> can</c><00:29:41.919><c> go</c>

29:42.070 --> 29:42.080 align:start position:0%
investigation cases, evidence can go
 

29:42.080 --> 29:44.630 align:start position:0%
investigation cases, evidence can go
missing.<00:29:43.120><c> Perseverance</c><00:29:43.760><c> spent</c><00:29:44.080><c> much</c><00:29:44.320><c> of</c><00:29:44.399><c> its</c>

29:44.630 --> 29:44.640 align:start position:0%
missing. Perseverance spent much of its
 

29:44.640 --> 29:46.789 align:start position:0%
missing. Perseverance spent much of its
time<00:29:44.799><c> on</c><00:29:44.960><c> Mars</c><00:29:45.360><c> collecting</c><00:29:45.840><c> samples</c><00:29:46.240><c> for</c><00:29:46.480><c> a</c>

29:46.789 --> 29:46.799 align:start position:0%
time on Mars collecting samples for a
 

29:46.799 --> 29:50.549 align:start position:0%
time on Mars collecting samples for a
future<00:29:47.200><c> retrieval</c><00:29:47.760><c> mission</c><00:29:48.159><c> in</c><00:29:48.399><c> 2027</c><00:29:49.200><c> or</c><00:29:49.520><c> 2028</c>

29:50.549 --> 29:50.559 align:start position:0%
future retrieval mission in 2027 or 2028
 

29:50.559 --> 29:52.710 align:start position:0%
future retrieval mission in 2027 or 2028
with<00:29:50.720><c> a</c><00:29:50.880><c> return</c><00:29:51.279><c> scheduled</c><00:29:52.000><c> for</c><00:29:52.240><c> the</c><00:29:52.399><c> late</c>

29:52.710 --> 29:52.720 align:start position:0%
with a return scheduled for the late
 

29:52.720 --> 29:55.990 align:start position:0%
with a return scheduled for the late
2030s.<00:29:54.159><c> This</c><00:29:54.480><c> would</c><00:29:54.799><c> have</c><00:29:55.039><c> given</c><00:29:55.279><c> us</c><00:29:55.600><c> more</c>

29:55.990 --> 29:56.000 align:start position:0%
2030s. This would have given us more
 

29:56.000 --> 29:58.310 align:start position:0%
2030s. This would have given us more
clarity<00:29:56.559><c> into</c><00:29:56.880><c> the</c><00:29:57.039><c> planet's</c><00:29:57.520><c> complex</c><00:29:58.080><c> and</c>

29:58.310 --> 29:58.320 align:start position:0%
clarity into the planet's complex and
 

29:58.320 --> 30:01.029 align:start position:0%
clarity into the planet's complex and
ancient<00:29:58.799><c> geology</c><00:29:59.679><c> and</c><00:30:00.000><c> perhaps</c><00:30:00.480><c> closed</c><00:30:00.799><c> the</c>

30:01.029 --> 30:01.039 align:start position:0%
ancient geology and perhaps closed the
 

30:01.039 --> 30:04.070 align:start position:0%
ancient geology and perhaps closed the
debate<00:30:01.360><c> for</c><00:30:01.600><c> good.</c><00:30:02.559><c> But</c><00:30:02.799><c> then</c><00:30:03.440><c> NASA</c><00:30:03.840><c> was</c>

30:04.070 --> 30:04.080 align:start position:0%
debate for good. But then NASA was
 

30:04.080 --> 30:06.149 align:start position:0%
debate for good. But then NASA was
threatened<00:30:04.480><c> with</c><00:30:04.880><c> massive</c><00:30:05.360><c> budget</c><00:30:05.679><c> cuts</c><00:30:06.000><c> in</c>

30:06.149 --> 30:06.159 align:start position:0%
threatened with massive budget cuts in
 

30:06.159 --> 30:09.269 align:start position:0%
threatened with massive budget cuts in
2025.<00:30:07.440><c> And</c><00:30:07.679><c> while</c><00:30:08.000><c> Congress</c><00:30:08.559><c> passed</c><00:30:08.880><c> a</c><00:30:09.120><c> bill</c>

30:09.269 --> 30:09.279 align:start position:0%
2025. And while Congress passed a bill
 

30:09.279 --> 30:11.750 align:start position:0%
2025. And while Congress passed a bill
in<00:30:09.520><c> early</c><00:30:09.760><c> 2026</c><00:30:10.480><c> that</c><00:30:10.799><c> secured</c><00:30:11.279><c> NASA's</c>

30:11.750 --> 30:11.760 align:start position:0%
in early 2026 that secured NASA's
 

30:11.760 --> 30:14.230 align:start position:0%
in early 2026 that secured NASA's
funding,<00:30:12.640><c> Perseverance's</c><00:30:13.520><c> sample</c><00:30:13.919><c> return</c>

30:14.230 --> 30:14.240 align:start position:0%
funding, Perseverance's sample return
 

30:14.240 --> 30:17.669 align:start position:0%
funding, Perseverance's sample return
mission<00:30:14.960><c> was</c><00:30:15.279><c> the</c><00:30:15.600><c> one</c><00:30:16.159><c> exception.</c><00:30:17.360><c> Those</c>

30:17.669 --> 30:17.679 align:start position:0%
mission was the one exception. Those
 

30:17.679 --> 30:19.669 align:start position:0%
mission was the one exception. Those
clues<00:30:18.080><c> to</c><00:30:18.240><c> water</c><00:30:18.559><c> conditions</c><00:30:18.960><c> on</c><00:30:19.360><c> ancient</c>

30:19.669 --> 30:19.679 align:start position:0%
clues to water conditions on ancient
 

30:19.679 --> 30:22.149 align:start position:0%
clues to water conditions on ancient
Mars<00:30:20.399><c> and</c><00:30:20.559><c> one</c><00:30:20.799><c> sample</c><00:30:21.120><c> that</c><00:30:21.360><c> NASA</c><00:30:21.760><c> described</c>

30:22.149 --> 30:22.159 align:start position:0%
Mars and one sample that NASA described
 

30:22.159 --> 30:24.870 align:start position:0%
Mars and one sample that NASA described
as<00:30:22.399><c> the</c><00:30:22.720><c> clearest</c><00:30:23.279><c> sign</c><00:30:23.520><c> of</c><00:30:23.760><c> life</c><00:30:24.240><c> ever</c><00:30:24.640><c> found</c>

30:24.870 --> 30:24.880 align:start position:0%
as the clearest sign of life ever found
 

30:24.880 --> 30:27.750 align:start position:0%
as the clearest sign of life ever found
on<00:30:25.120><c> the</c><00:30:25.200><c> red</c><00:30:25.440><c> planet</c><00:30:26.159><c> will</c><00:30:26.480><c> remain</c><00:30:27.120><c> trapped</c><00:30:27.520><c> on</c>

30:27.750 --> 30:27.760 align:start position:0%
on the red planet will remain trapped on
 

30:27.760 --> 30:30.149 align:start position:0%
on the red planet will remain trapped on
a<00:30:28.000><c> world</c><00:30:28.480><c> tens</c><00:30:28.960><c> of</c><00:30:29.200><c> millions</c><00:30:29.520><c> of</c><00:30:29.679><c> kilometers</c>

30:30.149 --> 30:30.159 align:start position:0%
a world tens of millions of kilometers
 

30:30.159 --> 30:33.590 align:start position:0%
a world tens of millions of kilometers
away<00:30:30.480><c> from</c><00:30:30.720><c> our</c><00:30:31.039><c> own.</c><00:30:32.000><c> It</c><00:30:32.480><c> may</c><00:30:32.720><c> be</c><00:30:33.200><c> up</c><00:30:33.440><c> to</c>

30:33.590 --> 30:33.600 align:start position:0%
away from our own. It may be up to
 

30:33.600 --> 30:36.149 align:start position:0%
away from our own. It may be up to
humans<00:30:34.000><c> who</c><00:30:34.320><c> might</c><00:30:34.559><c> one</c><00:30:34.880><c> day</c><00:30:35.039><c> live</c><00:30:35.279><c> on</c><00:30:35.520><c> Mars</c><00:30:35.919><c> to</c>

30:36.149 --> 30:36.159 align:start position:0%
humans who might one day live on Mars to
 

30:36.159 --> 30:38.310 align:start position:0%
humans who might one day live on Mars to
walk<00:30:36.399><c> over</c><00:30:36.640><c> there</c><00:30:36.799><c> and</c><00:30:37.039><c> pick</c><00:30:37.279><c> them</c><00:30:37.440><c> up</c><00:30:37.919><c> if</c><00:30:38.080><c> we</c>

30:38.310 --> 30:38.320 align:start position:0%
walk over there and pick them up if we
 

30:38.320 --> 30:40.230 align:start position:0%
walk over there and pick them up if we
are<00:30:38.480><c> to</c><00:30:38.720><c> find</c><00:30:38.960><c> out</c><00:30:39.120><c> the</c><00:30:39.360><c> secrets</c><00:30:39.919><c> those</c>

30:40.230 --> 30:40.240 align:start position:0%
are to find out the secrets those
 

30:40.240 --> 30:42.950 align:start position:0%
are to find out the secrets those
samples<00:30:40.799><c> contain.</c>

30:42.950 --> 30:42.960 align:start position:0%
samples contain.
 

30:42.960 --> 30:44.950 align:start position:0%
samples contain.
Even<00:30:43.200><c> though</c><00:30:43.520><c> Sirong</c><00:30:44.080><c> was</c><00:30:44.240><c> only</c><00:30:44.480><c> designed</c><00:30:44.799><c> to</c>

30:44.950 --> 30:44.960 align:start position:0%
Even though Sirong was only designed to
 

30:44.960 --> 30:48.230 align:start position:0%
Even though Sirong was only designed to
last<00:30:45.360><c> 93</c><00:30:46.000><c> Earth</c><00:30:46.320><c> days,</c><00:30:46.880><c> it</c><00:30:47.120><c> persisted</c><00:30:47.919><c> well</c>

30:48.230 --> 30:48.240 align:start position:0%
last 93 Earth days, it persisted well
 

30:48.240 --> 30:50.549 align:start position:0%
last 93 Earth days, it persisted well
beyond<00:30:48.720><c> this</c><00:30:48.960><c> timeline,</c><00:30:49.840><c> collecting</c><00:30:50.240><c> data</c>

30:50.549 --> 30:50.559 align:start position:0%
beyond this timeline, collecting data
 

30:50.559 --> 30:54.310 align:start position:0%
beyond this timeline, collecting data
for<00:30:50.799><c> an</c><00:30:50.960><c> impressive</c><00:30:51.760><c> 358</c><00:30:53.039><c> days</c><00:30:53.679><c> until</c><00:30:54.000><c> it</c><00:30:54.159><c> went</c>

30:54.310 --> 30:54.320 align:start position:0%
for an impressive 358 days until it went
 

30:54.320 --> 30:57.909 align:start position:0%
for an impressive 358 days until it went
dormant<00:30:54.799><c> on</c><00:30:55.039><c> the</c><00:30:55.279><c> 20th</c><00:30:55.679><c> of</c><00:30:55.840><c> May</c><00:30:56.320><c> 2022.</c><00:30:57.600><c> With</c>

30:57.909 --> 30:57.919 align:start position:0%
dormant on the 20th of May 2022. With
 

30:57.919 --> 30:59.350 align:start position:0%
dormant on the 20th of May 2022. With
appropriate<00:30:58.399><c> temperature</c><00:30:58.720><c> and</c><00:30:58.960><c> sunlight</c>

30:59.350 --> 30:59.360 align:start position:0%
appropriate temperature and sunlight
 

30:59.360 --> 31:01.510 align:start position:0%
appropriate temperature and sunlight
conditions,<00:31:00.080><c> Surirang</c><00:31:00.640><c> was</c><00:31:00.960><c> expected</c><00:31:01.360><c> to</c>

31:01.510 --> 31:01.520 align:start position:0%
conditions, Surirang was expected to
 

31:01.520 --> 31:05.110 align:start position:0%
conditions, Surirang was expected to
wake<00:31:01.760><c> up</c><00:31:01.919><c> in</c><00:31:02.159><c> December</c><00:31:02.640><c> 2022,</c><00:31:03.840><c> but</c><00:31:04.159><c> never</c><00:31:04.480><c> did</c>

31:05.110 --> 31:05.120 align:start position:0%
wake up in December 2022, but never did
 

31:05.120 --> 31:08.710 align:start position:0%
wake up in December 2022, but never did
due<00:31:05.360><c> to</c><00:31:05.600><c> excess</c><00:31:06.320><c> dust</c><00:31:06.720><c> accumulation.</c>

31:08.710 --> 31:08.720 align:start position:0%
due to excess dust accumulation.
 

31:08.720 --> 31:11.269 align:start position:0%
due to excess dust accumulation.
As<00:31:08.960><c> we</c><00:31:09.120><c> look</c><00:31:09.360><c> to</c><00:31:09.520><c> the</c><00:31:09.679><c> future,</c><00:31:10.320><c> more</c><00:31:10.640><c> questions</c>

31:11.269 --> 31:11.279 align:start position:0%
As we look to the future, more questions
 

31:11.279 --> 31:14.149 align:start position:0%
As we look to the future, more questions
remain<00:31:11.679><c> to</c><00:31:11.919><c> be</c><00:31:12.159><c> answered.</c><00:31:13.200><c> If</c><00:31:13.520><c> Mars</c><00:31:13.840><c> had</c>

31:14.149 --> 31:14.159 align:start position:0%
remain to be answered. If Mars had
 

31:14.159 --> 31:16.549 align:start position:0%
remain to be answered. If Mars had
stable<00:31:14.559><c> oceans</c><00:31:14.960><c> for</c><00:31:15.200><c> millions</c><00:31:15.520><c> of</c><00:31:15.760><c> years,</c>

31:16.549 --> 31:16.559 align:start position:0%
stable oceans for millions of years,
 

31:16.559 --> 31:19.590 align:start position:0%
stable oceans for millions of years,
what<00:31:16.799><c> happened</c><00:31:17.120><c> to</c><00:31:17.279><c> all</c><00:31:17.520><c> that</c><00:31:17.760><c> water?</c><00:31:18.960><c> How</c><00:31:19.279><c> did</c>

31:19.590 --> 31:19.600 align:start position:0%
what happened to all that water? How did
 

31:19.600 --> 31:22.070 align:start position:0%
what happened to all that water? How did
the<00:31:19.840><c> planet</c><00:31:20.240><c> transition</c><00:31:20.720><c> from</c><00:31:21.039><c> a</c><00:31:21.360><c> potentially</c>

31:22.070 --> 31:22.080 align:start position:0%
the planet transition from a potentially
 

31:22.080 --> 31:24.789 align:start position:0%
the planet transition from a potentially
habitable<00:31:22.720><c> world</c><00:31:23.279><c> to</c><00:31:23.440><c> the</c><00:31:23.679><c> frozen</c><00:31:24.080><c> desert</c><00:31:24.559><c> we</c>

31:24.789 --> 31:24.799 align:start position:0%
habitable world to the frozen desert we
 

31:24.799 --> 31:27.990 align:start position:0%
habitable world to the frozen desert we
see<00:31:25.039><c> today?</c><00:31:25.760><c> Could</c><00:31:26.480><c> a</c><00:31:26.720><c> similar</c><00:31:27.120><c> fate</c><00:31:27.440><c> await</c>

31:27.990 --> 31:28.000 align:start position:0%
see today? Could a similar fate await
 

31:28.000 --> 31:31.110 align:start position:0%
see today? Could a similar fate await
Earth?<00:31:28.960><c> And</c><00:31:29.200><c> if</c><00:31:29.440><c> life</c><00:31:29.840><c> did</c><00:31:30.159><c> emerge</c><00:31:30.559><c> in</c><00:31:30.799><c> these</c>

31:31.110 --> 31:31.120 align:start position:0%
Earth? And if life did emerge in these
 

31:31.120 --> 31:33.669 align:start position:0%
Earth? And if life did emerge in these
ancient<00:31:31.679><c> coastal</c><00:31:32.240><c> environments,</c><00:31:33.360><c> could</c>

31:33.669 --> 31:33.679 align:start position:0%
ancient coastal environments, could
 

31:33.679 --> 31:36.470 align:start position:0%
ancient coastal environments, could
traces<00:31:34.080><c> of</c><00:31:34.240><c> it</c><00:31:34.480><c> still</c><00:31:34.799><c> exist,</c><00:31:35.600><c> buried</c><00:31:36.080><c> beneath</c>

31:36.470 --> 31:36.480 align:start position:0%
traces of it still exist, buried beneath
 

31:36.480 --> 31:39.990 align:start position:0%
traces of it still exist, buried beneath
the<00:31:36.720><c> surface?</c><00:31:38.159><c> Our</c><00:31:38.480><c> metal</c><00:31:38.880><c> detectives</c><00:31:39.760><c> might</c>

31:39.990 --> 31:40.000 align:start position:0%
the surface? Our metal detectives might
 

31:40.000 --> 31:41.750 align:start position:0%
the surface? Our metal detectives might
have<00:31:40.240><c> enabled</c><00:31:40.640><c> scientists</c><00:31:41.120><c> to</c><00:31:41.279><c> follow</c><00:31:41.519><c> the</c>

31:41.750 --> 31:41.760 align:start position:0%
have enabled scientists to follow the
 

31:41.760 --> 31:44.230 align:start position:0%
have enabled scientists to follow the
water,<00:31:42.559><c> but</c><00:31:42.720><c> the</c><00:31:42.960><c> suspected</c><00:31:43.519><c> existence</c><00:31:44.000><c> of</c>

31:44.230 --> 31:44.240 align:start position:0%
water, but the suspected existence of
 

31:44.240 --> 31:47.590 align:start position:0%
water, but the suspected existence of
fossilized<00:31:44.880><c> life</c><00:31:45.200><c> itself</c><00:31:45.840><c> on</c><00:31:46.080><c> Mars</c><00:31:46.880><c> is</c><00:31:47.120><c> a</c><00:31:47.360><c> case</c>

31:47.590 --> 31:47.600 align:start position:0%
fossilized life itself on Mars is a case
 

31:47.600 --> 31:52.149 align:start position:0%
fossilized life itself on Mars is a case
to<00:31:47.760><c> solve</c><00:31:48.000><c> for</c><00:31:48.240><c> another</c><00:31:48.559><c> day.</c>