WEBVTT

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truly ever could unleash its power on
our<00:01:38.560><c> planet.</c>

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Humanity,<00:01:42.560><c> it</c><00:01:42.799><c> seems,</c><00:01:43.439><c> has</c><00:01:43.680><c> a</c><00:01:43.920><c> power</c><00:01:44.320><c> problem.</c>

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Humanity, it seems, has a power problem.
 

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Humanity, it seems, has a power problem.
Even<00:01:46.000><c> as</c><00:01:46.320><c> we</c><00:01:46.640><c> burn</c><00:01:46.960><c> through</c><00:01:47.360><c> our</c><00:01:47.840><c> dwindling</c>

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Even as we burn through our dwindling
 

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Even as we burn through our dwindling
fossil<00:01:48.960><c> fuel</c><00:01:49.280><c> reserves</c><00:01:50.079><c> and</c><00:01:50.640><c> climate</c><00:01:51.119><c> chaos</c>

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fossil fuel reserves and climate chaos
 

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fossil fuel reserves and climate chaos
intensifies<00:01:52.479><c> all</c><00:01:52.720><c> around</c><00:01:53.040><c> us,</c><00:01:53.920><c> every</c><00:01:54.320><c> year</c>

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intensifies all around us, every year
 

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intensifies all around us, every year
our<00:01:55.360><c> energy</c><00:01:55.840><c> requirements</c><00:01:56.560><c> rise</c><00:01:56.880><c> by</c><00:01:57.119><c> an</c>

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our energy requirements rise by an
 

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our energy requirements rise by an
estimated<00:01:58.000><c> 1</c><00:01:58.399><c> to</c><00:01:58.719><c> 2%.</c><00:01:59.840><c> The</c><00:02:00.079><c> need</c><00:02:00.240><c> for</c><00:02:00.479><c> a</c><00:02:00.799><c> clean,</c>

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estimated 1 to 2%. The need for a clean,
 

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estimated 1 to 2%. The need for a clean,
efficient,<00:02:02.079><c> and</c><00:02:02.640><c> inexhaustible</c><00:02:03.600><c> energy</c>

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efficient, and inexhaustible energy
 

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efficient, and inexhaustible energy
source<00:02:04.799><c> has</c><00:02:05.280><c> never</c><00:02:05.600><c> been</c><00:02:05.840><c> so</c><00:02:06.079><c> acute.</c><00:02:07.360><c> For</c><00:02:07.600><c> many</c>

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source has never been so acute. For many
 

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source has never been so acute. For many
decades,<00:02:08.879><c> this</c><00:02:09.200><c> has</c><00:02:09.440><c> been</c><00:02:09.599><c> the</c><00:02:09.920><c> promise</c><00:02:10.479><c> of</c>

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decades, this has been the promise of
 

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decades, this has been the promise of
nuclear<00:02:11.360><c> fusion.</c><00:02:12.560><c> Unlike</c><00:02:13.200><c> nuclear</c>

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nuclear fusion. Unlike nuclear
 

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nuclear fusion. Unlike nuclear
fishision,<00:02:14.640><c> which</c><00:02:15.120><c> splits</c><00:02:15.680><c> rare</c><00:02:16.160><c> and</c>

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fishision, which splits rare and
 

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fishision, which splits rare and
unstable<00:02:17.360><c> isotopes</c><00:02:17.920><c> to</c><00:02:18.160><c> generate</c><00:02:18.560><c> power,</c>

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unstable isotopes to generate power,
 

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unstable isotopes to generate power,
fusion<00:02:19.840><c> technology</c><00:02:20.560><c> aims</c><00:02:20.959><c> to</c><00:02:21.280><c> replicate</c><00:02:21.760><c> the</c>

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fusion technology aims to replicate the
 

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fusion technology aims to replicate the
processes<00:02:22.720><c> that</c><00:02:23.040><c> happen</c><00:02:23.440><c> inside</c><00:02:23.920><c> our</c><00:02:24.319><c> sun,</c>

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processes that happen inside our sun,
 

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processes that happen inside our sun,
fusing<00:02:25.599><c> hydrogen</c><00:02:26.319><c> into</c><00:02:26.720><c> helium</c><00:02:27.520><c> and</c>

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fusing hydrogen into helium and
 

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fusing hydrogen into helium and
releasing<00:02:28.480><c> a</c><00:02:28.800><c> huge</c><00:02:29.200><c> amount</c><00:02:29.440><c> of</c><00:02:29.680><c> energy</c><00:02:30.160><c> in</c><00:02:30.400><c> the</c>

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releasing a huge amount of energy in the
 

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releasing a huge amount of energy in the
process.<00:02:31.760><c> Yet,</c><00:02:32.319><c> since</c><00:02:32.640><c> fusion</c><00:02:33.120><c> was</c><00:02:33.280><c> first</c>

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process. Yet, since fusion was first
 

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process. Yet, since fusion was first
talked<00:02:33.840><c> about</c><00:02:34.000><c> as</c><00:02:34.239><c> a</c><00:02:34.480><c> serious</c><00:02:34.879><c> contender</c><00:02:35.360><c> for</c>

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talked about as a serious contender for
 

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talked about as a serious contender for
energy<00:02:36.000><c> generation</c><00:02:36.480><c> in</c><00:02:36.720><c> the</c><00:02:36.959><c> 1950s,</c>

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energy generation in the 1950s,
 

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energy generation in the 1950s,
it<00:02:38.720><c> has</c><00:02:38.879><c> become</c><00:02:39.280><c> a</c><00:02:39.599><c> cliche</c><00:02:40.400><c> that</c><00:02:40.640><c> is</c>

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it has become a cliche that is
 

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it has become a cliche that is
perpetually<00:02:42.319><c> 30</c><00:02:42.720><c> years</c><00:02:43.120><c> away</c><00:02:43.519><c> from</c><00:02:43.760><c> becoming</c>

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perpetually 30 years away from becoming
 

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perpetually 30 years away from becoming
reality.<00:02:45.680><c> So,</c><00:02:46.160><c> why</c><00:02:46.480><c> then</c><00:02:46.879><c> does</c><00:02:47.120><c> it</c><00:02:47.280><c> seem</c><00:02:47.519><c> that</c>

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reality. So, why then does it seem that
 

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reality. So, why then does it seem that
fusion<00:02:48.319><c> is</c><00:02:48.640><c> always</c><00:02:49.200><c> just</c><00:02:49.680><c> out</c><00:02:49.920><c> of</c><00:02:50.080><c> reach?</c><00:02:51.120><c> And</c>

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fusion is always just out of reach? And
 

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fusion is always just out of reach? And
do<00:02:51.680><c> the</c><00:02:51.920><c> new</c><00:02:52.319><c> private</c><00:02:52.800><c> enterprises</c><00:02:53.440><c> that</c><00:02:53.760><c> have</c>

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do the new private enterprises that have
 

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do the new private enterprises that have
recently<00:02:54.560><c> entered</c><00:02:54.879><c> the</c><00:02:55.120><c> field</c><00:02:56.160><c> really</c><00:02:56.560><c> offer</c>

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recently entered the field really offer
 

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recently entered the field really offer
any<00:02:57.440><c> hope</c><00:02:57.760><c> of</c><00:02:58.000><c> shaking</c><00:02:58.480><c> things</c><00:02:58.720><c> up?</c><00:03:00.080><c> To</c><00:03:00.319><c> begin</c>

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any hope of shaking things up? To begin
 

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any hope of shaking things up? To begin
to<00:03:00.720><c> answer</c><00:03:00.959><c> these</c><00:03:01.280><c> questions,</c><00:03:02.159><c> there</c><00:03:02.400><c> is</c><00:03:02.720><c> no</c>

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to answer these questions, there is no
 

01:24.719 --> 01:26.709 align:start position:0%
to answer these questions, there is no
better<00:03:03.280><c> place</c><00:03:03.519><c> to</c><00:03:03.760><c> start</c><00:03:04.239><c> than</c><00:03:04.480><c> the</c><00:03:04.720><c> place</c>

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better place to start than the place
 

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better place to start than the place
that<00:03:05.280><c> inspired</c><00:03:06.080><c> fusion</c><00:03:06.560><c> science</c><00:03:07.040><c> in</c><00:03:07.280><c> the</c>

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that inspired fusion science in the
 

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that inspired fusion science in the
first<00:03:07.680><c> place,</c><00:03:08.560><c> our</c><00:03:08.959><c> sun.</c>

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first place, our sun.
 

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first place, our sun.
As<00:03:12.080><c> strange</c><00:03:12.319><c> as</c><00:03:12.480><c> it</c><00:03:12.720><c> sounds</c><00:03:13.040><c> now,</c><00:03:13.519><c> at</c><00:03:13.760><c> the</c><00:03:14.000><c> turn</c>

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As strange as it sounds now, at the turn
 

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As strange as it sounds now, at the turn
of<00:03:14.400><c> the</c><00:03:14.560><c> last</c><00:03:14.879><c> century,</c><00:03:15.840><c> we</c><00:03:16.159><c> didn't</c><00:03:16.480><c> know</c><00:03:17.120><c> what</c>

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of the last century, we didn't know what
 

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of the last century, we didn't know what
powered<00:03:17.840><c> the</c><00:03:18.000><c> sun.</c><00:03:18.959><c> The</c><00:03:19.200><c> source</c><00:03:19.440><c> of</c><00:03:19.599><c> the</c><00:03:19.840><c> heat</c>

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powered the sun. The source of the heat
 

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powered the sun. The source of the heat
and<00:03:20.480><c> light</c><00:03:20.800><c> that</c><00:03:21.200><c> sustains</c><00:03:21.760><c> all</c><00:03:22.000><c> of</c><00:03:22.159><c> life</c><00:03:22.319><c> on</c>

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and light that sustains all of life on
 

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and light that sustains all of life on
Earth<00:03:23.040><c> was</c><00:03:23.280><c> a</c><00:03:23.519><c> mystery.</c><00:03:24.640><c> The</c><00:03:24.879><c> leading</c><00:03:25.120><c> theory</c>

01:47.269 --> 01:47.279 align:start position:0%
Earth was a mystery. The leading theory
 

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Earth was a mystery. The leading theory
was<00:03:25.680><c> that</c><00:03:25.840><c> the</c><00:03:26.000><c> sun's</c><00:03:26.400><c> energy</c><00:03:26.720><c> came</c><00:03:26.959><c> from</c>

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was that the sun's energy came from
 

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was that the sun's energy came from
gravitational<00:03:28.000><c> contraction.</c><00:03:29.120><c> Simply</c><00:03:29.519><c> put,</c>

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gravitational contraction. Simply put,
 

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gravitational contraction. Simply put,
the<00:03:30.080><c> idea</c><00:03:30.480><c> proposed</c><00:03:30.879><c> that</c><00:03:31.120><c> as</c><00:03:31.360><c> a</c><00:03:31.599><c> star</c>

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the idea proposed that as a star
 

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the idea proposed that as a star
gradually<00:03:32.560><c> radiates</c><00:03:33.120><c> energy</c><00:03:33.519><c> to</c><00:03:33.760><c> space,</c><00:03:34.560><c> it</c>

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gradually radiates energy to space, it
 

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gradually radiates energy to space, it
cools<00:03:35.440><c> and</c><00:03:35.680><c> so</c><00:03:36.000><c> collapses</c><00:03:36.560><c> further</c><00:03:36.879><c> under</c><00:03:37.120><c> its</c>

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cools and so collapses further under its
 

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cools and so collapses further under its
own<00:03:37.519><c> gravity,</c><00:03:38.319><c> which</c><00:03:38.640><c> in</c><00:03:38.799><c> turn</c><00:03:39.120><c> causes</c>

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own gravity, which in turn causes
 

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own gravity, which in turn causes
gravitational<00:03:40.319><c> potential</c><00:03:40.799><c> energy</c><00:03:41.360><c> to</c><00:03:41.599><c> be</c>

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gravitational potential energy to be
 

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gravitational potential energy to be
converted<00:03:42.239><c> into</c><00:03:42.560><c> heat</c><00:03:42.799><c> in</c><00:03:43.040><c> the</c><00:03:43.200><c> stars</c><00:03:43.599><c> core.</c>

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converted into heat in the stars core.
 

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converted into heat in the stars core.
Today,<00:03:45.040><c> we</c><00:03:45.200><c> know</c><00:03:45.440><c> that</c><00:03:45.840><c> is</c><00:03:46.319><c> a</c><00:03:46.560><c> genuine</c>

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Today, we know that is a genuine
 

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Today, we know that is a genuine
process.<00:03:48.000><c> Not</c><00:03:48.239><c> only</c><00:03:48.400><c> is</c><00:03:48.560><c> it</c><00:03:48.720><c> involved</c><00:03:49.040><c> in</c><00:03:49.200><c> the</c>

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process. Not only is it involved in the
 

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process. Not only is it involved in the
formation<00:03:49.680><c> of</c><00:03:49.920><c> stars,</c><00:03:50.640><c> it's</c><00:03:50.879><c> also</c><00:03:51.120><c> the</c><00:03:51.440><c> reason</c>

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formation of stars, it's also the reason
 

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formation of stars, it's also the reason
that<00:03:51.840><c> the</c><00:03:52.080><c> gas</c><00:03:52.400><c> giant</c><00:03:52.720><c> Jupiter</c><00:03:53.280><c> radiates</c><00:03:53.920><c> more</c>

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that the gas giant Jupiter radiates more
 

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that the gas giant Jupiter radiates more
energy<00:03:54.560><c> to</c><00:03:54.799><c> space</c><00:03:55.280><c> than</c><00:03:55.519><c> it</c><00:03:55.680><c> receives</c><00:03:56.080><c> from</c>

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energy to space than it receives from
 

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energy to space than it receives from
the<00:03:56.400><c> sun.</c><00:03:57.280><c> In</c><00:03:57.439><c> fact,</c><00:03:57.760><c> the</c><00:03:58.000><c> planet</c><00:03:58.319><c> is</c>

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the sun. In fact, the planet is
 

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the sun. In fact, the planet is
shrinking<00:03:59.040><c> by</c><00:03:59.360><c> about</c><00:03:59.680><c> 2</c><00:04:00.000><c> cm</c><00:04:00.720><c> every</c><00:04:01.040><c> year</c><00:04:01.439><c> under</c>

02:23.510 --> 02:23.520 align:start position:0%
shrinking by about 2 cm every year under
 

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shrinking by about 2 cm every year under
its<00:04:01.920><c> own</c><00:04:02.159><c> gravity.</c><00:04:03.040><c> And</c><00:04:03.360><c> as</c><00:04:03.599><c> the</c><00:04:03.840><c> resultant</c>

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its own gravity. And as the resultant
 

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its own gravity. And as the resultant
internal<00:04:05.040><c> heat</c><00:04:05.360><c> works</c><00:04:05.599><c> its</c><00:04:05.840><c> way</c><00:04:06.000><c> from</c><00:04:06.319><c> deep</c><00:04:06.560><c> in</c>

02:28.470 --> 02:28.480 align:start position:0%
internal heat works its way from deep in
 

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internal heat works its way from deep in
Jupiter's<00:04:07.280><c> interior</c><00:04:08.080><c> and</c><00:04:08.400><c> out</c><00:04:08.640><c> into</c><00:04:09.040><c> space,</c>

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Jupiter's interior and out into space,
 

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Jupiter's interior and out into space,
it<00:04:10.159><c> drives</c><00:04:10.400><c> the</c><00:04:10.640><c> intense</c><00:04:11.040><c> storms</c><00:04:11.439><c> that</c><00:04:11.760><c> dance</c>

02:33.909 --> 02:33.919 align:start position:0%
it drives the intense storms that dance
 

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it drives the intense storms that dance
across<00:04:12.480><c> the</c><00:04:12.720><c> planet's</c><00:04:13.120><c> surface.</c><00:04:14.159><c> But</c><00:04:14.319><c> when</c><00:04:14.480><c> it</c>

02:36.390 --> 02:36.400 align:start position:0%
across the planet's surface. But when it
 

02:36.400 --> 02:39.590 align:start position:0%
across the planet's surface. But when it
comes<00:04:14.799><c> to</c><00:04:15.040><c> powering</c><00:04:15.599><c> a</c><00:04:16.079><c> star,</c><00:04:17.040><c> one</c><00:04:17.280><c> scientist</c>

02:39.590 --> 02:39.600 align:start position:0%
comes to powering a star, one scientist
 

02:39.600 --> 02:42.070 align:start position:0%
comes to powering a star, one scientist
realized<00:04:18.320><c> that</c><00:04:18.639><c> contraction</c><00:04:19.600><c> didn't</c><00:04:20.000><c> stand</c>

02:42.070 --> 02:42.080 align:start position:0%
realized that contraction didn't stand
 

02:42.080 --> 02:46.229 align:start position:0%
realized that contraction didn't stand
up.<00:04:21.280><c> In</c><00:04:21.519><c> a</c><00:04:21.840><c> 1920</c><00:04:22.639><c> paper,</c><00:04:23.440><c> physicist</c><00:04:24.080><c> Arthur</c>

02:46.229 --> 02:46.239 align:start position:0%
up. In a 1920 paper, physicist Arthur
 

02:46.239 --> 02:48.870 align:start position:0%
up. In a 1920 paper, physicist Arthur
Edington<00:04:25.120><c> wrote,</c><00:04:25.759><c> "If</c><00:04:26.080><c> the</c><00:04:26.560><c> contraction</c>

02:48.870 --> 02:48.880 align:start position:0%
Edington wrote, "If the contraction
 

02:48.880 --> 02:51.270 align:start position:0%
Edington wrote, "If the contraction
theory<00:04:27.520><c> were</c><00:04:27.680><c> proposed</c><00:04:28.080><c> today</c><00:04:28.479><c> as</c><00:04:28.720><c> a</c><00:04:29.040><c> novel</c>

02:51.270 --> 02:51.280 align:start position:0%
theory were proposed today as a novel
 

02:51.280 --> 02:53.669 align:start position:0%
theory were proposed today as a novel
hypothesis,<00:04:30.639><c> I</c><00:04:30.800><c> do</c><00:04:31.040><c> not</c><00:04:31.199><c> think</c><00:04:31.440><c> it</c><00:04:31.680><c> would</c>

02:53.669 --> 02:53.679 align:start position:0%
hypothesis, I do not think it would
 

02:53.679 --> 02:55.590 align:start position:0%
hypothesis, I do not think it would
stand<00:04:32.320><c> the</c><00:04:32.639><c> smallest</c><00:04:33.280><c> chance</c><00:04:33.600><c> of</c>

02:55.590 --> 02:55.600 align:start position:0%
stand the smallest chance of
 

02:55.600 --> 02:58.229 align:start position:0%
stand the smallest chance of
acceptance."<00:04:34.960><c> He</c><00:04:35.199><c> argued</c><00:04:35.600><c> that</c><00:04:35.840><c> contraction</c>

02:58.229 --> 02:58.239 align:start position:0%
acceptance." He argued that contraction
 

02:58.239 --> 03:00.310 align:start position:0%
acceptance." He argued that contraction
would<00:04:36.720><c> be</c><00:04:37.040><c> hopelessly</c><00:04:37.680><c> inadequate</c><00:04:38.240><c> for</c>

03:00.310 --> 03:00.320 align:start position:0%
would be hopelessly inadequate for
 

03:00.320 --> 03:02.070 align:start position:0%
would be hopelessly inadequate for
powering<00:04:38.880><c> a</c><00:04:39.120><c> body</c><00:04:39.280><c> that</c><00:04:39.520><c> radiates</c><00:04:40.000><c> as</c><00:04:40.160><c> much</c>

03:02.070 --> 03:02.080 align:start position:0%
powering a body that radiates as much
 

03:02.080 --> 03:04.949 align:start position:0%
powering a body that radiates as much
energy<00:04:40.639><c> as</c><00:04:40.880><c> our</c><00:04:41.199><c> sun.</c><00:04:42.080><c> Suspecting</c><00:04:42.560><c> that</c><00:04:42.800><c> stars</c>

03:04.949 --> 03:04.959 align:start position:0%
energy as our sun. Suspecting that stars
 

03:04.959 --> 03:06.949 align:start position:0%
energy as our sun. Suspecting that stars
were<00:04:43.440><c> places</c><00:04:43.759><c> in</c><00:04:43.919><c> which</c><00:04:44.160><c> hydrogen</c><00:04:44.639><c> atoms</c><00:04:45.040><c> were</c>

03:06.949 --> 03:06.959 align:start position:0%
were places in which hydrogen atoms were
 

03:06.959 --> 03:09.350 align:start position:0%
were places in which hydrogen atoms were
cobbled<00:04:45.600><c> together</c><00:04:45.919><c> into</c><00:04:46.240><c> heavier</c><00:04:46.720><c> elements,</c>

03:09.350 --> 03:09.360 align:start position:0%
cobbled together into heavier elements,
 

03:09.360 --> 03:11.750 align:start position:0%
cobbled together into heavier elements,
Edington<00:04:48.160><c> proposed</c><00:04:48.720><c> a</c><00:04:49.120><c> different</c><00:04:49.520><c> source</c><00:04:49.840><c> of</c>

03:11.750 --> 03:11.760 align:start position:0%
Edington proposed a different source of
 

03:11.760 --> 03:14.310 align:start position:0%
Edington proposed a different source of
energy.<00:04:50.880><c> Drawing</c><00:04:51.280><c> on</c><00:04:51.600><c> experiments</c><00:04:52.240><c> carried</c>

03:14.310 --> 03:14.320 align:start position:0%
energy. Drawing on experiments carried
 

03:14.320 --> 03:18.070 align:start position:0%
energy. Drawing on experiments carried
out<00:04:52.720><c> by</c><00:04:53.120><c> fellow</c><00:04:53.520><c> scientist</c><00:04:54.320><c> Francis</c><00:04:54.880><c> Aston.</c>

03:18.070 --> 03:18.080 align:start position:0%
out by fellow scientist Francis Aston.
 

03:18.080 --> 03:19.910 align:start position:0%
out by fellow scientist Francis Aston.
Aston<00:04:56.800><c> had</c><00:04:56.960><c> shown</c><00:04:57.199><c> that</c><00:04:57.360><c> the</c><00:04:57.520><c> mass</c><00:04:57.759><c> of</c><00:04:57.919><c> a</c>

03:19.910 --> 03:19.920 align:start position:0%
Aston had shown that the mass of a
 

03:19.920 --> 03:22.550 align:start position:0%
Aston had shown that the mass of a
helium<00:04:58.639><c> nucleus</c><00:04:59.120><c> was</c><00:04:59.600><c> ever</c><00:04:59.919><c> so</c><00:05:00.160><c> slightly</c><00:05:00.560><c> less</c>

03:22.550 --> 03:22.560 align:start position:0%
helium nucleus was ever so slightly less
 

03:22.560 --> 03:25.990 align:start position:0%
helium nucleus was ever so slightly less
than<00:05:01.040><c> that</c><00:05:01.280><c> of</c><00:05:01.680><c> four</c><00:05:02.080><c> hydrogen</c><00:05:02.639><c> nuclei.</c><00:05:03.840><c> So</c><00:05:04.080><c> if</c>

03:25.990 --> 03:26.000 align:start position:0%
than that of four hydrogen nuclei. So if
 

03:26.000 --> 03:28.550 align:start position:0%
than that of four hydrogen nuclei. So if
a<00:05:04.479><c> helium</c><00:05:04.960><c> atom</c><00:05:05.280><c> was</c><00:05:05.520><c> just</c><00:05:05.840><c> four</c><00:05:06.160><c> hydrogens's</c>

03:28.550 --> 03:28.560 align:start position:0%
a helium atom was just four hydrogens's
 

03:28.560 --> 03:32.150 align:start position:0%
a helium atom was just four hydrogens's
fused<00:05:07.199><c> together,</c><00:05:08.000><c> some</c><00:05:08.240><c> mass</c><00:05:08.800><c> was</c><00:05:09.120><c> missing.</c>

03:32.150 --> 03:32.160 align:start position:0%
fused together, some mass was missing.
 

03:32.160 --> 03:34.389 align:start position:0%
fused together, some mass was missing.
Edington<00:05:11.120><c> believed</c><00:05:11.520><c> that</c><00:05:11.680><c> this</c><00:05:12.000><c> missing</c><00:05:12.320><c> mass</c>

03:34.389 --> 03:34.399 align:start position:0%
Edington believed that this missing mass
 

03:34.399 --> 03:37.190 align:start position:0%
Edington believed that this missing mass
was<00:05:12.880><c> converted</c><00:05:13.360><c> into</c><00:05:13.680><c> energy</c><00:05:14.400><c> by</c><00:05:14.720><c> Einstein's</c>

03:37.190 --> 03:37.200 align:start position:0%
was converted into energy by Einstein's
 

03:37.200 --> 03:41.110 align:start position:0%
was converted into energy by Einstein's
E=<00:05:16.160><c> MC².</c><00:05:17.600><c> And</c><00:05:17.759><c> because</c><00:05:18.160><c> C,</c><00:05:18.720><c> the</c><00:05:18.960><c> speed</c><00:05:19.199><c> of</c>

03:41.110 --> 03:41.120 align:start position:0%
E= MC². And because C, the speed of
 

03:41.120 --> 03:44.229 align:start position:0%
E= MC². And because C, the speed of
light,<00:05:20.080><c> is</c><00:05:20.400><c> such</c><00:05:20.720><c> a</c><00:05:20.960><c> large</c><00:05:21.360><c> number,</c><00:05:22.240><c> the</c>

03:44.229 --> 03:44.239 align:start position:0%
light, is such a large number, the
 

03:44.239 --> 03:46.870 align:start position:0%
light, is such a large number, the
energy<00:05:22.880><c> generated</c><00:05:23.440><c> from</c><00:05:23.840><c> even</c><00:05:24.160><c> a</c><00:05:24.479><c> tiny</c><00:05:24.880><c> amount</c>

03:46.870 --> 03:46.880 align:start position:0%
energy generated from even a tiny amount
 

03:46.880 --> 03:50.389 align:start position:0%
energy generated from even a tiny amount
of<00:05:25.280><c> mass</c><00:05:25.759><c> is</c><00:05:26.160><c> huge,</c><00:05:27.199><c> meaning</c><00:05:27.600><c> fusing</c><00:05:28.080><c> hydrogen</c>

03:50.389 --> 03:50.399 align:start position:0%
of mass is huge, meaning fusing hydrogen
 

03:50.399 --> 03:52.710 align:start position:0%
of mass is huge, meaning fusing hydrogen
into<00:05:28.960><c> helium</c><00:05:29.680><c> would</c><00:05:30.000><c> provide</c><00:05:30.479><c> more</c><00:05:30.720><c> than</c>

03:52.710 --> 03:52.720 align:start position:0%
into helium would provide more than
 

03:52.720 --> 03:55.590 align:start position:0%
into helium would provide more than
enough<00:05:31.280><c> energy</c><00:05:31.759><c> to</c><00:05:32.000><c> power</c><00:05:32.240><c> the</c><00:05:32.479><c> sun.</c>

03:55.590 --> 03:55.600 align:start position:0%
enough energy to power the sun.
 

03:55.600 --> 03:59.270 align:start position:0%
enough energy to power the sun.
Edington's<00:05:34.560><c> ideas</c><00:05:34.960><c> were</c><00:05:35.360><c> bold</c><00:05:36.080><c> and</c><00:05:36.400><c> unproven,</c>

03:59.270 --> 03:59.280 align:start position:0%
Edington's ideas were bold and unproven,
 

03:59.280 --> 04:01.350 align:start position:0%
Edington's ideas were bold and unproven,
but<00:05:37.759><c> they</c><00:05:38.000><c> soon</c><00:05:38.320><c> inspired</c><00:05:39.039><c> serious</c>

04:01.350 --> 04:01.360 align:start position:0%
but they soon inspired serious
 

04:01.360 --> 04:04.789 align:start position:0%
but they soon inspired serious
theoretical<00:05:40.320><c> work.</c><00:05:41.120><c> And</c><00:05:41.280><c> in</c><00:05:41.520><c> 1929,</c><00:05:42.560><c> the</c><00:05:42.800><c> first</c>

04:04.789 --> 04:04.799 align:start position:0%
theoretical work. And in 1929, the first
 

04:04.799 --> 04:07.190 align:start position:0%
theoretical work. And in 1929, the first
calculations<00:05:43.680><c> of</c><00:05:43.919><c> stellar</c><00:05:44.400><c> nuclear</c><00:05:44.880><c> fusion</c>

04:07.190 --> 04:07.200 align:start position:0%
calculations of stellar nuclear fusion
 

04:07.200 --> 04:09.430 align:start position:0%
calculations of stellar nuclear fusion
were<00:05:45.759><c> published</c><00:05:46.160><c> by</c><00:05:46.479><c> Robert</c><00:05:46.960><c> Descort</c>

04:09.430 --> 04:09.440 align:start position:0%
were published by Robert Descort
 

04:09.440 --> 04:13.110 align:start position:0%
were published by Robert Descort
Atkinson<00:05:48.560><c> and</c><00:05:48.880><c> Fritz</c><00:05:49.520><c> Howmans.</c><00:05:50.880><c> It</c><00:05:51.199><c> turned</c>

04:13.110 --> 04:13.120 align:start position:0%
Atkinson and Fritz Howmans. It turned
 

04:13.120 --> 04:16.070 align:start position:0%
Atkinson and Fritz Howmans. It turned
out<00:05:51.680><c> that</c><00:05:51.919><c> the</c><00:05:52.160><c> sun</c><00:05:52.560><c> and</c><00:05:52.880><c> all</c><00:05:53.280><c> stars</c><00:05:54.080><c> were</c>

04:16.070 --> 04:16.080 align:start position:0%
out that the sun and all stars were
 

04:16.080 --> 04:19.350 align:start position:0%
out that the sun and all stars were
giant<00:05:54.960><c> fusion</c><00:05:55.520><c> reactors,</c><00:05:56.720><c> taking</c><00:05:57.039><c> the</c><00:05:57.360><c> most</c>

04:19.350 --> 04:19.360 align:start position:0%
giant fusion reactors, taking the most
 

04:19.360 --> 04:21.430 align:start position:0%
giant fusion reactors, taking the most
common<00:05:58.000><c> element</c><00:05:58.320><c> in</c><00:05:58.560><c> the</c><00:05:58.800><c> universe,</c>

04:21.430 --> 04:21.440 align:start position:0%
common element in the universe,
 

04:21.440 --> 04:23.990 align:start position:0%
common element in the universe,
hydrogen,<00:06:00.639><c> and</c><00:06:00.960><c> fusing</c><00:06:01.360><c> it</c><00:06:01.680><c> into</c><00:06:02.000><c> other</c>

04:23.990 --> 04:24.000 align:start position:0%
hydrogen, and fusing it into other
 

04:24.000 --> 04:27.590 align:start position:0%
hydrogen, and fusing it into other
elements.<00:06:03.280><c> Starting</c><00:06:03.919><c> with</c><00:06:04.240><c> helium.</c>

04:27.590 --> 04:27.600 align:start position:0%
elements. Starting with helium.
 

04:27.600 --> 04:29.990 align:start position:0%
elements. Starting with helium.
Now<00:06:06.400><c> replicating</c><00:06:07.039><c> this</c><00:06:07.280><c> process</c><00:06:07.600><c> on</c><00:06:07.919><c> Earth</c>

04:29.990 --> 04:30.000 align:start position:0%
Now replicating this process on Earth
 

04:30.000 --> 04:33.110 align:start position:0%
Now replicating this process on Earth
would<00:06:08.560><c> be</c><00:06:08.800><c> hugely</c><00:06:09.600><c> advantageous</c><00:06:10.960><c> especially</c>

04:33.110 --> 04:33.120 align:start position:0%
would be hugely advantageous especially
 

04:33.120 --> 04:35.509 align:start position:0%
would be hugely advantageous especially
when<00:06:11.600><c> compared</c><00:06:12.000><c> to</c><00:06:12.160><c> nuclear</c><00:06:12.720><c> fishision.</c><00:06:13.520><c> The</c>

04:35.509 --> 04:35.519 align:start position:0%
when compared to nuclear fishision. The
 

04:35.519 --> 04:37.509 align:start position:0%
when compared to nuclear fishision. The
process<00:06:14.080><c> that</c><00:06:14.319><c> is</c><00:06:14.479><c> used</c><00:06:14.720><c> in</c><00:06:15.039><c> nuclear</c><00:06:15.440><c> power</c>

04:37.509 --> 04:37.519 align:start position:0%
process that is used in nuclear power
 

04:37.519 --> 04:40.789 align:start position:0%
process that is used in nuclear power
plants<00:06:16.080><c> today.</c><00:06:17.280><c> Where</c><00:06:17.600><c> fishision</c><00:06:18.160><c> relies</c><00:06:18.560><c> on</c>

04:40.789 --> 04:40.799 align:start position:0%
plants today. Where fishision relies on
 

04:40.799 --> 04:43.270 align:start position:0%
plants today. Where fishision relies on
splitting<00:06:19.919><c> large</c><00:06:20.319><c> and</c><00:06:20.560><c> rare</c><00:06:20.960><c> unstable</c>

04:43.270 --> 04:43.280 align:start position:0%
splitting large and rare unstable
 

04:43.280 --> 04:46.229 align:start position:0%
splitting large and rare unstable
isotopes<00:06:22.240><c> such</c><00:06:22.400><c> as</c><00:06:22.800><c> uranium</c><00:06:23.280><c> 235</c><00:06:24.160><c> and</c>

04:46.229 --> 04:46.239 align:start position:0%
isotopes such as uranium 235 and
 

04:46.239 --> 04:48.389 align:start position:0%
isotopes such as uranium 235 and
plutonium<00:06:25.120><c> 239.</c>

04:48.389 --> 04:48.399 align:start position:0%
plutonium 239.
 

04:48.399 --> 04:51.030 align:start position:0%
plutonium 239.
Stellar<00:06:27.199><c> nuclear</c><00:06:27.680><c> fusion</c><00:06:28.560><c> relies</c><00:06:28.960><c> on</c>

04:51.030 --> 04:51.040 align:start position:0%
Stellar nuclear fusion relies on
 

04:51.040 --> 04:53.509 align:start position:0%
Stellar nuclear fusion relies on
hydrogen,<00:06:30.160><c> an</c><00:06:30.400><c> element</c><00:06:30.720><c> that</c><00:06:30.960><c> is</c><00:06:31.280><c> widely</c>

04:53.509 --> 04:53.519 align:start position:0%
hydrogen, an element that is widely
 

04:53.519 --> 04:55.190 align:start position:0%
hydrogen, an element that is widely
available<00:06:32.160><c> on</c><00:06:32.400><c> Earth</c><00:06:32.880><c> through</c><00:06:33.199><c> the</c>

04:55.190 --> 04:55.200 align:start position:0%
available on Earth through the
 

04:55.200 --> 04:58.310 align:start position:0%
available on Earth through the
electrolysis<00:06:34.160><c> of</c><00:06:34.479><c> seawater.</c><00:06:35.600><c> And</c><00:06:35.919><c> unlike</c><00:06:36.319><c> the</c>

04:58.310 --> 04:58.320 align:start position:0%
electrolysis of seawater. And unlike the
 

04:58.320 --> 05:00.870 align:start position:0%
electrolysis of seawater. And unlike the
radioactive<00:06:37.280><c> byproducts</c><00:06:37.840><c> of</c><00:06:38.080><c> fish</c><00:06:38.800><c> that</c>

05:00.870 --> 05:00.880 align:start position:0%
radioactive byproducts of fish that
 

05:00.880 --> 05:03.110 align:start position:0%
radioactive byproducts of fish that
create<00:06:39.360><c> a</c><00:06:39.680><c> huge</c><00:06:40.160><c> disposal</c><00:06:40.720><c> problem</c><00:06:41.039><c> for</c>

05:03.110 --> 05:03.120 align:start position:0%
create a huge disposal problem for
 

05:03.120 --> 05:05.350 align:start position:0%
create a huge disposal problem for
modern<00:06:41.759><c> nuclear</c><00:06:42.240><c> power</c><00:06:42.479><c> stations,</c><00:06:43.440><c> the</c>

05:05.350 --> 05:05.360 align:start position:0%
modern nuclear power stations, the
 

05:05.360 --> 05:08.710 align:start position:0%
modern nuclear power stations, the
byproduct<00:06:44.240><c> of</c><00:06:44.560><c> stellar</c><00:06:45.120><c> fusion</c><00:06:45.759><c> is</c><00:06:46.080><c> helium,</c>

05:08.710 --> 05:08.720 align:start position:0%
byproduct of stellar fusion is helium,
 

05:08.720 --> 05:11.750 align:start position:0%
byproduct of stellar fusion is helium,
an<00:06:47.280><c> extremely</c><00:06:47.840><c> useful</c><00:06:48.400><c> element.</c>

05:11.750 --> 05:11.760 align:start position:0%
an extremely useful element.
 

05:11.760 --> 05:14.150 align:start position:0%
an extremely useful element.
Thanks<00:06:50.319><c> to</c><00:06:50.560><c> its</c><00:06:50.960><c> exceptionally</c><00:06:51.680><c> low</c><00:06:52.000><c> boiling</c>

05:14.150 --> 05:14.160 align:start position:0%
Thanks to its exceptionally low boiling
 

05:14.160 --> 05:16.150 align:start position:0%
Thanks to its exceptionally low boiling
point,<00:06:52.880><c> helium</c><00:06:53.440><c> is</c><00:06:53.600><c> used</c><00:06:53.840><c> to</c><00:06:54.000><c> cool</c><00:06:54.240><c> the</c>

05:16.150 --> 05:16.160 align:start position:0%
point, helium is used to cool the
 

05:16.160 --> 05:19.030 align:start position:0%
point, helium is used to cool the
magnets<00:06:54.800><c> in</c><00:06:55.039><c> MRI</c><00:06:55.600><c> machines</c><00:06:56.319><c> for</c><00:06:56.720><c> scientific</c>

05:19.030 --> 05:19.040 align:start position:0%
magnets in MRI machines for scientific
 

05:19.040 --> 05:21.590 align:start position:0%
magnets in MRI machines for scientific
research<00:06:57.759><c> projects</c><00:06:58.160><c> like</c><00:06:58.400><c> CERN</c><00:06:59.280><c> as</c><00:06:59.520><c> well</c><00:06:59.680><c> as</c>

05:21.590 --> 05:21.600 align:start position:0%
research projects like CERN as well as
 

05:21.600 --> 05:24.150 align:start position:0%
research projects like CERN as well as
in<00:07:00.080><c> the</c><00:07:00.240><c> production</c><00:07:00.479><c> of</c><00:07:00.720><c> microchips.</c><00:07:01.919><c> It's</c><00:07:02.160><c> an</c>

05:24.150 --> 05:24.160 align:start position:0%
in the production of microchips. It's an
 

05:24.160 --> 05:26.229 align:start position:0%
in the production of microchips. It's an
essential<00:07:02.720><c> element</c><00:07:03.280><c> that</c><00:07:03.520><c> we</c><00:07:03.759><c> actually</c><00:07:04.160><c> need</c>

05:26.229 --> 05:26.239 align:start position:0%
essential element that we actually need
 

05:26.239 --> 05:29.590 align:start position:0%
essential element that we actually need
more<00:07:04.880><c> of.</c><00:07:05.840><c> So,</c><00:07:06.240><c> how</c><00:07:06.479><c> exactly</c><00:07:07.039><c> do</c><00:07:07.440><c> stars</c>

05:29.590 --> 05:29.600 align:start position:0%
more of. So, how exactly do stars
 

05:29.600 --> 05:32.389 align:start position:0%
more of. So, how exactly do stars
achieve<00:07:08.319><c> this</c><00:07:08.639><c> alchemy</c><00:07:09.280><c> of</c><00:07:09.599><c> fusing</c><00:07:10.160><c> hydrogen</c>

05:32.389 --> 05:32.399 align:start position:0%
achieve this alchemy of fusing hydrogen
 

05:32.399 --> 05:34.870 align:start position:0%
achieve this alchemy of fusing hydrogen
into<00:07:10.880><c> helium?</c><00:07:11.919><c> And</c><00:07:12.160><c> how</c><00:07:12.400><c> are</c><00:07:12.560><c> scientists</c>

05:34.870 --> 05:34.880 align:start position:0%
into helium? And how are scientists
 

05:34.880 --> 05:37.430 align:start position:0%
into helium? And how are scientists
going<00:07:13.360><c> about</c><00:07:14.080><c> trying</c><00:07:14.400><c> to</c><00:07:14.720><c> replicate</c><00:07:15.360><c> the</c>

05:37.430 --> 05:37.440 align:start position:0%
going about trying to replicate the
 

05:37.440 --> 05:40.389 align:start position:0%
going about trying to replicate the
process?

05:40.389 --> 05:40.399 align:start position:0%
process?
 

05:40.399 --> 05:42.630 align:start position:0%
process?
Well,<00:07:18.960><c> the</c><00:07:19.280><c> first</c><00:07:19.440><c> thing</c><00:07:19.599><c> to</c><00:07:19.840><c> consider</c><00:07:20.400><c> is</c><00:07:20.639><c> the</c>

05:42.630 --> 05:42.640 align:start position:0%
Well, the first thing to consider is the
 

05:42.640 --> 05:45.270 align:start position:0%
Well, the first thing to consider is the
reaction<00:07:21.360><c> medium.</c><00:07:22.160><c> The</c><00:07:22.319><c> stuff</c><00:07:22.720><c> stars</c><00:07:23.199><c> are</c>

05:45.270 --> 05:45.280 align:start position:0%
reaction medium. The stuff stars are
 

05:45.280 --> 05:48.470 align:start position:0%
reaction medium. The stuff stars are
made<00:07:23.680><c> of.</c><00:07:24.720><c> Unlike</c><00:07:25.120><c> matter</c><00:07:25.520><c> on</c><00:07:25.759><c> Earth,</c><00:07:26.319><c> stars</c>

05:48.470 --> 05:48.480 align:start position:0%
made of. Unlike matter on Earth, stars
 

05:48.480 --> 05:51.110 align:start position:0%
made of. Unlike matter on Earth, stars
aren't<00:07:26.960><c> even</c><00:07:27.199><c> made</c><00:07:27.360><c> of</c><00:07:27.599><c> atoms</c><00:07:28.080><c> and</c><00:07:28.319><c> molecules,</c>

05:51.110 --> 05:51.120 align:start position:0%
aren't even made of atoms and molecules,
 

05:51.120 --> 05:53.590 align:start position:0%
aren't even made of atoms and molecules,
where<00:07:29.680><c> negatively</c><00:07:30.240><c> charged</c><00:07:30.639><c> electron</c><00:07:31.120><c> clouds</c>

05:53.590 --> 05:53.600 align:start position:0%
where negatively charged electron clouds
 

05:53.600 --> 05:56.710 align:start position:0%
where negatively charged electron clouds
orbit<00:07:32.319><c> positively</c><00:07:32.960><c> charged</c><00:07:33.280><c> nuclei.</c><00:07:34.560><c> Stars</c>

05:56.710 --> 05:56.720 align:start position:0%
orbit positively charged nuclei. Stars
 

05:56.720 --> 05:59.270 align:start position:0%
orbit positively charged nuclei. Stars
are<00:07:35.120><c> so</c><00:07:35.360><c> hot</c><00:07:35.919><c> that</c><00:07:36.240><c> electrons</c><00:07:36.800><c> can</c><00:07:37.039><c> escape</c>

05:59.270 --> 05:59.280 align:start position:0%
are so hot that electrons can escape
 

05:59.280 --> 06:02.550 align:start position:0%
are so hot that electrons can escape
atomic<00:07:38.080><c> orbits</c><00:07:38.639><c> entirely.</c><00:07:40.000><c> The</c><00:07:40.319><c> resulting</c>

06:02.550 --> 06:02.560 align:start position:0%
atomic orbits entirely. The resulting
 

06:02.560 --> 06:05.509 align:start position:0%
atomic orbits entirely. The resulting
soup<00:07:41.120><c> of</c><00:07:41.440><c> charged</c><00:07:41.840><c> particles,</c><00:07:43.039><c> ions,</c><00:07:43.360><c> and</c>

06:05.509 --> 06:05.519 align:start position:0%
soup of charged particles, ions, and
 

06:05.519 --> 06:08.949 align:start position:0%
soup of charged particles, ions, and
free<00:07:44.080><c> electrons</c><00:07:45.039><c> is</c><00:07:45.360><c> known</c><00:07:45.680><c> as</c><00:07:46.000><c> plasma.</c><00:07:47.039><c> And</c>

06:08.949 --> 06:08.959 align:start position:0%
free electrons is known as plasma. And
 

06:08.959 --> 06:11.349 align:start position:0%
free electrons is known as plasma. And
it's<00:07:47.440><c> in</c><00:07:47.599><c> plasma</c><00:07:48.240><c> that</c><00:07:48.479><c> nuclear</c><00:07:48.880><c> fusion</c><00:07:49.360><c> can</c>

06:11.349 --> 06:11.359 align:start position:0%
it's in plasma that nuclear fusion can
 

06:11.359 --> 06:13.270 align:start position:0%
it's in plasma that nuclear fusion can
take<00:07:49.840><c> place.</c>

06:13.270 --> 06:13.280 align:start position:0%
take place.
 

06:13.280 --> 06:16.870 align:start position:0%
take place.
Now<00:07:52.160><c> plasma</c><00:07:52.800><c> is</c><00:07:53.199><c> by</c><00:07:53.599><c> far</c><00:07:54.080><c> the</c><00:07:54.400><c> most</c><00:07:54.639><c> common</c>

06:16.870 --> 06:16.880 align:start position:0%
Now plasma is by far the most common
 

06:16.880 --> 06:19.750 align:start position:0%
Now plasma is by far the most common
material<00:07:55.599><c> in</c><00:07:55.840><c> the</c><00:07:56.080><c> universe</c><00:07:56.879><c> making</c><00:07:57.199><c> up</c><00:07:57.520><c> well</c>

06:19.750 --> 06:19.760 align:start position:0%
material in the universe making up well
 

06:19.760 --> 06:21.910 align:start position:0%
material in the universe making up well
over<00:07:58.400><c> 99.9%</c>

06:21.910 --> 06:21.920 align:start position:0%
over 99.9%
 

06:21.920 --> 06:26.550 align:start position:0%
over 99.9%
of<00:08:00.400><c> visible</c><00:08:01.280><c> that</c><00:08:01.520><c> is</c><00:08:02.080><c> nond</c><00:08:02.639><c> dark</c><00:08:03.280><c> matter.</c><00:08:04.479><c> But</c>

06:26.550 --> 06:26.560 align:start position:0%
of visible that is nond dark matter. But
 

06:26.560 --> 06:29.830 align:start position:0%
of visible that is nond dark matter. But
we<00:08:05.120><c> are</c><00:08:05.360><c> part</c><00:08:05.680><c> of</c><00:08:06.000><c> the</c><00:08:06.400><c> 0.1%.</c>

06:29.830 --> 06:29.840 align:start position:0%
we are part of the 0.1%.
 

06:29.840 --> 06:31.430 align:start position:0%
we are part of the 0.1%.
That<00:08:08.400><c> small</c><00:08:08.639><c> amount</c><00:08:08.879><c> of</c><00:08:09.039><c> matter</c><00:08:09.280><c> in</c><00:08:09.520><c> the</c>

06:31.430 --> 06:31.440 align:start position:0%
That small amount of matter in the
 

06:31.440 --> 06:33.190 align:start position:0%
That small amount of matter in the
universe<00:08:09.919><c> that's</c><00:08:10.319><c> cool</c><00:08:10.560><c> enough</c><00:08:10.960><c> that</c><00:08:11.280><c> in</c>

06:33.190 --> 06:33.200 align:start position:0%
universe that's cool enough that in
 

06:33.200 --> 06:35.750 align:start position:0%
universe that's cool enough that in
general<00:08:12.240><c> electrons</c><00:08:12.720><c> confined</c><00:08:13.120><c> to</c><00:08:13.199><c> orbitals</c>

06:35.750 --> 06:35.760 align:start position:0%
general electrons confined to orbitals
 

06:35.760 --> 06:38.389 align:start position:0%
general electrons confined to orbitals
and<00:08:14.319><c> chemistry,</c><00:08:14.960><c> not</c><00:08:15.360><c> nuclear</c><00:08:15.840><c> physics,</c>

06:38.389 --> 06:38.399 align:start position:0%
and chemistry, not nuclear physics,
 

06:38.399 --> 06:41.270 align:start position:0%
and chemistry, not nuclear physics,
dominates,<00:08:17.759><c> allowing</c><00:08:18.240><c> cool</c><00:08:18.479><c> balls</c><00:08:18.879><c> of</c><00:08:19.120><c> rock</c>

06:41.270 --> 06:41.280 align:start position:0%
dominates, allowing cool balls of rock
 

06:41.280 --> 06:44.069 align:start position:0%
dominates, allowing cool balls of rock
covered<00:08:19.840><c> in</c><00:08:20.080><c> oceans</c><00:08:20.479><c> of</c><00:08:20.639><c> water</c><00:08:21.280><c> like</c><00:08:21.599><c> Earth</c><00:08:22.080><c> to</c>

06:44.069 --> 06:44.079 align:start position:0%
covered in oceans of water like Earth to
 

06:44.079 --> 06:48.150 align:start position:0%
covered in oceans of water like Earth to
form.<00:08:23.520><c> For</c><00:08:23.840><c> us,</c><00:08:24.639><c> creating</c><00:08:25.199><c> such</c><00:08:25.520><c> conditions,</c>

06:48.150 --> 06:48.160 align:start position:0%
form. For us, creating such conditions,
 

06:48.160 --> 06:50.629 align:start position:0%
form. For us, creating such conditions,
making<00:08:27.120><c> plasma</c><00:08:27.680><c> that's</c><00:08:28.000><c> hot</c><00:08:28.240><c> enough</c><00:08:28.560><c> to</c>

06:50.629 --> 06:50.639 align:start position:0%
making plasma that's hot enough to
 

06:50.639 --> 06:54.229 align:start position:0%
making plasma that's hot enough to
sustain<00:08:29.520><c> fusion</c><00:08:30.080><c> and</c><00:08:30.639><c> containing</c><00:08:31.199><c> it</c><00:08:31.919><c> is</c><00:08:32.240><c> a</c>

06:54.229 --> 06:54.239 align:start position:0%
sustain fusion and containing it is a
 

06:54.239 --> 06:57.349 align:start position:0%
sustain fusion and containing it is a
considerable<00:08:33.200><c> challenge.</c><00:08:34.479><c> You</c><00:08:34.719><c> see,</c><00:08:34.959><c> the</c><00:08:35.200><c> sun</c>

06:57.349 --> 06:57.359 align:start position:0%
considerable challenge. You see, the sun
 

06:57.359 --> 07:00.550 align:start position:0%
considerable challenge. You see, the sun
has<00:08:36.000><c> one</c><00:08:36.560><c> quite</c><00:08:36.959><c> literal</c><00:08:37.680><c> giant</c><00:08:38.159><c> advantage</c><00:08:38.640><c> on</c>

07:00.550 --> 07:00.560 align:start position:0%
has one quite literal giant advantage on
 

07:00.560 --> 07:03.990 align:start position:0%
has one quite literal giant advantage on
its<00:08:39.039><c> side.</c><00:08:40.000><c> It's</c><00:08:40.320><c> so</c><00:08:40.719><c> huge</c><00:08:41.279><c> that</c><00:08:41.599><c> the</c><00:08:41.760><c> force</c><00:08:42.080><c> of</c>

07:03.990 --> 07:04.000 align:start position:0%
its side. It's so huge that the force of
 

07:04.000 --> 07:06.790 align:start position:0%
its side. It's so huge that the force of
gravity<00:08:42.800><c> holds</c><00:08:43.120><c> the</c><00:08:43.360><c> plasma</c><00:08:43.919><c> in</c><00:08:44.159><c> a</c><00:08:44.399><c> near</c>

07:06.790 --> 07:06.800 align:start position:0%
gravity holds the plasma in a near
 

07:06.800 --> 07:09.430 align:start position:0%
gravity holds the plasma in a near
perfect<00:08:45.440><c> sphere</c><00:08:46.320><c> with</c><00:08:46.560><c> pressure</c><00:08:46.880><c> at</c><00:08:47.120><c> its</c><00:08:47.279><c> core</c>

07:09.430 --> 07:09.440 align:start position:0%
perfect sphere with pressure at its core
 

07:09.440 --> 07:13.350 align:start position:0%
perfect sphere with pressure at its core
reaching<00:08:48.720><c> 150</c><00:08:49.120><c> g</c><00:08:49.440><c> per</c><00:08:49.680><c> cime</c><00:08:50.160><c> cubed.</c><00:08:50.880><c> So</c><00:08:51.120><c> dense</c>

07:13.350 --> 07:13.360 align:start position:0%
reaching 150 g per cime cubed. So dense
 

07:13.360 --> 07:15.990 align:start position:0%
reaching 150 g per cime cubed. So dense
a<00:08:51.920><c> teaspoon</c><00:08:52.720><c> would</c><00:08:53.040><c> weigh</c><00:08:53.440><c> close</c><00:08:53.680><c> to</c><00:08:53.920><c> a</c>

07:15.990 --> 07:16.000 align:start position:0%
a teaspoon would weigh close to a
 

07:16.000 --> 07:18.550 align:start position:0%
a teaspoon would weigh close to a
kilogram.

07:18.550 --> 07:18.560 align:start position:0%
kilogram.
 

07:18.560 --> 07:21.830 align:start position:0%
kilogram.
The<00:08:57.040><c> biggest</c><00:08:57.360><c> fusion</c><00:08:57.839><c> reactor</c><00:08:58.320><c> on</c><00:08:58.640><c> Earth,</c><00:08:59.279><c> ITA</c>

07:21.830 --> 07:21.840 align:start position:0%
The biggest fusion reactor on Earth, ITA
 

07:21.840 --> 07:24.310 align:start position:0%
The biggest fusion reactor on Earth, ITA
in<00:09:00.320><c> France,</c><00:09:01.120><c> a</c><00:09:01.360><c> leading</c><00:09:01.839><c> international</c>

07:24.310 --> 07:24.320 align:start position:0%
in France, a leading international
 

07:24.320 --> 07:26.470 align:start position:0%
in France, a leading international
project<00:09:02.880><c> that</c><00:09:03.200><c> hopes</c><00:09:03.519><c> to</c><00:09:03.680><c> be</c><00:09:03.839><c> operational</c><00:09:04.399><c> in</c>

07:26.470 --> 07:26.480 align:start position:0%
project that hopes to be operational in
 

07:26.480 --> 07:30.550 align:start position:0%
project that hopes to be operational in
2034,<00:09:06.000><c> will</c><00:09:06.240><c> use</c><00:09:06.640><c> just</c><00:09:06.959><c> a</c><00:09:07.279><c> few</c><00:09:07.760><c> g</c><00:09:08.160><c> of</c><00:09:08.320><c> plasma</c>

07:30.550 --> 07:30.560 align:start position:0%
2034, will use just a few g of plasma
 

07:30.560 --> 07:34.709 align:start position:0%
2034, will use just a few g of plasma
material<00:09:09.440><c> in</c><00:09:09.680><c> a</c><00:09:09.839><c> chamber</c><00:09:10.240><c> of</c><00:09:10.720><c> 830</c><00:09:11.600><c> cubic</c><00:09:12.000><c> m.</c>

07:34.709 --> 07:34.719 align:start position:0%
material in a chamber of 830 cubic m.
 

07:34.719 --> 07:37.029 align:start position:0%
material in a chamber of 830 cubic m.
Because<00:09:13.279><c> it's</c><00:09:13.519><c> under</c><00:09:13.839><c> such</c><00:09:14.240><c> low</c><00:09:14.560><c> pressure,</c>

07:37.029 --> 07:37.039 align:start position:0%
Because it's under such low pressure,
 

07:37.039 --> 07:38.870 align:start position:0%
Because it's under such low pressure,
meaning<00:09:15.680><c> particles</c><00:09:16.240><c> aren't</c><00:09:16.720><c> squeezed</c>

07:38.870 --> 07:38.880 align:start position:0%
meaning particles aren't squeezed
 

07:38.880 --> 07:40.950 align:start position:0%
meaning particles aren't squeezed
together<00:09:17.440><c> like</c><00:09:17.600><c> they</c><00:09:17.839><c> are</c><00:09:18.000><c> in</c><00:09:18.160><c> the</c><00:09:18.320><c> sun,</c><00:09:18.959><c> this</c>

07:40.950 --> 07:40.960 align:start position:0%
together like they are in the sun, this
 

07:40.960 --> 07:43.910 align:start position:0%
together like they are in the sun, this
plasma<00:09:19.680><c> has</c><00:09:19.920><c> to</c><00:09:20.080><c> be</c><00:09:20.399><c> much,</c><00:09:21.120><c> much</c><00:09:21.519><c> hotter</c><00:09:21.920><c> to</c>

07:43.910 --> 07:43.920 align:start position:0%
plasma has to be much, much hotter to
 

07:43.920 --> 07:46.070 align:start position:0%
plasma has to be much, much hotter to
achieve<00:09:22.560><c> fusion.</c>

07:46.070 --> 07:46.080 align:start position:0%
achieve fusion.
 

07:46.080 --> 07:50.950 align:start position:0%
achieve fusion.
50<00:09:24.880><c> million°</c><00:09:25.760><c> C</c><00:09:26.640><c> as</c><00:09:26.880><c> opposed</c><00:09:27.200><c> to</c><00:09:27.760><c> 15</c><00:09:28.240><c> million°</c>

07:50.950 --> 07:50.960 align:start position:0%
50 million° C as opposed to 15 million°
 

07:50.960 --> 07:54.230 align:start position:0%
50 million° C as opposed to 15 million°
at<00:09:29.440><c> the</c><00:09:29.600><c> core</c><00:09:29.920><c> of</c><00:09:30.080><c> the</c><00:09:30.320><c> sun.</c><00:09:31.519><c> Now,</c><00:09:32.080><c> fairly</c>

07:54.230 --> 07:54.240 align:start position:0%
at the core of the sun. Now, fairly
 

07:54.240 --> 07:56.310 align:start position:0%
at the core of the sun. Now, fairly
obviously,<00:09:33.279><c> you</c><00:09:33.519><c> can't</c><00:09:33.760><c> just</c><00:09:34.080><c> hold</c><00:09:34.320><c> a</c>

07:56.310 --> 07:56.320 align:start position:0%
obviously, you can't just hold a
 

07:56.320 --> 07:58.230 align:start position:0%
obviously, you can't just hold a
material<00:09:34.959><c> like</c><00:09:35.200><c> this</c><00:09:35.440><c> in</c><00:09:35.600><c> a</c><00:09:35.760><c> container</c><00:09:36.240><c> made</c>

07:58.230 --> 07:58.240 align:start position:0%
material like this in a container made
 

07:58.240 --> 08:01.269 align:start position:0%
material like this in a container made
of<00:09:36.720><c> normal</c><00:09:37.120><c> matter.</c><00:09:38.320><c> If</c><00:09:38.560><c> it</c><00:09:38.880><c> contacted</c><00:09:39.360><c> the</c>

08:01.269 --> 08:01.279 align:start position:0%
of normal matter. If it contacted the
 

08:01.279 --> 08:03.830 align:start position:0%
of normal matter. If it contacted the
sides,<00:09:40.080><c> it</c><00:09:40.320><c> would</c><00:09:40.480><c> cool.</c><00:09:41.200><c> Electrons</c><00:09:41.839><c> would</c>

08:03.830 --> 08:03.840 align:start position:0%
sides, it would cool. Electrons would
 

08:03.840 --> 08:06.550 align:start position:0%
sides, it would cool. Electrons would
condense<00:09:42.480><c> into</c><00:09:42.880><c> atomic</c><00:09:43.360><c> orbitals,</c><00:09:44.240><c> and</c><00:09:44.560><c> it</c>

08:06.550 --> 08:06.560 align:start position:0%
condense into atomic orbitals, and it
 

08:06.560 --> 08:09.269 align:start position:0%
condense into atomic orbitals, and it
would<00:09:44.959><c> no</c><00:09:45.200><c> longer</c><00:09:45.440><c> be</c><00:09:45.680><c> plasma.</c><00:09:47.040><c> And</c><00:09:47.279><c> of</c>

08:09.269 --> 08:09.279 align:start position:0%
would no longer be plasma. And of
 

08:09.279 --> 08:11.430 align:start position:0%
would no longer be plasma. And of
course,<00:09:47.839><c> it</c><00:09:48.080><c> goes</c><00:09:48.320><c> without</c><00:09:48.720><c> saying</c><00:09:49.200><c> that</c><00:09:49.440><c> the</c>

08:11.430 --> 08:11.440 align:start position:0%
course, it goes without saying that the
 

08:11.440 --> 08:13.830 align:start position:0%
course, it goes without saying that the
container<00:09:50.240><c> itself</c><00:09:50.880><c> would</c><00:09:51.120><c> be</c><00:09:51.279><c> damaged</c><00:09:51.680><c> beyond</c>

08:13.830 --> 08:13.840 align:start position:0%
container itself would be damaged beyond
 

08:13.840 --> 08:16.390 align:start position:0%
container itself would be damaged beyond
repair.<00:09:53.040><c> So</c><00:09:53.360><c> the</c><00:09:53.519><c> plasma</c><00:09:54.000><c> needs</c><00:09:54.240><c> to</c><00:09:54.480><c> be</c>

08:16.390 --> 08:16.400 align:start position:0%
repair. So the plasma needs to be
 

08:16.400 --> 08:19.750 align:start position:0%
repair. So the plasma needs to be
isolated<00:09:55.360><c> in</c><00:09:55.680><c> a</c><00:09:55.920><c> vacuum.</c><00:09:57.200><c> Two</c><00:09:57.519><c> approaches</c>

08:19.750 --> 08:19.760 align:start position:0%
isolated in a vacuum. Two approaches
 

08:19.760 --> 08:21.830 align:start position:0%
isolated in a vacuum. Two approaches
have<00:09:58.240><c> been</c><00:09:58.399><c> put</c><00:09:58.560><c> forward</c><00:09:58.800><c> to</c><00:09:59.040><c> achieve</c><00:09:59.360><c> this.</c>

08:21.830 --> 08:21.840 align:start position:0%
have been put forward to achieve this.
 

08:21.840 --> 08:23.990 align:start position:0%
have been put forward to achieve this.
The<00:10:00.320><c> first</c><00:10:00.480><c> of</c><00:10:00.640><c> which</c><00:10:00.959><c> is</c><00:10:01.519><c> magnetic</c>

08:23.990 --> 08:24.000 align:start position:0%
The first of which is magnetic
 

08:24.000 --> 08:27.350 align:start position:0%
The first of which is magnetic
confinement<00:10:02.959><c> fusion.</c><00:10:04.240><c> Because</c><00:10:04.640><c> plasma</c><00:10:05.200><c> is</c><00:10:05.360><c> a</c>

08:27.350 --> 08:27.360 align:start position:0%
confinement fusion. Because plasma is a
 

08:27.360 --> 08:29.830 align:start position:0%
confinement fusion. Because plasma is a
soup<00:10:05.920><c> of</c><00:10:06.080><c> charged</c><00:10:06.480><c> particles,</c><00:10:07.440><c> positively</c>

08:29.830 --> 08:29.840 align:start position:0%
soup of charged particles, positively
 

08:29.840 --> 08:33.110 align:start position:0%
soup of charged particles, positively
charged<00:10:08.640><c> ions</c><00:10:08.959><c> and</c><00:10:09.519><c> negative</c><00:10:10.000><c> electrons.</c><00:10:11.120><c> It</c>

08:33.110 --> 08:33.120 align:start position:0%
charged ions and negative electrons. It
 

08:33.120 --> 08:36.310 align:start position:0%
charged ions and negative electrons. It
can<00:10:11.519><c> be</c><00:10:11.680><c> manipulated</c><00:10:12.480><c> by</c><00:10:12.800><c> magnetic</c><00:10:13.279><c> fields.</c>

08:36.310 --> 08:36.320 align:start position:0%
can be manipulated by magnetic fields.
 

08:36.320 --> 08:38.310 align:start position:0%
can be manipulated by magnetic fields.
Magnetic<00:10:15.200><c> confinement</c><00:10:15.680><c> takes</c><00:10:16.000><c> advantage</c><00:10:16.399><c> of</c>

08:38.310 --> 08:38.320 align:start position:0%
Magnetic confinement takes advantage of
 

08:38.320 --> 08:40.790 align:start position:0%
Magnetic confinement takes advantage of
this<00:10:16.800><c> by</c><00:10:17.040><c> using</c><00:10:17.279><c> a</c><00:10:17.519><c> ring</c><00:10:17.920><c> of</c><00:10:18.160><c> powerful</c><00:10:18.640><c> magnets</c>

08:40.790 --> 08:40.800 align:start position:0%
this by using a ring of powerful magnets
 

08:40.800 --> 08:43.190 align:start position:0%
this by using a ring of powerful magnets
to<00:10:19.279><c> hold</c><00:10:19.519><c> plasma</c><00:10:20.240><c> in</c><00:10:20.480><c> a</c><00:10:20.720><c> continuous</c>

08:43.190 --> 08:43.200 align:start position:0%
to hold plasma in a continuous
 

08:43.200 --> 08:45.670 align:start position:0%
to hold plasma in a continuous
donut-shaped<00:10:22.320><c> blob</c><00:10:22.880><c> in</c><00:10:23.120><c> which</c><00:10:23.360><c> fusion</c><00:10:23.760><c> can</c>

08:45.670 --> 08:45.680 align:start position:0%
donut-shaped blob in which fusion can
 

08:45.680 --> 08:48.149 align:start position:0%
donut-shaped blob in which fusion can
take<00:10:24.160><c> place.</c><00:10:25.360><c> There</c><00:10:25.600><c> are</c><00:10:25.760><c> a</c><00:10:26.000><c> number</c><00:10:26.160><c> of</c>

08:48.149 --> 08:48.159 align:start position:0%
take place. There are a number of
 

08:48.159 --> 08:50.630 align:start position:0%
take place. There are a number of
different<00:10:26.640><c> types</c><00:10:27.360><c> accelerators</c><00:10:28.560><c> and</c>

08:50.630 --> 08:50.640 align:start position:0%
different types accelerators and
 

08:50.640 --> 08:53.990 align:start position:0%
different types accelerators and
reversed<00:10:29.600><c> field</c><00:10:30.240><c> pinch</c><00:10:30.800><c> devices</c><00:10:31.839><c> but</c><00:10:32.079><c> the</c>

08:53.990 --> 08:54.000 align:start position:0%
reversed field pinch devices but the
 

08:54.000 --> 08:56.310 align:start position:0%
reversed field pinch devices but the
leading<00:10:32.560><c> design</c><00:10:32.880><c> is</c><00:10:33.120><c> called</c><00:10:33.279><c> the</c><00:10:33.519><c> tokamac.</c>

08:56.310 --> 08:56.320 align:start position:0%
leading design is called the tokamac.
 

08:56.320 --> 08:58.390 align:start position:0%
leading design is called the tokamac.
This<00:10:34.800><c> is</c><00:10:34.959><c> the</c><00:10:35.120><c> type</c><00:10:35.360><c> of</c><00:10:35.519><c> reactor</c><00:10:36.079><c> which</c><00:10:36.399><c> will</c>

08:58.390 --> 08:58.400 align:start position:0%
This is the type of reactor which will
 

08:58.400 --> 09:01.910 align:start position:0%
This is the type of reactor which will
be<00:10:36.800><c> used</c><00:10:37.040><c> at</c><00:10:37.360><c> ITA.</c><00:10:38.399><c> In</c><00:10:38.720><c> contrast,</c><00:10:39.519><c> inertial</c>

09:01.910 --> 09:01.920 align:start position:0%
be used at ITA. In contrast, inertial
 

09:01.920 --> 09:03.589 align:start position:0%
be used at ITA. In contrast, inertial
confinement<00:10:40.720><c> fusion,</c><00:10:41.360><c> the</c><00:10:41.600><c> other</c>

09:03.589 --> 09:03.599 align:start position:0%
confinement fusion, the other
 

09:03.599 --> 09:05.430 align:start position:0%
confinement fusion, the other
confinement<00:10:42.320><c> method,</c><00:10:43.040><c> takes</c><00:10:43.360><c> its</c>

09:05.430 --> 09:05.440 align:start position:0%
confinement method, takes its
 

09:05.440 --> 09:09.190 align:start position:0%
confinement method, takes its
inspiration<00:10:44.240><c> from</c><00:10:45.040><c> thermonuclear</c><00:10:45.920><c> bombs.</c><00:10:47.200><c> It</c>

09:09.190 --> 09:09.200 align:start position:0%
inspiration from thermonuclear bombs. It
 

09:09.200 --> 09:12.390 align:start position:0%
inspiration from thermonuclear bombs. It
works<00:10:47.760><c> by</c><00:10:48.320><c> firing</c><00:10:48.880><c> lasers</c><00:10:49.440><c> or</c><00:10:49.760><c> projectiles</c><00:10:50.480><c> at</c>

09:12.390 --> 09:12.400 align:start position:0%
works by firing lasers or projectiles at
 

09:12.400 --> 09:15.269 align:start position:0%
works by firing lasers or projectiles at
a<00:10:50.880><c> small</c><00:10:51.279><c> pellet</c><00:10:51.760><c> containing</c><00:10:52.320><c> fusion</c><00:10:52.800><c> fuel,</c>

09:15.269 --> 09:15.279 align:start position:0%
a small pellet containing fusion fuel,
 

09:15.279 --> 09:17.430 align:start position:0%
a small pellet containing fusion fuel,
seeking<00:10:53.920><c> to</c><00:10:54.160><c> create</c><00:10:54.640><c> temporary</c><00:10:55.120><c> blobs</c><00:10:55.519><c> of</c>

09:17.430 --> 09:17.440 align:start position:0%
seeking to create temporary blobs of
 

09:17.440 --> 09:20.310 align:start position:0%
seeking to create temporary blobs of
plasma<00:10:56.320><c> which</c><00:10:56.640><c> release</c><00:10:57.120><c> fusion</c><00:10:57.600><c> energy</c><00:10:58.320><c> only</c>

09:20.310 --> 09:20.320 align:start position:0%
plasma which release fusion energy only
 

09:20.320 --> 09:23.110 align:start position:0%
plasma which release fusion energy only
for<00:10:58.800><c> a</c><00:10:59.120><c> few</c><00:10:59.440><c> nanos</c><00:11:00.399><c> before</c><00:11:00.640><c> the</c><00:11:00.880><c> plasma</c>

09:23.110 --> 09:23.120 align:start position:0%
for a few nanos before the plasma
 

09:23.120 --> 09:26.149 align:start position:0%
for a few nanos before the plasma
dissipates.<00:11:02.800><c> Both</c><00:11:03.120><c> of</c><00:11:03.200><c> these</c><00:11:03.440><c> approaches</c><00:11:04.000><c> are</c>

09:26.149 --> 09:26.159 align:start position:0%
dissipates. Both of these approaches are
 

09:26.159 --> 09:29.269 align:start position:0%
dissipates. Both of these approaches are
immense<00:11:05.200><c> engineering</c><00:11:05.760><c> challenges</c><00:11:06.640><c> requiring</c>

09:29.269 --> 09:29.279 align:start position:0%
immense engineering challenges requiring
 

09:29.279 --> 09:31.029 align:start position:0%
immense engineering challenges requiring
either<00:11:07.920><c> huge</c><00:11:08.240><c> amounts</c><00:11:08.560><c> of</c><00:11:08.720><c> continuous</c>

09:31.029 --> 09:31.039 align:start position:0%
either huge amounts of continuous
 

09:31.039 --> 09:34.470 align:start position:0%
either huge amounts of continuous
electricity<00:11:10.000><c> in</c><00:11:10.240><c> the</c><00:11:10.399><c> case</c><00:11:10.560><c> of</c><00:11:10.800><c> MCF</c><00:11:11.760><c> or</c><00:11:12.320><c> even</c>

09:34.470 --> 09:34.480 align:start position:0%
electricity in the case of MCF or even
 

09:34.480 --> 09:36.870 align:start position:0%
electricity in the case of MCF or even
larger<00:11:13.120><c> pulses</c><00:11:13.519><c> of</c><00:11:13.760><c> electricity</c><00:11:14.399><c> drawn</c><00:11:14.800><c> from</c>

09:36.870 --> 09:36.880 align:start position:0%
larger pulses of electricity drawn from
 

09:36.880 --> 09:40.550 align:start position:0%
larger pulses of electricity drawn from
banks<00:11:15.519><c> of</c><00:11:15.680><c> capacitors</c><00:11:16.480><c> in</c><00:11:16.720><c> the</c><00:11:16.880><c> case</c><00:11:17.120><c> of</c><00:11:17.440><c> ICF.</c>

09:40.550 --> 09:40.560 align:start position:0%
banks of capacitors in the case of ICF.
 

09:40.560 --> 09:42.470 align:start position:0%
banks of capacitors in the case of ICF.
But<00:11:19.040><c> not</c><00:11:19.279><c> only</c><00:11:19.440><c> do</c><00:11:19.680><c> the</c><00:11:19.839><c> huge</c><00:11:20.240><c> amounts</c><00:11:20.560><c> of</c>

09:42.470 --> 09:42.480 align:start position:0%
But not only do the huge amounts of
 

09:42.480 --> 09:44.870 align:start position:0%
But not only do the huge amounts of
power<00:11:21.040><c> involved</c><00:11:21.440><c> put</c><00:11:21.760><c> tremendous</c><00:11:22.480><c> strain</c><00:11:22.800><c> on</c>

09:44.870 --> 09:44.880 align:start position:0%
power involved put tremendous strain on
 

09:44.880 --> 09:46.950 align:start position:0%
power involved put tremendous strain on
components<00:11:23.839><c> which</c><00:11:24.160><c> have</c><00:11:24.320><c> to</c><00:11:24.480><c> be</c><00:11:24.720><c> replaced</c>

09:46.950 --> 09:46.960 align:start position:0%
components which have to be replaced
 

09:46.960 --> 09:50.070 align:start position:0%
components which have to be replaced
frequently,<00:11:26.399><c> it</c><00:11:26.640><c> means</c><00:11:26.880><c> that</c><00:11:27.360><c> for</c><00:11:27.680><c> a</c><00:11:27.920><c> reactor</c>

09:50.070 --> 09:50.080 align:start position:0%
frequently, it means that for a reactor
 

09:50.080 --> 09:52.470 align:start position:0%
frequently, it means that for a reactor
to<00:11:28.560><c> be</c><00:11:28.720><c> viable,</c><00:11:29.519><c> the</c><00:11:29.760><c> energy</c><00:11:30.079><c> obtained</c><00:11:30.480><c> from</c>

09:52.470 --> 09:52.480 align:start position:0%
to be viable, the energy obtained from
 

09:52.480 --> 09:55.510 align:start position:0%
to be viable, the energy obtained from
the<00:11:30.880><c> fusion</c><00:11:31.279><c> reaction</c><00:11:32.160><c> must</c><00:11:32.560><c> exceed</c><00:11:33.360><c> the</c>

09:55.510 --> 09:55.520 align:start position:0%
the fusion reaction must exceed the
 

09:55.520 --> 09:57.990 align:start position:0%
the fusion reaction must exceed the
colossal<00:11:34.399><c> amount</c><00:11:34.640><c> of</c><00:11:34.800><c> energy</c><00:11:35.360><c> required</c><00:11:35.839><c> to</c>

09:57.990 --> 09:58.000 align:start position:0%
colossal amount of energy required to
 

09:58.000 --> 10:03.190 align:start position:0%
colossal amount of energy required to
initiate<00:11:36.800><c> it.</c><00:11:37.600><c> A</c><00:11:37.920><c> considerable</c><00:11:38.560><c> challenge.</c>

10:01.699 --> 10:04.970 align:start position:0%
so, let's get back to the world's energy
crisis.<00:13:07.120><c> As</c><00:13:07.360><c> I</c><00:13:07.519><c> was</c><00:13:07.680><c> saying,</c><00:13:08.240><c> fusion</c><00:13:08.720><c> reactors</c>

10:04.970 --> 10:04.980 align:start position:0%
crisis. As I was saying, fusion reactors
 

10:04.980 --> 10:06.810 align:start position:0%
crisis. As I was saying, fusion reactors
take<00:13:09.760><c> huge</c><00:13:10.079><c> amounts</c><00:13:10.399><c> of</c><00:13:10.560><c> energy</c><00:13:10.800><c> to</c><00:13:11.040><c> get</c>

10:06.810 --> 10:06.820 align:start position:0%
take huge amounts of energy to get
 

10:06.820 --> 10:10.249 align:start position:0%
take huge amounts of energy to get
going.<00:13:12.560><c> Now,</c><00:13:12.880><c> you</c><00:13:13.040><c> might</c><00:13:13.279><c> think,</c><00:13:13.920><c> surely</c><00:13:14.399><c> once</c>

10:10.249 --> 10:10.259 align:start position:0%
going. Now, you might think, surely once
 

10:10.259 --> 10:12.410 align:start position:0%
going. Now, you might think, surely once
you<00:13:14.800><c> have</c><00:13:14.959><c> surpassed</c><00:13:15.440><c> this</c><00:13:15.680><c> feat,</c><00:13:16.079><c> you've</c><00:13:16.560><c> got</c>

10:12.410 --> 10:12.420 align:start position:0%
you have surpassed this feat, you've got
 

10:12.420 --> 10:14.970 align:start position:0%
you have surpassed this feat, you've got
more<00:13:17.120><c> energy</c><00:13:17.519><c> out</c><00:13:17.760><c> than</c><00:13:18.000><c> you</c><00:13:18.160><c> put</c><00:13:18.399><c> in.</c><00:13:19.120><c> That</c>

10:14.970 --> 10:14.980 align:start position:0%
more energy out than you put in. That
 

10:14.980 --> 10:18.090 align:start position:0%
more energy out than you put in. That
would<00:13:19.519><c> be</c><00:13:19.600><c> it.</c><00:13:20.160><c> A</c><00:13:20.399><c> huge</c><00:13:20.800><c> win.</c><00:13:21.760><c> After</c><00:13:22.079><c> all,</c><00:13:22.240><c> the</c>

10:18.090 --> 10:18.100 align:start position:0%
would be it. A huge win. After all, the
 

10:18.100 --> 10:20.810 align:start position:0%
would be it. A huge win. After all, the
fuel<00:13:23.040><c> hydrogen</c><00:13:23.760><c> is</c><00:13:24.000><c> both</c><00:13:24.399><c> cheap</c><00:13:24.800><c> and</c>

10:20.810 --> 10:20.820 align:start position:0%
fuel hydrogen is both cheap and
 

10:20.820 --> 10:23.610 align:start position:0%
fuel hydrogen is both cheap and
abundant.<00:13:26.320><c> But</c><00:13:26.399><c> alas,</c><00:13:27.200><c> it</c><00:13:27.440><c> is</c><00:13:27.600><c> not</c><00:13:27.760><c> that</c>

10:23.610 --> 10:23.620 align:start position:0%
abundant. But alas, it is not that
 

10:23.620 --> 10:25.770 align:start position:0%
abundant. But alas, it is not that
simple.<00:13:28.720><c> And</c><00:13:28.880><c> to</c><00:13:29.120><c> understand</c><00:13:29.440><c> why,</c><00:13:29.839><c> we</c><00:13:30.000><c> have</c>

10:25.770 --> 10:25.780 align:start position:0%
simple. And to understand why, we have
 

10:25.780 --> 10:28.330 align:start position:0%
simple. And to understand why, we have
to<00:13:30.320><c> look</c><00:13:30.480><c> back</c><00:13:30.880><c> once</c><00:13:31.200><c> again</c><00:13:31.440><c> at</c><00:13:31.680><c> our</c><00:13:32.000><c> star</c><00:13:32.560><c> and</c>

10:28.330 --> 10:28.340 align:start position:0%
to look back once again at our star and
 

10:28.340 --> 10:30.490 align:start position:0%
to look back once again at our star and
the<00:13:32.880><c> fusion</c><00:13:33.279><c> reactions</c><00:13:33.839><c> that</c><00:13:34.160><c> only</c><00:13:34.560><c> take</c>

10:30.490 --> 10:30.500 align:start position:0%
the fusion reactions that only take
 

10:30.500 --> 10:35.610 align:start position:0%
the fusion reactions that only take
place<00:13:35.360><c> deep</c><00:13:35.839><c> inside</c><00:13:36.320><c> the</c><00:13:36.560><c> stellar</c><00:13:36.959><c> core.</c>

10:35.610 --> 10:35.620 align:start position:0%
 
 

10:35.620 --> 10:37.530 align:start position:0%
 
It<00:13:40.240><c> is</c><00:13:40.399><c> here</c><00:13:40.639><c> in</c><00:13:40.880><c> the</c><00:13:40.959><c> sun's</c><00:13:41.360><c> core</c><00:13:41.600><c> that</c>

10:37.530 --> 10:37.540 align:start position:0%
It is here in the sun's core that
 

10:37.540 --> 10:40.249 align:start position:0%
It is here in the sun's core that
hydrogen<00:13:42.480><c> is</c><00:13:42.720><c> fused</c><00:13:43.200><c> into</c><00:13:43.440><c> helium</c><00:13:44.079><c> via</c>

10:40.249 --> 10:40.259 align:start position:0%
hydrogen is fused into helium via
 

10:40.259 --> 10:43.129 align:start position:0%
hydrogen is fused into helium via
multi-step<00:13:45.440><c> reaction.</c><00:13:46.639><c> Firstly,</c><00:13:47.279><c> two</c>

10:43.129 --> 10:43.139 align:start position:0%
multi-step reaction. Firstly, two
 

10:43.139 --> 10:45.850 align:start position:0%
multi-step reaction. Firstly, two
hydrogen<00:13:48.000><c> nuclei</c><00:13:48.720><c> or</c><00:13:48.959><c> single</c><00:13:49.279><c> protons</c>

10:45.850 --> 10:45.860 align:start position:0%
hydrogen nuclei or single protons
 

10:45.860 --> 10:48.650 align:start position:0%
hydrogen nuclei or single protons
combine<00:13:51.120><c> with</c><00:13:51.440><c> one</c><00:13:51.760><c> undergoing</c><00:13:52.320><c> a</c><00:13:52.639><c> process</c>

10:48.650 --> 10:48.660 align:start position:0%
combine with one undergoing a process
 

10:48.660 --> 10:51.689 align:start position:0%
combine with one undergoing a process
called<00:13:53.440><c> beta</c><00:13:53.920><c> decay</c><00:13:54.639><c> to</c><00:13:54.959><c> transform</c><00:13:55.440><c> it</c><00:13:55.680><c> into</c><00:13:55.920><c> a</c>

10:51.689 --> 10:51.699 align:start position:0%
called beta decay to transform it into a
 

10:51.699 --> 10:54.490 align:start position:0%
called beta decay to transform it into a
neutron.<00:13:57.040><c> The</c><00:13:57.360><c> resulting</c><00:13:57.920><c> neutron</c><00:13:58.480><c> proton</c>

10:54.490 --> 10:54.500 align:start position:0%
neutron. The resulting neutron proton
 

10:54.500 --> 10:57.129 align:start position:0%
neutron. The resulting neutron proton
pair<00:13:59.279><c> is</c><00:13:59.519><c> a</c><00:13:59.760><c> nucleus</c><00:14:00.160><c> of</c><00:14:00.399><c> a</c><00:14:00.560><c> heavy</c><00:14:00.880><c> isotope</c><00:14:01.360><c> of</c>

10:57.129 --> 10:57.139 align:start position:0%
pair is a nucleus of a heavy isotope of
 

10:57.139 --> 10:59.930 align:start position:0%
pair is a nucleus of a heavy isotope of
hydrogen<00:14:02.079><c> known</c><00:14:02.399><c> as</c><00:14:02.800><c> dutarium.</c>

10:59.930 --> 10:59.940 align:start position:0%
hydrogen known as dutarium.
 

10:59.940 --> 11:01.770 align:start position:0%
hydrogen known as dutarium.
In<00:14:04.480><c> the</c><00:14:04.639><c> next</c><00:14:04.880><c> step,</c><00:14:05.279><c> another</c><00:14:05.600><c> proton</c>

11:01.770 --> 11:01.780 align:start position:0%
In the next step, another proton
 

11:01.780 --> 11:04.009 align:start position:0%
In the next step, another proton
combines<00:14:06.639><c> with</c><00:14:06.880><c> the</c><00:14:07.040><c> dutarium</c><00:14:07.680><c> nucleus</c><00:14:08.160><c> to</c>

11:04.009 --> 11:04.019 align:start position:0%
combines with the dutarium nucleus to
 

11:04.019 --> 11:07.370 align:start position:0%
combines with the dutarium nucleus to
generate<00:14:08.800><c> a</c><00:14:09.120><c> helium</c><00:14:09.839><c> 3</c><00:14:10.160><c> nucleus.</c>

11:07.370 --> 11:07.380 align:start position:0%
generate a helium 3 nucleus.
 

11:07.380 --> 11:10.410 align:start position:0%
generate a helium 3 nucleus.
In<00:14:12.000><c> the</c><00:14:12.160><c> final</c><00:14:12.399><c> step,</c><00:14:13.199><c> two</c><00:14:13.440><c> of</c><00:14:13.680><c> these</c><00:14:14.000><c> helium</c><00:14:14.560><c> 3</c>

11:10.410 --> 11:10.420 align:start position:0%
In the final step, two of these helium 3
 

11:10.420 --> 11:13.449 align:start position:0%
In the final step, two of these helium 3
nuclei<00:14:15.680><c> fuse</c><00:14:16.079><c> to</c><00:14:16.320><c> produce</c><00:14:16.720><c> a</c><00:14:17.040><c> helium</c><00:14:17.600><c> 4</c>

11:13.449 --> 11:13.459 align:start position:0%
nuclei fuse to produce a helium 4
 

11:13.459 --> 11:16.569 align:start position:0%
nuclei fuse to produce a helium 4
nucleus<00:14:18.720><c> containing</c><00:14:19.279><c> two</c><00:14:19.600><c> protons</c><00:14:20.320><c> and</c><00:14:20.639><c> two</c>

11:16.569 --> 11:16.579 align:start position:0%
nucleus containing two protons and two
 

11:16.579 --> 11:19.290 align:start position:0%
nucleus containing two protons and two
neutrons,<00:14:21.920><c> also</c><00:14:22.320><c> known</c><00:14:22.800><c> as</c><00:14:23.040><c> an</c><00:14:23.199><c> alpha</c>

11:19.290 --> 11:19.300 align:start position:0%
neutrons, also known as an alpha
 

11:19.300 --> 11:23.050 align:start position:0%
neutrons, also known as an alpha
particle,<00:14:24.720><c> as</c><00:14:24.959><c> well</c><00:14:25.199><c> as</c><00:14:25.519><c> two</c><00:14:25.839><c> protons.</c>

11:23.050 --> 11:23.060 align:start position:0%
particle, as well as two protons.
 

11:23.060 --> 11:25.050 align:start position:0%
particle, as well as two protons.
Now,<00:14:27.760><c> this</c><00:14:28.000><c> may</c><00:14:28.320><c> sound</c><00:14:28.880><c> fairly</c>

11:25.050 --> 11:25.060 align:start position:0%
Now, this may sound fairly
 

11:25.060 --> 11:27.770 align:start position:0%
Now, this may sound fairly
straightforward,<00:14:30.480><c> but</c><00:14:30.720><c> it's</c><00:14:30.959><c> not.</c><00:14:31.839><c> The</c>

11:27.770 --> 11:27.780 align:start position:0%
straightforward, but it's not. The
 

11:27.780 --> 11:30.490 align:start position:0%
straightforward, but it's not. The
reason<00:14:32.320><c> being</c><00:14:33.040><c> that</c><00:14:33.440><c> even</c><00:14:33.760><c> in</c><00:14:34.000><c> the</c><00:14:34.160><c> sun</c>

11:30.490 --> 11:30.500 align:start position:0%
reason being that even in the sun
 

11:30.500 --> 11:33.290 align:start position:0%
reason being that even in the sun
getting<00:14:35.360><c> two</c><00:14:35.760><c> protons</c><00:14:36.399><c> to</c><00:14:36.560><c> react</c><00:14:36.959><c> to</c><00:14:37.279><c> form</c>

11:33.290 --> 11:33.300 align:start position:0%
getting two protons to react to form
 

11:33.300 --> 11:36.090 align:start position:0%
getting two protons to react to form
dutyium<00:14:38.720><c> the</c><00:14:38.880><c> first</c><00:14:39.120><c> step</c><00:14:39.279><c> of</c><00:14:39.440><c> the</c><00:14:39.600><c> reaction</c>

11:36.090 --> 11:36.100 align:start position:0%
dutyium the first step of the reaction
 

11:36.100 --> 11:39.930 align:start position:0%
dutyium the first step of the reaction
is<00:14:40.880><c> far</c><00:14:41.279><c> from</c><00:14:41.680><c> easy.</c><00:14:42.720><c> Firstly,</c><00:14:43.680><c> in</c><00:14:43.920><c> order</c><00:14:44.160><c> to</c>

11:39.930 --> 11:39.940 align:start position:0%
is far from easy. Firstly, in order to
 

11:39.940 --> 11:42.490 align:start position:0%
is far from easy. Firstly, in order to
fuse<00:14:44.800><c> the</c><00:14:44.959><c> protons</c><00:14:45.440><c> must</c><00:14:45.760><c> get</c><00:14:46.079><c> extremely</c>

11:42.490 --> 11:42.500 align:start position:0%
fuse the protons must get extremely
 

11:42.500 --> 11:47.050 align:start position:0%
fuse the protons must get extremely
close<00:14:47.120><c> to</c><00:14:47.279><c> each</c><00:14:47.519><c> other</c><00:14:48.079><c> around</c><00:14:48.639><c> 10</c><00:14:49.360><c> ^</c><00:14:49.839><c> -15</c><00:14:51.040><c> m</c>

11:47.050 --> 11:47.060 align:start position:0%
close to each other around 10 ^ -15 m
 

11:47.060 --> 11:50.090 align:start position:0%
close to each other around 10 ^ -15 m
apart.<00:14:52.399><c> That</c><00:14:52.639><c> is</c><00:14:52.800><c> so</c><00:14:53.199><c> the</c><00:14:53.600><c> strong</c><00:14:54.000><c> nuclear</c>

11:50.090 --> 11:50.100 align:start position:0%
apart. That is so the strong nuclear
 

11:50.100 --> 11:52.410 align:start position:0%
apart. That is so the strong nuclear
force,<00:14:55.120><c> the</c><00:14:55.360><c> force</c><00:14:55.600><c> that</c><00:14:55.839><c> holds</c><00:14:56.160><c> protons</c><00:14:56.639><c> and</c>

11:52.410 --> 11:52.420 align:start position:0%
force, the force that holds protons and
 

11:52.420 --> 11:54.330 align:start position:0%
force, the force that holds protons and
neutrons<00:14:57.279><c> together</c><00:14:57.680><c> in</c><00:14:57.920><c> the</c><00:14:58.079><c> nucleus</c><00:14:58.480><c> of</c><00:14:58.560><c> an</c>

11:54.330 --> 11:54.340 align:start position:0%
neutrons together in the nucleus of an
 

11:54.340 --> 11:56.970 align:start position:0%
neutrons together in the nucleus of an
atom<00:14:59.519><c> kicks</c><00:14:59.839><c> in</c><00:15:00.320><c> and</c><00:15:00.560><c> they</c><00:15:00.800><c> are</c><00:15:00.959><c> drawn</c>

11:56.970 --> 11:56.980 align:start position:0%
atom kicks in and they are drawn
 

11:56.980 --> 11:59.850 align:start position:0%
atom kicks in and they are drawn
together.<00:15:02.560><c> However,</c><00:15:02.959><c> for</c><00:15:03.279><c> two</c><00:15:03.600><c> positively</c>

11:59.850 --> 11:59.860 align:start position:0%
together. However, for two positively
 

11:59.860 --> 12:02.410 align:start position:0%
together. However, for two positively
charged<00:15:04.720><c> protons,</c><00:15:05.760><c> getting</c><00:15:06.079><c> this</c><00:15:06.320><c> close</c>

12:02.410 --> 12:02.420 align:start position:0%
charged protons, getting this close
 

12:02.420 --> 12:05.449 align:start position:0%
charged protons, getting this close
means<00:15:07.199><c> overcoming</c><00:15:07.920><c> an</c><00:15:08.240><c> immense</c><00:15:08.880><c> amount</c><00:15:09.360><c> of</c>

12:05.449 --> 12:05.459 align:start position:0%
means overcoming an immense amount of
 

12:05.459 --> 12:08.889 align:start position:0%
means overcoming an immense amount of
electrostatic<00:15:10.800><c> repulsion.</c><00:15:12.000><c> So</c><00:15:12.240><c> much</c><00:15:12.480><c> so</c><00:15:12.959><c> that</c>

12:08.889 --> 12:08.899 align:start position:0%
electrostatic repulsion. So much so that
 

12:08.899 --> 12:11.210 align:start position:0%
electrostatic repulsion. So much so that
even<00:15:13.600><c> the</c><00:15:13.760><c> kinetic</c><00:15:14.240><c> energy</c><00:15:14.720><c> provided</c><00:15:15.199><c> by</c><00:15:15.360><c> the</c>

12:11.210 --> 12:11.220 align:start position:0%
even the kinetic energy provided by the
 

12:11.220 --> 12:12.889 align:start position:0%
even the kinetic energy provided by the
extreme<00:15:16.079><c> conditions</c><00:15:16.480><c> at</c><00:15:16.639><c> the</c><00:15:16.800><c> heart</c><00:15:17.040><c> of</c><00:15:17.120><c> the</c>

12:12.889 --> 12:12.899 align:start position:0%
extreme conditions at the heart of the
 

12:12.899 --> 12:15.530 align:start position:0%
extreme conditions at the heart of the
sun<00:15:17.839><c> where</c><00:15:18.240><c> protons</c><00:15:18.800><c> are</c><00:15:18.959><c> traveling</c><00:15:19.440><c> around</c>

12:15.530 --> 12:15.540 align:start position:0%
sun where protons are traveling around
 

12:15.540 --> 12:17.689 align:start position:0%
sun where protons are traveling around
500<00:15:20.399><c> km/s</c>

12:17.689 --> 12:17.699 align:start position:0%
500 km/s
 

12:17.699 --> 12:20.889 align:start position:0%
500 km/s
is<00:15:22.800><c> wildly</c><00:15:23.600><c> insufficient.</c>

12:20.889 --> 12:20.899 align:start position:0%
is wildly insufficient.
 

12:20.899 --> 12:23.770 align:start position:0%
is wildly insufficient.
In<00:15:25.519><c> fact,</c><00:15:26.079><c> protons</c><00:15:26.720><c> have</c><00:15:27.040><c> only</c><00:15:27.440><c> around</c>

12:23.770 --> 12:23.780 align:start position:0%
In fact, protons have only around
 

12:23.780 --> 12:26.170 align:start position:0%
In fact, protons have only around
1,000th<00:15:29.120><c> of</c><00:15:29.279><c> the</c><00:15:29.440><c> kinetic</c><00:15:29.920><c> energy</c><00:15:30.240><c> they</c>

12:26.170 --> 12:26.180 align:start position:0%
1,000th of the kinetic energy they
 

12:26.180 --> 12:28.809 align:start position:0%
1,000th of the kinetic energy they
require<00:15:30.880><c> to</c><00:15:31.120><c> overcome</c><00:15:31.600><c> this</c><00:15:31.839><c> barrier.</c><00:15:32.959><c> It</c>

12:28.809 --> 12:28.819 align:start position:0%
require to overcome this barrier. It
 

12:28.819 --> 12:31.689 align:start position:0%
require to overcome this barrier. It
turns<00:15:33.440><c> out</c><00:15:34.160><c> the</c><00:15:34.560><c> only</c><00:15:35.040><c> reason</c><00:15:35.279><c> the</c><00:15:35.600><c> sun</c><00:15:35.839><c> is</c>

12:31.689 --> 12:31.699 align:start position:0%
turns out the only reason the sun is
 

12:31.699 --> 12:35.449 align:start position:0%
turns out the only reason the sun is
able<00:15:36.320><c> to</c><00:15:36.560><c> sustain</c><00:15:37.120><c> fusion</c><00:15:37.680><c> at</c><00:15:37.920><c> all</c><00:15:38.800><c> is</c><00:15:39.120><c> because</c>

12:35.449 --> 12:35.459 align:start position:0%
able to sustain fusion at all is because
 

12:35.459 --> 12:38.970 align:start position:0%
able to sustain fusion at all is because
quantum<00:15:40.399><c> effects</c><00:15:40.959><c> come</c><00:15:41.199><c> into</c><00:15:41.519><c> play.</c><00:15:42.639><c> Now</c><00:15:43.120><c> you</c>

12:38.970 --> 12:38.980 align:start position:0%
quantum effects come into play. Now you
 

12:38.980 --> 12:40.889 align:start position:0%
quantum effects come into play. Now you
may<00:15:43.600><c> remember</c><00:15:43.920><c> that</c><00:15:44.240><c> according</c><00:15:44.639><c> to</c><00:15:44.800><c> quantum</c>

12:40.889 --> 12:40.899 align:start position:0%
may remember that according to quantum
 

12:40.899 --> 12:43.129 align:start position:0%
may remember that according to quantum
physics<00:15:45.920><c> protons</c><00:15:46.480><c> don't</c><00:15:46.800><c> just</c><00:15:47.040><c> act</c><00:15:47.279><c> as</c>

12:43.129 --> 12:43.139 align:start position:0%
physics protons don't just act as
 

12:43.139 --> 12:46.249 align:start position:0%
physics protons don't just act as
particles<00:15:48.399><c> they</c><00:15:48.639><c> also</c><00:15:48.880><c> act</c><00:15:49.120><c> as</c><00:15:49.360><c> waves.</c><00:15:50.399><c> This</c>

12:46.249 --> 12:46.259 align:start position:0%
particles they also act as waves. This
 

12:46.259 --> 12:50.410 align:start position:0%
particles they also act as waves. This
wave<00:15:51.040><c> behavior</c><00:15:51.600><c> means</c><00:15:51.839><c> that</c><00:15:52.160><c> in</c><00:15:52.720><c> 10</c><00:15:53.279><c> ^</c><00:15:53.759><c> 28</c>

12:50.410 --> 12:50.420 align:start position:0%
wave behavior means that in 10 ^ 28
 

12:50.420 --> 12:53.850 align:start position:0%
wave behavior means that in 10 ^ 28
proton<00:15:55.360><c> proton</c><00:15:55.839><c> interactions</c><00:15:57.040><c> the</c><00:15:57.279><c> protons</c>

12:53.850 --> 12:53.860 align:start position:0%
proton proton interactions the protons
 

12:53.860 --> 12:56.330 align:start position:0%
proton proton interactions the protons
can<00:15:58.959><c> overcome</c><00:15:59.440><c> this</c><00:15:59.680><c> energy</c><00:16:00.000><c> barrier.</c>

12:56.330 --> 12:56.340 align:start position:0%
can overcome this energy barrier.
 

12:56.340 --> 12:58.490 align:start position:0%
can overcome this energy barrier.
getting<00:16:01.120><c> close</c><00:16:01.360><c> enough</c><00:16:01.759><c> that</c><00:16:02.079><c> the</c><00:16:02.320><c> strong</c>

12:58.490 --> 12:58.500 align:start position:0%
getting close enough that the strong
 

12:58.500 --> 13:01.290 align:start position:0%
getting close enough that the strong
nuclear<00:16:03.360><c> force</c><00:16:03.839><c> pulls</c><00:16:04.160><c> them</c><00:16:04.399><c> together.</c><00:16:05.440><c> This</c>

13:01.290 --> 13:01.300 align:start position:0%
nuclear force pulls them together. This
 

13:01.300 --> 13:04.730 align:start position:0%
nuclear force pulls them together. This
is<00:16:05.839><c> called</c><00:16:06.639><c> quantum</c><00:16:07.360><c> tunneling.</c><00:16:08.639><c> But</c><00:16:08.880><c> even</c>

13:04.730 --> 13:04.740 align:start position:0%
is called quantum tunneling. But even
 

13:04.740 --> 13:07.290 align:start position:0%
is called quantum tunneling. But even
when<00:16:09.600><c> protons</c><00:16:10.320><c> are</c><00:16:10.639><c> drawn</c><00:16:10.959><c> together</c><00:16:11.360><c> this</c>

13:07.290 --> 13:07.300 align:start position:0%
when protons are drawn together this
 

13:07.300 --> 13:09.850 align:start position:0%
when protons are drawn together this
way,<00:16:12.480><c> there</c><00:16:12.720><c> is</c><00:16:12.880><c> yet</c><00:16:13.279><c> another</c><00:16:13.759><c> effect</c><00:16:14.000><c> to</c>

13:09.850 --> 13:09.860 align:start position:0%
way, there is yet another effect to
 

13:09.860 --> 13:12.330 align:start position:0%
way, there is yet another effect to
contend<00:16:14.639><c> with.</c><00:16:15.519><c> The</c><00:16:15.759><c> force</c><00:16:16.000><c> that</c><00:16:16.240><c> mediates</c>

13:12.330 --> 13:12.340 align:start position:0%
contend with. The force that mediates
 

13:12.340 --> 13:14.170 align:start position:0%
contend with. The force that mediates
the<00:16:16.959><c> conversion</c><00:16:17.360><c> of</c><00:16:17.600><c> one</c><00:16:17.839><c> of</c><00:16:17.920><c> the</c><00:16:18.079><c> protons</c>

13:14.170 --> 13:14.180 align:start position:0%
the conversion of one of the protons
 

13:14.180 --> 13:17.449 align:start position:0%
the conversion of one of the protons
into<00:16:18.800><c> a</c><00:16:19.040><c> neutron</c><00:16:19.759><c> is</c><00:16:20.000><c> the</c><00:16:20.240><c> weak</c><00:16:20.639><c> force,</c><00:16:21.440><c> which</c>

13:17.449 --> 13:17.459 align:start position:0%
into a neutron is the weak force, which
 

13:17.459 --> 13:19.689 align:start position:0%
into a neutron is the weak force, which
because<00:16:22.160><c> it</c><00:16:22.399><c> is</c><00:16:22.639><c> controlled</c><00:16:23.040><c> by</c><00:16:23.199><c> the</c><00:16:23.440><c> massive</c>

13:19.689 --> 13:19.699 align:start position:0%
because it is controlled by the massive
 

13:19.699 --> 13:23.369 align:start position:0%
because it is controlled by the massive
W<00:16:24.399><c> bzon</c><00:16:25.360><c> is</c><00:16:25.680><c> very</c><00:16:26.079><c> inefficient.</c><00:16:27.199><c> This</c><00:16:27.519><c> leads</c>

13:23.369 --> 13:23.379 align:start position:0%
W bzon is very inefficient. This leads
 

13:23.379 --> 13:25.530 align:start position:0%
W bzon is very inefficient. This leads
to<00:16:27.920><c> the</c><00:16:28.079><c> more</c><00:16:28.399><c> likely</c><00:16:28.800><c> product</c><00:16:29.120><c> of</c><00:16:29.279><c> the</c><00:16:29.440><c> proton</c>

13:25.530 --> 13:25.540 align:start position:0%
to the more likely product of the proton
 

13:25.540 --> 13:27.930 align:start position:0%
to the more likely product of the proton
proton<00:16:30.320><c> reaction</c><00:16:30.720><c> being</c><00:16:30.959><c> a</c><00:16:31.199><c> proton</c><00:16:31.600><c> pair</c>

13:27.930 --> 13:27.940 align:start position:0%
proton reaction being a proton pair
 

13:27.940 --> 13:30.889 align:start position:0%
proton reaction being a proton pair
which<00:16:32.880><c> immediately</c><00:16:33.839><c> decays</c><00:16:34.399><c> back</c><00:16:34.880><c> into</c>

13:30.889 --> 13:30.899 align:start position:0%
which immediately decays back into
 

13:30.899 --> 13:32.970 align:start position:0%
which immediately decays back into
single<00:16:35.600><c> protons.</c>

13:32.970 --> 13:32.980 align:start position:0%
single protons.
 

13:32.980 --> 13:35.050 align:start position:0%
single protons.
Together<00:16:38.079><c> these</c><00:16:38.399><c> effects</c><00:16:38.800><c> mean</c><00:16:39.040><c> that</c><00:16:39.199><c> the</c>

13:35.050 --> 13:35.060 align:start position:0%
Together these effects mean that the
 

13:35.060 --> 13:37.930 align:start position:0%
Together these effects mean that the
rate<00:16:39.600><c> of</c><00:16:39.759><c> proton</c><00:16:40.160><c> conversion</c><00:16:40.639><c> in</c><00:16:40.959><c> our</c><00:16:41.279><c> star</c><00:16:41.920><c> is</c>

13:37.930 --> 13:37.940 align:start position:0%
rate of proton conversion in our star is
 

13:37.940 --> 13:41.290 align:start position:0%
rate of proton conversion in our star is
extremely<00:16:43.199><c> slow.</c><00:16:44.160><c> On</c><00:16:44.399><c> average</c><00:16:44.880><c> a</c><00:16:45.040><c> proton</c><00:16:45.440><c> will</c>

13:41.290 --> 13:41.300 align:start position:0%
extremely slow. On average a proton will
 

13:41.300 --> 13:44.730 align:start position:0%
extremely slow. On average a proton will
wait<00:16:46.160><c> 10</c><00:16:46.800><c> billion</c><00:16:47.360><c> years</c><00:16:48.160><c> before</c><00:16:48.560><c> undergoing</c>

13:44.730 --> 13:44.740 align:start position:0%
wait 10 billion years before undergoing
 

13:44.740 --> 13:48.090 align:start position:0%
wait 10 billion years before undergoing
fusion.<00:16:50.240><c> Indeed,</c><00:16:51.040><c> the</c><00:16:51.360><c> only</c><00:16:51.759><c> reason</c><00:16:52.160><c> the</c>

13:48.090 --> 13:48.100 align:start position:0%
fusion. Indeed, the only reason the
 

13:48.100 --> 13:50.730 align:start position:0%
fusion. Indeed, the only reason the
proton<00:16:52.880><c> proton</c><00:16:53.279><c> reaction</c><00:16:53.680><c> proceeds</c><00:16:54.160><c> at</c><00:16:54.480><c> all</c>

13:50.730 --> 13:50.740 align:start position:0%
proton proton reaction proceeds at all
 

13:50.740 --> 13:53.290 align:start position:0%
proton proton reaction proceeds at all
is<00:16:55.440><c> because</c><00:16:55.839><c> there</c><00:16:56.160><c> are</c><00:16:56.480><c> a</c><00:16:56.880><c> heck</c><00:16:57.199><c> of</c><00:16:57.279><c> a</c><00:16:57.440><c> lot</c><00:16:57.519><c> of</c>

13:53.290 --> 13:53.300 align:start position:0%
is because there are a heck of a lot of
 

13:53.300 --> 13:55.290 align:start position:0%
is because there are a heck of a lot of
protons<00:16:58.079><c> in</c><00:16:58.240><c> the</c><00:16:58.399><c> sun,</c><00:16:58.959><c> allowing</c><00:16:59.279><c> it</c><00:16:59.519><c> to</c>

13:55.290 --> 13:55.300 align:start position:0%
protons in the sun, allowing it to
 

13:55.300 --> 13:58.730 align:start position:0%
protons in the sun, allowing it to
convert<00:17:00.240><c> 600</c><00:17:00.880><c> million</c><00:17:01.279><c> tons</c><00:17:01.600><c> of</c><00:17:01.759><c> hydrogen</c><00:17:02.720><c> to</c>

13:58.730 --> 13:58.740 align:start position:0%
convert 600 million tons of hydrogen to
 

13:58.740 --> 14:00.250 align:start position:0%
convert 600 million tons of hydrogen to
596

14:00.250 --> 14:00.260 align:start position:0%
596
 

14:00.260 --> 14:03.929 align:start position:0%
596
tons<00:17:04.959><c> of</c><00:17:05.120><c> helium</c><00:17:05.679><c> every</c><00:17:06.240><c> second.</c><00:17:07.679><c> This</c><00:17:08.000><c> sounds</c>

14:03.929 --> 14:03.939 align:start position:0%
tons of helium every second. This sounds
 

14:03.939 --> 14:06.569 align:start position:0%
tons of helium every second. This sounds
like<00:17:08.559><c> a</c><00:17:08.799><c> lot,</c><00:17:09.439><c> but</c><00:17:09.760><c> it's</c><00:17:10.079><c> actually</c><00:17:10.480><c> only</c><00:17:10.720><c> a</c>

14:06.569 --> 14:06.579 align:start position:0%
like a lot, but it's actually only a
 

14:06.579 --> 14:08.569 align:start position:0%
like a lot, but it's actually only a
tiny<00:17:11.280><c> fraction</c><00:17:11.679><c> of</c><00:17:11.839><c> the</c><00:17:12.079><c> hydrogen</c><00:17:12.559><c> available</c>

14:08.569 --> 14:08.579 align:start position:0%
tiny fraction of the hydrogen available
 

14:08.579 --> 14:11.529 align:start position:0%
tiny fraction of the hydrogen available
for<00:17:13.199><c> fusion.</c><00:17:14.400><c> Now</c><00:17:14.880><c> stopping</c><00:17:15.199><c> for</c><00:17:15.360><c> a</c><00:17:15.520><c> moment</c><00:17:15.679><c> to</c>

14:11.529 --> 14:11.539 align:start position:0%
for fusion. Now stopping for a moment to
 

14:11.539 --> 14:13.689 align:start position:0%
for fusion. Now stopping for a moment to
look<00:17:16.000><c> at</c><00:17:16.160><c> the</c><00:17:16.319><c> big</c><00:17:16.480><c> picture.</c><00:17:17.360><c> This</c><00:17:17.520><c> is</c><00:17:17.679><c> very</c>

14:13.689 --> 14:13.699 align:start position:0%
look at the big picture. This is very
 

14:13.699 --> 14:16.809 align:start position:0%
look at the big picture. This is very
good<00:17:18.480><c> news</c><00:17:18.720><c> for</c><00:17:19.039><c> us</c><00:17:19.280><c> earthlings.</c><00:17:20.400><c> It</c><00:17:20.640><c> means</c>

14:16.809 --> 14:16.819 align:start position:0%
good news for us earthlings. It means
 

14:16.819 --> 14:19.049 align:start position:0%
good news for us earthlings. It means
instead<00:17:21.600><c> of</c><00:17:21.919><c> annihilating</c><00:17:22.640><c> itself</c><00:17:23.039><c> in</c><00:17:23.280><c> a</c>

14:19.049 --> 14:19.059 align:start position:0%
instead of annihilating itself in a
 

14:19.059 --> 14:21.850 align:start position:0%
instead of annihilating itself in a
giant<00:17:23.839><c> thermonuclear</c><00:17:24.880><c> explosion,</c><00:17:25.760><c> the</c><00:17:26.000><c> sun</c>

14:21.850 --> 14:21.860 align:start position:0%
giant thermonuclear explosion, the sun
 

14:21.860 --> 14:24.010 align:start position:0%
giant thermonuclear explosion, the sun
has<00:17:26.480><c> been</c><00:17:26.880><c> gently</c><00:17:27.600><c> burning</c><00:17:28.000><c> through</c><00:17:28.240><c> its</c>

14:24.010 --> 14:24.020 align:start position:0%
has been gently burning through its
 

14:24.020 --> 14:26.730 align:start position:0%
has been gently burning through its
hydrogen<00:17:28.960><c> stocks</c><00:17:29.360><c> for</c><00:17:29.679><c> around</c><00:17:30.080><c> 4.6</c><00:17:30.799><c> billion</c>

14:26.730 --> 14:26.740 align:start position:0%
hydrogen stocks for around 4.6 billion
 

14:26.740 --> 14:29.210 align:start position:0%
hydrogen stocks for around 4.6 billion
years<00:17:31.760><c> and</c><00:17:32.000><c> will</c><00:17:32.400><c> continue</c><00:17:32.720><c> to</c><00:17:32.960><c> do</c><00:17:33.120><c> so</c><00:17:33.360><c> for</c><00:17:33.520><c> at</c>

14:29.210 --> 14:29.220 align:start position:0%
years and will continue to do so for at
 

14:29.220 --> 14:32.169 align:start position:0%
years and will continue to do so for at
least<00:17:33.919><c> a</c><00:17:34.080><c> few</c><00:17:34.240><c> billion</c><00:17:34.640><c> more.</c><00:17:35.840><c> It's</c><00:17:36.160><c> only</c>

14:32.169 --> 14:32.179 align:start position:0%
least a few billion more. It's only
 

14:32.179 --> 14:34.169 align:start position:0%
least a few billion more. It's only
because<00:17:37.120><c> protons</c><00:17:37.679><c> are</c><00:17:37.840><c> so</c><00:17:38.080><c> slow</c><00:17:38.400><c> at</c>

14:34.169 --> 14:34.179 align:start position:0%
because protons are so slow at
 

14:34.179 --> 14:36.970 align:start position:0%
because protons are so slow at
converting<00:17:39.039><c> into</c><00:17:39.360><c> detium</c><00:17:40.400><c> that</c><00:17:40.720><c> we</c><00:17:40.880><c> are</c><00:17:41.120><c> here</c>

14:36.970 --> 14:36.980 align:start position:0%
converting into detium that we are here
 

14:36.980 --> 14:38.730 align:start position:0%
converting into detium that we are here
at<00:17:41.600><c> all.</c>

14:38.730 --> 14:38.740 align:start position:0%
at all.
 

14:38.740 --> 14:42.250 align:start position:0%
at all.
For<00:17:43.440><c> fusion</c><00:17:44.000><c> on</c><00:17:44.480><c> earth</c><00:17:45.440><c> on</c><00:17:45.600><c> the</c><00:17:45.760><c> other</c><00:17:45.919><c> hand,</c>

14:42.250 --> 14:42.260 align:start position:0%
For fusion on earth on the other hand,
 

14:42.260 --> 14:45.930 align:start position:0%
For fusion on earth on the other hand,
it<00:17:46.880><c> is</c><00:17:47.440><c> bad</c><00:17:47.840><c> news.</c><00:17:48.799><c> It</c><00:17:49.039><c> means</c><00:17:49.280><c> the</c><00:17:49.600><c> probability</c>

14:45.930 --> 14:45.940 align:start position:0%
it is bad news. It means the probability
 

14:45.940 --> 14:49.050 align:start position:0%
it is bad news. It means the probability
of<00:17:50.720><c> proton</c><00:17:51.440><c> proton</c><00:17:51.919><c> reactions</c><00:17:52.559><c> happening</c>

14:49.050 --> 14:49.060 align:start position:0%
of proton proton reactions happening
 

14:49.060 --> 14:51.850 align:start position:0%
of proton proton reactions happening
where<00:17:53.760><c> we</c><00:17:54.000><c> have</c><00:17:54.400><c> much</c><00:17:54.799><c> less</c><00:17:55.120><c> plasma</c><00:17:55.679><c> and</c><00:17:56.000><c> much</c>

14:51.850 --> 14:51.860 align:start position:0%
where we have much less plasma and much
 

14:51.860 --> 14:56.730 align:start position:0%
where we have much less plasma and much
less<00:17:56.559><c> time</c><00:17:57.600><c> is</c><00:17:58.559><c> essentially</c><00:17:59.120><c> zero.</c><00:18:00.480><c> Indeed,</c>

14:56.730 --> 14:56.740 align:start position:0%
less time is essentially zero. Indeed,
 

14:56.740 --> 14:59.130 align:start position:0%
less time is essentially zero. Indeed,
the<00:18:01.360><c> reaction</c><00:18:01.919><c> has</c><00:18:02.400><c> never</c><00:18:03.039><c> been</c>

14:59.130 --> 14:59.140 align:start position:0%
the reaction has never been
 

14:59.140 --> 15:01.850 align:start position:0%
the reaction has never been
experimentally<00:18:04.400><c> measured.</c><00:18:05.440><c> In</c><00:18:05.600><c> fact,</c>

15:01.850 --> 15:01.860 align:start position:0%
experimentally measured. In fact,
 

15:01.860 --> 15:04.090 align:start position:0%
experimentally measured. In fact,
looking<00:18:06.559><c> at</c><00:18:06.799><c> the</c><00:18:07.039><c> problem</c><00:18:07.280><c> in</c><00:18:07.520><c> the</c><00:18:07.679><c> most</c><00:18:07.919><c> basic</c>

15:04.090 --> 15:04.100 align:start position:0%
looking at the problem in the most basic
 

15:04.100 --> 15:08.330 align:start position:0%
looking at the problem in the most basic
and<00:18:08.960><c> fundamental</c><00:18:09.919><c> way,</c><00:18:10.880><c> it</c><00:18:11.200><c> is</c><00:18:11.679><c> statistically</c>

15:08.330 --> 15:08.340 align:start position:0%
and fundamental way, it is statistically
 

15:08.340 --> 15:10.890 align:start position:0%
and fundamental way, it is statistically
impossible<00:18:13.600><c> to</c><00:18:13.840><c> achieve</c><00:18:14.320><c> proton</c><00:18:14.880><c> proton</c>

15:10.890 --> 15:10.900 align:start position:0%
impossible to achieve proton proton
 

15:10.900 --> 15:15.130 align:start position:0%
impossible to achieve proton proton
fusion<00:18:15.679><c> on</c><00:18:16.000><c> Earth</c><00:18:16.559><c> in</c><00:18:16.960><c> any</c><00:18:17.520><c> meaningful</c><00:18:18.160><c> way.</c>

15:15.130 --> 15:15.140 align:start position:0%
fusion on Earth in any meaningful way.
 

15:15.140 --> 15:17.450 align:start position:0%
fusion on Earth in any meaningful way.
So,<00:18:19.840><c> what</c><00:18:20.240><c> are</c><00:18:20.799><c> all</c><00:18:20.960><c> these</c><00:18:21.280><c> fusion</c>

15:17.450 --> 15:17.460 align:start position:0%
So, what are all these fusion
 

15:17.460 --> 15:20.490 align:start position:0%
So, what are all these fusion
researchers<00:18:22.480><c> doing?</c><00:18:23.360><c> Why</c><00:18:23.679><c> do</c><00:18:23.840><c> we</c><00:18:24.080><c> even</c><00:18:24.320><c> bother</c>

15:20.490 --> 15:20.500 align:start position:0%
researchers doing? Why do we even bother
 

15:20.500 --> 15:24.409 align:start position:0%
researchers doing? Why do we even bother
trying?<00:18:26.320><c> Well,</c><00:18:27.120><c> they</c><00:18:27.520><c> are</c><00:18:27.760><c> not</c><00:18:28.080><c> attempting</c><00:18:28.559><c> to</c>

15:24.409 --> 15:24.419 align:start position:0%
trying? Well, they are not attempting to
 

15:24.419 --> 15:27.289 align:start position:0%
trying? Well, they are not attempting to
fuse<00:18:29.200><c> protons.</c><00:18:30.400><c> Instead,</c><00:18:30.960><c> they</c><00:18:31.280><c> are</c><00:18:31.440><c> trying</c>

15:27.289 --> 15:27.299 align:start position:0%
fuse protons. Instead, they are trying
 

15:27.299 --> 15:29.690 align:start position:0%
fuse protons. Instead, they are trying
to<00:18:31.840><c> fuse</c><00:18:32.400><c> alternative</c><00:18:33.280><c> combinations</c><00:18:33.840><c> of</c>

15:29.690 --> 15:29.700 align:start position:0%
to fuse alternative combinations of
 

15:29.700 --> 15:34.890 align:start position:0%
to fuse alternative combinations of
nuclei<00:18:34.880><c> that</c><00:18:35.200><c> are</c><00:18:35.840><c> much</c><00:18:36.240><c> more</c><00:18:36.559><c> reactive.</c>

15:34.890 --> 15:34.900 align:start position:0%
nuclei that are much more reactive.
 

15:34.900 --> 15:38.090 align:start position:0%
nuclei that are much more reactive.
Back<00:18:39.520><c> in</c><00:18:39.679><c> the</c><00:18:39.919><c> 1930s,</c><00:18:41.039><c> Mark</c><00:18:41.360><c> Olphant,</c><00:18:42.240><c> a</c>

15:38.090 --> 15:38.100 align:start position:0%
Back in the 1930s, Mark Olphant, a
 

15:38.100 --> 15:40.730 align:start position:0%
Back in the 1930s, Mark Olphant, a
student<00:18:42.799><c> of</c><00:18:43.200><c> Ernest</c><00:18:43.679><c> Brotherford,</c><00:18:44.640><c> conducted</c>

15:40.730 --> 15:40.740 align:start position:0%
student of Ernest Brotherford, conducted
 

15:40.740 --> 15:43.450 align:start position:0%
student of Ernest Brotherford, conducted
a<00:18:45.440><c> series</c><00:18:45.760><c> of</c><00:18:46.000><c> experiments.</c><00:18:47.120><c> He</c><00:18:47.440><c> fired</c>

15:43.450 --> 15:43.460 align:start position:0%
a series of experiments. He fired
 

15:43.460 --> 15:45.930 align:start position:0%
a series of experiments. He fired
dutyium<00:18:48.559><c> nuclei</c><00:18:49.120><c> at</c><00:18:49.440><c> one</c><00:18:49.679><c> another,</c>

15:45.930 --> 15:45.940 align:start position:0%
dutyium nuclei at one another,
 

15:45.940 --> 15:48.409 align:start position:0%
dutyium nuclei at one another,
generating<00:18:51.039><c> other</c><00:18:51.440><c> exotic</c><00:18:52.080><c> hydrogen</c><00:18:52.559><c> and</c>

15:48.409 --> 15:48.419 align:start position:0%
generating other exotic hydrogen and
 

15:48.419 --> 15:51.289 align:start position:0%
generating other exotic hydrogen and
helium<00:18:53.200><c> isotopes</c><00:18:54.160><c> and</c><00:18:54.400><c> thus</c><00:18:54.720><c> proving</c><00:18:55.280><c> that</c>

15:51.289 --> 15:51.299 align:start position:0%
helium isotopes and thus proving that
 

15:51.299 --> 15:54.010 align:start position:0%
helium isotopes and thus proving that
heavy<00:18:56.000><c> hydrogen</c><00:18:56.559><c> nuclei</c><00:18:57.440><c> could</c><00:18:57.840><c> be</c><00:18:58.000><c> made</c><00:18:58.240><c> to</c>

15:54.010 --> 15:54.020 align:start position:0%
heavy hydrogen nuclei could be made to
 

15:54.020 --> 15:56.649 align:start position:0%
heavy hydrogen nuclei could be made to
react<00:18:58.720><c> with</c><00:18:58.960><c> one</c><00:18:59.120><c> another.</c><00:19:00.160><c> Today,</c><00:19:00.640><c> fusion</c>

15:56.649 --> 15:56.659 align:start position:0%
react with one another. Today, fusion
 

15:56.659 --> 15:59.050 align:start position:0%
react with one another. Today, fusion
scientists<00:19:01.600><c> favor</c><00:19:02.000><c> a</c><00:19:02.240><c> combination</c><00:19:02.880><c> that</c><00:19:03.200><c> was</c>

15:59.050 --> 15:59.060 align:start position:0%
scientists favor a combination that was
 

15:59.060 --> 16:01.770 align:start position:0%
scientists favor a combination that was
first<00:19:03.760><c> put</c><00:19:03.919><c> to</c><00:19:04.160><c> use</c><00:19:04.400><c> in</c><00:19:04.559><c> the</c><00:19:04.720><c> H</c><00:19:05.039><c> bomb,</c><00:19:05.679><c> one</c><00:19:05.919><c> that</c>

16:01.770 --> 16:01.780 align:start position:0%
first put to use in the H bomb, one that
 

16:01.780 --> 16:04.730 align:start position:0%
first put to use in the H bomb, one that
is<00:19:06.640><c> 24</c><00:19:07.360><c> orders</c><00:19:07.760><c> of</c><00:19:07.919><c> magnitude</c><00:19:08.480><c> more</c><00:19:08.720><c> reactive</c>

16:04.730 --> 16:04.740 align:start position:0%
is 24 orders of magnitude more reactive
 

16:04.740 --> 16:07.850 align:start position:0%
is 24 orders of magnitude more reactive
than<00:19:09.280><c> protons</c><00:19:09.760><c> alone.</c><00:19:10.720><c> It</c><00:19:10.960><c> is</c><00:19:11.280><c> dutyium.</c>

16:07.850 --> 16:07.860 align:start position:0%
than protons alone. It is dutyium.
 

16:07.860 --> 16:10.490 align:start position:0%
than protons alone. It is dutyium.
Remember<00:19:12.799><c> this</c><00:19:12.960><c> is</c><00:19:13.360><c> classic</c><00:19:13.760><c> heavy</c><00:19:14.080><c> hydrogen</c>

16:10.490 --> 16:10.500 align:start position:0%
Remember this is classic heavy hydrogen
 

16:10.500 --> 16:14.169 align:start position:0%
Remember this is classic heavy hydrogen
consisting<00:19:15.440><c> of</c><00:19:16.000><c> one</c><00:19:16.320><c> proton</c><00:19:16.880><c> and</c><00:19:17.280><c> one</c><00:19:17.520><c> neutron</c>

16:14.169 --> 16:14.179 align:start position:0%
consisting of one proton and one neutron
 

16:14.179 --> 16:17.370 align:start position:0%
consisting of one proton and one neutron
and<00:19:19.200><c> tritium</c><00:19:20.000><c> the</c><00:19:20.320><c> even</c><00:19:20.640><c> heavier</c><00:19:21.120><c> isotope</c><00:19:21.600><c> of</c>

16:17.370 --> 16:17.380 align:start position:0%
and tritium the even heavier isotope of
 

16:17.380 --> 16:19.529 align:start position:0%
and tritium the even heavier isotope of
hydrogen<00:19:22.400><c> with</c><00:19:22.640><c> one</c><00:19:22.960><c> proton</c><00:19:23.360><c> and</c><00:19:23.679><c> two</c>

16:19.529 --> 16:19.539 align:start position:0%
hydrogen with one proton and two
 

16:19.539 --> 16:22.250 align:start position:0%
hydrogen with one proton and two
neutrons<00:19:24.400><c> in</c><00:19:24.559><c> its</c><00:19:24.799><c> nucleus.</c><00:19:25.919><c> The</c><00:19:26.160><c> reason</c><00:19:26.400><c> this</c>

16:22.250 --> 16:22.260 align:start position:0%
neutrons in its nucleus. The reason this
 

16:22.260 --> 16:25.210 align:start position:0%
neutrons in its nucleus. The reason this
combination<00:19:27.440><c> is</c><00:19:27.919><c> so</c><00:19:28.160><c> much</c><00:19:28.400><c> more</c><00:19:28.640><c> reactive</c><00:19:29.360><c> is</c>

16:25.210 --> 16:25.220 align:start position:0%
combination is so much more reactive is
 

16:25.220 --> 16:27.690 align:start position:0%
combination is so much more reactive is
that<00:19:29.840><c> these</c><00:19:30.240><c> extra</c><00:19:30.559><c> neutrons</c><00:19:31.200><c> lead</c><00:19:31.440><c> to</c><00:19:31.760><c> a</c>

16:27.690 --> 16:27.700 align:start position:0%
that these extra neutrons lead to a
 

16:27.700 --> 16:30.570 align:start position:0%
that these extra neutrons lead to a
greater<00:19:32.480><c> strong</c><00:19:32.880><c> force</c><00:19:33.679><c> and</c><00:19:34.320><c> there</c><00:19:34.559><c> is</c><00:19:34.720><c> no</c>

16:30.570 --> 16:30.580 align:start position:0%
greater strong force and there is no
 

16:30.580 --> 16:32.570 align:start position:0%
greater strong force and there is no
need<00:19:35.039><c> for</c><00:19:35.280><c> one</c><00:19:35.520><c> proton</c><00:19:36.000><c> to</c><00:19:36.160><c> undergo</c><00:19:36.640><c> weak</c>

16:32.570 --> 16:32.580 align:start position:0%
need for one proton to undergo weak
 

16:32.580 --> 16:35.210 align:start position:0%
need for one proton to undergo weak
force<00:19:37.440><c> mediated</c><00:19:38.000><c> beta</c><00:19:38.400><c> decay</c><00:19:39.039><c> into</c><00:19:39.360><c> a</c>

16:35.210 --> 16:35.220 align:start position:0%
force mediated beta decay into a
 

16:35.220 --> 16:36.890 align:start position:0%
force mediated beta decay into a
neutron.

16:36.890 --> 16:36.900 align:start position:0%
neutron.
 

16:36.900 --> 16:39.930 align:start position:0%
neutron.
Now,<00:19:41.840><c> dutarium</c><00:19:42.640><c> and</c><00:19:43.039><c> tritium</c><00:19:43.679><c> aren't</c><00:19:44.000><c> just</c>

16:39.930 --> 16:39.940 align:start position:0%
Now, dutarium and tritium aren't just
 

16:39.940 --> 16:41.610 align:start position:0%
Now, dutarium and tritium aren't just
more<00:19:44.559><c> reactive</c><00:19:45.039><c> than</c><00:19:45.280><c> the</c><00:19:45.440><c> protons</c><00:19:45.840><c> that</c>

16:41.610 --> 16:41.620 align:start position:0%
more reactive than the protons that
 

16:41.620 --> 16:44.169 align:start position:0%
more reactive than the protons that
power<00:19:46.240><c> the</c><00:19:46.400><c> sun.</c><00:19:47.120><c> They</c><00:19:47.360><c> also</c><00:19:47.679><c> give</c><00:19:47.919><c> rise</c><00:19:48.240><c> to</c>

16:44.169 --> 16:44.179 align:start position:0%
power the sun. They also give rise to
 

16:44.179 --> 16:46.890 align:start position:0%
power the sun. They also give rise to
different<00:19:48.960><c> reaction</c><00:19:49.520><c> products.</c><00:19:50.720><c> Instead</c><00:19:51.039><c> of</c>

16:46.890 --> 16:46.900 align:start position:0%
different reaction products. Instead of
 

16:46.900 --> 16:49.130 align:start position:0%
different reaction products. Instead of
generating<00:19:51.760><c> an</c><00:19:52.000><c> alpha</c><00:19:52.400><c> particle</c><00:19:52.799><c> and</c><00:19:53.200><c> two</c>

16:49.130 --> 16:49.140 align:start position:0%
generating an alpha particle and two
 

16:49.140 --> 16:52.010 align:start position:0%
generating an alpha particle and two
protons,<00:19:54.559><c> they</c><00:19:54.799><c> make</c><00:19:55.039><c> an</c><00:19:55.280><c> alpha</c><00:19:55.679><c> particle</c><00:19:56.160><c> and</c>

16:52.010 --> 16:52.020 align:start position:0%
protons, they make an alpha particle and
 

16:52.020 --> 16:54.890 align:start position:0%
protons, they make an alpha particle and
a<00:19:56.559><c> neutron.</c><00:19:57.520><c> But</c><00:19:57.760><c> like</c><00:19:58.000><c> the</c><00:19:58.400><c> proton</c><00:19:58.880><c> proton</c>

16:54.890 --> 16:54.900 align:start position:0%
a neutron. But like the proton proton
 

16:54.900 --> 16:57.610 align:start position:0%
a neutron. But like the proton proton
reaction<00:19:59.600><c> chain,</c><00:20:00.240><c> they</c><00:20:00.559><c> still</c><00:20:00.880><c> produce</c><00:20:01.280><c> a</c><00:20:01.600><c> ton</c>

16:57.610 --> 16:57.620 align:start position:0%
reaction chain, they still produce a ton
 

16:57.620 --> 17:00.409 align:start position:0%
reaction chain, they still produce a ton
of<00:20:02.240><c> energy.</c><00:20:03.280><c> Energy</c><00:20:03.679><c> that</c><00:20:03.919><c> we</c><00:20:04.160><c> can</c><00:20:04.320><c> use</c><00:20:04.559><c> to</c>

17:00.409 --> 17:00.419 align:start position:0%
of energy. Energy that we can use to
 

17:00.419 --> 17:03.610 align:start position:0%
of energy. Energy that we can use to
generate<00:20:05.360><c> electricity.</c><00:20:06.720><c> Just</c><00:20:07.280><c> one</c><00:20:07.520><c> gram</c><00:20:07.840><c> of</c>

17:03.610 --> 17:03.620 align:start position:0%
generate electricity. Just one gram of
 

17:03.620 --> 17:06.409 align:start position:0%
generate electricity. Just one gram of
detium<00:20:08.720><c> tritium</c><00:20:09.280><c> fuel</c><00:20:10.000><c> holds</c><00:20:10.320><c> energy</c>

17:06.409 --> 17:06.419 align:start position:0%
detium tritium fuel holds energy
 

17:06.419 --> 17:10.010 align:start position:0%
detium tritium fuel holds energy
equivalent<00:20:11.600><c> to</c><00:20:12.240><c> 2,400</c>

17:10.010 --> 17:10.020 align:start position:0%
equivalent to 2,400
 

17:10.020 --> 17:12.330 align:start position:0%
equivalent to 2,400
gallons<00:20:14.880><c> of</c><00:20:15.039><c> oil.</c>

17:12.330 --> 17:12.340 align:start position:0%
gallons of oil.
 

17:12.340 --> 17:14.970 align:start position:0%
gallons of oil.
So,<00:20:17.280><c> if</c><00:20:17.520><c> we've</c><00:20:18.080><c> identified</c><00:20:18.559><c> more</c><00:20:18.799><c> reactive</c>

17:14.970 --> 17:14.980 align:start position:0%
So, if we've identified more reactive
 

17:14.980 --> 17:16.890 align:start position:0%
So, if we've identified more reactive
starting<00:20:19.760><c> materials</c><00:20:20.240><c> that</c><00:20:20.480><c> give</c><00:20:20.720><c> us</c><00:20:20.960><c> plenty</c>

17:16.890 --> 17:16.900 align:start position:0%
starting materials that give us plenty
 

17:16.900 --> 17:20.649 align:start position:0%
starting materials that give us plenty
of<00:20:21.440><c> energy</c><00:20:21.840><c> out,</c><00:20:22.640><c> what's</c><00:20:22.960><c> the</c><00:20:23.200><c> problem</c><00:20:23.520><c> now?</c>

17:20.649 --> 17:20.659 align:start position:0%
of energy out, what's the problem now?
 

17:20.659 --> 17:23.210 align:start position:0%
of energy out, what's the problem now?
Well,<00:20:25.360><c> it's</c><00:20:25.679><c> not</c><00:20:26.240><c> one</c><00:20:26.559><c> problem,</c><00:20:27.280><c> but</c>

17:23.210 --> 17:23.220 align:start position:0%
Well, it's not one problem, but
 

17:23.220 --> 17:25.930 align:start position:0%
Well, it's not one problem, but
problems.<00:20:29.039><c> Let's</c><00:20:29.360><c> start</c><00:20:29.760><c> with</c><00:20:30.000><c> those</c>

17:25.930 --> 17:25.940 align:start position:0%
problems. Let's start with those
 

17:25.940 --> 17:29.210 align:start position:0%
problems. Let's start with those
neutrons.

17:29.210 --> 17:29.220 align:start position:0%
 
 

17:29.220 --> 17:31.529 align:start position:0%
 
Being<00:20:33.840><c> lighter</c><00:20:34.320><c> than</c><00:20:34.480><c> alpha</c><00:20:34.960><c> particles,</c><00:20:35.679><c> they</c>

17:31.529 --> 17:31.539 align:start position:0%
Being lighter than alpha particles, they
 

17:31.539 --> 17:33.529 align:start position:0%
Being lighter than alpha particles, they
carry<00:20:36.320><c> most</c><00:20:36.640><c> of</c><00:20:36.799><c> the</c><00:20:36.960><c> energy</c><00:20:37.280><c> of</c><00:20:37.440><c> the</c><00:20:37.520><c> fusion</c>

17:33.529 --> 17:33.539 align:start position:0%
carry most of the energy of the fusion
 

17:33.539 --> 17:36.090 align:start position:0%
carry most of the energy of the fusion
reaction<00:20:38.640><c> and</c><00:20:38.880><c> so</c><00:20:39.200><c> have</c><00:20:39.440><c> to</c><00:20:39.600><c> be</c><00:20:39.760><c> captured</c><00:20:40.240><c> in</c>

17:36.090 --> 17:36.100 align:start position:0%
reaction and so have to be captured in
 

17:36.100 --> 17:38.409 align:start position:0%
reaction and so have to be captured in
order<00:20:40.640><c> for</c><00:20:40.880><c> their</c><00:20:41.039><c> energy</c><00:20:41.360><c> to</c><00:20:41.520><c> be</c><00:20:41.679><c> put</c><00:20:41.840><c> to</c><00:20:42.000><c> use.</c>

17:38.409 --> 17:38.419 align:start position:0%
order for their energy to be put to use.
 

17:38.419 --> 17:40.649 align:start position:0%
order for their energy to be put to use.
But<00:20:43.039><c> controlling</c><00:20:43.600><c> a</c><00:20:43.840><c> subatomic</c><00:20:44.640><c> particle</c>

17:40.649 --> 17:40.659 align:start position:0%
But controlling a subatomic particle
 

17:40.659 --> 17:44.649 align:start position:0%
But controlling a subatomic particle
with<00:20:45.440><c> no</c><00:20:45.760><c> charge</c><00:20:46.559><c> is</c><00:20:46.880><c> no</c><00:20:47.120><c> mean</c><00:20:47.440><c> feat.</c><00:20:48.480><c> Neutrons</c>

17:44.649 --> 17:44.659 align:start position:0%
with no charge is no mean feat. Neutrons
 

17:44.659 --> 17:46.649 align:start position:0%
with no charge is no mean feat. Neutrons
aren't<00:20:49.280><c> affected</c><00:20:49.600><c> by</c><00:20:49.840><c> the</c><00:20:50.159><c> powerful</c><00:20:50.559><c> magnetic</c>

17:46.649 --> 17:46.659 align:start position:0%
aren't affected by the powerful magnetic
 

17:46.659 --> 17:48.810 align:start position:0%
aren't affected by the powerful magnetic
fields<00:20:51.280><c> containing</c><00:20:51.679><c> the</c><00:20:51.840><c> plasma</c><00:20:52.559><c> and</c><00:20:52.799><c> so</c>

17:48.810 --> 17:48.820 align:start position:0%
fields containing the plasma and so
 

17:48.820 --> 17:50.890 align:start position:0%
fields containing the plasma and so
stream<00:20:53.679><c> out</c><00:20:53.840><c> of</c><00:20:54.000><c> the</c><00:20:54.159><c> reactor</c><00:20:54.640><c> in</c><00:20:54.960><c> all</c>

17:50.890 --> 17:50.900 align:start position:0%
stream out of the reactor in all
 

17:50.900 --> 17:54.810 align:start position:0%
stream out of the reactor in all
directions<00:20:56.159><c> at</c><00:20:56.799><c> 16</c><00:20:57.200><c> the</c><00:20:57.440><c> speed</c><00:20:57.679><c> of</c><00:20:57.840><c> light.</c><00:20:58.960><c> To</c>

17:54.810 --> 17:54.820 align:start position:0%
directions at 16 the speed of light. To
 

17:54.820 --> 17:56.810 align:start position:0%
directions at 16 the speed of light. To
deal<00:20:59.360><c> with</c><00:20:59.520><c> this,</c><00:20:59.919><c> most</c><00:21:00.159><c> reactor</c><00:21:00.640><c> designs</c>

17:56.810 --> 17:56.820 align:start position:0%
deal with this, most reactor designs
 

17:56.820 --> 17:59.610 align:start position:0%
deal with this, most reactor designs
utilize<00:21:01.600><c> something</c><00:21:01.919><c> called</c><00:21:02.159><c> a</c><00:21:02.559><c> blanket,</c><00:21:03.600><c> a</c>

17:59.610 --> 17:59.620 align:start position:0%
utilize something called a blanket, a
 

17:59.620 --> 18:01.610 align:start position:0%
utilize something called a blanket, a
layer<00:21:04.240><c> surrounding</c><00:21:04.720><c> the</c><00:21:04.960><c> reaction</c><00:21:05.360><c> chamber</c>

18:01.610 --> 18:01.620 align:start position:0%
layer surrounding the reaction chamber
 

18:01.620 --> 18:03.610 align:start position:0%
layer surrounding the reaction chamber
that's<00:21:06.320><c> designed</c><00:21:06.559><c> to</c><00:21:06.799><c> absorb</c><00:21:07.280><c> high</c><00:21:07.600><c> energy</c>

18:03.610 --> 18:03.620 align:start position:0%
that's designed to absorb high energy
 

18:03.620 --> 18:06.970 align:start position:0%
that's designed to absorb high energy
neutrons<00:21:08.720><c> and</c><00:21:08.960><c> heat</c><00:21:09.200><c> up.</c><00:21:10.080><c> This</c><00:21:10.400><c> heat</c><00:21:10.960><c> can</c><00:21:11.200><c> then</c>

18:06.970 --> 18:06.980 align:start position:0%
neutrons and heat up. This heat can then
 

18:06.980 --> 18:09.289 align:start position:0%
neutrons and heat up. This heat can then
be<00:21:11.520><c> used</c><00:21:11.760><c> to</c><00:21:11.919><c> generate</c><00:21:12.400><c> steam,</c><00:21:13.200><c> drive</c><00:21:13.440><c> a</c>

18:09.289 --> 18:09.299 align:start position:0%
be used to generate steam, drive a
 

18:09.299 --> 18:12.330 align:start position:0%
be used to generate steam, drive a
turbine,<00:21:14.400><c> and</c><00:21:14.640><c> generate</c><00:21:15.039><c> electricity.</c><00:21:16.480><c> But</c>

18:12.330 --> 18:12.340 align:start position:0%
turbine, and generate electricity. But
 

18:12.340 --> 18:15.210 align:start position:0%
turbine, and generate electricity. But
this<00:21:17.120><c> approach</c><00:21:17.760><c> is</c><00:21:18.159><c> far</c><00:21:18.400><c> from</c><00:21:18.640><c> perfect.</c>

18:15.210 --> 18:15.220 align:start position:0%
this approach is far from perfect.
 

18:15.220 --> 18:16.970 align:start position:0%
this approach is far from perfect.
Neutrons<00:21:20.159><c> aren't</c><00:21:20.400><c> just</c><00:21:20.640><c> absorbed</c><00:21:21.039><c> by</c><00:21:21.200><c> the</c>

18:16.970 --> 18:16.980 align:start position:0%
Neutrons aren't just absorbed by the
 

18:16.980 --> 18:19.210 align:start position:0%
Neutrons aren't just absorbed by the
blanket.<00:21:22.080><c> They</c><00:21:22.320><c> ping</c><00:21:22.720><c> about</c><00:21:23.039><c> everywhere,</c>

18:19.210 --> 18:19.220 align:start position:0%
blanket. They ping about everywhere,
 

18:19.220 --> 18:21.690 align:start position:0%
blanket. They ping about everywhere,
damaging<00:21:24.159><c> everything</c><00:21:24.480><c> they</c><00:21:24.799><c> hit.</c><00:21:25.679><c> This</c>

18:21.690 --> 18:21.700 align:start position:0%
damaging everything they hit. This
 

18:21.700 --> 18:24.250 align:start position:0%
damaging everything they hit. This
hugely<00:21:26.640><c> limits</c><00:21:27.039><c> the</c><00:21:27.280><c> lifespan</c><00:21:27.840><c> of</c><00:21:28.240><c> many</c>

18:24.250 --> 18:24.260 align:start position:0%
hugely limits the lifespan of many
 

18:24.260 --> 18:26.490 align:start position:0%
hugely limits the lifespan of many
components,<00:21:29.679><c> particularly</c><00:21:30.240><c> the</c><00:21:30.480><c> reactor</c>

18:26.490 --> 18:26.500 align:start position:0%
components, particularly the reactor
 

18:26.500 --> 18:29.690 align:start position:0%
components, particularly the reactor
walls.<00:21:32.159><c> Another</c><00:21:32.559><c> issue</c><00:21:33.039><c> stems</c><00:21:33.440><c> from</c><00:21:33.679><c> the</c>

18:29.690 --> 18:29.700 align:start position:0%
walls. Another issue stems from the
 

18:29.700 --> 18:33.210 align:start position:0%
walls. Another issue stems from the
reactants<00:21:34.799><c> themselves.</c><00:21:36.080><c> While</c><00:21:36.400><c> dutarium</c><00:21:37.280><c> is</c>

18:33.210 --> 18:33.220 align:start position:0%
reactants themselves. While dutarium is
 

18:33.220 --> 18:35.370 align:start position:0%
reactants themselves. While dutarium is
relatively<00:21:38.240><c> common,</c><00:21:38.960><c> being</c><00:21:39.280><c> easily</c>

18:35.370 --> 18:35.380 align:start position:0%
relatively common, being easily
 

18:35.380 --> 18:39.130 align:start position:0%
relatively common, being easily
extracted<00:21:40.240><c> from</c><00:21:40.480><c> seawater</c><00:21:41.600><c> and</c><00:21:42.000><c> cheap</c><00:21:42.480><c> at</c><00:21:42.880><c> $13</c>

18:39.130 --> 18:39.140 align:start position:0%
extracted from seawater and cheap at $13
 

18:39.140 --> 18:43.050 align:start position:0%
extracted from seawater and cheap at $13
a<00:21:43.679><c> gram,</c><00:21:44.640><c> tritium</c><00:21:45.520><c> is</c><00:21:45.760><c> neither.</c><00:21:46.880><c> It</c><00:21:47.120><c> has</c><00:21:47.200><c> a</c>

18:43.050 --> 18:43.060 align:start position:0%
a gram, tritium is neither. It has a
 

18:43.060 --> 18:46.169 align:start position:0%
a gram, tritium is neither. It has a
halflife<00:21:47.840><c> of</c><00:21:48.080><c> just</c><00:21:48.320><c> 12.3</c><00:21:49.200><c> years.</c><00:21:50.000><c> And</c><00:21:50.240><c> the</c>

18:46.169 --> 18:46.179 align:start position:0%
halflife of just 12.3 years. And the
 

18:46.179 --> 18:49.769 align:start position:0%
halflife of just 12.3 years. And the
only<00:21:51.120><c> commercial</c><00:21:51.679><c> source</c><00:21:52.480><c> are</c><00:21:52.799><c> Canada's</c><00:21:53.679><c> 19</c>

18:49.769 --> 18:49.779 align:start position:0%
only commercial source are Canada's 19
 

18:49.779 --> 18:53.130 align:start position:0%
only commercial source are Canada's 19
deterium<00:21:55.120><c> uranium</c><00:21:55.760><c> nuclear</c><00:21:56.240><c> reactors</c><00:21:57.200><c> which</c>

18:53.130 --> 18:53.140 align:start position:0%
deterium uranium nuclear reactors which
 

18:53.140 --> 18:56.090 align:start position:0%
deterium uranium nuclear reactors which
produce<00:21:58.080><c> just</c><00:21:58.480><c> half</c><00:21:58.799><c> a</c><00:21:59.039><c> kilogram</c><00:21:59.600><c> of</c><00:21:59.840><c> tritium</c>

18:56.090 --> 18:56.100 align:start position:0%
produce just half a kilogram of tritium
 

18:56.100 --> 19:00.010 align:start position:0%
produce just half a kilogram of tritium
a<00:22:00.799><c> year</c><00:22:01.360><c> as</c><00:22:01.600><c> a</c><00:22:01.679><c> waste</c><00:22:02.000><c> product.</c><00:22:03.360><c> Now</c><00:22:04.000><c> it</c>

19:00.010 --> 19:00.020 align:start position:0%
a year as a waste product. Now it
 

19:00.020 --> 19:02.490 align:start position:0%
a year as a waste product. Now it
estimates<00:22:04.880><c> that</c><00:22:05.120><c> a</c><00:22:05.440><c> commercial</c><00:22:06.000><c> fusion</c><00:22:06.480><c> plant</c>

19:02.490 --> 19:02.500 align:start position:0%
estimates that a commercial fusion plant
 

19:02.500 --> 19:06.330 align:start position:0%
estimates that a commercial fusion plant
would<00:22:07.200><c> require</c><00:22:07.679><c> around</c><00:22:08.799><c> 125</c><00:22:09.440><c> kg</c><00:22:10.000><c> of</c><00:22:10.080><c> tritium</c><00:22:10.559><c> a</c>

19:06.330 --> 19:06.340 align:start position:0%
would require around 125 kg of tritium a
 

19:06.340 --> 19:08.890 align:start position:0%
would require around 125 kg of tritium a
year<00:22:10.799><c> to</c><00:22:11.039><c> run.</c><00:22:11.760><c> Current</c><00:22:12.240><c> global</c><00:22:12.799><c> tritium</c>

19:08.890 --> 19:08.900 align:start position:0%
year to run. Current global tritium
 

19:08.900 --> 19:13.130 align:start position:0%
year to run. Current global tritium
reserves<00:22:14.080><c> are</c><00:22:14.400><c> around</c><00:22:15.200><c> 25</c><00:22:15.760><c> kg.</c><00:22:16.799><c> And</c><00:22:16.960><c> as</c><00:22:17.280><c> half</c>

19:13.130 --> 19:13.140 align:start position:0%
reserves are around 25 kg. And as half
 

19:13.140 --> 19:15.289 align:start position:0%
reserves are around 25 kg. And as half
of<00:22:17.760><c> Canada's</c><00:22:18.320><c> reactors</c><00:22:18.799><c> are</c><00:22:19.039><c> due</c><00:22:19.280><c> to</c><00:22:19.440><c> be</c>

19:15.289 --> 19:15.299 align:start position:0%
of Canada's reactors are due to be
 

19:15.299 --> 19:18.250 align:start position:0%
of Canada's reactors are due to be
decommissioned<00:22:20.400><c> this</c><00:22:20.720><c> decade,</c><00:22:21.760><c> this</c><00:22:22.080><c> tiny</c>

19:18.250 --> 19:18.260 align:start position:0%
decommissioned this decade, this tiny
 

19:18.260 --> 19:21.050 align:start position:0%
decommissioned this decade, this tiny
reserve<00:22:23.520><c> is</c><00:22:23.840><c> quite</c><00:22:24.159><c> literally</c><00:22:24.960><c> going</c><00:22:25.200><c> to</c>

19:21.050 --> 19:21.060 align:start position:0%
reserve is quite literally going to
 

19:21.060 --> 19:24.409 align:start position:0%
reserve is quite literally going to
decay<00:22:25.840><c> away.</c><00:22:27.039><c> But</c><00:22:27.200><c> of</c><00:22:27.440><c> course,</c><00:22:28.080><c> scientists</c><00:22:28.559><c> do</c>

19:24.409 --> 19:24.419 align:start position:0%
decay away. But of course, scientists do
 

19:24.419 --> 19:25.930 align:start position:0%
decay away. But of course, scientists do
have<00:22:28.880><c> a</c><00:22:29.120><c> solution</c><00:22:29.360><c> up</c><00:22:29.520><c> their</c><00:22:29.679><c> sleeves</c><00:22:30.000><c> for</c><00:22:30.159><c> the</c>

19:25.930 --> 19:25.940 align:start position:0%
have a solution up their sleeves for the
 

19:25.940 --> 19:28.649 align:start position:0%
have a solution up their sleeves for the
tritium<00:22:30.799><c> supply</c><00:22:31.280><c> problem.</c><00:22:32.480><c> As</c><00:22:32.640><c> well</c><00:22:32.799><c> as</c>

19:28.649 --> 19:28.659 align:start position:0%
tritium supply problem. As well as
 

19:28.659 --> 19:30.970 align:start position:0%
tritium supply problem. As well as
carrying<00:22:33.520><c> energy</c><00:22:34.000><c> out</c><00:22:34.159><c> of</c><00:22:34.320><c> the</c><00:22:34.559><c> reactor,</c>

19:30.970 --> 19:30.980 align:start position:0%
carrying energy out of the reactor,
 

19:30.980 --> 19:33.690 align:start position:0%
carrying energy out of the reactor,
those<00:22:35.760><c> high</c><00:22:36.159><c> energy</c><00:22:36.559><c> neutrons</c><00:22:37.200><c> produced</c><00:22:37.679><c> by</c>

19:33.690 --> 19:33.700 align:start position:0%
those high energy neutrons produced by
 

19:33.700 --> 19:36.890 align:start position:0%
those high energy neutrons produced by
dutarium<00:22:38.799><c> tritium</c><00:22:39.360><c> fusion</c><00:22:40.320><c> can</c><00:22:40.559><c> be</c><00:22:40.720><c> used</c><00:22:40.960><c> for</c>

19:36.890 --> 19:36.900 align:start position:0%
dutarium tritium fusion can be used for
 

19:36.900 --> 19:40.090 align:start position:0%
dutarium tritium fusion can be used for
something<00:22:41.679><c> called</c><00:22:42.159><c> tritium</c><00:22:42.880><c> breeding.</c><00:22:44.159><c> The</c>

19:40.090 --> 19:40.100 align:start position:0%
something called tritium breeding. The
 

19:40.100 --> 19:42.169 align:start position:0%
something called tritium breeding. The
idea<00:22:44.720><c> is</c><00:22:45.200><c> that</c><00:22:45.440><c> you</c><00:22:45.679><c> make</c><00:22:45.919><c> the</c><00:22:46.080><c> blanket</c>

19:42.169 --> 19:42.179 align:start position:0%
idea is that you make the blanket
 

19:42.179 --> 19:43.610 align:start position:0%
idea is that you make the blanket
surrounding<00:22:46.880><c> the</c><00:22:47.120><c> reactor</c><00:22:47.520><c> out</c><00:22:47.760><c> of</c><00:22:47.840><c> a</c>

19:43.610 --> 19:43.620 align:start position:0%
surrounding the reactor out of a
 

19:43.620 --> 19:46.090 align:start position:0%
surrounding the reactor out of a
substance<00:22:48.400><c> that</c><00:22:48.720><c> generates</c><00:22:49.280><c> tritium</c><00:22:50.000><c> when</c>

19:46.090 --> 19:46.100 align:start position:0%
substance that generates tritium when
 

19:46.100 --> 19:48.810 align:start position:0%
substance that generates tritium when
bombarded<00:22:51.120><c> by</c><00:22:51.360><c> neutrons.</c><00:22:52.480><c> The</c><00:22:52.720><c> substance</c>

19:48.810 --> 19:48.820 align:start position:0%
bombarded by neutrons. The substance
 

19:48.820 --> 19:51.529 align:start position:0%
bombarded by neutrons. The substance
preferred<00:22:53.600><c> by</c><00:22:53.840><c> most</c><00:22:54.159><c> fusion</c><00:22:54.640><c> researchers</c><00:22:55.280><c> is</c>

19:51.529 --> 19:51.539 align:start position:0%
preferred by most fusion researchers is
 

19:51.539 --> 19:55.130 align:start position:0%
preferred by most fusion researchers is
lithium,<00:22:57.039><c> which</c><00:22:57.440><c> upon</c><00:22:57.919><c> absorbing</c><00:22:58.480><c> a</c><00:22:58.640><c> neutron</c>

19:55.130 --> 19:55.140 align:start position:0%
lithium, which upon absorbing a neutron
 

19:55.140 --> 19:59.050 align:start position:0%
lithium, which upon absorbing a neutron
helpfully<00:23:00.080><c> decays</c><00:23:00.720><c> into</c><00:23:01.039><c> a</c><00:23:01.360><c> helium</c><00:23:01.919><c> atom</c><00:23:02.559><c> and</c>

19:59.050 --> 19:59.060 align:start position:0%
helpfully decays into a helium atom and
 

19:59.060 --> 20:00.649 align:start position:0%
helpfully decays into a helium atom and
tritium.

20:00.649 --> 20:00.659 align:start position:0%
tritium.
 

20:00.659 --> 20:02.970 align:start position:0%
tritium.
However,<00:23:05.600><c> as</c><00:23:05.840><c> ever</c><00:23:06.159><c> in</c><00:23:06.480><c> fusion,</c><00:23:07.120><c> this</c>

20:02.970 --> 20:02.980 align:start position:0%
However, as ever in fusion, this
 

20:02.980 --> 20:05.850 align:start position:0%
However, as ever in fusion, this
solution<00:23:07.919><c> comes</c><00:23:08.240><c> with</c><00:23:08.480><c> its</c><00:23:08.720><c> own</c><00:23:08.960><c> problem.</c><00:23:10.000><c> If</c>

20:05.850 --> 20:05.860 align:start position:0%
solution comes with its own problem. If
 

20:05.860 --> 20:08.330 align:start position:0%
solution comes with its own problem. If
each<00:23:10.559><c> dutyium</c><00:23:11.200><c> tritium</c><00:23:11.679><c> fusion</c><00:23:12.080><c> reaction</c>

20:08.330 --> 20:08.340 align:start position:0%
each dutyium tritium fusion reaction
 

20:08.340 --> 20:11.850 align:start position:0%
each dutyium tritium fusion reaction
generates<00:23:13.440><c> one</c><00:23:13.760><c> neutron,</c><00:23:14.799><c> which</c><00:23:15.120><c> via</c><00:23:15.520><c> lithium</c>

20:11.850 --> 20:11.860 align:start position:0%
generates one neutron, which via lithium
 

20:11.860 --> 20:14.810 align:start position:0%
generates one neutron, which via lithium
can<00:23:16.480><c> be</c><00:23:16.640><c> used</c><00:23:16.880><c> to</c><00:23:17.039><c> generate</c><00:23:17.520><c> one</c><00:23:17.840><c> neutitium,</c>

20:14.810 --> 20:14.820 align:start position:0%
can be used to generate one neutitium,
 

20:14.820 --> 20:16.570 align:start position:0%
can be used to generate one neutitium,
you<00:23:19.360><c> would</c><00:23:19.600><c> need</c><00:23:19.760><c> to</c><00:23:19.919><c> operate</c><00:23:20.400><c> at</c><00:23:20.720><c> an</c>

20:16.570 --> 20:16.580 align:start position:0%
you would need to operate at an
 

20:16.580 --> 20:20.250 align:start position:0%
you would need to operate at an
impossible<00:23:22.320><c> 100%</c><00:23:23.200><c> efficiency</c><00:23:24.080><c> to</c><00:23:24.320><c> prevent</c>

20:20.250 --> 20:20.260 align:start position:0%
impossible 100% efficiency to prevent
 

20:20.260 --> 20:23.050 align:start position:0%
impossible 100% efficiency to prevent
your<00:23:24.880><c> tritium</c><00:23:25.360><c> supply</c><00:23:25.760><c> from</c><00:23:26.000><c> dwindling.</c><00:23:27.200><c> The</c>

20:23.050 --> 20:23.060 align:start position:0%
your tritium supply from dwindling. The
 

20:23.060 --> 20:25.690 align:start position:0%
your tritium supply from dwindling. The
answer<00:23:27.840><c> most</c><00:23:28.159><c> fusion</c><00:23:28.640><c> researchers</c><00:23:29.200><c> favor</c><00:23:29.840><c> is</c>

20:25.690 --> 20:25.700 align:start position:0%
answer most fusion researchers favor is
 

20:25.700 --> 20:28.010 align:start position:0%
answer most fusion researchers favor is
to<00:23:30.240><c> add</c><00:23:30.640><c> layers</c><00:23:30.799><c> of</c><00:23:31.039><c> other</c><00:23:31.360><c> elements</c><00:23:31.919><c> like</c>

20:28.010 --> 20:28.020 align:start position:0%
to add layers of other elements like
 

20:28.020 --> 20:30.169 align:start position:0%
to add layers of other elements like
burillium<00:23:33.039><c> that</c><00:23:33.360><c> can</c><00:23:33.520><c> act</c><00:23:33.679><c> as</c><00:23:34.000><c> neutron</c>

20:30.169 --> 20:30.179 align:start position:0%
burillium that can act as neutron
 

20:30.179 --> 20:33.130 align:start position:0%
burillium that can act as neutron
multipliers,<00:23:35.679><c> absorbing</c><00:23:36.320><c> one</c><00:23:36.559><c> neutron</c><00:23:37.200><c> and</c>

20:33.130 --> 20:33.140 align:start position:0%
multipliers, absorbing one neutron and
 

20:33.140 --> 20:35.130 align:start position:0%
multipliers, absorbing one neutron and
spitting<00:23:37.919><c> out</c><00:23:38.240><c> two.</c>

20:35.130 --> 20:35.140 align:start position:0%
spitting out two.
 

20:35.140 --> 20:38.730 align:start position:0%
spitting out two.
But<00:23:39.919><c> not</c><00:23:40.320><c> only</c><00:23:40.559><c> is</c><00:23:41.039><c> burillium</c><00:23:41.600><c> toxic,</c><00:23:42.720><c> it</c><00:23:42.880><c> is</c>

20:38.730 --> 20:38.740 align:start position:0%
But not only is burillium toxic, it is
 

20:38.740 --> 20:41.769 align:start position:0%
But not only is burillium toxic, it is
also<00:23:43.520><c> in</c><00:23:43.840><c> short</c><00:23:44.080><c> supply</c><00:23:44.880><c> and</c><00:23:45.360><c> contaminated</c>

20:41.769 --> 20:41.779 align:start position:0%
also in short supply and contaminated
 

20:41.779 --> 20:44.490 align:start position:0%
also in short supply and contaminated
with<00:23:46.559><c> uranium</c><00:23:47.600><c> which</c><00:23:47.840><c> then</c><00:23:48.159><c> bombarded</c><00:23:48.640><c> with</c>

20:44.490 --> 20:44.500 align:start position:0%
with uranium which then bombarded with
 

20:44.500 --> 20:48.330 align:start position:0%
with uranium which then bombarded with
neutrons<00:23:49.919><c> leads</c><00:23:50.240><c> to</c><00:23:50.559><c> radioactive</c><00:23:51.520><c> byproducts</c>

20:48.330 --> 20:48.340 align:start position:0%
neutrons leads to radioactive byproducts
 

20:48.340 --> 20:51.210 align:start position:0%
neutrons leads to radioactive byproducts
less<00:23:53.039><c> than</c><00:23:53.200><c> ideal.</c><00:23:54.400><c> And</c><00:23:54.720><c> regardless,</c><00:23:55.360><c> there</c>

20:51.210 --> 20:51.220 align:start position:0%
less than ideal. And regardless, there
 

20:51.220 --> 20:53.769 align:start position:0%
less than ideal. And regardless, there
are<00:23:55.840><c> concerns</c><00:23:56.159><c> that</c><00:23:56.559><c> even</c><00:23:56.880><c> with</c><00:23:57.360><c> breeding,</c>

20:53.769 --> 20:53.779 align:start position:0%
are concerns that even with breeding,
 

20:53.779 --> 20:55.850 align:start position:0%
are concerns that even with breeding,
most<00:23:58.400><c> reactors</c><00:23:58.960><c> would</c><00:23:59.200><c> struggle</c><00:23:59.600><c> to</c><00:23:59.840><c> generate</c>

20:55.850 --> 20:55.860 align:start position:0%
most reactors would struggle to generate
 

20:55.860 --> 20:58.810 align:start position:0%
most reactors would struggle to generate
enough<00:24:00.559><c> tritium</c><00:24:01.200><c> to</c><00:24:01.440><c> be</c><00:24:01.600><c> viable.</c>

20:58.810 --> 20:58.820 align:start position:0%
enough tritium to be viable.
 

20:58.820 --> 21:00.570 align:start position:0%
enough tritium to be viable.
So,<00:24:03.840><c> at</c><00:24:04.080><c> this</c><00:24:04.240><c> point,</c><00:24:04.400><c> you</c><00:24:04.640><c> might</c><00:24:04.799><c> be</c>

21:00.570 --> 21:00.580 align:start position:0%
So, at this point, you might be
 

21:00.580 --> 21:03.769 align:start position:0%
So, at this point, you might be
thinking,<00:24:05.760><c> "Hang</c><00:24:06.080><c> on</c><00:24:06.240><c> a</c><00:24:06.480><c> minute.</c><00:24:07.120><c> It</c><00:24:07.360><c> seems</c><00:24:07.760><c> a</c>

21:03.769 --> 21:03.779 align:start position:0%
thinking, "Hang on a minute. It seems a
 

21:03.779 --> 21:06.250 align:start position:0%
thinking, "Hang on a minute. It seems a
lot<00:24:08.320><c> of</c><00:24:08.480><c> the</c><00:24:08.640><c> touted</c><00:24:09.120><c> advantages</c><00:24:09.679><c> of</c><00:24:09.919><c> fusion,</c>

21:06.250 --> 21:06.260 align:start position:0%
lot of the touted advantages of fusion,
 

21:06.260 --> 21:08.649 align:start position:0%
lot of the touted advantages of fusion,
bountiful<00:24:11.200><c> energy,</c><00:24:12.000><c> plentiful</c><00:24:12.559><c> starting</c>

21:08.649 --> 21:08.659 align:start position:0%
bountiful energy, plentiful starting
 

21:08.659 --> 21:11.850 align:start position:0%
bountiful energy, plentiful starting
materials,<00:24:13.919><c> innocuous,</c><00:24:14.799><c> if</c><00:24:15.120><c> even</c><00:24:15.679><c> useful</c>

21:11.850 --> 21:11.860 align:start position:0%
materials, innocuous, if even useful
 

21:11.860 --> 21:15.529 align:start position:0%
materials, innocuous, if even useful
byproducts,<00:24:17.279><c> are</c><00:24:17.520><c> kind</c><00:24:17.760><c> of</c><00:24:18.159><c> falling</c><00:24:18.640><c> away."</c>

21:15.529 --> 21:15.539 align:start position:0%
byproducts, are kind of falling away."
 

21:15.539 --> 21:18.810 align:start position:0%
byproducts, are kind of falling away."
Well,<00:24:20.559><c> you'd</c><00:24:20.880><c> be</c><00:24:21.039><c> right.</c><00:24:21.840><c> We're</c><00:24:22.400><c> not</c><00:24:22.799><c> fusing</c>

21:18.810 --> 21:18.820 align:start position:0%
Well, you'd be right. We're not fusing
 

21:18.820 --> 21:21.050 align:start position:0%
Well, you'd be right. We're not fusing
hydrogen,<00:24:24.000><c> or</c><00:24:24.240><c> at</c><00:24:24.240><c> least</c><00:24:24.559><c> the</c><00:24:24.720><c> same</c><00:24:24.960><c> isotopes</c>

21:21.050 --> 21:21.060 align:start position:0%
hydrogen, or at least the same isotopes
 

21:21.060 --> 21:23.450 align:start position:0%
hydrogen, or at least the same isotopes
of<00:24:25.600><c> hydrogen</c><00:24:26.000><c> that</c><00:24:26.159><c> a</c><00:24:26.400><c> star</c><00:24:26.720><c> fuses.</c><00:24:27.440><c> And</c><00:24:27.600><c> we're</c>

21:23.450 --> 21:23.460 align:start position:0%
of hydrogen that a star fuses. And we're
 

21:23.460 --> 21:26.169 align:start position:0%
of hydrogen that a star fuses. And we're
not<00:24:28.080><c> making</c><00:24:28.480><c> just</c><00:24:28.799><c> helium,</c><00:24:29.600><c> but</c><00:24:29.919><c> a</c><00:24:30.080><c> bunch</c><00:24:30.320><c> of</c>

21:26.169 --> 21:26.179 align:start position:0%
not making just helium, but a bunch of
 

21:26.179 --> 21:29.450 align:start position:0%
not making just helium, but a bunch of
other<00:24:30.880><c> radioactive</c><00:24:31.679><c> products</c><00:24:32.159><c> as</c><00:24:32.400><c> well.</c><00:24:33.600><c> The</c>

21:29.450 --> 21:29.460 align:start position:0%
other radioactive products as well. The
 

21:29.460 --> 21:31.450 align:start position:0%
other radioactive products as well. The
simple<00:24:34.159><c> truth,</c><00:24:34.720><c> no</c><00:24:34.880><c> matter</c><00:24:35.360><c> what</c><00:24:35.600><c> the</c>

21:31.450 --> 21:31.460 align:start position:0%
simple truth, no matter what the
 

21:31.460 --> 21:34.490 align:start position:0%
simple truth, no matter what the
headlines<00:24:36.400><c> say,</c><00:24:37.039><c> is</c><00:24:37.200><c> that</c><00:24:37.760><c> we</c><00:24:38.159><c> can't</c><00:24:38.559><c> make</c><00:24:38.720><c> a</c>

21:34.490 --> 21:34.500 align:start position:0%
headlines say, is that we can't make a
 

21:34.500 --> 21:36.970 align:start position:0%
headlines say, is that we can't make a
star<00:24:39.120><c> on</c><00:24:39.360><c> Earth.</c><00:24:40.159><c> And</c><00:24:40.320><c> the</c><00:24:40.559><c> shortcuts</c><00:24:41.039><c> to</c>

21:36.970 --> 21:36.980 align:start position:0%
star on Earth. And the shortcuts to
 

21:36.980 --> 21:39.450 align:start position:0%
star on Earth. And the shortcuts to
create<00:24:41.679><c> something</c><00:24:42.240><c> approximating</c><00:24:43.039><c> one,</c>

21:39.450 --> 21:39.460 align:start position:0%
create something approximating one,
 

21:39.460 --> 21:41.289 align:start position:0%
create something approximating one,
create<00:24:44.240><c> a</c><00:24:44.559><c> world</c><00:24:44.799><c> of</c><00:24:45.039><c> engineering</c>

21:41.289 --> 21:41.299 align:start position:0%
create a world of engineering
 

21:41.299 --> 21:44.490 align:start position:0%
create a world of engineering
challenges.<00:24:46.960><c> This</c><00:24:47.200><c> is</c><00:24:47.360><c> why</c><00:24:48.000><c> since</c><00:24:48.320><c> the</c><00:24:48.559><c> first</c>

21:44.490 --> 21:44.500 align:start position:0%
challenges. This is why since the first
 

21:44.500 --> 21:47.050 align:start position:0%
challenges. This is why since the first
fusion<00:24:49.360><c> reactor</c><00:24:49.840><c> patent</c><00:24:50.320><c> was</c><00:24:50.640><c> granted</c><00:24:51.039><c> in</c>

21:47.050 --> 21:47.060 align:start position:0%
fusion reactor patent was granted in
 

21:47.060 --> 21:48.730 align:start position:0%
fusion reactor patent was granted in
1946,

21:48.730 --> 21:48.740 align:start position:0%
1946,
 

21:48.740 --> 21:51.370 align:start position:0%
1946,
fusion<00:24:53.679><c> has</c><00:24:54.000><c> always</c><00:24:54.320><c> seemed</c><00:24:54.880><c> just</c><00:24:55.360><c> out</c><00:24:55.520><c> of</c>

21:51.370 --> 21:51.380 align:start position:0%
fusion has always seemed just out of
 

21:51.380 --> 21:54.970 align:start position:0%
fusion has always seemed just out of
reach.<00:24:56.640><c> Each</c><00:24:56.960><c> solution</c><00:24:58.000><c> comes</c><00:24:58.400><c> with</c><00:24:58.640><c> a</c><00:24:58.960><c> new</c>

21:54.970 --> 21:54.980 align:start position:0%
reach. Each solution comes with a new
 

21:54.980 --> 21:59.050 align:start position:0%
reach. Each solution comes with a new
set<00:24:59.600><c> of</c><00:24:59.919><c> problems.</c>

21:59.050 --> 21:59.060 align:start position:0%
 
 

21:59.060 --> 22:02.409 align:start position:0%
 
But<00:25:04.080><c> not</c><00:25:04.400><c> all</c><00:25:04.640><c> hope</c><00:25:04.960><c> is</c><00:25:05.200><c> lost.</c><00:25:06.159><c> In</c><00:25:06.400><c> recent</c>

22:02.409 --> 22:02.419 align:start position:0%
But not all hope is lost. In recent
 

22:02.419 --> 22:04.810 align:start position:0%
But not all hope is lost. In recent
years,<00:25:07.279><c> things</c><00:25:07.760><c> do</c><00:25:08.080><c> seem</c><00:25:08.320><c> to</c><00:25:08.480><c> be</c><00:25:08.720><c> changing</c>

22:04.810 --> 22:04.820 align:start position:0%
years, things do seem to be changing
 

22:04.820 --> 22:06.810 align:start position:0%
years, things do seem to be changing
with<00:25:09.440><c> some</c><00:25:09.679><c> hugely</c><00:25:10.320><c> significant</c><00:25:10.880><c> science</c>

22:06.810 --> 22:06.820 align:start position:0%
with some hugely significant science
 

22:06.820 --> 22:10.409 align:start position:0%
with some hugely significant science
breakthroughs.<00:25:12.480><c> In</c><00:25:12.720><c> December</c><00:25:13.200><c> 2022,</c><00:25:14.400><c> for</c><00:25:14.640><c> the</c>

22:10.409 --> 22:10.419 align:start position:0%
breakthroughs. In December 2022, for the
 

22:10.419 --> 22:13.610 align:start position:0%
breakthroughs. In December 2022, for the
first<00:25:15.039><c> time</c><00:25:15.520><c> ever,</c><00:25:16.720><c> more</c><00:25:17.120><c> energy</c><00:25:17.679><c> was</c>

22:13.610 --> 22:13.620 align:start position:0%
first time ever, more energy was
 

22:13.620 --> 22:16.250 align:start position:0%
first time ever, more energy was
obtained<00:25:18.400><c> from</c><00:25:18.640><c> a</c><00:25:18.880><c> fusion</c><00:25:19.279><c> reaction</c><00:25:20.080><c> than</c><00:25:20.320><c> was</c>

22:16.250 --> 22:16.260 align:start position:0%
obtained from a fusion reaction than was
 

22:16.260 --> 22:18.730 align:start position:0%
obtained from a fusion reaction than was
required<00:25:21.120><c> to</c><00:25:21.360><c> initiate</c><00:25:21.840><c> it.</c><00:25:22.559><c> A</c><00:25:22.799><c> challenge</c>

22:18.730 --> 22:18.740 align:start position:0%
required to initiate it. A challenge
 

22:18.740 --> 22:22.250 align:start position:0%
required to initiate it. A challenge
that<00:25:23.440><c> had</c><00:25:23.760><c> eluded</c><00:25:24.400><c> researchers</c><00:25:24.960><c> for</c><00:25:25.200><c> decades.</c>

22:22.250 --> 22:22.260 align:start position:0%
that had eluded researchers for decades.
 

22:22.260 --> 22:24.810 align:start position:0%
that had eluded researchers for decades.
At<00:25:26.880><c> the</c><00:25:27.039><c> National</c><00:25:27.600><c> Ignition</c><00:25:28.080><c> Facility,</c><00:25:28.960><c> a</c>

22:24.810 --> 22:24.820 align:start position:0%
At the National Ignition Facility, a
 

22:24.820 --> 22:28.169 align:start position:0%
At the National Ignition Facility, a
research<00:25:29.679><c> scale</c><00:25:30.159><c> ICF</c><00:25:30.880><c> reactor</c><00:25:31.279><c> in</c><00:25:31.520><c> the</c><00:25:31.679><c> US,</c>

22:28.169 --> 22:28.179 align:start position:0%
research scale ICF reactor in the US,
 

22:28.179 --> 22:31.529 align:start position:0%
research scale ICF reactor in the US,
3.15<00:25:33.919><c> megajou</c><00:25:34.559><c> of</c><00:25:34.720><c> energy</c><00:25:35.120><c> was</c><00:25:35.360><c> obtained</c><00:25:35.679><c> from</c>

22:31.529 --> 22:31.539 align:start position:0%
3.15 megajou of energy was obtained from
 

22:31.539 --> 22:35.450 align:start position:0%
3.15 megajou of energy was obtained from
a<00:25:36.080><c> tiny</c><00:25:36.559><c> pallet</c><00:25:37.120><c> of</c><00:25:37.520><c> DT</c><00:25:38.080><c> fuel</c><00:25:38.880><c> using</c><00:25:39.279><c> an</c><00:25:39.520><c> energy</c>

22:35.450 --> 22:35.460 align:start position:0%
a tiny pallet of DT fuel using an energy
 

22:35.460 --> 22:39.289 align:start position:0%
a tiny pallet of DT fuel using an energy
input<00:25:40.320><c> of</c><00:25:40.720><c> 2.05</c><00:25:42.080><c> megajou.</c>

22:39.289 --> 22:39.299 align:start position:0%
input of 2.05 megajou.
 

22:39.299 --> 22:43.050 align:start position:0%
input of 2.05 megajou.
Then<00:25:44.000><c> in</c><00:25:44.320><c> late</c><00:25:44.640><c> 2023,</c><00:25:46.000><c> the</c><00:25:46.240><c> experimental</c><00:25:47.039><c> jet</c>

22:43.050 --> 22:43.060 align:start position:0%
Then in late 2023, the experimental jet
 

22:43.060 --> 22:46.810 align:start position:0%
Then in late 2023, the experimental jet
reactor<00:25:47.840><c> in</c><00:25:48.080><c> the</c><00:25:48.240><c> UK,</c><00:25:48.799><c> a</c><00:25:49.039><c> TKO,</c><00:25:50.080><c> generated</c><00:25:50.799><c> a</c>

22:46.810 --> 22:46.820 align:start position:0%
reactor in the UK, a TKO, generated a
 

22:46.820 --> 22:50.409 align:start position:0%
reactor in the UK, a TKO, generated a
world<00:25:51.760><c> record</c><00:25:52.480><c> 69</c><00:25:53.360><c> megajou</c><00:25:53.919><c> of</c><00:25:54.080><c> energy</c><00:25:54.400><c> from</c>

22:50.409 --> 22:50.419 align:start position:0%
world record 69 megajou of energy from
 

22:50.419 --> 22:55.370 align:start position:0%
world record 69 megajou of energy from
just<00:25:55.440><c> 0.2</c><00:25:56.799><c> mg</c><00:25:57.440><c> of</c><00:25:57.600><c> DT</c><00:25:58.080><c> fuel.</c><00:25:59.039><c> And</c><00:25:59.279><c> while</c>

22:55.370 --> 22:55.380 align:start position:0%
just 0.2 mg of DT fuel. And while
 

22:55.380 --> 22:57.930 align:start position:0%
just 0.2 mg of DT fuel. And while
international<00:26:00.320><c> bermas</c><00:26:00.960><c> like</c><00:26:01.360><c> it</c><00:26:01.760><c> inch</c><00:26:02.080><c> closer</c>

22:57.930 --> 22:57.940 align:start position:0%
international bermas like it inch closer
 

22:57.940 --> 23:00.409 align:start position:0%
international bermas like it inch closer
to<00:26:02.559><c> operation,</c><00:26:03.520><c> a</c><00:26:03.760><c> flurry</c><00:26:04.159><c> of</c><00:26:04.400><c> private</c>

23:00.409 --> 23:00.419 align:start position:0%
to operation, a flurry of private
 

23:00.419 --> 23:02.649 align:start position:0%
to operation, a flurry of private
investment<00:26:05.360><c> has</c><00:26:05.679><c> also</c><00:26:06.000><c> entered</c><00:26:06.240><c> the</c><00:26:06.480><c> field</c>

23:02.649 --> 23:02.659 align:start position:0%
investment has also entered the field
 

23:02.659 --> 23:04.490 align:start position:0%
investment has also entered the field
exploring<00:26:07.679><c> alternative</c><00:26:08.400><c> fusion</c>

23:04.490 --> 23:04.500 align:start position:0%
exploring alternative fusion
 

23:04.500 --> 23:06.810 align:start position:0%
exploring alternative fusion
technologies.<00:26:10.240><c> One</c><00:26:10.559><c> is</c><00:26:10.799><c> the</c>

23:06.810 --> 23:06.820 align:start position:0%
technologies. One is the
 

23:06.820 --> 23:09.210 align:start position:0%
technologies. One is the
Massachusetts-based<00:26:12.400><c> Commonwealth</c><00:26:13.120><c> Fusion</c>

23:09.210 --> 23:09.220 align:start position:0%
Massachusetts-based Commonwealth Fusion
 

23:09.220 --> 23:12.169 align:start position:0%
Massachusetts-based Commonwealth Fusion
Systems<00:26:14.480><c> backed</c><00:26:14.799><c> by</c><00:26:15.039><c> Google,</c><00:26:15.679><c> Nvidia,</c><00:26:16.320><c> and</c>

23:12.169 --> 23:12.179 align:start position:0%
Systems backed by Google, Nvidia, and
 

23:12.179 --> 23:14.810 align:start position:0%
Systems backed by Google, Nvidia, and
Bill<00:26:16.799><c> Gates.</c><00:26:17.679><c> It</c><00:26:17.919><c> proposes</c><00:26:18.480><c> using</c><00:26:18.880><c> high</c>

23:14.810 --> 23:14.820 align:start position:0%
Bill Gates. It proposes using high
 

23:14.820 --> 23:17.370 align:start position:0%
Bill Gates. It proposes using high
temperature<00:26:20.000><c> superconducting</c><00:26:20.960><c> magnets</c><00:26:21.440><c> to</c>

23:17.370 --> 23:17.380 align:start position:0%
temperature superconducting magnets to
 

23:17.380 --> 23:21.529 align:start position:0%
temperature superconducting magnets to
produce<00:26:22.080><c> a</c><00:26:22.320><c> more</c><00:26:22.720><c> compact</c><00:26:23.279><c> TOK.</c><00:26:24.640><c> CFS</c><00:26:25.600><c> claims</c>

23:21.529 --> 23:21.539 align:start position:0%
produce a more compact TOK. CFS claims
 

23:21.539 --> 23:23.450 align:start position:0%
produce a more compact TOK. CFS claims
it<00:26:26.159><c> will</c><00:26:26.240><c> have</c><00:26:26.400><c> a</c><00:26:26.640><c> commercial</c><00:26:27.039><c> plant</c><00:26:27.360><c> online</c>

23:23.450 --> 23:23.460 align:start position:0%
it will have a commercial plant online
 

23:23.460 --> 23:25.850 align:start position:0%
it will have a commercial plant online
by<00:26:28.080><c> the</c><00:26:28.320><c> early</c><00:26:28.720><c> 2030s.</c>

23:25.850 --> 23:25.860 align:start position:0%
by the early 2030s.
 

23:25.860 --> 23:28.250 align:start position:0%
by the early 2030s.
Another<00:26:30.640><c> outfit</c><00:26:31.200><c> based</c><00:26:31.520><c> out</c><00:26:31.760><c> of</c><00:26:32.080><c> Washington</c>

23:28.250 --> 23:28.260 align:start position:0%
Another outfit based out of Washington
 

23:28.260 --> 23:30.889 align:start position:0%
Another outfit based out of Washington
State,<00:26:33.200><c> Helion,</c><00:26:34.159><c> believes</c><00:26:34.559><c> it</c><00:26:34.880><c> is</c><00:26:35.039><c> going</c><00:26:35.120><c> to</c>

23:30.889 --> 23:30.899 align:start position:0%
State, Helion, believes it is going to
 

23:30.899 --> 23:33.370 align:start position:0%
State, Helion, believes it is going to
get<00:26:35.440><c> there</c><00:26:35.760><c> even</c><00:26:36.080><c> earlier.</c><00:26:37.120><c> Backed</c><00:26:37.520><c> by</c><00:26:37.600><c> the</c>

23:33.370 --> 23:33.380 align:start position:0%
get there even earlier. Backed by the
 

23:33.380 --> 23:35.850 align:start position:0%
get there even earlier. Backed by the
likes<00:26:38.080><c> of</c><00:26:38.240><c> Sam</c><00:26:38.559><c> Alman,</c><00:26:39.200><c> this</c><00:26:39.520><c> company</c><00:26:39.919><c> has</c>

23:35.850 --> 23:35.860 align:start position:0%
likes of Sam Alman, this company has
 

23:35.860 --> 23:37.769 align:start position:0%
likes of Sam Alman, this company has
taken<00:26:40.559><c> a</c><00:26:40.880><c> completely</c><00:26:41.440><c> new</c><00:26:41.679><c> approach</c><00:26:41.919><c> to</c>

23:37.769 --> 23:37.779 align:start position:0%
taken a completely new approach to
 

23:37.779 --> 23:40.490 align:start position:0%
taken a completely new approach to
reactor<00:26:42.640><c> design.</c><00:26:43.440><c> It</c><00:26:43.679><c> fires</c><00:26:44.159><c> two</c><00:26:44.400><c> rings</c><00:26:44.720><c> of</c>

23:40.490 --> 23:40.500 align:start position:0%
reactor design. It fires two rings of
 

23:40.500 --> 23:44.010 align:start position:0%
reactor design. It fires two rings of
plasma<00:26:45.279><c> together</c><00:26:45.679><c> at</c><00:26:46.080><c> a</c><00:26:46.320><c> million</c><00:26:46.880><c> km/h</c><00:26:48.080><c> to</c>

23:44.010 --> 23:44.020 align:start position:0%
plasma together at a million km/h to
 

23:44.020 --> 23:46.570 align:start position:0%
plasma together at a million km/h to
generate<00:26:48.960><c> fusion</c><00:26:49.520><c> conditions,</c><00:26:50.320><c> a</c><00:26:50.559><c> sort</c><00:26:50.720><c> of</c>

23:46.570 --> 23:46.580 align:start position:0%
generate fusion conditions, a sort of
 

23:46.580 --> 23:49.050 align:start position:0%
generate fusion conditions, a sort of
halfway<00:26:51.520><c> house</c><00:26:51.840><c> between</c><00:26:52.320><c> magnetic</c><00:26:53.039><c> and</c>

23:49.050 --> 23:49.060 align:start position:0%
halfway house between magnetic and
 

23:49.060 --> 23:51.450 align:start position:0%
halfway house between magnetic and
inertial<00:26:54.080><c> confinement.</c><00:26:55.200><c> This</c><00:26:55.440><c> approach</c>

23:51.450 --> 23:51.460 align:start position:0%
inertial confinement. This approach
 

23:51.460 --> 23:53.769 align:start position:0%
inertial confinement. This approach
allows<00:26:56.159><c> them</c><00:26:56.320><c> to</c><00:26:56.480><c> react</c><00:26:56.880><c> dutyium</c><00:26:57.760><c> not</c><00:26:57.919><c> with</c>

23:53.769 --> 23:53.779 align:start position:0%
allows them to react dutyium not with
 

23:53.779 --> 23:56.090 align:start position:0%
allows them to react dutyium not with
tritium,<00:26:58.880><c> but</c><00:26:59.200><c> a</c><00:26:59.440><c> reactive</c><00:26:59.840><c> isotope</c><00:27:00.320><c> of</c>

23:56.090 --> 23:56.100 align:start position:0%
tritium, but a reactive isotope of
 

23:56.100 --> 23:59.130 align:start position:0%
tritium, but a reactive isotope of
helium,<00:27:01.039><c> helium</c><00:27:01.600><c> 3,</c><00:27:02.400><c> doing</c><00:27:02.720><c> away</c><00:27:03.120><c> with</c><00:27:03.279><c> the</c>

23:59.130 --> 23:59.140 align:start position:0%
helium, helium 3, doing away with the
 

23:59.140 --> 24:02.010 align:start position:0%
helium, helium 3, doing away with the
problematic<00:27:04.000><c> tritium</c><00:27:04.640><c> entirely.</c>

24:02.010 --> 24:02.020 align:start position:0%
problematic tritium entirely.
 

24:02.020 --> 24:04.490 align:start position:0%
problematic tritium entirely.
The<00:27:06.640><c> use</c><00:27:06.799><c> of</c><00:27:06.960><c> helium</c><00:27:07.440><c> 3</c><00:27:07.679><c> is</c><00:27:07.919><c> key</c><00:27:08.159><c> to</c><00:27:08.320><c> helium's</c>

24:04.490 --> 24:04.500 align:start position:0%
The use of helium 3 is key to helium's
 

24:04.500 --> 24:06.730 align:start position:0%
The use of helium 3 is key to helium's
approach<00:27:09.679><c> because</c><00:27:10.080><c> instead</c><00:27:10.400><c> of</c><00:27:10.640><c> producing</c><00:27:10.960><c> an</c>

24:06.730 --> 24:06.740 align:start position:0%
approach because instead of producing an
 

24:06.740 --> 24:08.970 align:start position:0%
approach because instead of producing an
alpha<00:27:11.520><c> particle</c><00:27:11.919><c> and</c><00:27:12.159><c> a</c><00:27:12.320><c> neutron,</c><00:27:13.120><c> these</c>

24:08.970 --> 24:08.980 align:start position:0%
alpha particle and a neutron, these
 

24:08.980 --> 24:10.970 align:start position:0%
alpha particle and a neutron, these
reactants<00:27:13.919><c> generate</c><00:27:14.240><c> an</c><00:27:14.400><c> alpha</c><00:27:14.720><c> particle</c><00:27:15.120><c> and</c>

24:10.970 --> 24:10.980 align:start position:0%
reactants generate an alpha particle and
 

24:10.980 --> 24:13.930 align:start position:0%
reactants generate an alpha particle and
a<00:27:15.520><c> proton.</c><00:27:16.559><c> Vitally,</c><00:27:17.360><c> this</c><00:27:17.600><c> means</c><00:27:17.840><c> there</c><00:27:18.080><c> is</c>

24:13.930 --> 24:13.940 align:start position:0%
a proton. Vitally, this means there is
 

24:13.940 --> 24:16.330 align:start position:0%
a proton. Vitally, this means there is
no<00:27:18.799><c> neutral</c><00:27:19.279><c> particle</c><00:27:19.840><c> whizzing</c><00:27:20.240><c> off</c><00:27:20.400><c> out</c><00:27:20.640><c> of</c>

24:16.330 --> 24:16.340 align:start position:0%
no neutral particle whizzing off out of
 

24:16.340 --> 24:18.730 align:start position:0%
no neutral particle whizzing off out of
the<00:27:20.960><c> reactor</c><00:27:21.360><c> carrying</c><00:27:21.840><c> all</c><00:27:22.159><c> the</c><00:27:22.320><c> energy.</c>

24:18.730 --> 24:18.740 align:start position:0%
the reactor carrying all the energy.
 

24:18.740 --> 24:21.769 align:start position:0%
the reactor carrying all the energy.
Energy<00:27:23.600><c> is</c><00:27:23.919><c> retained</c><00:27:24.559><c> within</c><00:27:25.360><c> the</c><00:27:25.600><c> plasma</c>

24:21.769 --> 24:21.779 align:start position:0%
Energy is retained within the plasma
 

24:21.779 --> 24:24.889 align:start position:0%
Energy is retained within the plasma
itself.<00:27:27.440><c> As</c><00:27:27.679><c> the</c><00:27:27.840><c> reaction</c><00:27:28.240><c> proceeds,</c><00:27:29.039><c> the</c>

24:24.889 --> 24:24.899 align:start position:0%
itself. As the reaction proceeds, the
 

24:24.899 --> 24:26.970 align:start position:0%
itself. As the reaction proceeds, the
energy<00:27:29.600><c> generates</c><00:27:30.000><c> an</c><00:27:30.400><c> increase</c><00:27:30.720><c> in</c><00:27:30.960><c> internal</c>

24:26.970 --> 24:26.980 align:start position:0%
energy generates an increase in internal
 

24:26.980 --> 24:29.769 align:start position:0%
energy generates an increase in internal
pressure<00:27:32.080><c> and</c><00:27:32.320><c> a</c><00:27:32.559><c> change</c><00:27:32.799><c> in</c><00:27:33.039><c> magnetic</c><00:27:33.520><c> field,</c>

24:29.769 --> 24:29.779 align:start position:0%
pressure and a change in magnetic field,
 

24:29.779 --> 24:31.450 align:start position:0%
pressure and a change in magnetic field,
which<00:27:34.480><c> can</c><00:27:34.640><c> be</c><00:27:34.799><c> used</c><00:27:35.039><c> to</c><00:27:35.279><c> generate</c>

24:31.450 --> 24:31.460 align:start position:0%
which can be used to generate
 

24:31.460 --> 24:34.730 align:start position:0%
which can be used to generate
electricity<00:27:36.640><c> directly.</c><00:27:37.840><c> No</c><00:27:38.159><c> Victorian</c><00:27:38.720><c> steam</c>

24:34.730 --> 24:34.740 align:start position:0%
electricity directly. No Victorian steam
 

24:34.740 --> 24:38.409 align:start position:0%
electricity directly. No Victorian steam
turbines<00:27:39.679><c> involved</c><00:27:40.080><c> at</c><00:27:40.400><c> all.</c><00:27:41.760><c> So,</c><00:27:42.320><c> what's</c><00:27:42.559><c> the</c>

24:38.409 --> 24:38.419 align:start position:0%
turbines involved at all. So, what's the
 

24:38.419 --> 24:41.529 align:start position:0%
turbines involved at all. So, what's the
catch,<00:27:43.039><c> you</c><00:27:43.279><c> might</c><00:27:43.440><c> rightfully</c><00:27:44.000><c> ask?</c><00:27:45.120><c> Well,</c>

24:41.529 --> 24:41.539 align:start position:0%
catch, you might rightfully ask? Well,
 

24:41.539 --> 24:44.330 align:start position:0%
catch, you might rightfully ask? Well,
just<00:27:46.159><c> like</c><00:27:46.480><c> tritium,</c><00:27:47.360><c> helium</c><00:27:47.840><c> 3</c><00:27:48.320><c> is</c>

24:44.330 --> 24:44.340 align:start position:0%
just like tritium, helium 3 is
 

24:44.340 --> 24:47.850 align:start position:0%
just like tritium, helium 3 is
incredibly<00:27:49.520><c> rare</c><00:27:50.240><c> and</c><00:27:50.559><c> also</c><00:27:50.960><c> has</c><00:27:51.200><c> to</c><00:27:51.360><c> be</c><00:27:51.520><c> bred</c>

24:47.850 --> 24:47.860 align:start position:0%
incredibly rare and also has to be bred
 

24:47.860 --> 24:50.970 align:start position:0%
incredibly rare and also has to be bred
this<00:27:52.480><c> time</c><00:27:52.720><c> from</c><00:27:53.120><c> dutyium</c><00:27:53.840><c> dutyium</c><00:27:54.480><c> reaction.</c>

24:50.970 --> 24:50.980 align:start position:0%
this time from dutyium dutyium reaction.
 

24:50.980 --> 24:53.690 align:start position:0%
this time from dutyium dutyium reaction.
And<00:27:55.679><c> this</c><00:27:56.000><c> process</c><00:27:56.720><c> does</c><00:27:57.279><c> generate</c><00:27:57.760><c> those</c>

24:53.690 --> 24:53.700 align:start position:0%
And this process does generate those
 

24:53.700 --> 24:56.810 align:start position:0%
And this process does generate those
pesky<00:27:58.640><c> reactor</c><00:27:59.120><c> damaging</c><00:27:59.520><c> neutrons.</c><00:28:00.799><c> One</c><00:28:01.039><c> of</c>

24:56.810 --> 24:56.820 align:start position:0%
pesky reactor damaging neutrons. One of
 

24:56.820 --> 24:58.889 align:start position:0%
pesky reactor damaging neutrons. One of
Helium's<00:28:01.760><c> proposed</c><00:28:02.080><c> solutions</c><00:28:02.880><c> is</c><00:28:03.120><c> to</c>

24:58.889 --> 24:58.899 align:start position:0%
Helium's proposed solutions is to
 

24:58.899 --> 25:00.810 align:start position:0%
Helium's proposed solutions is to
separate<00:28:03.679><c> the</c><00:28:03.840><c> two</c><00:28:04.000><c> reactions,</c><00:28:04.799><c> having</c>

25:00.810 --> 25:00.820 align:start position:0%
separate the two reactions, having
 

25:00.820 --> 25:02.570 align:start position:0%
separate the two reactions, having
commercial<00:28:05.520><c> plants</c><00:28:05.840><c> that</c><00:28:06.000><c> will</c><00:28:06.159><c> use</c><00:28:06.320><c> detium</c>

25:02.570 --> 25:02.580 align:start position:0%
commercial plants that will use detium
 

25:02.580 --> 25:04.810 align:start position:0%
commercial plants that will use detium
helium<00:28:07.440><c> 3</c><00:28:07.840><c> and</c><00:28:08.080><c> feeder</c><00:28:08.480><c> reactors</c>

25:04.810 --> 25:04.820 align:start position:0%
helium 3 and feeder reactors
 

25:04.820 --> 25:06.970 align:start position:0%
helium 3 and feeder reactors
specifically<00:28:09.760><c> for</c><00:28:10.000><c> generating</c><00:28:10.480><c> helium</c><00:28:10.960><c> 3</c>

25:06.970 --> 25:06.980 align:start position:0%
specifically for generating helium 3
 

25:06.980 --> 25:10.090 align:start position:0%
specifically for generating helium 3
that<00:28:11.679><c> have</c><00:28:11.919><c> planned</c><00:28:12.480><c> shorter</c><00:28:12.880><c> lifespans.</c>

25:10.090 --> 25:10.100 align:start position:0%
that have planned shorter lifespans.
 

25:10.100 --> 25:12.009 align:start position:0%
that have planned shorter lifespans.
But<00:28:14.640><c> there</c><00:28:14.880><c> is</c><00:28:15.039><c> another</c><00:28:15.360><c> issue</c><00:28:15.600><c> with</c><00:28:15.760><c> detium</c>

25:12.009 --> 25:12.019 align:start position:0%
But there is another issue with detium
 

25:12.019 --> 25:14.970 align:start position:0%
But there is another issue with detium
helium<00:28:16.880><c> 3.</c><00:28:17.679><c> This</c><00:28:17.919><c> mixture</c><00:28:18.399><c> requires</c><00:28:19.039><c> much</c>

25:14.970 --> 25:14.980 align:start position:0%
helium 3. This mixture requires much
 

25:14.980 --> 25:17.050 align:start position:0%
helium 3. This mixture requires much
higher<00:28:19.760><c> temperatures</c><00:28:20.159><c> and</c><00:28:20.480><c> fuel</c><00:28:20.720><c> densities</c>

25:17.050 --> 25:17.060 align:start position:0%
higher temperatures and fuel densities
 

25:17.060 --> 25:20.169 align:start position:0%
higher temperatures and fuel densities
than<00:28:21.840><c> conventional</c><00:28:22.399><c> detium</c><00:28:22.960><c> tritium</c><00:28:23.440><c> fuel.</c>

25:20.169 --> 25:20.179 align:start position:0%
than conventional detium tritium fuel.
 

25:20.179 --> 25:22.730 align:start position:0%
than conventional detium tritium fuel.
Huge<00:28:25.200><c> pulses</c><00:28:25.760><c> of</c><00:28:25.919><c> electricity</c><00:28:26.480><c> are</c><00:28:26.720><c> needed</c>

25:22.730 --> 25:22.740 align:start position:0%
Huge pulses of electricity are needed
 

25:22.740 --> 25:24.889 align:start position:0%
Huge pulses of electricity are needed
each<00:28:27.520><c> time</c><00:28:27.760><c> the</c><00:28:28.000><c> reactor</c><00:28:28.399><c> fires</c><00:28:28.720><c> to</c><00:28:28.880><c> generate</c>

25:24.889 --> 25:24.899 align:start position:0%
each time the reactor fires to generate
 

25:24.899 --> 25:27.450 align:start position:0%
each time the reactor fires to generate
fusion<00:28:29.760><c> conditions,</c><00:28:30.559><c> which</c><00:28:30.880><c> puts</c><00:28:31.279><c> immense</c>

25:27.450 --> 25:27.460 align:start position:0%
fusion conditions, which puts immense
 

25:27.460 --> 25:29.210 align:start position:0%
fusion conditions, which puts immense
strain<00:28:32.080><c> on</c><00:28:32.399><c> electricity</c><00:28:32.960><c> supplies</c><00:28:33.360><c> and</c>

25:29.210 --> 25:29.220 align:start position:0%
strain on electricity supplies and
 

25:29.220 --> 25:31.930 align:start position:0%
strain on electricity supplies and
reactor<00:28:34.080><c> components.</c><00:28:35.039><c> It's</c><00:28:35.279><c> a</c><00:28:35.520><c> considerable</c>

25:31.930 --> 25:31.940 align:start position:0%
reactor components. It's a considerable
 

25:31.940 --> 25:33.529 align:start position:0%
reactor components. It's a considerable
engineering<00:28:36.880><c> hurdle</c><00:28:37.200><c> for</c><00:28:37.360><c> Helium</c><00:28:37.760><c> to</c>

25:33.529 --> 25:33.539 align:start position:0%
engineering hurdle for Helium to
 

25:33.539 --> 25:35.769 align:start position:0%
engineering hurdle for Helium to
overcome<00:28:38.559><c> as</c><00:28:38.880><c> the</c><00:28:39.120><c> company</c><00:28:39.360><c> embarks</c><00:28:39.919><c> on</c>

25:35.769 --> 25:35.779 align:start position:0%
overcome as the company embarks on
 

25:35.779 --> 25:37.610 align:start position:0%
overcome as the company embarks on
building<00:28:40.480><c> its</c><00:28:40.799><c> first</c><00:28:41.120><c> commercial</c><00:28:41.679><c> scale</c>

25:37.610 --> 25:37.620 align:start position:0%
building its first commercial scale
 

25:37.620 --> 25:41.370 align:start position:0%
building its first commercial scale
reactor,<00:28:43.120><c> but</c><00:28:43.679><c> CEO</c><00:28:44.240><c> David</c><00:28:44.640><c> Curtley</c><00:28:45.120><c> claims</c>

25:41.370 --> 25:41.380 align:start position:0%
reactor, but CEO David Curtley claims
 

25:41.380 --> 25:43.529 align:start position:0%
reactor, but CEO David Curtley claims
this<00:28:46.000><c> plant</c><00:28:46.240><c> will</c><00:28:46.480><c> be</c><00:28:46.559><c> online</c><00:28:47.039><c> and</c><00:28:47.360><c> supplying</c>

25:43.529 --> 25:43.539 align:start position:0%
this plant will be online and supplying
 

25:43.539 --> 25:48.970 align:start position:0%
this plant will be online and supplying
power<00:28:48.240><c> to</c><00:28:48.480><c> Microsoft</c><00:28:49.039><c> data</c><00:28:49.360><c> centers</c><00:28:50.080><c> by</c><00:28:50.559><c> 2028.</c>

25:48.970 --> 25:48.980 align:start position:0%
power to Microsoft data centers by 2028.
 

25:48.980 --> 25:51.769 align:start position:0%
power to Microsoft data centers by 2028.
Now,<00:28:53.919><c> whether</c><00:28:54.240><c> or</c><00:28:54.480><c> not</c><00:28:54.640><c> this</c><00:28:54.960><c> comes</c><00:28:55.200><c> to</c><00:28:55.440><c> pass,</c>

25:51.769 --> 25:51.779 align:start position:0%
Now, whether or not this comes to pass,
 

25:51.779 --> 25:54.409 align:start position:0%
Now, whether or not this comes to pass,
only<00:28:56.480><c> time</c><00:28:56.720><c> will</c><00:28:56.960><c> tell.</c><00:28:57.919><c> However,</c><00:28:58.320><c> even</c><00:28:58.559><c> if</c>

25:54.409 --> 25:54.419 align:start position:0%
only time will tell. However, even if
 

25:54.419 --> 25:56.250 align:start position:0%
only time will tell. However, even if
none<00:28:59.120><c> of</c><00:28:59.200><c> these</c><00:28:59.440><c> private</c><00:28:59.760><c> ventures</c><00:29:00.159><c> hit</c><00:29:00.399><c> their</c>

25:56.250 --> 25:56.260 align:start position:0%
none of these private ventures hit their
 

25:56.260 --> 25:58.649 align:start position:0%
none of these private ventures hit their
well<00:29:00.960><c> publicized</c><00:29:01.520><c> milestones,</c><00:29:02.640><c> the</c><00:29:02.880><c> fact</c>

25:58.649 --> 25:58.659 align:start position:0%
well publicized milestones, the fact
 

25:58.659 --> 26:00.889 align:start position:0%
well publicized milestones, the fact
that<00:29:03.279><c> this</c><00:29:03.440><c> investment</c><00:29:04.000><c> exists</c><00:29:04.399><c> at</c><00:29:04.640><c> all</c>

26:00.889 --> 26:00.899 align:start position:0%
that this investment exists at all
 

26:00.899 --> 26:03.130 align:start position:0%
that this investment exists at all
reflects<00:29:05.760><c> the</c><00:29:06.000><c> moment</c><00:29:06.480><c> the</c><00:29:06.720><c> fusion</c><00:29:07.120><c> sector</c>

26:03.130 --> 26:03.140 align:start position:0%
reflects the moment the fusion sector
 

26:03.140 --> 26:07.289 align:start position:0%
reflects the moment the fusion sector
finds<00:29:07.760><c> itself</c><00:29:08.080><c> in</c><00:29:09.360><c> new</c><00:29:10.000><c> algorithmic</c><00:29:10.880><c> and</c><00:29:11.200><c> AI</c>

26:07.289 --> 26:07.299 align:start position:0%
finds itself in new algorithmic and AI
 

26:07.299 --> 26:09.850 align:start position:0%
finds itself in new algorithmic and AI
tools<00:29:12.000><c> now</c><00:29:12.240><c> at</c><00:29:12.399><c> their</c><00:29:12.640><c> disposal.</c><00:29:13.600><c> For</c><00:29:13.760><c> many</c><00:29:14.000><c> in</c>

26:09.850 --> 26:09.860 align:start position:0%
tools now at their disposal. For many in
 

26:09.860 --> 26:12.409 align:start position:0%
tools now at their disposal. For many in
the<00:29:14.320><c> field,</c><00:29:14.720><c> it</c><00:29:15.039><c> does</c><00:29:15.360><c> feel</c><00:29:15.679><c> like</c><00:29:15.919><c> Fusion</c><00:29:16.480><c> is</c>

26:12.409 --> 26:12.419 align:start position:0%
the field, it does feel like Fusion is
 

26:12.419 --> 26:15.289 align:start position:0%
the field, it does feel like Fusion is
finally<00:29:17.440><c> inching</c><00:29:17.919><c> closer</c><00:29:18.240><c> to</c><00:29:18.399><c> reality.</c><00:29:19.440><c> And</c>

26:15.289 --> 26:15.299 align:start position:0%
finally inching closer to reality. And
 

26:15.299 --> 26:16.889 align:start position:0%
finally inching closer to reality. And
though<00:29:20.000><c> unsolved</c><00:29:20.559><c> scientific</c><00:29:20.960><c> and</c>

26:16.889 --> 26:16.899 align:start position:0%
though unsolved scientific and
 

26:16.899 --> 26:19.370 align:start position:0%
though unsolved scientific and
engineering<00:29:21.840><c> problems</c><00:29:22.320><c> exist,</c><00:29:23.279><c> regardless</c>

26:19.370 --> 26:19.380 align:start position:0%
engineering problems exist, regardless
 

26:19.380 --> 26:21.850 align:start position:0%
engineering problems exist, regardless
of<00:29:23.919><c> the</c><00:29:24.159><c> approach</c><00:29:24.559><c> used,</c><00:29:25.360><c> the</c><00:29:25.600><c> diversity</c><00:29:26.000><c> of</c>

26:21.850 --> 26:21.860 align:start position:0%
of the approach used, the diversity of
 

26:21.860 --> 26:24.570 align:start position:0%
of the approach used, the diversity of
fusion<00:29:26.640><c> technologies</c><00:29:27.120><c> that</c><00:29:27.520><c> now</c><00:29:27.840><c> exist</c><00:29:28.320><c> is</c><00:29:28.640><c> a</c>

26:24.570 --> 26:24.580 align:start position:0%
fusion technologies that now exist is a
 

26:24.580 --> 26:28.730 align:start position:0%
fusion technologies that now exist is a
huge<00:29:29.440><c> bonus.</c><00:29:30.880><c> So</c><00:29:31.600><c> while</c><00:29:31.919><c> we'll</c><00:29:32.480><c> never</c><00:29:32.799><c> be</c><00:29:32.960><c> able</c>

26:28.730 --> 26:28.740 align:start position:0%
huge bonus. So while we'll never be able
 

26:28.740 --> 26:32.409 align:start position:0%
huge bonus. So while we'll never be able
to<00:29:33.360><c> recreate</c><00:29:33.919><c> a</c><00:29:34.240><c> star</c><00:29:34.640><c> on</c><00:29:34.960><c> Earth,</c><00:29:35.919><c> it</c><00:29:36.159><c> is</c><00:29:36.480><c> very</c>

26:32.409 --> 26:32.419 align:start position:0%
to recreate a star on Earth, it is very
 

26:32.419 --> 26:35.930 align:start position:0%
to recreate a star on Earth, it is very
possible<00:29:37.440><c> that</c><00:29:37.760><c> the</c><00:29:38.000><c> one</c><00:29:38.720><c> or</c><00:29:39.039><c> even</c><00:29:39.520><c> several</c><00:29:40.000><c> of</c>

26:35.930 --> 26:35.940 align:start position:0%
possible that the one or even several of
 

26:35.940 --> 26:37.930 align:start position:0%
possible that the one or even several of
the<00:29:40.480><c> approximations</c><00:29:41.600><c> we</c><00:29:41.840><c> are</c><00:29:42.000><c> trying</c><00:29:42.159><c> to</c>

26:37.930 --> 26:37.940 align:start position:0%
the approximations we are trying to
 

26:37.940 --> 26:40.570 align:start position:0%
the approximations we are trying to
build<00:29:42.880><c> will</c><00:29:43.120><c> play</c><00:29:43.360><c> a</c><00:29:43.679><c> pivotal</c><00:29:44.240><c> role</c><00:29:44.559><c> in</c><00:29:44.799><c> the</c>

26:40.570 --> 26:40.580 align:start position:0%
build will play a pivotal role in the
 

26:40.580 --> 26:43.690 align:start position:0%
build will play a pivotal role in the
energy<00:29:45.440><c> landscape</c><00:29:45.919><c> of</c><00:29:46.080><c> the</c><00:29:46.320><c> future.</c>

26:43.690 --> 26:43.700 align:start position:0%
energy landscape of the future.
 

26:43.700 --> 26:46.250 align:start position:0%
energy landscape of the future.
I'll<00:29:48.320><c> end</c><00:29:48.559><c> by</c><00:29:48.799><c> returning</c><00:29:49.440><c> to</c><00:29:49.760><c> Edington</c><00:29:50.399><c> and</c>

26:46.250 --> 26:46.260 align:start position:0%
I'll end by returning to Edington and
 

26:46.260 --> 26:48.970 align:start position:0%
I'll end by returning to Edington and
his<00:29:50.880><c> 1920</c><00:29:51.520><c> musings</c><00:29:52.080><c> on</c><00:29:52.240><c> the</c><00:29:52.399><c> energy</c><00:29:52.880><c> powering</c>

26:48.970 --> 26:48.980 align:start position:0%
his 1920 musings on the energy powering
 

26:48.980 --> 26:52.730 align:start position:0%
his 1920 musings on the energy powering
stars.<00:29:54.559><c> A</c><00:29:54.880><c> star</c><00:29:55.200><c> is</c><00:29:55.440><c> drawing</c><00:29:55.840><c> on</c><00:29:56.159><c> some</c><00:29:56.559><c> vast</c>

26:52.730 --> 26:52.740 align:start position:0%
stars. A star is drawing on some vast
 

26:52.740 --> 26:55.690 align:start position:0%
stars. A star is drawing on some vast
reservoir<00:29:57.600><c> of</c><00:29:57.840><c> energy</c><00:29:58.640><c> by</c><00:29:58.960><c> means</c><00:29:59.360><c> unknown</c><00:29:59.840><c> to</c>

26:55.690 --> 26:55.700 align:start position:0%
reservoir of energy by means unknown to
 

26:55.700 --> 26:59.130 align:start position:0%
reservoir of energy by means unknown to
us.<00:30:00.960><c> This</c><00:30:01.200><c> reservoir</c><00:30:01.840><c> can</c><00:30:02.240><c> scarcely</c><00:30:02.799><c> be</c><00:30:03.120><c> other</c>

26:59.130 --> 26:59.140 align:start position:0%
us. This reservoir can scarcely be other
 

26:59.140 --> 27:02.090 align:start position:0%
us. This reservoir can scarcely be other
than<00:30:03.679><c> the</c><00:30:03.919><c> subatomic</c><00:30:04.559><c> energy</c><00:30:05.520><c> which</c><00:30:06.080><c> it</c><00:30:06.320><c> is</c>

27:02.090 --> 27:02.100 align:start position:0%
than the subatomic energy which it is
 

27:02.100 --> 27:05.690 align:start position:0%
than the subatomic energy which it is
known<00:30:07.279><c> exists</c><00:30:07.840><c> abundantly</c><00:30:08.480><c> in</c><00:30:08.720><c> all</c><00:30:08.960><c> matter.</c>

27:05.690 --> 27:05.700 align:start position:0%
known exists abundantly in all matter.
 

27:05.700 --> 27:07.850 align:start position:0%
known exists abundantly in all matter.
We<00:30:10.320><c> sometimes</c><00:30:10.799><c> dream</c><00:30:11.039><c> that</c><00:30:11.279><c> man</c><00:30:11.520><c> will</c><00:30:11.760><c> one</c><00:30:12.000><c> day</c>

27:07.850 --> 27:07.860 align:start position:0%
We sometimes dream that man will one day
 

27:07.860 --> 27:10.250 align:start position:0%
We sometimes dream that man will one day
learn<00:30:12.640><c> how</c><00:30:12.880><c> to</c><00:30:13.120><c> release</c><00:30:13.440><c> it</c><00:30:13.760><c> and</c><00:30:14.000><c> use</c><00:30:14.240><c> it</c><00:30:14.399><c> for</c>

27:10.250 --> 27:10.260 align:start position:0%
learn how to release it and use it for
 

27:10.260 --> 27:13.690 align:start position:0%
learn how to release it and use it for
his<00:30:14.880><c> service.</c><00:30:15.840><c> The</c><00:30:16.159><c> store</c><00:30:16.799><c> is</c><00:30:17.200><c> well</c><00:30:17.600><c> night</c>

27:13.690 --> 27:13.700 align:start position:0%
his service. The store is well night
 

27:13.700 --> 27:15.289 align:start position:0%
his service. The store is well night
inexhaustible.

27:15.289 --> 27:15.299 align:start position:0%
inexhaustible.
 

27:15.299 --> 27:19.050 align:start position:0%
inexhaustible.
If<00:30:19.919><c> only</c><00:30:20.480><c> it</c><00:30:20.720><c> can</c><00:30:20.799><c> be</c><00:30:21.039><c> tapped.</c><00:30:22.320><c> Maybe</c><00:30:22.720><c> finally</c>

27:19.050 --> 27:19.060 align:start position:0%
If only it can be tapped. Maybe finally
 

27:19.060 --> 27:21.450 align:start position:0%
If only it can be tapped. Maybe finally
it<00:30:23.679><c> won't</c><00:30:23.919><c> be</c><00:30:24.080><c> another</c><00:30:24.399><c> 30</c><00:30:24.720><c> years</c><00:30:25.279><c> until</c><00:30:25.600><c> we</c>

27:21.450 --> 27:21.460 align:start position:0%
it won't be another 30 years until we
 

27:21.460 --> 27:26.970 align:start position:0%
it won't be another 30 years until we
find<00:30:26.080><c> out</c><00:30:26.399><c> if</c><00:30:26.640><c> it</c><00:30:26.880><c> can.</c>

27:21.851 --> 27:21.861 align:start position:0%
watching from the sidelines, now is the
 

27:21.861 --> 27:26.021 align:start position:0%
watching from the sidelines, now is the
perfect<00:31:03.919><c> time</c><00:31:04.159><c> to</c><00:31:04.399><c> join</c><00:31:04.640><c> the</c><00:31:04.799><c> community.</c>